Aranega-Bou, P., Leyva, M. d. l. O., Finiti, I., García‐Agustín, P., & González-Bosch, C.

(2014). Priming of plant resistance by natural compounds. hexanoic acid as a model. Frontiers
in Plant Science, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00488

Plant defense mechanisms:

1. Preexisting structure
2. Induced after the recognition of the pathogen
- Hypersensitive response!

SYSTEMIC RESISTANCE
1. Systemic Acquired Resistance:
- Locally activated -> locally production of hormones by the infection of the plant
by pathogens!
2. Induced Systemic Resistance:
- Could be activated by beneficial mo that are able to induce priming JA/ET
defenses
- Instead of pathogens, we have BENEFICIAL BACTERIA
- Plant is activating a response towards beneficial bacteria ( rhizobacter,
tricoderma etc.) and some molecules (volatile organic compounds, azelaic acid
etc)
- BABA (Beta amino butiric acid) is able to stimulate the priming state
- In comparison of priming state and direct defense, it is visible that in priming, it
gets activated when there is an infection but in direct defense, even if there are
no infection, the genes are already upregulated.
- BTH (benzo(1,2,3)thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester), also known as
acibenzolar-S-methyl, is a synthetic chemical that is often used in plant defense
as an inducer of systemic acquired resistance (SAR). In the context of direct
defense and plant systemic resistance, BTH acts as an activator or enhancer of
the plant's own defense mechanisms.
- When applied to plants, BTH stimulates the production of defense-related genes
and proteins, such as pathogenesis-related proteins (PR proteins), that are
involved in plant defense against pathogens. BTH can activate various signaling
pathways, including the salicylic acid (SA) pathway, which is a key pathway
associated with SAR.
- By inducing these defense responses, BTH can enhance the plant's ability to resist
pathogen attacks and provide long-lasting protection against a wide range of
pathogens, even beyond the initial site of application. BTH activates direct
defense mechanisms in plants, helping to prime and prepare the plant for
effective response against pathogenic infections.
-  BTH activates salicylic acid pathway, which inhibits other two pathways
( JA/ET)
 The salicylic acid pathway, activated by BTH, can inhibit two other
pathways: the jasmonic acid (JA) pathway and the ethylene (ET)
pathway. These two pathways are key signaling pathways involved
in plant defense responses against different types of stresses,
 including insect attacks, wounding, and some necrotrophic
pathogens.
 When the salicylic acid pathway is activated, it can cross-
communicate with the JA and ET pathways, leading to an
antagonistic interaction. This means that the activation of the
salicylic acid pathway can suppress or interfere with the signaling
and response pathways associated with JA and ET.
 By inhibiting the JA and ET pathways, the salicylic acid pathway
helps to prioritize and enhance the plant's defense response
against pathogens that are more effectively controlled by salicylic
acid-mediated defenses, particularly biotrophic pathogens and
some viruses.
 It's important to note that while the salicylic acid pathway
generally inhibits the JA and ET pathways, there can be crosstalk
and complexity in the actual interactions depending on the specific
plant species, the type of pathogen, and the environmental
conditions.

Callose is a defence molecule which is able to undergo alterations as response to plant

defense mech.

1. Increased Callose Deposition: Plants actively deposit callose in the cell walls of affected
cells as a defense response to pathogen invasion. This increased deposition strengthens the
cell walls, acting as a physical barrier that hinders the spread of pathogens.

2. Pore Formation: In certain cases, pathogens may secrete enzymes to break down cell walls
and gain access to nutrients or spread throughout the plant. To counteract this, plants can
deposit callose around the infected area, forming pore-like structures called papillae. These
papillae help seal off the pathogen entry points and restrict its movement.

3. Plugging Sieve Tubes: In response to specific pests or vascular pathogens, callose can be
produced and deposited in sieve tubes, which are part of the plant's phloem tissue. This
deposition blocks the sieve tubes, preventing the movement of pests or pathogens along the
phloem and limiting their overall spread within the plant.

4. Closure of Plasmodesmata: Plasmodesmata are channels that connect neighboring plant

cells, enabling communication and transport of various molecules. During pathogen attack,
callose can be synthesized and deposited around plasmodesmata, closing off these channels.
This closure restricts the movement of pathogens from one cell to another, helping to
contain the infection.

The alteration of callose composition and its deposition patterns play a crucial role in
reinforcing plant defense mechanisms against pathogens, providing structural support, and
regulating cell-to-cell communication during stress and defense responses.
Mechanisms of priming:
1. Slight gene upregulation
2. Accumulation of inactive kinases and/or slight kinase pre-activation
3. Epigenetic DNA Modification

- Abiotic stresses effects plants to react to pathogens. The efficacy of the defence
system is limited in these conditions. Even if you treat the plant under the abiotic
stress, in terms of induced defence, plant doesn’t respond. RESPONSIVENESS
DECREASES.
- How long is the persistance of priming method?
o Priming mediated by epigenetic is long lasting but other activations are
not that persistant. The efficacy of responses are visible if the state is
active for at least 7 days.

VOCs in plant insect interactions:

- They are used by insects to recognizes the target plants.
Mechanism of action of vocs against pathogens:
1. Direct inhibition of pathogen growth
- Absorption of vocs by the plant cuticle and display of antimicrobial activity.
2. Induction of plant resistance
- Released by a plant, carried by wind etc. And effected another plant.

When resistant plants are infected with a fungal pathogen, they synthesize voc. And
susceptible cultivars exposed to these vocs that are released by resistant cultivar, suppress
fungal disease. This process is useful for the activation of priming state.
 Long distance signals in plant defense:
- Salicylic acid and Jasmonic acid are the key hormones of plant defense that are
REVERSIBLY CONVERTED TO VOCs. Volatile signals act at long distances to elicit
defence in healthy tissues of the same plant or neighboring plants. It can occur
among species either.
- Salicylic acid methyl salicylate
- Jasmonic acid methyl jasmonate

Communication mediated by vocs !!!???!!

Trans-2-pentenal is an antimicrobial vocs which is a side compound of lipid metabolism

In an experiment that is conducted on a splitted petri dish, it has been shown that both sides
are effected by each other with volatile organic compounds.

VOCs produced by resistans can reduce disease severity in susceptibles

VOCs produced by beneficial prganisms such as Trichoderma can reduce disease severity
Vocs can directly inhibit plant pathogens and can display antifungal diseases
Vocs (terpenoids) can activate plant resistance mechs and can prime plants for enhanced
defense against pathogens such as defense genesi antibicrobial agents callose etc.

VOC mediated inhibition of plant pathogens:

- Interfering with the membrane of the plant.

Heil M, Ton J. Long-distance signalling in plant defence. Trends Plant Sci. 2008
Jun;13(6):264-72. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2008.03.005. Epub 2008 May 17. PMID:
18487073.

Mechanism of VOC- Mediated Resistance induction

- Adsorption by the leaf cuticle and direct antimicrobial effects
- Activation of plant………

How do plants sense volatiles sent by other plants?

Loreto F, D'Auria S. How do plants sense volatiles sent by other plants? Trends Plant Sci.
2022 Jan;27(1):29-38. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2021.08.009. Epub 2021 Sep 17. PMID:
34544607.

 Calcium signaling in the plant response to VOCs

 Possible VOC applications