Introduction

We previously looked at the first law or thermodynamics for closed systems where
we discussed the energy conservation and the different types of energy in a system.
we also introduced the terms internal energy (u) and heat capacity (Cp). We applied
this knowledge to an Otto cycle where we looked at how the first law applies for
internal combustion engines

Learning outcomes

After completing this study unit you should be able to:

• Explain what enthalpy is and why it gives the energy of a flowing substance.
• Write down the equation for enthalpy and calculate the enthalpy of
substances.
• Solve common industry related, steady state, open system problems

In engineering, open systems are much more common than closed systems.
Common open systems are turbines, compressors, heaters, boilers… Instead of
boundary work, shaft work is performed or required. Also, energy is necessary to get
a substance flowing. This energy must be taken into consideration during an energy
balance. It is usually combined with internal energy and gives rise to a new property
– enthalpy.

Enthalpy

If we concider the energy equation

𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

Under constant pressure conditions

𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1)

we can thus write the energy equation as for constant pressure conditions as:
 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑄 − (𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

This means that the heat energy transferred (Q) can be represented as

(𝑈2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 ) − (𝑈1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1 ) = 𝑄

Thus enthalpy can be defined as

𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉

These equations show Enthalpy is a combination of the internal energy and the
energy required to get a substance flowing.

It can also be defined per unit mass (specific enthalpy) as

ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣

The specific enthalpy for saturated liquid or vapour can be found in the
thermodynamics tables just like the internal energy properties. However for mixed
vapour liquid mixtures the specific enthalpy can be calculated as

ℎ = (1 − 𝑥)ℎ𝑓 + 𝑥ℎ𝑔

Enthalpy and heat capacity

If ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣 we can express the change in enthalpy as

𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑(𝑃𝑣)

𝑑ℎ = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑣𝑑𝑃 + 𝑃𝑑𝑣

For incompressible fluids

For incompressible (𝑑𝑣 = 0) fluids the specific volume is negligible we can thus
express the change in enthalpy as

𝑑ℎ ≈ 𝑑𝑢 ≈ 𝐶𝑑𝑇
Where C could be either constant pressure heat capacity or constant volume heat
capacity.

For Ideal gases

We have discussed the constant pressure specific heat (Cp) before. It can be shown
that in general:

𝑑ℎ
= 𝐶𝑝
𝑑𝑇

The enthalpy of an ideal gas is not dependent on pressure. For an ideal gas the
restriction of constant pressure can therefore be dropped. The change in enthalpy of
an ideal gas can then be calculated by performing the following integration

𝑇2
ℎ2 = ℎ1 = ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
𝑇1

For mono-atomic gasses (He, Ne) it is usually assumed that the specific heat is not
dependent on temperature and the integration is easily performed. If that assumption
is not made, an equation for Cp must be available or tables must be used. As it is not
possible to calculate absolute enthalpy, the values in the tables are relative to some
reference temperature where enthalpy is taken as zero.

For real gases

The enthalpy of real gasses is tabulated as function of temperature and pressure.

For a real gas it is necessary to know both the temperature and the pressure in order
to determine the enthalpy. If the values of any two independent properties are
known, the state is fixed and the value of the other properties can be determined.
Enthalpy is a property. Therefore if the value of enthalpy and temperature is known,
the values of pressure and specific volume can be determined.
Energy equation for Common Open systems

Equipment Flow diagram Energy equation

Valve No heat generated
No work done
h1 = h2

Turbine Shaft work output

assume no heat transfer
mh1 = Ws + mh2

Compressor/pump Shaft work required

assume no heat transfer

mh2 = Ws + mh1

Heat exchanger Heat is transferred

between fluid A and
fluid B.
No work done

𝑚𝐴 ℎ𝐴1 + 𝑚𝐵 ℎ𝐵1
= 𝑚𝐴 ℎ𝐴2
+ 𝑚𝐵 ℎ𝐵2