Chapter 12 IT in society

12.1 Electronic currency

- Electronic currency is a payment method that occurs in digital form.

- It does not involve physical currency like coins and bank notes.

- There are different types of electronic currency:

- digital currency

- virtual currency

- cryptocurrency

- central bank digital base money

- stored value cards.

Digital Currency

- Digital currency = payment method similar to coins/bank notes, but exchanged digitally

- Forms: credit cards, mobile phones, smart watches

- Credit cards: magnetic stripe, chip or contactless payment

- Stored value card: set amount of currency stored, can be closed-loop or open-loop

- Mobile phones/smart watches: app acts as digital credit card, touch to payment machine, app provides data to
access bank account

Advantages of digital currency:

- No need to carry physical money, which could be lost.

- If lost, transactions can be stopped by contacting the bank.

- Transactions are secure and encrypted.

- Contactless payments speed up transactions.

- Digital currency can be used in different countries without exchanging physical currency.

- PIN number doesn't need to be remembered for contactless payments.

- Stored value cards prevent overspending and getting into debt.

Disadvantages of digital currency:

- Monetary limit on contactless payments.

- Risk of transactions being hacked.

- Security concerns of people regarding contactless payments.

- Possibility of losing track of spending without physical money.

- Risk of someone using a lost card or device for contactless payments before the user cancels it.
Virtual currency

- Virtual currency is a type of digital currency that operates in a decentralized system.

- Unlike digital currencies that are centralized, virtual currency does not have a central body managing or regulating
its use.

- Transactions in a decentralized system are managed through a ledger, such as blockchain.

- Virtual currency only exists within a virtual environment and does not have a physical representation like
banknotes or coins.

- An example of virtual currency is tokens that can be collected or bought within a computer game to buy different
items within the game.

- Virtual currencies are usually specific to the game or application for which they were created and cannot normally
be traded anywhere else.

- Advantages: virtual currency can personalize a game or application and make it more engaging.

- Disadvantages: virtual currency is part of a decentralized system, which means that it has little regulation, and it is
usually specific to the context for which it was created and cannot be spent elsewhere.

Cryptocurrencies

- Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Litecoin are tracked using systems such as blockchain, and are a type of peer-to-
peer electronic monetary system.

- The value of cryptocurrencies can fluctuate greatly, and they are used by many people to buy and sell products
over the internet.

- Some people support the use of a decentralised currency, as it allows for cheaper and more efficient payments
without the usual charges applied by banks.

- Others have a more controversial stance, as they believe cryptocurrencies allow for a level of anonymity in
payments that can enable criminal activity.

- The growth of cryptocurrencies has been seen as a threat to traditional banks, leading some banks to consider
creating their own cryptocurrency.

Advantages:

- Cryptocurrency transactions usually do not have the usual charges that apply to bank transactions.

- People can invest in cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and potentially make money if they sell it for a higher rate.

- It is difficult to create counterfeit currency for a cryptocurrency due to the high level of security involved.

Disadvantages:

- The anonymity provided by the decentralised system may encourage criminal activity and make it difficult to trace.

- There have been instances of businesses being hacked and cryptocurrency being stolen, with no bank to help
resolve the theft.

Central bank digital base money (CBDC)

- CBDC is the digital form of fiat money

- Fiat money is the physical currency issued by governments and banks

- CBDC allows banks to create digital currency which will act as the equivalent of paper bank notes

- CBDC will have a serial number and distinguishable characteristics to prevent counterfeit

- CBDC will work alongside existing currency such as physical bank notes and coins

Advantages:

- Reduced cost of transactions as no physical currency needs to be exchanged between banks.

- Improved speed of money exchange between banks.

- Potential decrease in criminal acts such as money laundering and tax evasion.

- Savings in costs of physical currency production that could be invested in CBDC security.

Disadvantages:

- Loss of privacy and anonymity for those who prefer physical currency as no record of details is attached to
payments made with cash.

12.2 Data mining

- Form of data analysis and artificial intelligence

- Involves searching and analysing large sets of data

- Used to establish patterns and trends

- Helps identify future trends valuable to a company

- Large sets of data stored in data warehouses

- Computers used due to the volume of data analysed

Process of Data Mining:

Stage 1: Business Understanding

- Objectives setting

- Project plan development

- Criteria for success establishment

Stage 2: Data Understanding

- Initial data collection

- Integrity, accuracy and data properties consideration

- Data interrogation using queries from business understanding stage

Stage 3: Data Preparation

- Selection, cleansing, construction and formatting of data

Stage 4: Data Modelling

- Test scenarios generation to model the data

Stage 5: Evaluation
- Results evaluation

- New business needs identification

Stage 6: Deployment

- Report and visual material creation

- Stakeholders' decision-making

- Repeat of data mining process to refine information if needed.

Uses

- Data mining is increasingly used in organizations

- It supports decision-making and planning

- It is necessary in sensitive situations

National security and surveillance:

- Governments use data mining to aid national security, predicting future activity to reduce risks.

- Data mining is used in surveillance to predict issues like criminal activity, but it's controversial due to privacy
concerns.

- Corporate surveillance involves mining data for marketing purposes or data profiling.

Business:

- Data mining is used to predict customer spending habits, product trends, and even in hiring staff to gain a
competitive advantage.

- Customer relationship management (CRM) aims to improve customer loyalty, and data mining can predict
customer needs.

Research:

- Data mining is the underpinning tool in research, helping to revolutionize industries like medicine and space
exploration.

- Bio-informatics is a research application that extracts medical patterns and trends.

Health care:

- Data mining is used to improve health care, identify successful practices, and reduce costs.

- It can also predict the volume of patients, allowing appropriate staffing.

Predicting social and economic trends:

- Data mining predicts future social and economic trends, helping institutions and companies make important
decisions.

Ethical and privacy implications:

- Data mining raises ethical and privacy concerns, such as targeted advertising and sharing of personal data between
companies.

Advantages:
- Helps organizations make strategic decisions to maintain/increase revenue.

- Helps organizations understand customers and create needed products.

- Allows individuals to see targeted advertising based on their preferences.

- Helps institutions predict and plan for future crises.

- Helps businesses save costs by streamlining processes and avoiding unwanted investments.

Disadvantages:

- Expensive process due to software and skilled staff required.

- Many see data mining as unethical and an invasion of privacy.

- High storage costs can increase overall cost of data mining.

- Stored data is a security risk as hackers may want to access it.

- Outcomes are only predictions based on past data, and may not be accurate.

12.3 Social networking

- Social networking has become an inherent part of many people's lives for entertainment, communication, and
news.

- People share information about their daily lives, including their thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and activities.

- Various types of social networking include chat rooms, instant messaging, forums, email, blogs, and microblogs.

- These are communication technologies collectively known as social media.

- Social media is typically accessed through a website or an app on a personal computer or mobile device.

Chat rooms

- A chat room is an online service that allows multiple users to communicate and discuss a chosen topic or issue.

- Users are given a username and password to enter the chat room, where they can type messages into a text input
box.

- The messages are displayed as a dialogue onscreen, creating an interactive process.

- Chat rooms are mainly used by individuals, but they could be used by businesses and organisations as a type of
marketing tool to gain feedback.

- Businesses can set up chat rooms to discuss products or services and prompt discussion by asking questions or
making comments.

Instant messaging

- Instant messaging is an earlier form of social networking that allows two or more users to send messages to each
other in real-time.

- Several social media platforms, including Facebook, Instagram, and Skype, have instant messaging services built
into them.

- Individuals use instant messaging to communicate with friends, family, or businesses.

- Businesses and organizations use internal instant messaging facilities or LAN messengers to communicate quickly
and easily within departments.

- Instant messaging services have reporting functions, which allow users to see when the other person has read their
message or is currently replying.

- Users can also send other media types such as sound files, images, video files, and emojis.

Forums

- Forums are online platforms for posting thoughts, ideas, and questions with replies from other users.

- They differ from chat facilities by allowing delayed replies and the ability to search for previous answers.

- Moderators monitor the forums to enforce rules and block inappropriate users.

- Users must register to post or reply to comments, but can read the forum without registering.

- Posts are structured as threads and are usually centred on a particular topic.

- Businesses and individuals use forums for support and advice on various topics.

- However, users should be cautious about advice given by non-professionals.

Email

- Email is an electronic message sent to one or more recipients using their unique email address.

- The email address has an '@' symbol and a domain name.

- Businesses and organizations use email extensively for communication within the company and with customers.

- Individuals also use email to contact family, friends, and organizations, for messages they feel are too long for
instant messaging, and for making complaints.

Blogs

- A blog is an online journal set up by individuals or groups.

- It can be used to report on their lives or a particular topic.

- It is structured in reverse chronological order.

- Microblogs are similar to blogs but have shorter content.

- Popular microblogging platforms include Twitter and Instagram.

- Blogs are read by people all over the world.

- They can be used by businesses, organizations, and schools to provide information to customers, parents, and
students.

- Microblogs are used by police and law enforcement to provide regular updates on local or national issues.

- Some bloggers make a living through advertising.

- Video blogging, known as vlogging, is also popular.

Impact of social networking:

- Has a positive impact on individuals by allowing communication on a global scale, which can help people feel more
connected and passionate about their thoughts and ideas

- Has a negative impact on individuals by creating a culture of constant sharing and comparison, leading to feelings
of unhappiness and allowing cyberbullying to occur

- Can create cognitive issues and a need for immediacy

- Has a positive impact on businesses by providing an effective marketing tool and allowing them to reach global
audiences, but is becoming less effective due to overexposure to online ads

- Has a positive impact on organizations by allowing them to distribute important information on a large scale, such
as in natural disasters, but can be censored by governments to influence public opinion.

Advantages of social networking:

- Enables global communication for individuals, businesses, and organizations

- Provides a sense of inclusion and allows for sharing of thoughts and ideas with like-minded people

- Allows for the distribution of important information that can be life-saving in critical situations

- Enables individuals to make a living through blogging

- Provides a platform for seeking advice or support on various issues, resulting in improved customer service and
care

- Offers entertainment and exposure to news stories people may not be aware of.

Disadvantages of social networking:

- Social networking can be overwhelming and make people feel excluded or dissatisfied with their own lives.

- Organizations can manipulate or censor information to influence public opinion.

- Influencers can promote harmful behaviours or excessive spending.

- Unqualified advice or support can lead to harm.

- Social networking may decrease attention span and encourage bad behaviour.

- News stories can be sensationalized or falsely reported.

- Anonymity can lead to bad or illegal behaviour.

12.4 Technology enhanced learning

- Advancements in technology have improved teaching and learning

- Online learning and courses are the primary focus of technology's influence on society in this regard

- Websites like YouTube, Lynda.com, and edx.org provide tutorials and education resources that are accessible at no
or low cost

- Learners can learn at their own pace and time

- Quality of resources may differ, and it may be difficult to find high-quality tutorials

- Technology-enhanced learning includes computer-based training, online tutorials, networked learning, massive
open online courses (MOOC), and video conferencing

Computer-based training
- Businesses and organizations can offer extensive training programs for staff through computer-based training.

- Training resources are available without the presence of a tutor and use a mix of text, sound, video, and images.

- The training is designed to deliver small chunks of information as a step-by-step process.

- Users can learn at their own pace and take tests that are automatically marked to show their progress.

- This type of training allows workers to improve their knowledge and skill set, potentially leading to pay raises or
promotions.

Advantages:

- Users can learn at their own pace.

- Different media can be used to create an interesting set of resources.

- Staff can improve their own skills set and knowledge resulting in promotion or additional pay.

Disadvantages:

- Learners may not have a tutor to answer any questions that they have.

- Staff may not be motivated to follow the computer-based training as they aren't being watched and driven to do
so.

Online tutorials

- YouTube is a popular online platform for tutorials with a vast array of topics.

- Online tutorials aim to teach the viewer how to achieve a specific goal or outcome.

- Online tutorials allow learners to learn at their own pace and in their own time.

- Viewers can watch tutorials repeatedly until they feel they have a good understanding of the desired outcome.

Advantages:

- Online tutorials are available on almost any skill or issue.

- Users can learn in their own time and at their own pace.

- Different media can be used to create an informative tutorial.

Disadvantages:

- The quality of online tutorials may differ greatly, and some may be poor quality, making it time-consuming to find a
good one.

- Online tutorials could teach someone in an incorrect manner, depending on the ability of the educator.

Networked learning

- Networked learning is online collaborative learning that connects learners with each other and their tutors to
develop relationships and gain feedback.

- The aim is to encourage learners to support each other's learning and share resources and opinions.

- Facilitated by a tutor who encourages participation and feedback.

- Learners are asked to share their thoughts and resources, and others offer advice to improve their skills and
knowledge.
- Time scales are more limited as the current task depends on everyone participating in a similar time frame.

Advantages of networked learning:

- Learners build relationships with other learners and gain feedback from them, as well as the tutor.

- Learners can offer their skills and knowledge to others while also learning from them.

- Learners may be more motivated to complete tasks as the learning of others is dependent on them.

Disadvantages of networked learning:

- Some learners may struggle to contribute or provide feedback.

- Some learners may dominate discussions and limit learning from others.

- Some learners may only provide positive feedback and not criticize others' work.

- If some learners do not complete tasks or provide necessary feedback, it may limit the learning of others.

MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)

- Massive Open Online Courses

- Unlimited access via the web

- Free for learners

- Include filmed lectures and resources

- Forums available for interaction

- Convenient learning for learners

- Industry professionals can learn from each other

- Suitable for career skills development and exploring new interests

- Assessment methods include peer review, written assignments and online tests

- No formal professional qualification, but can demonstrate personal learning growth

- Attractive to employers.

Advantages:

- Large selection of courses available.

- Can provide a competitive advantage and demonstrate motivation to learn and improve.

- Free of cost.

- No waiting list for courses.

- Self-paced learning.

Disadvantages:

- Overwhelming number of courses available.

- Large number of learners, so educators may not have much time to help each learner.

- Educators may not recognize struggling learners.

- Some learners may struggle with motivation and only complete tasks that are assessed.
Video conferencing

- Video conferencing: communication using computers with video stream via internet connection

- Video often shows user and other resources; sharing screen feature available

- Teaching/learning can be carried out using video conferencing

- Educator can speak to learners and show resources, feels more personal

- Quality depends on communication abilities of educator, software, and internet connection

- Requires high broadband speed for smooth viewing

- Learners can ask real-time questions and clarify points of learning

Advantages:

- Real-time questions and improved learning and understanding.

- Personalized learning experience that may increase learner motivation.

- Sharing of the screen is possible for demonstrations.

Disadvantages:

- High broadband speed requirement.

- Limited number of learners who can participate, leaving some waiting for a long time.

- Varies in quality, cost, and subjects offered

- Enables learning at own pace and time

- Difficulty in finding exact course among many available

- Finding effective teachers who can break down problems and help students is a challenge

- Customers' preferred learning style affects teaching effectiveness

- Lecturing vs. small bits of information and learning through tasks

Impact of I.T

I.T in sport

- IT used in sport to aid referees in making important decisions

- IT used in Rugby to judge if ball was put over the goal line for a try

- Video assistant referee (VAR) used to make important decisions

- VAR viewed as both positive and negative by different people

- Hawk eye used in tennis to allow players to challenge officials' decisions

- Hawk eye viewed as both accurate and inaccurate by different people

I.T in manufacturing

- Robotics used in manufacturing for assembly lines

- Humans work on fitting items to heavy elements moved by robots

- Robotics can remove humans from dangerous elements

- Consistent and accurate product as robots programmed to produce repeatedly

- Manufacturing system can run longer and require less rest than humans

- Robotics in manufacturing seen as a cause of job loss and competitive disadvantage for some companies

IT in medicine

- IT has enabled monitoring of patients and analysis of their health in various ways, such as heart rate and DNA
analysis.

- Artificial limbs controlled by technology have allowed people with disabilities to regain function and live a fuller life.

- Nanotechnology in medicine allows for the precise targeting of drug delivery to specific cells, reducing damage to
healthy cells.

- Smart devices implanted in the body can detect health issues early, allowing for earlier and potentially more
effective treatment.

IT in education

- Interactive whiteboards and other technologies are used in classrooms to enhance the learning experience.

- Online learning, which utilizes technology to aid learning, is becoming more popular.

IT in banking and finance

- IT is used in the development and management of electronic currencies.

- Banks rely heavily on IT to manage their transactions and keep records.

- ATMs use IT to enable people to access physical currency.

- Online banking allows people to access their bank accounts, check balances, view bank statements, set up direct
debits, apply for loans and overdrafts, pay bills, and transfer money between accounts.

- Online banking saves people time and allows them to avoid queues and visit bank branches less.

- Advantages of online banking include 24/7 availability, convenience, and the ability to compare deals online.

- IT can be used to monitor investment portfolios, apply for financial services such as loans, mortgages, and
insurance, and compare deals from different finance companies.

E-business

- The introduction of IT has drastically changed the way businesses operate

- Online business is now very common and convenient for customers

- Cost savings from businesses not needing a physical store allows goods and services to be sold at cheaper prices
- Online shopping has become popular due to the convenience and quickness of delivery

- The rise of smart devices has made online shopping even more popular and convenient

- Online shopping can be better for the environment by reducing the number of people travelling to shops, but may
increase the number of vehicles on the road for deliveries

- Quality and sizing issues with online shopping may lead to a higher number of returns

News and media

- Social networking is now a regular part of people's lives and a source of news and media.

- IT has allowed people to be amateur journalists themselves and record events as they happen, and broadcast them
to a wider audience.

- This has both positive and negative effects, as it can provide a truer impression of what's happening, but could also
be harmful.

- People can use IT to set up news feeds that draw news stories from different sources, saving time and effort.

Family and home

- IT has been introduced into homes in many ways, including devices like Amazon’s Alexa and Google’s Home
systems.

- These devices can be used to control different aspects of the home such as lighting and heating, even remotely.

- Remote control of home systems can save money and be better for the environment.

- These devices can also be a source of entertainment for families, allowing them to play games and stream music
together.

- Everyday devices like washing machines and refrigerators can also have IT incorporated into them to provide useful
information to the user.

Government and politics

- Social media is used in politics to raise awareness of political causes and issues.

- Online petitions are set up to encourage people to sign for the resolution of issues they support.

- The use of IT in politics can allow governments to see what issues the people have and help them prioritize what
they discuss in government.

- IT has allowed governments to make their services accessible online, such as paying taxes, applying for passports,
and driving licenses.

- This makes access to these services more convenient for people and saves costs for the government.

Monitoring and surveillance

- Police authorities use IT to monitor and locate criminals.

- Facial recognition software combined with CCTV footage can be used to scan and locate criminals passing through
public places like airports and train stations.
- Homeowners can install CCTV systems with motion sensors, allowing them to monitor the area around their homes
and receive alerts on their mobile phones if there is any motion detected.

- Drivers can install dashcams in their cars, which can help prove their innocence in the event of an accident.

- Some police authorities have started requesting dashcam footage from drivers to investigate crimes committed at a
particular time and location.

- The use of IT for monitoring and surveillance is relatively unpoliced and has raised concerns about privacy invasion.
Chapter 13 New and emerging technologies

emerging technologies: technologies that are still in development to allow them to reach their full potential

13.1 Near field communication (NFC)

- NFC is wireless tech similar to Bluetooth

- Enables 2 devices to connect & share data

- Range is only 4cm (vs Bluetooth's 10m)

- Commonly found in modern mobile phones & smart watches

- Data can be shared quickly & securely without internet

- Some users worry about lack of pairing code/password

- Close proximity makes data theft difficult

- NFC connections can be established quickly

Advantages:

- Wireless communication

- Fast data transfer

- Increasing universality

- Does not require an internet connection

- Does not require a pairing code

Disadvantages:

- Perceived security risks

- Concerns about data theft

NFC Uses

Passive NFC chips

- Organizations use NFC to distribute data

- Passive NFC chips built into information points in buildings

- Provide visitors with necessary information, similar to QR codes

- More efficient process than QR codes

- NFC-enabled users can touch their device to the information point

- Data received almost instantly

- No need to open a QR reader application and wait for code to scan.

Electronic wallet
- NFC used for electronic wallets

- NFC chips built into credit cards for contactless payments

- NFC technology in mobile phones and smart watches used for contactless payments

- Apple Pay is an example of a service that enables NFC payments through a mobile device

13.2 Ultra-high definition television systems

- Screen resolution affects image quality

- Resolution is measured in pixels

- Standard HD has a resolution of 1920 × 1080

- 4K screens have a resolution of 3840 × 2160, providing a clearer image with more detail than HD

- 8K screens have even higher resolution than 4K

- UHD screens are becoming more common in homes, but 8K systems are mostly used commercially

- Few entertainment services support 8K resolution due to the need for a high-speed internet connection, as it
requires significant bandwidth.

Advantages:

- Sharper and clearer image quality

- Higher level of detail in an image

- Improved viewing experience

Disadvantages:

- More expensive technology to manufacture

- Large amount of data required for transmission to achieve UHD image

- High-speed internet connection needed to stream content at UHD level (at least 25mbps)

UHD Uses

UHD in surgery

- CyberMed NB24k and the Davinci are medical grade computers with 4K screens used in surgical situations.

- They allow surgeons to view surgeries in progress with a higher level of visibility and precision, which is particularly
useful for surgical incisions.

- 4K television systems are also increasingly used in surgery to allow for remote surgeries and a higher level of
precision.

- The use of 4K technology in surgery can improve patient outcomes and reduce the risk of complications.

UHD in cinemas

- The first Hollywood movie filmed in 8K was Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 in 2017.

- Most cinemas were not able to display the film at this resolution, but they are upgrading their technology for future
movies.
- 8K resolution provides greater clarity and immersion, particularly on larger screens.

- 8K resolution may be the maximum level of pixels that our eyes can distinguish, and any further increase may go
unnoticed.

13.3 Artificial intelligence

- AI (Artificial Intelligence) is a rapidly developing area of technology, creating computers with human-like
capabilities and the ability to simulate thinking.

- AI can learn, plan, recognize speech, and problem solve, and is based on the creation of rules which allow it to
adapt decisions based on its own learning.

- Alan Turing was one of the pioneers of AI, who cracked the Enigma code during World War II and became
interested in the idea of providing machines with heuristic knowledge.

- Heuristic knowledge allows machines to make decisions in a more human-like way and involves using a value to
determine the best pathway to select.

- Knowledge engineering is important to AI, as machines need access to a knowledge base and the ability to establish
relations between the available knowledge.

- Machine learning is also a core part of AI, which allows machines to establish patterns in input to inform its ability
to analyse and learn.

Advantages:

- Increased precision and accuracy with lower error rate.

- Can replace humans in tedious, repetitive or dangerous tasks.

- Can work 24/7 without needing rest.

- Can make logical decisions without emotion, providing a rational outcome.

- Can analyze large sets of data efficiently.

Disadvantages:

- High level of programming skills required, making it expensive to create.

- Extensive storage requirements for the program and knowledge base.

- Ethical and moral issues regarding the use of computers to recreate intelligence.

- Lack of emotion means they can't fully understand human emotions like sympathy and empathy.

- Their rule-based nature affects their ability to be creative.

Uses of Artificial intelligence

Self-driving cars

- Google and Tesla are developing self-driving cars to remove the need for humans to drive.

- Self-driving cars are viewed as an advantage because they remove the possibility of accidents caused by tiredness
or emotional reactions.
- However, some view it as a disadvantage due to ethical and moral concerns. The quality of the algorithm is
dependent on the programmers who create it, and the standard of the programmers involved may differ, which
could affect the AI’s ability to make an effective decision in critical situations. Additionally, the issue of responsibility
arises if two self-driving cars have an accident.

Scientific analysis

Summary:

- Many scientific research organizations collect terabytes of data daily.

- AI is used to analyse the extensive amount of data they collect.

- AI is used to identify patterns and trends in the data that can be used to form future scientific discoveries or
hypotheses.

- The learning ability of AI can be used to ask the machine itself to provide its own hypothesis.

- AI can carry out data analysis far outweighing the capabilities of a human.

- This can mean scientific discoveries can be made quicker and with greater accuracy.

13.4 Augmented reality

- Augmented Reality (AR) overlays computer-generated images onto the user's view of the real world to create an
interactive experience.

- AR technology has been around since the 1960s but is only just starting to realise its potential.

- AR commonly makes use of a digital camera and sensors to read data from the surrounding environment and
display the augmented reality.

- AR can be created with mobile devices like smartphones and pioneering technology like smart glasses.

- AR is used in the real world by organisations like the military to train professionals like pilots.

Advantages:

- AR can enhance learning experiences by making them more immersive and entertaining

- AR can simulate real-world experiences efficiently, like trying on clothes or navigating a new place

- AR can communicate information in a more immediate and engaging manner, making it effective for training

Disadvantages:

- Privacy and security concerns with the collection and analysis of user data

- AR may blur the distinction between reality and the digital world, leading to perception modification

- AR technology requires powerful processing which can be expensive to manufacture

Uses of Augmented Reality

Gaming

- Pokémon Go and Wizards Unite are examples of AR games that have gained popularity in the gaming world.

- Pokémon Go allows players to collect different Pokémon by augmenting their surrounding reality.
- Wizards Unite allows players to immerse themselves in the Harry Potter world by augmenting it onto their
surrounding reality.

- Both games use a mobile device to create the augmented reality.

Medicine

- AR is finding its way into the medical field.

- It is being developed to provide surgeons with instant access to vital patient information during surgery.

- Surgeons can wear smart glasses to see patient data without looking away from the surgery.

- Scans of the patient can also be superimposed onto the patient, allowing surgeons to visualise the issue they are
addressing during surgery.

13.5 Virtual reality

- Virtual reality (VR) creates a computer-generated reality that doesn't exist in the real world.

- A 3D space is generated by a computer, and the user is immersed in it through a headset.

- The headset incorporates a visual display and headphones to create a fully immersive experience.

- The user can interact with the computer-generated reality and walk around in it.

- VR technology is becoming more popular in gaming, with PlayStation VR being an example.

Advantages:

- Can simulate critical situations for training

- Provides an immersive experience into a different reality

- Can be used for mental health issues and building confidence

Disadvantages:

- Difficulty achieving perfect calibration, can cause motion sickness

- Expensive technology

- Danger of neglecting real-world reality

Uses of Virtual Reality

Scientific research

- VR used in scientific research to explore the structure and appearance of atoms and molecules

- Previously, scientists relied on 2D visualizations for research

- VR provides an immersive visual representation for scientists to interact with their research

- Scientists can combine molecular structures and see the effects

- VR technology can help in the development of new medicinal drugs to treat medical conditions.

Tourism

- VR used to allow people with disabilities to experience tourist attractions

- Provides an opportunity to experience places that would be difficult to visit

- Can improve quality of life and be used for educational purposes

13.6 Robotics

- Robotics involves designing, building and applying robots that can perform tasks normally done by humans.

- Robots can be programmed to work automatically or through direct human instruction.

- The word "robot" comes from "robota", meaning "forced work or labor".

- The automation aspect of robotics can be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome.

- In the 1960s, General Motors introduced robots on an industrial scale in their automotive factories.

- Today, robots are still used in car factories worldwide and are automated using microprocessors and sensors.

Advantages:

- Perform tedious or dangerous tasks

- Work continuously without breaks

- Improve quality of life

- Reduce errors

- Save time and costs in manufacturing

- Robotic pets can provide companionship and improve mental health

Disadvantages:

- Potential replacement of human jobs

- Lack of emotional response

- Need for constant power supply, which can be expensive and harmful to the environment

- High cost of design and construction

- Some people's fear and distrust of robots

Uses of Robotics

Prosthetic limbs

- Prosthetic limbs have been used for a long time to replace lost limbs in humans.

- The development of robotics has led to the further development of prosthetics.

- Robotic prosthetics are a rapidly developing area in medicine.

- Robotic prosthetics can be connected to a human mind, allowing the person to move the prosthetic with their
thoughts.

- This technology can greatly improve the quality of life for those who have lost limbs.

Nano-robots
- Nano-robots are microscopic robots that could be used in medical procedures.

- They could be put in a human's bloodstream to track and eliminate medical conditions or perform internal surgery
in hard-to-reach areas.

- They could revolutionize cancer treatment by targeting and destroying cancer cells in the body.

13.7 Computer-assisted translation

- Translation is essential for global communication in business and politics

- Computer-assisted translation tools improve productivity and accuracy of human translators

- These tools identify text elements and translate them into the required language

- Computer-assisted translation is database-driven and matches words to those in its database

Advantages:

- Instant access to translations

- Time-saving

- Reduced errors

- Relatively inexpensive and widely available

Disadvantages:

- Skepticism about accuracy

- Struggles with certain terms used in context, such as slang or colloquial language.

Uses of Computer assisted translation

Foreign-language websites

- Computer-assisted translation can be useful for accessing websites written in a different language.

- Websites from other countries may not be readable in the user's language.

- Translation tools can translate website content into the user's required language.

- This can improve communication and make more information accessible to people worldwide.

Spell checking

- The database of words for a language can be used to compare text and identify incorrect words.

- Can offer corrected spelling for incorrect words.

- May not recognize certain words or phrases.

- Cannot account for grammatical errors or errors in context.

13.8 Holographic imaging

- Holographic imaging, also known as a hologram, is a 3D image created using laser beams and mirrors.
- The laser beam is split up by reflecting it off mirrors, and when they recombine, they create the holographic image.

- Holograms were invented in the 1950s by Dennis Gabor, a Hungarian-born physicist who was awarded a Nobel
prize in Physics in 1971 for his invention and development of the holographic method.

- Holograms can be a 2D image that appears 3D when moved, or an image that is actually 3D and free-standing,
using photographic projection.

- Free-standing holograms are commonly seen in movies like Star Wars and Iron Man.

- Advantages of holograms include not requiring special glasses, being difficult to replicate, and providing better
depth perception.

- Disadvantages include the need for expensive equipment to create 3D projected holograms and the cost of data
storage.

Uses of Holographic imaging

Security

- Holographic images used as security measure on:

- Credit cards

- Currency

- Secure documents such as driving licenses and passports

- Difficult to replicate

- Effective method of preventing fraud

- Adds an extra layer of security to sensitive items and information.

Architecture

- Holographic images are used in architecture and construction industry.

- They offer a true 3D visualization of a building before construction.

- Holograms are more beneficial than on-screen simulated 3D models.

- Holograms help architects provide better understanding to construction companies.

- Construction companies save time deciphering plans and ideas.

13.9 Holographic data storage

- Optical data storage uses light to burn and read data from a reflective surface.

- Holographic data storage is based on the principle of optical storage.

- A laser beam is used in holographic data storage, which is split and then bounced off mirrors before traveling to a
crystal.

- When the two beams meet again, a hologram is created and stored in the crystal.

- A single storage crystal can store up to a terabyte of data and is about the size of a grain of sugar.
- Advantages:

- Large amounts of data can be stored on a very small medium.

- Portable storage of large amounts of data.

- High transfer rates.

- Disadvantages:

- Incompatibility with current methods of data storage.

- Complex and expensive technology.

Uses of Holographic data storage

Taking data into space

- Holographic data storage is useful for transporting large amounts of data into space.

- Current methods have limitations due to distance and limited space.

- Holographic data storage allows a significant amount of data to be sent with each mission.

- It overcomes the limitations of current storage methods.

Archiving data

- Large corporations need to archive large amounts of data, which can be costly in terms of storage space.

- Holographic data storage could reduce the size of data storage units, potentially saving organizations money.

- The CERN data centre in Switzerland generates 30 petabytes of data annually and could benefit from holographic
data storage.

13.10 3D printing

- 3D printing has been in development since the 1980s and is a relatively developed technology.

- 3D printing is a form of additive manufacturing, which creates physical models by layering thin materials based on
3D software-based models created using computer aided design (CAD) software.

- The application of 3D printing continues to develop, with increasingly more ways that it is being used and past
methods being revolutionised.

Advantages:

- Increased speed of production

- High level of consistency

- Ability to create complex models with hollow cavities

- Cheaper cost of production

Disadvantages:

- Increased security and fraud issues due to ease of creating dangerous and counterfeit items

- Limited size of objects that can be printed

- Reduction of manufacturing jobs

- High power consumption

- Negative environmental impact, including landfill waste from ABS filament.

Uses of 3D printing

Bespoke prosthetics

- 3D printing has revolutionized the medical industry by making limb replacement more accessible through bespoke
prosthetics.

- 3D-like printing is also used in bio-printing, which enables tissue engineering to be developed by layering
biomaterials to create tissue-like structures.

- Biomedical printing techniques can be used to print organs and artificial blood vessels, reducing the need to
harvest organs for medical research and enabling the creation of artificial organs in the future.

Printing in space

- 3D printing is useful in space as storage space in a rocket is limited.

- It is possible to take a 3D printer into space, which can be used to print replacement parts for the space station.

- With a 3D printer, broken parts can be replaced quickly, reducing the time the crew needs to wait for the next
mission to arrive.

- 3D printing in space is being researched and developed for creating structures and habitats on the Moon and Mars
in the future.

13.11 Vision enhancement

Advantages of vision enhancement:

- Can restore vision to those who have lost it

- Glasses or lenses can be tailored to the person and their current level of vision for greatest effectiveness

- Can provide blind people with images of their surroundings to work and enjoy like others

- Can help colour-blind individuals see the world in the same way as everyone else

- Can enhance vision in situations where visibility is limited, such as in the dark

Types of vision enhancement:

- Night vision devices, such as night vision goggles, collect all available light, including infrared and ultra-violet light,
to create a more visible image

- Thermal vision devices, such as thermal vision goggles, use thermal imaging technology to capture the infrared light
emitted by objects

Advantages:

- Improves vision for those with limited or poor vision.

- Enhances vision for colour-blind individuals.

- Improves visibility in low-light or limited visibility scenarios.

Disadvantages:

- Expensive manufacturing costs.

- Night and thermal vision devices are illegal or limited in some countries.

Uses of Vision enhancement

Improving vision

- Headsets can be worn by people with poor vision

- Images of surroundings can be projected inside the headset

- This allows greater awareness and vision of the surroundings

- Improved navigation is possible

Seeing in the dark

- Night vision and thermal vision devices are used by the military to enhance visibility at night.

- These devices allow soldiers to move around and assess dangerous situations without being easily seen.

- This can aid in combat strategy and increase safety for soldiers.

13.12 Wearable computing

- Wearable computing includes a variety of clothing or accessories with computer-based components embedded in
them.

- Fitness trackers are a common form of wearable computing that tracks steps taken and other health information.

- Wearable computing items can be functional or fashionable.

Advantages:

- Provides access to important health statistics, improving health monitoring.

- Users can sync devices together and set challenges, increasing motivation to exercise.

- Aids communication by showing alerts for text messages or emails, and some can even make calls.

Disadvantages:

- Users can become obsessed with health statistics, leading to damaging thoughts.

- Compatibility issues between devices may prevent data sharing.

- Accuracy of some trackers can be dubious, designed for the "average" person and not bespoke health.

- Data security concerns exist, and companies may use collected data for marketing purposes.

Uses of Wearable computing

Exercise brings rewards

- Companies are providing employees with health trackers and rewarding them for recording exercise.
- Points are given for the steps recorded each day, and can be spent on rewards for the employee.

- Rewards can include gift vouchers or products the employee can purchase.

Monitoring health issues

- Health trackers can be used to monitor users with serious health issues.

- The device can constantly monitor the user's heart rate and alert a medical professional or family member in case
of emergency.

- This allows for timely medical assistance and can be lifesaving.

- Health trackers can also be used to monitor other health conditions such as diabetes, asthma, and epilepsy.

- This type of monitoring can provide valuable data to healthcare professionals and aid in better treatment and
management of the condition.

- However, the accuracy of some health trackers can be questionable, so it is important to ensure that the device is
reliable and validated by medical professionals.

13.13 Environmental issues

Advantages:

- AI can be used to monitor trends and patterns in the environment, which can aid in preparing for natural disasters
and adverse weather.

- Emerging technologies can be used to aid in environmental issues.

Disadvantages:

- The power consumption of technology creates emissions that harm the environment.

- Discarded technology creates e-waste, which can harm the environment and infiltrate water supplies.
14.1 Fundamental network models

- Two fundamental network models: TCP/IP suite and OSI model

- Both provide rules and standards for network communication

- Divided into layers to allow for independent operation and easy adaptation of functions

- TCP/IP suite:

- 4 layers (Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Access)

- Used for the Internet and most modern networks

- OSI model:

- 7 layers (Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and Physical)

- Used for general reference and teaching purposes

- Understanding network models is important for designing and troubleshooting networks.

- OSI model has 7 layers

- Application layer:

- Manages protocols for user applications

- Presentation layer:

- Prepares data for the Application layer

- Translates, encrypts, compresses data

- Session layer:

- Opens and closes communication links between devices

- Manages sessions

- Transport layer:

- Breaks down data into segments and manages flow control and error checking

- Ensures all data is received and retransmits if necessary

- Network layer:

- Breaks down segments into packets and manages routing

- Finds the best path across the network

- Data Link layer:

- Transmits data from node to node within a network

- Converts packets into frames

- Physical layer:

- Involves the physical equipment used to transmit data

- Breaks down data into bits to be transmitted as binary

- Reassembles bits into frames after transmission

- Each layer performs specific functions and interacts with adjacent layers to enable communication between
devices.

- Packet is a unit of data in data transmission

- Router:

- Sends data packets to a destination outside the current network

- Uses a computer's IP address to route packets

- Switch:

- Sends data packets to a destination within a network

- Uses a computer's MAC address to switch packets

- Router and switch are key network components

- Router uses IP address to route packets, while switch uses MAC address to switch packets

- OSI model and TCP/IP model are network models used in creating a network

- OSI model is a logical model consisting of 7 layers

- TCP/IP model is a condensed version of OSI model with 4 layers

- TCP/IP model was developed by the US Department of Defence

- TCP/IP model is intended to be a more advanced version of the OSI model

- TCP/IP protocol has four layers:

1. Application layer: combines the roles of application, presentation, and session layers from OSI model, uses HTTP,
SMTP, POP, and FTP protocols for standardized data exchange.

2. Transport layer: maintains end-to-end communication between devices, uses TCP and UDP protocols.

3. Network layer: also known as the internet layer, breaks data into packets and transmits them between networks,
uses IP and ICMP protocols.

4. Link layer: also known as the physical layer, combines the roles of the data link and physical layers from the OSI
model, uses ARP protocol.

14.2 Structure of a data packet

- Networks transmit data from one device to another.

- To understand how this happens and how networks are structured, it's important to understand how data is
packaged for transmission.

- A data packet is typically the smallest unit of data sent across a network and contains three elements: the header,
the payload, and the trailer.

- The elements of a packet may vary depending on the network used to send it. For example, packets sent over the
internet contain additional elements to ensure they are directed to the correct destination.
Header:

- Source IP address

- Destination IP address

- Sequence number

- MAC address of sender and receiver

- Used protocols

Payload:

- Actual data from the file being transmitted

Trailer:

- Flag indicating end of packet

- Error checking methods

All the data sent in the header and trailer are designed to ensure the payload data arrives at its intended destination
without any errors.

14.3 Transmitting data packets

- Switching is the term used for transmitting data packets across a network.

- There are three main types of switching: circuit switching, packet switching, and message switching.

Circuit switching

- Direct path is created between sending and receiving devices.

- Dedicated pathway is used to transmit data packets from one device to another.

- Data is transmitted using the dedicated path each time.

- Other computers in the network can't use the same pathway while data is being transmitted.

- Once data transmission is completed, the path is released for use by other data transmissions across the network.
Packet switching

- Packet switching allows data packets to take any available path without a set pathway.

- Collating and reordering of packets happens when they reach the destination.

- Packet switching is commonly used when packets are sent over the internet, and routers are used.

- There are two main methods of transmission in packet switching: connection-oriented and connectionless.

- Connection-oriented packet switching creates a fixed channel for the data to travel after a session is created.

- Connectionless packet switching does not require any prior arrangement between devices for data transmission.

- Examples of connection-oriented packet switching are frame relay and transmission control protocol (TCP).

- Examples of connectionless packet switching are Ethernet, internet protocol (IP), and user datagram protocol
(UDP).

Connection-oriented Method

- Frame relay is a connection-oriented method of packet switching.

- Data is separated into frames, and error correction is performed by the devices at the endpoints.

- Dropped frames are retransmitted, making it suitable for low error rate data transmission.

- Permanent virtual circuits (PVC) and switched virtual circuits (SVC) are two main methods of connection in frame
relay.

- Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is also a connection-oriented method of packet switching.

- A connection is created and maintained until the application software at each endpoint has finished exchanging
data.

- TCP is responsible for error-free data transmission and managing the flow of data.

Connectionless Method

- Ethernet is a protocol used for connecting devices in a wired network.

- IP is the protocol used for transmitting data across the internet.

- UDP is a protocol that sends data in datagrams and does not control the flow of data or carry out error checking,
making it faster than TCP.

Message Switching

- Message switching is an intermediate method between circuit switching and packet switching.

- It combines the features of circuit switching (all data packets sent along the same path) and packet switching (any
path from source to destination can be taken).

- Data packets are sent from source to the first switch device which holds them until all packets have arrived.

- The switch then sends the packets to the next switch, which also holds them until all packets have arrived.

- The packets are sent from switch to switch in this way until they reach the destination.

- This method is known as the store and forward method.

14.4 Network structures

Peer-to-peer

- A peer-to-peer network consists of computers known as peers.

- The main purpose of peer-to-peer networks is to share data.

- Peer-to-peer networks have a decentralized structure.

- Each peer in the network has the same level of responsibility and capability.

- Each user in the network stores data on their computer.

- Users can choose to keep data private or make it public.

- Peers can share peripherals, such as printers.

- Peer-to-peer networks are often used for file sharing of digital media.

- Dedicated software links users who have files with those who want them.

- Peer-to-peer file sharing has been controversial due to piracy concerns.

Advantages:

- Relatively cheap setup

- Requires little technical knowledge

- Users can share data and resources

- Less traffic than client-server

- Users have full control over their data

- Minor impact if a peer computer fails

Disadvantages:

- Performance issues if a peer is accessed by another

- No central backup, data loss affects everyone

- Public files may be disorganised

- Users are responsible for their own security, viruses can spread to others

Client-server

- Contains two types of computers: client and server

- Server(s) is a central point of control and provides a dedicated function

- All other computers in the network are called clients

- Client computers are connected to the server to allow it to perform its dedicated function

- Most client-server networks use a request-response method

- Types of servers in client-server networks:

 - File server

- Print server

- Application server

- Database server

File server

- File server stores and manages data files.

- Saves storage space on client computers.

- Allows users to access their files from any client computer in the network.

- Allows access to publicly shared files.

- Provides central backup of all data.

Web server

- Stores, processes and transmits web pages.

Mail server

- Sends and receives emails

- Stores incoming emails for the user to download

- Forwards outgoing messages to the correct destination

- Scans emails for security issues like viruses, malware, and spam

- Can be set to check for inappropriate content

Application server

- Application server installs and runs software applications.

- Provides a platform to run both desktop and web applications.

Print server

- Print server receives print jobs from client computers and sends them to the correct printer.

- Enables multiple client computers to use a range of printers available in a network.

- Can be set to print to a specific printer, find the next available printer, or the closest printer to the client.

- If many jobs are sent to the print server at a time, it will queue the jobs until it can deliver them to a printer.

FTP Server

- Manages the transfer of data using the file transfer protocol (FTP).

- Keeps a log of all activity involving FTP.

- Used frequently for the transfer of files over the internet.

Proxy server

- Acts as an intermediary between clients and other servers.

- Receives client requests and forwards them to the relevant server.

- Provides an added level of security in a network, protecting clients from directly accessing resources on another
server.

- Can be set to act as a firewall.

Virtual server

- Shares the hardware of another server.

- Created using virtualization software on another server.

- Multiple virtual servers could be created on one physical server.

- A virtual server can be given the capabilities of any of the above physical servers.

- Businesses sometimes use third-party virtual servers to act as a web server for hosting their website.

- This allows the hosting company to host several businesses' websites on the hardware of a single physical server.

- Spreading network functionality across multiple servers can improve network efficiency.

- Servers are expensive due to high performance and storage requirements.

- Some businesses plan to have fewer physical servers and divide them into virtual servers for required functionality.

Advantage of server:

- Files can all be located in a single place and backed up on a regular basis.

- Security for the network can be controlled from a central point.

- Levels of access can be applied to resources and data on the servers.

- Updates for any software or network peripherals can be rolled out from a central location.

Disadvantage of server:

- Can be very expensive to set up due to the need to buy expensive equipment, such as servers.

- Expensive to maintain as specialist knowledge is required to setup and maintain the servers.

- Failure of a server will mean that functionality is unavailable for all users.

- Servers can be grouped together to provide more functionality.

- This group of servers is called a server farm.

- Server farms require a large amount of power to keep cool and run.

- They can be used to execute large tasks simultaneously.

- Often contain thousands of servers.

LAN and WAN

LAN:

- Network of computers/devices in small geographic area

- Can be as simple as two computers in a home or as extensive as 100 computers in a small business

- Used to share data and resources such as peripherals

WAN:

- Network of computers/devices in large geographic area

- The internet is the largest example of a WAN

- Used by businesses with multiple branches to share data and resources

- WAN is typically a connection of LANs in each branch location

Virtual private network (VPN)

- VPN allows access to sensitive data stored in remote location

- VPN software encrypts data before transmission over internet

- Data sent to VPN server, then sent to final destination

- Data is meaningless if intercepted due to encryption

- Hacker wouldn't know final destination or original sender

- VPN adds security and privacy to data transmission

- Beneficial for both individuals and organizations

Advantages:

- Data encryption before transmission

- Privacy of sender maintained from destination and hackers

- Maintenance of VPN server not user's responsibility

Disadvantages:
- Illegal/controversial usage in some countries

- Reliance on third party for security

- Cost of purchasing a VPN (monthly subscription fee)

Mobile Networks

- Mobile networks provide wireless communication through radio transmissions.

- They cover a considerable amount of the inhabited areas of the world.

- Mobile networks are broken down into small areas called cells, which vary in size.

- There are several generations of mobile networks, each providing faster access speeds and greater reliability.

- Each generation of mobile network technology requires new hardware, software, and infrastructure.

- The cost of using mobile networks can be high, particularly for data usage.

- Some rural or remote areas may not be covered by mobile networks.

- Mobile networks can be subject to interference, which can affect the quality of communications.

Advantages:

- Mobile networks enable communication and internet access on the move through smartphones.

- Lower power radio transmitters can be used by breaking down the network into cells, leading to energy and cost
savings.

- Radio frequencies can be split among neighbouring cells, increasing the number of communications that can take
place at the same time.

- Larger geographical areas can be covered than by using a single transmitter.

- Multiple transmitters make the network more robust.

Disadvantages:

- Quality of reception can vary and can be poor towards the edge of a cell.

- Careful planning of frequency use is required to avoid interference between cells.

- The technology for 5G is currently limited and may take time and be costly to become fully usable.

14.5 Network Protocols

These protocols are mainly designed to increase the privacy and security of data.

Tunnelling

- Allows for the secure transmission of data from one network to another

- Private data packets are sent across a public network through encapsulation

- Encapsulation makes private data packets look like public data packets

- Tunnelling is used in VPNs

Secure sockets layer (SSL)

- Network protocol for securing connections between web clients and servers

- Uses public and private keys to encrypt data transmitted over secure connection

- Mostly replaced by TLS

Transport layer security (TLS)

This is a network protocol that is the updated version of SSL. It uses updated and more secure encryption algorithms.

Internet protocol security (IPsec)

- Designed to encrypt and authenticate data packets sent over the internet

- Part of tunnelling process for VPN.

BitTorrent

- Protocol used in peer-to-peer file sharing

- Allows the transfer of large files by distributing the load of downloading the file across several sources on the
network

- Several sources are collated to create a swarm, each given pieces of the file

- Allows the user to join the swarm and download the file from available hosts

- Downloads the file in pieces, simultaneously, from various hosts in the swarm

- Can rearrange the pieces to create the completed file.

- BitTorrent is a communication protocol used for peer-to-peer file sharing.

- It allows for the transfer of large files by distributing the load of downloading the file across several sources on the
network.

- The protocol creates a swarm by collating several sources, known as hosts, that are each given pieces of the file.

- Each user trying to download the file is called a peer, and each user providing an upload of the file as part of the
swarm is called a seed.

- The protocol protects each piece of the file to prevent modification by any users.

Internet control message protocol (ICMP)

- The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is an error reporting protocol used in computer networks.

- It's used to diagnose network problems and to send error messages indicating problems with packet delivery.

- ICMP messages are typically generated by network devices such as routers and switches, and they are sent back to
the sender of the data packets.

Address resolution protocol (ARP)

-Translation of an IP address to a MAC address for a device

-Use between the network layer and the data link layer of the OSI model.

Inverse address resolution protocol (InARP)

This protocol performs the opposite role to the ARP. It translates a MAC address into an IP address.

Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP)

- Function: Manage IP address assignment on a network

- Purpose: Automate and simplify the process for network administrators

Hypertext transfer protocols (HTTP and HTTPS)

- HTTP is a protocol used to transfer the content of web pages from a web server to a browser over the internet.

- HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP that incorporates the use of the SSL protocol to encrypt and authenticate the
data transmitted between the web server and the browser.

File transfer protocol (FTP)

This protocol is responsible for the transfer of files between a client and a server in a network.

Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)

This protocol is used to send email from a computer to a mail server, and between different mail servers.

Post office protocol (POP)

- Retrieve emails from a mail server

- Email is downloaded to user device and deleted from the server

Internet message access protocol (IMAP)

- IMAP is a protocol used for retrieving emails from a mail server.

- It is similar to POP, but has one main difference: email is not deleted from the server by default.

- Emails remain on the server and can be accessed and managed by multiple devices.

- An email is deleted from the server only when the user chooses to delete it.

Telnet

This protocol allows a user to connect remotely to another computer, using the internet.
Secure shell (SSH)

This protocol provides a secure way to access a computer over an unsecure network. It does this using strong
authentication and encryption methods for communication.

14.6 Components in a network

A network can often include several different components, that each have a role within the network.

Network interface cards and wireless network interface cards

- A network interface card (NIC) is required for a device to connect to a network.

- NICs can be wired or wireless and are inserted into a device's motherboard.

- The manufacturer provides the NIC with a unique MAC address.

- An ethernet cable is used to connect a wired NIC to another computer or network component.

- WNICs can be used for wireless connections and do not require an ethernet cable.

Hubs and switches

- For a simple network, a direct ethernet connection can be used between devices

- For multiple devices, a hub or a switch is needed

- Hub: connects devices using a wired connection, forwards data to all devices, inefficient and prone to data
collisions, can be active or passive

- Switch: also connects devices using a wired connection, examines data packets to determine the intended
destination device, forwards data only to that device, creates a MAC address source table to determine destinations,
greatly reduces traffic and data collisions

Repeaters

- Signals in a network can deteriorate due to interference in transmission media

- A repeater can be used to boost the signal at various points in a network

- A repeater can be used for wired and wireless signals, as well as analogue and digital signals.

Wireless access points

- Wireless access point (WAP) is a network component used to connect wireless devices to a wired network.

- It receives wireless signals and transmits them to their destination via the wired network, often through a switch.

- It creates a wireless LAN and can support multiple wireless devices, but there is often a limit, and larger
organizations may require multiple WAPs.

- Signal strength deteriorates with distance, so multiple WAPs are distributed throughout the building.

Gateway and routers

- Organisations with different branches may need to share data between LANs.

- A component called a gateway is used to connect the LANs together.

- A common gateway component used to connect LANs is a router.

- A router assigns unique IP addresses to devices connected to it, allowing for their identification in the network.

- Two versions of IP address are IPv4 and IPv6, with IPv6 allowing for more possible combinations.
- An IP address can be static or dynamic, with most devices using dynamic IP addresses.

- Users can request a static IP address from their internet provider if needed.

- A router connects LANs and LANs to WANs.

- Routers forward data packets outside the current LAN to other networks.

- Routers use IP addresses, while switches use MAC addresses to establish packet destination.

- Routers use routing tables to establish the most efficient route for data packets.

- Routing tables store available routers for specific network destinations.

- Routing protocols help select the route for data transmission.

- Three types of routing protocols: interior gateway protocols, exterior gateway protocols, and border gateway
protocols.

- Interior gateway protocols used for routers within a network, exterior gateway protocols used for routers between
different networks, and border gateway protocols used for exchanging data packets across the internet.

14.7 Network connections (physical)

Coaxial

- Coaxial cable is a type of copper cable with a central wire surrounded by an insulating layer and an outer jacket.

- They are used to carry radio frequency signals.

- Coaxial cables are used in applications such as TV, cable TV, and some internet connections.

Advantages:

- Low cost to manufacture and purchase.

- Lower error rate due to the central wire being inside a faraday shield.

- Transmit signals over long distances with minimal signal loss and interference.

Disadvantages:

- Lowest level of bandwidth among the three cable types.

- Difficult to install and maintain due to the insulation method.

Twisted pair

- Twisted pair is a copper cable that consists of two insulated wires twisted around each other and covered by an
outer jacket.

- Twisted pair cables transmit electric current and are used for telephone communications and Ethernet networks.

Advantages of twisted pair:

- Minimises crosstalk

- Low cost to manufacture and purchase

- Higher level of bandwidth than coaxial

Disadvantages of twisted pair:

- Susceptible to electromagnetic interference

- Shortest distance signal can be carried before deterioration

Fibre optic

- Made of thin glass threads covered by an outer layer.

- Used for faster data transmission, utilizing light properties to transfer data.

- Commonly used in modern internet and high-performance networks.

- Advantages: highest bandwidth available and can carry signals for longer distances without deterioration.

- Disadvantages: high cost for manufacture and purchase, difficult to install due to the fragility of glass tubes.

14.8 Network connections (wireless)

Wi-Fi

- Wi-Fi uses radio signals and is the most commonly used wireless communication method.

- Each device broadcasts a radio signal to make a wireless connection.

- A router or WAP receives these signals and processes them.

- The router or WAP also broadcasts radio signals that are received and processed by each device when it is receiving
data that has been transmitted.

- Wi-Fi currently transmits data at frequencies of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, which are much higher than those used by
mobile networks.

- These frequencies are considered high and required for sending larger amounts of data.

- The current limit for Wi-Fi data transmission is approximately 450 Mbps.

Advantages:

- Multiple devices can connect to a single router or WAP.

- High frequency allows large amounts of data transmission.

- Backward compatible with previous Wi-Fi standards.

- Large range of approximately 100 meters and works through obstacles.

Disadvantages:

- Transfer speed decreases as more devices connect to the network.

- Less secure than wired connections.

- Radio signals can be subject to interference.

Bluetooth

- Bluetooth uses radio signals at 2.45 GHz to create a wireless connection between two devices within 10 meters of
each other.

- There is a limit of 8 devices that can be connected to Bluetooth at any given time, and devices must have matching
profiles to establish a connection.
- Bluetooth transmitter is turned on in a device to transmit radio signals, and any device with a matching profile
within range will pick up the signals and identify with the sender.

- Once the required device for connection is chosen, the devices are paired together, which can sometimes require
entering a pin code for added security.

Advantages:

- Low power consumption

- Can work through obstacles

- Option for added security with pin code

- Less interference from other wireless connections

Disadvantages:

- Limited range of 10 m

- Limit of 8 devices connected at once

- Lower bandwidth compared to Wi-Fi

Infrared

- Infrared connections use infrared radiation for connection.

- Two types of infrared connection: line-of-sight and scatter mode.

- Line-of-sight mode requires direct line of sight between devices.

- Scatter mode broadcasts infrared to an area and any device may receive it.

- Sending device needs infrared signal, and receiving device needs infrared sensor.

- Infrared lasers can also transmit data through direct line of sight.

- Laser transmission works similar to fibre optic but relies on free space.

Advantages:

- Most secure form of connection

- Low cost to manufacture and purchase

- Low power consumption

- No interference from radio frequencies

Disadvantages:

- Cannot be transmitted through obstacles

- Line-of-sight mode requires direct line of sight between devices

- Only connects two devices

- Short range (approximately 1 m)

- May be subject to interference from bright sources

- Wireless data transmission can have security issues since it lacks the same level of protection as wired connections.
- Wired networks have locks and other security methods to prevent unauthorized access.

- There are two protocols for wireless network security: WEP and WPA.

- WEP encrypts data transmissions sent through a wireless connection to provide a compatible level of security to a
wired LAN.

- WPA is a required standard for devices with a wireless internet connection and provides a more advanced
encryption method than WEP.

Micro and radio waves

- Microwaves and radio waves are both types of electromagnetic radiation used for data transmission, with
microwaves having shorter wavelengths and being used for short-distance communications, while radio waves have
longer wavelengths and are used for long-distance communications.

- Wi-Fi and Bluetooth use microwaves for data transmission.

- Historically, the term "radio waves" has been associated with wireless data transmission technology.

14.9 Bandwidth and bit rate

- Bandwidth measures the frequencies available on the channels of communication in a network, as well as the
maximum amount of data that can be transferred across a network within a given time (usually one second).

- Bit rate is a measure of how many bits of data are transferred in a given period of time and is used to describe the
rate at which a particular file, such as a video file, is transferred.

- Bandwidth and bit rate are not the same thing, with bandwidth being a measure of a network's performance ability
and bit rate being a measure of how fast a specific file is transferred.

- A network's bandwidth limits the bit rate of data transfer, with the maximum possible bit rate not exceeding the
available bandwidth.

- Bandwidth and bit rate are important in real-time and on-demand streaming of audio and video files, as the
available bandwidth affects the quality of the streamed file. A user with a lower bandwidth connection will not be
able to stream high-quality files.

14.10 Cloud computing

- Cloud computing refers to internet-based services like storage, software, and servers.

- There are three main types of cloud computing. Infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS) and
software as a service (SaaS):

- IaaS: Host provider hosts network resources such as servers, which businesses can access via the internet.

- PaaS: Host provider hosts platform resources used to build software applications.

- SaaS: Host provider hosts software applications accessible to users via the internet.

- Cloud computing is often used for data storage and personal data backup.

Advantages:

- No need for hosting development platforms or purchasing additional hardware.

- No need for technical staff to maintain hardware.

- Automatic backup of data by cloud provider.

- Access to data and software applications from anywhere with an internet connection.

- Cloud provider handles software application updates and can quickly boost network performance by employing
more resources.

Disadvantages:

- Reliance on a third party to keep data secure.

- Little control over security measures implemented by cloud provider.

- Data or software stored on a server become unavailable if a server fails.

- Cloud computing resources can only be accessed with an internet connection.

14.11 Satellite communication systems

- Communications satellites are machines in space used to transmit radio waves from one place on earth to another
for telephone calls, internet data, and television broadcasts.

- The main components of a satellite are a solar powered battery, a transponder, and various antennas.

- Satellite communication involves converting data to radio waves, transmitting them from a ground station to the
intended satellite, and then transmitting them back to the destination ground station.

- Navigation systems such as GPS use satellites to work out a user’s current location, using triangulation to find the
location of a user.

- Devices with GPS capabilities include mobile phones and cars, and can be used for surveillance purposes by tracking
a device's activity log.

14.12 Network security

- Data is valuable to companies, and malicious systems may be created to steal or damage data, resulting in a risk to
data security, especially with the use of networks.

- Malware is a common risk, and it can be a virus, worm, spyware, or ransomware, which are often downloaded
unknowingly by users.

- Botnets can also be used to carry out attacks like DDoS by infecting many computers with malware and using them
as bots.

- Hackers can gain unauthorised access to a system using a backdoor, while crackers use a brute-force approach to
gain access by trying different password combinations.

- Physical security measures, such as barriers, locks, CCTV, security guards, and alarms, can be used to protect data.

- Biometric data can also be used to authenticate users, while software-based methods like anti-malware, anti-virus,
anti-spyware, and firewalls can be used to prevent malware and unauthorised access.

- Access rights can be used to restrict access to data, while encryption can protect the data if it is stolen.

14.13 Disaster recovery management

- In an organization, a disaster is anything that may put the operations at risk.

- Disaster recovery is a planning mechanism to minimize risks and plan for disasters.
- The first step is to identify the potential disaster through risk analysis that includes identifying the potential
disaster, the potential harm, and its impact on the organization, and developing methods to control the possibility
and impact of the disaster.

- Perpetrator analysis is also carried out to identify potential culprits for the disaster.

- Risk testing is done to rehearse the plans and strategies developed during the risk analysis to make employees
understand what they should do in the event of a disaster.

- Quantifying the risk involves evaluating the risk and prevention methods in terms of cost and time by considering
maximum tolerable downtime (MTD) and recover time objective (RTO).

- Methods should be in place to prevent disasters such as power surge protection devices, backup generators, fire
and flood-proof cases for data, policies and procedures, and cloud computing.

- In the event of a disaster, data and resources will need to be restored, and a disaster recovery plan should be in
place to consider how to carry out these actions and what timescales to expect.
Chapter 15 Project management

- Process for completing projects within budget and time

- Includes initiation, planning, execution, monitoring, and close stages

- Project management software and tools such as Gantt charts, PERT, and CPM can assist in the process

- Failure to complete projects on time and within budget can cause embarrassment for organizations and frustration
for end-users.

15.1 The stages of the project life cycle

Project initiation

- Identify initial ideas and set project goals

- Conduct a feasibility study to determine project feasibility

- Identify requirements to ensure stakeholder expectations are met

- Define objectives, scope, risks, budget, and timescales and get agreement from stakeholders

- Create a high-level schedule and project brief

- Carry out a phase review to ensure completion of all initiation aspects and stakeholder agreement on the project
brief.

Project planning

- Planning is essential for successful project completion

- Formulate comprehensive budget and timescales, and set milestones to track progress

- Identify and prioritize tasks, and produce a Gantt chart to show task order

- Allocate resources in a coordinated manner and ensure appropriate time is allotted to each task

- Conduct a phase review at the end of the planning phase to check for plan achievability and alignment with project
objectives.

Project execution

- Follow the plan to use resources appropriately and prevent delays

- Communicate roles and responsibilities to team members and set interim targets

- Conduct an execution phase review to learn from mistakes and identify good practices

- Review project schedule, budget, resource availability, and original requirements.

Project Monitoring and Control

- Monitor progress and control project

- Ensure tasks are completed on time and reschedule if there are delays

- Monitor team member performance

- Monitor expenditures against the budget

- Regularly review objectives and prevent scope creep

- Hold regular project review meetings to discuss progress

- Adjust project plan through iteration between phases.

Project close

- When the project is ready to complete, a handover will take place from the project team to the client.

- Contracts will be terminated, and resources assigned to the project will be released.

- A review of the project will take place between the client and the project management team.

- The client will sign off the project as completed, and closure will have been achieved.

15.2 Project management software

Planning

- Project planning mainly involves scheduling tasks and allocating resources using project management software.

- Key milestones should be identified in advance to ensure crucial points in the project are reached, and tasks are
scheduled accordingly.

- Documents required for the project should be allocated to these milestones, such as success criteria and
specifications.

- Project templates can be used for setting up an initial project plan, and they can be provided by the software or
created based on previous successful projects.

Scheduling of tasks

- Project management software enables scheduling of tasks on a timeline using Gantt charts

- Tasks are assigned an estimated duration and deadline

- Dependencies between tasks are identified, and priority order is established

- Milestones are identified for crucial points of the project

- Deliverables can be highlighted as completed at milestones

- Team members can track progress and time spent on each task

- Overall calendar of all tasks and individual calendars for team members are available to the project manager.

- Project templates help set up company standards for planning projects, so employees have a common and
recognisable structure.

Allocation of resources
- Resources: equipment, property or people

- Defined in project management software

- Availability identified for use by project manager

- Costs assigned to resources to track budget

- Assigned to tasks with designated time frame

- Software helps avoid conflicts and overload situations

- Overload: team member has too many tasks to complete.

Costings

- All resources have costs allocated to them

- Project manager calculates total cost of task based on resource usage

- Project management software records team member expenses and accounts for them in overall costs

- Software provides daily, weekly, monthly or custom expenditure analysis and compares it to budget

- Can report total costs for each resource or set of resources

- Costings information can be exported to common formats such as spreadsheets for further manipulation and
analysis

Communication and collaborative working

- Calendars to schedule meetings and attach documents

- Instant messaging, video chat, and conferencing for remote communication

- Shared documents stored in a central repository, with changes tracked and alerts sent

- Discussions and forums for team discussions and notifications of new contributions

- Progress updates from team members that can be fed into the project plan, with automated email notifications for
changes to the timeline.

Decision making

- Communications logged and tracked for decision-making

- Issues highlighted and adjustments made

- Progress of issue resolution monitored

- Graphs, charts, and reports used to analyse budget, scheduling, and task progress

- Comparisons made between plan and actual progress

- Critical path identified for monitoring

- Resource availability overview for reallocation as necessary

Weaknesses of project management software

- High financial investment, can deter some organizations from using it

- Complexity of the software requires extensive training for project managers and team members

- Over-complication of simple projects

- Users becoming too reliant on the software to remind them of tasks

- Risk of unauthorized access to sensitive data due to multiple user access

15.3 Tools and techniques for project management tasks

- CPM finds a project's critical path

- The critical path defines which tasks must complete on time for the whole project to complete on time

- The critical path method is suitable for projects where time needed for each task is known

- Tasks that aren't critical have float time

- Float time is the time an activity can be delayed without affecting the rest of the project.

In the example network activity diagram for making a cup of tea, getting the milk out of the fridge has a float time of
120 seconds because it can be delayed this long before it would catch up with milestone 4.

To create a network activity diagram you need to know the following information:

• the list of tasks

• how long each task will take

• which tasks are dependent upon predecessors.

This information can be shown in an activity dependence table.

Network activity diagrams can be extended to include the earliest start time (ES) and earliest finish time (EF) of a
task. The ES of the first task is 0 and the EF of the first task is the length of that task. The ES of all other tasks is the
latest EF of its predecessors.

ES of task = latest EF of predecessors

The EF of any task is calculated as: EF = ES + length of task

The float time can also be added to each task. The float time is calculated by subtracting the EF of a task from the ES
of the next task: Float time = EF of task – ES of next task

Note: when working in days, the EF and ES are considered to be the beginning of the day. For example, if the EF of
task 2 is day 4 then task 2 should be finished by the beginning of day 4, or the end of day 3. This will then enable task
3 to start at the beginning of day 4.

- Network activity diagram can help allocate resources to tasks

- Additional resources can be allocated to a task to complete it earlier than planned, known as "crashing"

- Resources can come from tasks with high float times as those tasks are not critical to finish at their planned earliest
finish time

- If there aren't any float tasks available, additional resources have to be found which incur additional costs.

For example, in Figure 15.7, if the laying of bricks needs to be completed 5 days earlier then there are no float tasks
available from which to use resources. However, if erecting the roof needed to be completed earlier than planned,
then resources could be used from the plumbing task which has a float of 12 days.

Performance evaluation and review technique (PERT)

- PERT is similar to CPM and is used to plan, schedule and manage projects based on predecessors.

- It is suitable for research and development projects that are non-repetitive.

- Tasks are represented by arrows and milestones by nodes.

- The time for each task is estimated based on:

- most optimistic time

- most likely time

- most pessimistic time

- The most optimistic time assumes that everything will go right and there will be no problems.

- The most pessimistic time assumes that anything that can go wrong will go wrong.

Gantt charts

- A Gantt chart shows:

- Start and finish dates of each task

- Predecessors for each task

- Progress of each task

- Current position within the project

- Each task is represented by a bar, which can be shaded to show completion percentage

- Arrows show which tasks are dependent on others

- Resources required can be listed, usually with the person responsible for each task

- To create a Gantt chart, you need to know:

- List of tasks

- Time needed for each task

- Predecessors of each task

 - Start date of the project

- Resources allocated to each task.

Work breakdown structure (WBS)

- To manage large projects, hierarchical decomposition of the project can be created as a work breakdown structure
(WBS).

- A WBS forms a hierarchical diagram with tasks allocated to sub-tasks or project phases.

- WBS helps in breaking down the project into manageable tasks and sub-tasks.

- In a software development project, WBS can be used to break down the project into the phases of a development
life cycle.

- A team manager would then be responsible for each phase of the project.

- WBS can be further broken down into stages to show the stages involved in each phase.
Chapter 16 System life cycle

- Waterfall method of software development

- System life cycle with different stages:

- Client specifies requirements

- Analyst records requirements

- Designer produces a design specification

- System is developed based on design

- Developed system is tested and installed for client with user documentation

- Evaluation takes place

- Maintenance carried out by maintenance team

- Other software development methods include Agile and Rapid Application Development (RAD)

16.1 Analysis

Analysis involves finding out how the current system works and what the requirements of the client are for the new
system.

Methods of research

Questionnaires

- Questionnaires used for information from large number of users

- Multiple choice questions enable quantitative analysis

- Mixture of question types for balance of quantitative and qualitative analysis

- Should not take too long to complete

- Users should remain anonymous

- Online completion ideal for immediate storage and analysis with filters and comparison

- Not suitable for small sample sizes or elaboration without contacting user again

Interviews

- Interviews involve direct conversation with analyst and client

- Suitable for single or small group end users, and management or representatives of user groups

- Questions should be planned to elicit required information

- Logistics of each interview need to be planned

- Honesty is important, but some users may not admit to shortcuts or not doing tasks well

- Interviews can be time-consuming and require analyst involvement

- Anonymous questionnaires may be better for getting honest responses.

Observation

- Involves watching processes within an organization to understand how tasks are completed

- Can involve sitting with users and asking questions, or wandering around an office

- Can give a good understanding of input data, processing methods, and output information

- Disadvantage: users may act differently when being observed

- Advantage: analyst can identify inefficiencies and plan to overcome them

- Most insightful method, but can take a lot of time

Document analysis

- Document analysis involves examining existing documents within an organization.

- Examples of output information, input data, and process information can be identified.

- Processes may be identified by examining the documents.

- Document analysis should be used in conjunction with other analysis methods to identify additional data and
processes.

- It's not a standalone method because it does not provide a complete picture of the organization's requirements.

The content of specifications There are three types of specification used within the life cycle.

Requirements specification

- A requirements specification is a contract between the developer and the client.

- The analyst writes the requirements specification in consultation with the client who approves it.

- The requirements specification should include:

- The purpose and main objectives of the system.

- Data that must be output from the system.

- Data that needs to be input to the system, including screens or data collection forms.

- Validation and verification needed for input data.

- Processes that need to take place to convert inputs into outputs or to store data.

- Data that need to be stored.

- Functional requirements such as performance measures.

- Deadlines for each project milestone.

System specification

- System specification lists required software and hardware for the new system.

- Software identification should come first as hardware will depend on the software.
- Only necessary software for the system should be specified.

- Different software may be identified for different users and servers.

- Minimum hardware requirements for running the software can be identified.

- Storage space for system data needs to be considered.

- Higher than minimum hardware specifications may be recommended for system speed.

- Processing power, memory, and external hardware components should be specified based on user requirements.

Design specification

- The design specification is created by the designer and shows how the system will look and work.

- It aims to give users an idea of what the system will look like so that their feedback can be incorporated into the
final designs.

- It includes house style, screen sizes, a connectivity diagram, and the purpose of calculations.

16.2 Design

- During the design stage, the overall structure of the system and details of the system components are designed
without being developed.

- Diagrams can be used to describe how a current system works (during analysis).

- Diagrams can also be used to demonstrate how a new system will work (during design).

System processing

Data flow diagram

A data flow diagram (DFD) shows how data flows throughout a system. It is not about the order of processes, it is
purely about the data flows.
- DFDs can exist at multiple levels

- Level 0 DFD shows the whole system and data flows between system and external entities

- To create level 0 DFD, identify external entities and data flows, not physical objects

- Level 1 DFD shows flow of data within part of a system or whole system if small

- External entities are considered for parts of the system not shown

- Each data flow must be linked to a process before it's stored or passed to external entities

- To create level 1 DFD, identify external entities, data flows, and processes. Data flows can't move directly between
entities or data stores.

System flowchart

- A system flowchart displays the data and process flow within an entire system.

- It demonstrates the relationship between different components of the information system.

- System flowcharts were commonly used during the 1960s and 70s when punched card and magnetic tape were
prevalent, but they are not widely used in modern systems analysis techniques.

- The table illustrates the elements used in a system flowchart.

Creating a system flowchart:

- Identify processes within the system.

- Identify different files to be used.

- Use arrows to connect process to data files.

- Arrow points towards data file if data is being stored and towards the process if data is being retrieved.

- If user input is required, add manual input symbol at the appropriate place with the arrow pointing towards the
process.
- Identify any documents produced by the system and link each with a process with the arrow pointing from the
process to the document.

Data storage

Data dictionaries

- Data dictionary describes how data will be stored in tables within a database.

- Identify field names, data type, field size, and format.

- Identify primary keys and foreign keys, including the names of tables to which the foreign keys link.

- Identify input masks, validation rules, or default values for each field.

- Provide an example of what typical data might look like.

Files

- Design files for importing data with intended layout of data

- Design files generated by system with exported data format

- Specify file type: comma-separated, tab-delimited, etc.

- Specify contents of each column: data type, length, and format

Input forms

- Data collection forms are used to collect data without a computer

- Forms should be designed to collect the required data

- Principles to follow when designing a data collection form:

- Avoid colour

- Include instructions on how to complete the form

- Give clear instructions on where to return the form

- Identify mandatory and optional questions

 - Provide enough space for each answer

- Use tick boxes for multiple-choice questions

- Clearly state how many options can be chosen from a multiple-choice list

- Use consistent fonts

- Avoid cluttering the form with too much information or too many questions

- Ensure font style and size are legible

- Explain the scale for any scales used (e.g., 1-10)

Screen layouts

- A screen can be used for data input or to display information.

- Good design principles include using colour sparingly and appropriately, consistent use of fonts, avoiding clutter,
and ensuring legibility.

- When requiring user input on a screen, include clear instructions, indicate required questions, provide enough
space for each answer, and use appropriate response options (tick boxes, drop-down boxes, option buttons).

- When designing a screen or data collection form, indicate the location of questions and responses, response
options, and layout of information.

Validation routines

- Validation rules should be used to reduce input errors.

- Validation rules are only needed for input data.

- Drop-down boxes should be used instead of lookup validation checks.

- When designing a validation rule, identify the input data, type of validation rule, the rule to be used, and error
message.

- Error messages should be positive and guide the user on how to correct the error.

Checking of data collected by forms

In addition to validation rules, any intended methods for verifying data input such as visual checking, double data
entry or hash control should be specified.

Output reports

The design of output screen layouts follows the same principal as input forms except that there is no need for
instructions or input fields.

Printed copy layouts

When designing a printed copy layout, as well as following the same principles for output reports, consideration
needs to be made to the size of paper that will be used, the size of margins and the intended audience. Printed
copies can often include tabular data.
16.3 Development and testing

- Implementation of the design in order to create the system

- Often referred to as the implementation stage

- The term "development" is now more commonly used instead of "implementation" to avoid confusion.

Test data

- Testing is an essential phase after the development of a system.

- Test data is used to simulate live data and to test the system's ability to handle large amounts of data and different
scenarios.

- There should be enough test data generated to ensure that the system is able to cope under the pressures of large
amounts of data in everyday use.

- Specific types of data are needed to test different scenarios within the software, including validation rules and
queries.

- Records will need to be created where there is data that meets the criteria of the query, does not meet the criteria
of the query, only just meets the criteria of the query and only just fails to meet the criteria of the query.

- A sample set of live data will also be used to test the system under normal conditions.

- End-users typically carry out the testing with a sample of live data, using the data as if they were doing their normal
job, simulating different processes that they would carry out.

Alpha testing and beta testing

Alpha testing:

- Carried out by developers or specialised team of testers before delivering the system to the user.

- Takes place close to the end of development when the application is nearly ready for the user.

- Helps in identifying errors/bugs in the system before delivery.

- Can take a long time as each error found requires repetition of testing and there may be knock-on effects to other
parts of the system.

Beta testing:

- Beta testing involves real customers using the software in a real world environment using real data after alpha
testing has been completed.

- Beta testing is used when software is being made available to a large number of customers and helps to identify
bugs and gather feedback before the final version is released for sale.

- As bugs are found within a beta version, new beta versions will be released for further testing until a final version is
ready for release.

Black box testing and white box testing

Black box testing:

- Select input data and check expected output data against actual output data without any knowledge of what
happens inside the black box.

- Can involve testing the entire system or user testing by intended users or specialist testers.

- No knowledge of programming or system workings required.

- Focuses on ensuring requirements specification is met.

White box testing:

- Involves the same input/output data process but with knowledge of the internal structure and logic of the program.

- Usually done with small program modules by the software developers who coded them.

- They can test pathways not known to black box testers and ensure detailed designs are developed correctly.

- Focuses on detailed design testing.

- White box testing requires knowledge of the internal structure and logic of the program, while black box testing
does not.

- In black box testing, only a limited number of test scenarios are performed, but with white box testing, each
module can be tested in-depth.

- Black box test plans are difficult to design, while with white box testing, test plans can be created for each
calculation, navigation, and input separately.

- White box testing requires skilled testers who understand the code, while black box testing can be carried out by
moderately skilled testers.

The importance of testing and having a testing plan

- Testing is necessary to find and rectify errors in a system.

- A test plan is used to minimize errors and ensure all pathways through a system and types of data have been
tested.

- A test plan identifies all tests needed for every element of a system, including different types of test data such as
valid, invalid, and extreme.

- The plan covers all user requirements and provides a systematic outline of all features and functionality.

- A good test plan is continually updated to reflect new risks and ensures all aspects of testing are considered and
signed off.

- Each test in the plan is numbered and includes the type of test, input data, expected result, and space to record the
actual result.

- Calculations in the system are also tested, with each input for a calculation identified and an expected result
determined.

16.4 Implementation

- Implementation has two meanings within the system life cycle:

- The development stage where the design is implemented

- The installation of the system

- Four methods of implementing a new system:

- Parallel

- Plunge (direct)

- Pilot

- Phased

Parallel running

- New and old system run simultaneously

- New system goes live on agreed date but old system still runs

- Data duplicated from old to new system

- New data input into both systems

- Output produced from both systems

- Continues until organization is confident new system is running satisfactorily

- Advantages:

- Less risky as old system still runs in case new system fails

- Accuracy of new system can be tested against old system

- Disadvantages:

- Duplication of data input leads to additional staffing costs

- Additional hardware may be needed causing space issues

- Data may be input differently in both systems leading to data inconsistency.

Direct changeover

- Also known as plunge

- Old system is stopped and new system is started on a specific date

- No overlap between the two systems

- Data must be transferred from the old system to the new system before the new system can be used

Advantages:

- Cheaper to implement because there is no duplication of work.

- Consistent data usage as only one system is used at a time.

- No need for compatibility between the old and new system.

Disadvantages:

- Risky as any errors can lead to system failure without a fallback.

- Requires advance training for all users, which could result in forgetting what they have learned by the time they
start using the new system.
Phased implementation

- New system introduced one part at a time

- Suitable for large systems with separated functionality

- Old system runs until agreed date

- Part of the old system retired and part of the new system starts running

- Cycle repeats until complete new system is fully running.

- Advantages:

- Errors will only affect the part of the system that has changed over.

- End users can be trained in each phase of the new system before moving on to the next.

- Disadvantages:

- Delays may occur waiting for each phase to be running successfully.

- Users may get confused using two different systems.

- Both systems need to be compatible for data to be used across both.

Pilot implementation

- Pilot implementation involves introducing the new system to a smaller group of users while the rest of the
organization continues to use the old system.

- The pilot group effectively beta-tests the new system and may provide training to the rest of the organization when
the system goes live.

- This approach is useful when a system is complex or has a significant impact on an organization's operations.

- Once the pilot group has successfully used the new system for an agreed period, the organization can then decide
to roll out the system to the rest of the organization.

- Advantages:

- Errors only affect the pilot group.

- Errors found by the pilot group can be fixed before the system is installed for all users.

- Pilot group can train other users on how to use the system.

- Disadvantages:

- Slower method of changeover.

- Users in the pilot group may not be happy about using the new system while it still has errors.

- Users not in the pilot group may be disgruntled about not being offered the opportunity to try the new software
first.

- Old and new systems need to be compatible for data to be shared between pilot and old system users.

16.5 Documentation
Technical documentation

- Technical documentation is an overview of the system's structure, function and how it was put together.

- Includes a data dictionary, programming code, macros, and a list of variables with their datatypes and purpose.

- Lists validation rules, calculation purpose, buttons, links, files, flowcharts, and other diagrams.

- Includes an installation guide, testing results, backup routines, and security settings.

- Lists software and hardware requirements.

User documentation

- User documentation is a guide for the end-users of a system

- Can be in electronic or printed format

- Includes the name of the system, software and hardware requirements, and page numbers

- Main part is instructions on how to use the system with screenshots and bulleted/numbered tasks

- Includes a glossary of technical terms and troubleshooting section with common problems and solutions

- Has an index at the end with page numbers for popular terms.

Why technical and user documentation is needed

Technical documentation:

- Needed for future maintenance

- Explains how the system was developed and configured

- Important for new maintenance team or original team to remember system structure

User documentation:

- Needed for users to learn how to use the system

- Includes troubleshooting section for users to understand and fix errors

- Helps users look up how certain features work

16.6 Evaluation

- After system development and installation, the process is evaluated through a review.

- The evaluation considers how project teams and end-users worked together to learn from the project.

- Users are given questionnaires and specific tasks to complete to assess their satisfaction with the new system.

- The system is assessed against user requirements, efficiency, and ease of use.

- Feedback is collected from users regarding their experience with the system.

- Suggestions for future improvements or additions to the system are collected from users.

16.7 Maintenance
Perfective maintenance

- Perfective maintenance aims to improve a system even if it's already working fine

- New ideas and technology can be used to enhance the system

- If a system isn't improved for a long time, it can become outdated and inefficient

- Users' ideas for improving the system should be considered

- An example is an online accounts application that needs to store details of multiple contacts for each customer to
send invoice payment reminders to the right person.

Adaptive maintenance

- Adaptive maintenance is necessary for systems to adapt to changes, both internal and external to an organization.

- It may involve complying with new legislation or adapting to new technology such as an operating system or web
browser.

- The system needs to be updated to ensure compliance with new laws and to prevent producing incorrect outputs.

- For example, an online accounts application had to be updated to check all employee payslips for pension
payments, and accounting software needed to be adapted to display a paper clip symbol on a new web browser.

Preventative maintenance

- Purpose: Prevent system problems

- Application: Both hardware and software

- Methods:

- Clean dust regularly to prevent blockages

- Scan storage media to ensure proper function

- Monitor heat levels to prevent hardware failure

- Check consistency and integrity of data regularly

- Monitor system performance for efficient processor, memory, and storage usage

- Benefits: Avoid system downtime

Corrective maintenance

- Purpose: Correct errors or bugs in the system

- Responsibility: Original developers, although maintenance may be performed by others

- Importance: Ensure efficient and accurate system performance and produce desired results for the organization

- Effects of bugs: Slow or crash the system, frustrate users, reduce productivity

- Example: Graphics application intermittently stopped responding, requiring corrective maintenance.

How maintenance is carried out

- Methodology for software maintenance similar to SDLC

- Many ways to carry out software maintenance

- Maintenance process model is widely used

- Maintenance needs to follow similar stages as software development to ensure efficiency and accuracy in the
system.

- Three approaches to forming a maintenance team: separating development and maintenance, combined approach,
and functional approach.

- Maintenance process model stages: identification and tracing, analysis, design, implementation, system testing,
acceptance testing, and delivery.

- Impact analysis is necessary to identify the risks and resources required for the change and a cost-benefit analysis
of the change.

- Reverse-engineering is necessary when original specifications are unavailable.

- Program restructuring may involve rewriting the program in a different programming language or restructuring the
way modules are used within a program.

- Version control is necessary for documenting changes to ensure efficient maintenance management.

16.8 Prototyping

- A prototype is a primitive form of software solution used during the design stage to demonstrate how a system will
look and work.
- It is focused on the user interface rather than data structures.

- It is used so that the client can get a feel for the new system before it is developed and can provide feedback that
can then be acted upon.

- The client can compare the prototype against the requirements specification.

- It provides the client an opportunity to explain their requirements more clearly having seen the designer's
interpretation.

Incremental prototyping

- This type of prototyping is iterative

- Requirements are specified

- An initial prototype is developed

- The prototype is reviewed and requirements are clarified

- The prototype is improved based on feedback

- Each prototype builds upon the previous one and includes more functionality

- Only clearly understood requirements are developed at each stage

- Each prototype can be functional and used by the client until the next iteration

- End users may request enhanced or new features during development

Evolutionary prototyping

- Evolutionary prototyping is an iterative approach to software development.

- There is no requirements specification at the start of the project, but a goal or aim might be present.

- The analyst and developer brainstorm ideas and then the developer starts working on the best ideas while the
analyst talks to the customer to clarify their needs.

- After a few days, the developer demonstrates their work to the analyst who then discusses it with the customer to
get more clarification on their needs.

- The process continues as the product evolves from a goal to a usable piece of software.

- This approach is often used by start-ups or when new ideas are being experimented with.

Throwaway/rapid prototyping

- Outcome of prototype: discarded, not part of final software

- Purpose: get tangible prototype to client quickly for feedback on requirements

- Benefits: cost-effective way to fine-tune requirements early in process, avoids costly changes later

- Focus: user interface

- Simulation: simulated working interface for client testing and experience

The advantages and disadvantages of prototyping

Advantages:

- Problems can be identified early in the process and modifications can be made before it becomes costly to make
changes.

- Requirements can be clarified and refined following feedback on the prototypes.

- End users can be more involved in the process, giving them more ownership and providing valuable feedback.

- If the prototype is evolutionary, users can get used to parts of the system before having to use the whole system,
reducing the need for bulk training.

- Changes are cheaper to make earlier in the process than after real development has taken place.

- Developers will have a better understanding of what users expect, resulting in a better quality solution.

Disadvantages:

- Requirements analysis can be rushed, resulting in prototypes not reflecting users' expectations.

- Prototypes can become rushed and have significant design flaws or structural errors that carry through to the end
solution.

- Users may request too many features, leading to disappointment if they can't be funded (feature creep).

- Users may have false expectations of the timescale required to turn a prototype into a working solution.

- The iterative process of feedback can sometimes last too long.

- The initial costs of developing a prototype are high compared to traditional designs.

16.9 Methods of software development

Types of development

- Software development has two main categories: incremental development and iterative development.

- Incremental development is about developing the software in phases, moving onto the next part only after the
current part is fully developed and improved based on feedback.

- Iterative development involves planned rework throughout the project, with feedback from the customer used to
make improvements. The solution is built in small parts, with improvements made after each part is built.

- Incremental development is like a landscape artist painting a house and then a tree, perfecting each object before
moving on to the next.

- Iterative development is like a landscape artist sketching the whole landscape, adding background color to all parts,
adding details to all parts, and revisiting and changing the picture until satisfied with the final version.

Development methodologies

Waterfall method

- The waterfall method is an iterative development model that starts with gathering all the user requirements at the
beginning of the project.

- During the design stage, the interface and structure of the system are designed, and during implementation, the
system is developed, which often involves programming.

- The verification phase is to ensure that the project meets the customer’s requirements.
- As each stage starts, changes may need to be made to the previous stage as a result of user feedback or lessons
learned during that stage, making it an iterative model.

- The waterfall method is fundamentally flawed as it relies on the unrealistic expectation that requirements will be
clearly defined.

- The system life cycle discussed in this chapter is based on the waterfall model, and there are many variations in
existence.

Advantages:

- Structured and controllable project management.

- Simple model to understand and use.

- Works well for projects with clear and unlikely to change requirements.

- Well-documented process and resulting software.

- Set timescale and budget remove uncertainty.

- Clear requirements used to measure project success.

Disadvantages:

- Customer only sees the product at the end.

- Hard to measure progress within stages.

- Not suitable for complex projects with unclear requirements.

- Emphasis on planning and documentation leads to longer project delivery times.

- Limited client involvement can result in unmet expectations.

- Doesn't accommodate changes to requirements.

Agile

- Agile approach responds to changing requirements throughout the development life cycle and values individuals
and interactions over processes and tools

- Collaboration with the customer underpins the whole project with customer collaboration over contract
negotiation

- Iterative approach with each iteration including planning, design, development, and testing of part of the software,
and a working solution is ready at the end of each iteration

- Team members including designers, developers, and testers are expected to be located in the same place, and a
customer representative is included in each team

- Daily 'scrum' is a briefing session where each team member reports their work and plan for their next stage of
development

- Pair programming is a technique used in agile development, where two programmers work together at the same
computer

- Agile is both iterative and incremental with each iteration incrementing the existing functionality and being
iterative in nature.

Advantages:

- Quick delivery of completed software parts, enabling adaptation of requirements

- Constant interaction between customer, designers, developers, and testers

- Ability for evolving business needs

- Unlimited access to customer

- No complicated bureaucracy delaying decision making

- Flexible budget and timescale

- Early deployment of software parts

- Quick fixing of bugs and problems

Disadvantages:

- Difficulty in predicting cost and duration due to changing requirements

- Risk of going off track with excessive requirement changes

- Need for experienced senior programmers to make quick decisions

- Minimal documentation may lead to longer learning curve for new team members

- Projects may seem never-ending

- Uncertainty for clients with no fixed budget or timescale

- Disjointed software due to separate iteration development.

Rapid application development

- Rapid application development (RAD) uses prototyping for system development in less than six months

- Focus groups gather requirements instead of traditional approach

- Users are involved in prototyping and provide feedback

- Joint application development (JAD) involves user jointly with developer in system development

- Less time on planning and design, more emphasis on development

- Strict deadlines allocated through time boxes for each requirement

- Reuse existing modules instead of developing from scratch

- Software frameworks used for complex graphical user interface

- RAD is incremental, each timebox delivers specific functionality

- Timeboxes can be developed in parallel.

Advantages:

- High user involvement results in a solution that is suitable for end-users.

- Evolutionary approach enables requirements to evolve and prevents overambitious requirements.

- Strict deadlines prevent feature creep and ensure project completion on time.

- Prototyping with user involvement results in less time spent on design and more on development, leading to a
shorter project.

- Software application frameworks allow for quick UI development with user involvement.
Disadvantages:

- Unclear requirements may result in a solution that does not meet all organizational needs.

- User involvement can lead to work overload or the need for temporary staff.

- Focus on UI can compromise the structure of the system, leading to instability.

- Strict deadlines may lead to rushed project parts and lower quality.

- Existing software modules may not provide sufficient functionality for the system.

- Software application frameworks produce inefficient code, resulting in slower running systems.

- Users not involved in JAD may feel left out, and the system may not meet their specific needs.