7-1 OPERATING STATES As first suggested by Dy Liacco,®° fiepending on its condition, a power system may be operated in several different states. Fink and Carlsen" clarified further this concept and proposed the state transition diagram shown in Fig. 7-1 For more than 99 percent of the time, a typical system is found in its normal state. In this state the frequency and bus voltages are kept at prescribed values. As we shall see later this frequency and voltage constancy results from a carefully maintained balance between the real and reactive power demanded by the loads and those supplied by the real and reactive power sources This match or “equality” between generation and demand is a fundamental prerequisite for system “normalcy” and is indicated by the symbol E in Fig. 7-1. The second symbol, 1, indicates that certain “inequalities” must also be ob- served in the “normal” state, For example, generator and transformer loads must not exceed the rated values and transmission lines must not be loaded above their thermal or static stability limits. Ed Normal | Restarts | Preventive load pickup I control er zd Restorative Alert Emergence } nesynchronization 1 pens y eat E71 Extremis EmergencyThe normal state must also be characterized by a certain level of security which requires a certain margin of generation in the form of spinning reserve. Should the generating margin fall below some threshold or should a distur- bance be deemed imminent then the security level is reduced and the system enters the alert state. However, all equalities (£) and inequalities (I) are still observed, and the system still operates fully synchronized and—with luck— could continue to do so for any length of time. However, one would now initiate preventive control actions to restore proper generation margin and/or eliminate disturbances so as to return the system to its normal state. If preventive control fails or if a sufficiently severe disturbance occurs, the system on occasion will enter the emergency state. Actually, this state can be reached either directly from the normal state or via the alert state. In the emer- gency state the generation still tracks the load and the system is still syn- chronized (symbol E unchanged). But one or several components are now overloaded (note the negation of symbol I} and as these components eventually fail, the system will- start to disintegrate. It is most urgent that the system be returned to the normal (or alert) state by means of emergency control actions, ix. disconnection of faulted section, rerouting of power or, if everything else fails, load shedding. If emergency control actions should fail the system will go into the extremis state, ie. disintegrating into sections or islands. Some of these islands may contain sufficient generation to meet the load. Typically, however, the generators will be strained beyond their capacities. Note that both E and J are negated in this state, We never tolerate generator overload and in this state we will therefore see considerable generator tripping, maybe to the point of total blackout. The chain of events that will transfer the system from “normal” to “extremis” may typically last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. To bring it back to normal, ie. going through the restorative stare, is a much slower process, lasting hours, sometimes days. A large steam turbine that has been shut down requires many hours for restart. Lost loads can be picked up only gradually and resynchronization of operating islands is likewise a slow undertaking. |5.5 EMS Functions To achieve high power system security the control room should have data collection system and computerised power system security analysis program software. Such system are called Energy Management Systems (EMS). An EMS generally has a Centralized Digital Computer System connected to Remote Terminal Units (RTU) via communication channels. “The ability ofa power system to operate in normal state even with occurrence of specified contingencies is called power system security”. Another definition of powersystem security is, “the ability of the power system to keep operating in stable condition during and after specified failures without cascade tripping and overall blackout” The control room operator takes various types of actions to maintain adequate power system security. These actions are given in table 5.1. ‘Action by Operator Variables to be adjusted Generation commitment Generation on / off status Generation dispatch Generation MW output schedule Generator bus voltage Unitexciter setting Network configuration Substation circuit breaker Open / Close Load Shedding Distribution feeder CB On-load tap changing transformer | Tap position Phase shift transformer Tap position Tie line system interchange Interchange Schedule Table 5.1: Actions by control room operator for maintaining power system security 5.5.1 Security Monitoring System monitoring provides the operator of the power system with pertinent up-to- date information on the current conditions of the power system. Power system monitoring is essential part of maintaining system: security. The security monitoring functions are given in Table 5.2‘S.No.| Function Function performed 1. | Dataacquisition | To process message from RTUs To check analogue measurements against limits. To check status values against normal value. To send alarm conditions to alarm processor. 2. | Alarm Processor | To send alarm messages. To transmit messages according to priority 3. | Status Processor | To determine status of each substation for proper connection. Reservemonitor | Tocheck generator MW output on all units against unt limits. 5. | Stateestimator | To determine system state variables. To detect presence of bad measured values To identify location of bad measurements To initialize network model for other application programs. Table 5.2: Security Monitoring Functions ‘The function of security monitoring system is shown in figure 5.5. The telemetrec data such as breaker position etc. which are received as electrical signals are processec by the state estimator, Network equivalent of Network equivalent of un observation system un observation system Breaker stat Telemetering| eee Security constraints Electrical measurements | State estimator List of contingencies Alarms: Displays Corrective action Figure 5.5: Organisation of steady state security monitor‘The output of state estimator (i.c., best estimates) are given to security monitor. Other datas such as contingencius to be evaluated and security constraints are also fed to security monitor. The security monitor analysis these datas with the help of load flow techniques. Thus the informations and situations are tackled in real time. 5.6 State Estimation State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state valuable based on measurements from that system according to some criteria. Usually in some process the measurement will be imperfect and not accurate. The process of estimating the system states is based ofa statistical criterion that estimates the true value of the state variable to minimise the selected criterion. Acommonly used criterion is that of minimizing the sum of the squares of the differences between the estimated and “true” values of a function. Ina power system, the state variables are the voltage magnitudes and relative phase angles at the system nodes. Measurements are required in order to estimate the system performance in real time for both system security control and constrains on economic dispatch. “The Inputs to the state estimatorare imperfect power system measurements of voltage magnitudes and power, VAR, or ampere-flow quantities. The estimator is designed to produce the best estimate of the system voltage and phase angler recognizing that there are errors in the measured quantities and that there may be redundant measurements. The ‘output data are then used in system control centers in the implementation of security constrained dispatch & control of the system. 5.7 Security Analysis Security analysis is the study about various possible outages occurs in a power system. Security analysis can be accomplished by three basic ways: ) The powersystemis studied with approximate but very fast algorithms. ii) Only the important cases are selected for detailed analysis. ii) A computer system made with multiple processor or vector processorsis used to gain speed. Security analysis can be done by employing linear sensitivity method (D.C. power flow method) and AC power flowmethod.Linear sensitivity method This approach desires an approximate analysis of the effect of each outage. The quick calculation of possible overloads is made by using linear sensitivity factors. This factor shows the approximate change in line flows for chances in generation on the network configuration. Linear sensitivity factor is basically come down into two types ’) Generation shift factor ii) Line outage distribution factor. Generation shift factor (a,) Itis given by the following definition. Af, AP, where Af be the change in MW power flow on line I when a change in generation AP, occurs at bus i AP, be the change in generation at bus i ‘Thus the new power flow on each line in the network can be calculated using a precalculated set of ‘a’ factors as follows: f | +a, AP, where f° is the flow on line lafter the generator on busi fails f,_ isthe flow before the failure. The outage flow f, oneach line is compared to its limit and those exceeding their limit flagged for alarming, Line outage distribution factor (d,,) Af, d,, isgivenby, di. where d,, is the line outage distribution factor when monitoring line l after an outage onlinek. Af, change in Mw flow on line {,° original flow on line k before it was outdated (opened)‘The flow on line | when line k out is found by, fP=f +d, f where ff; are the preoutage flows on line | and k respectively. By pre-calculating the line outage distribution factors, all the lines in the network are tested the overload condition for the outage ofa particular line. ‘Thus by linear sensitivity method, are can study the possible outage ina powersystem network. Limitations of this method: * Only branch branch MW flows are calculated * And the calculated MW fake values are within about 5% accuracy. * There is no knowledge of MVAR flows or bus voltage magnitudes. ‘The flow chart of security Analysis by de power flow method using linear sensitivity factor is given below as shown in figure 5.6. Start (Base power in Read sysiam generator & ines ) | _conditions a initial Calculate ai Checking all lines for overload after generator outage Checking of al lines Calculate F=f an? {for overload after iF line outage Check whethar lime |.No__ [Alan flow with intimits_ [| displa Yes.AC power flow method In some systems like underground cables, VAR flows predominates. Only the MW flows will not be adequate to indicate overloads. Thus AC power flow method is incorporated for security analysis. In this method, the knowledge of MVA flows and bus voltage magnitude after a contingency outage is determined. ‘The simplest AV security analysis procedure consists of running an AC power flow analysis for each possible generator, transmission line and transformer outage as shown in the flowchart. This procedure will determine the overload, and voltage limit violations accurately. ‘The major drawback of this method is the total time taken to test all outages of the network can be two long. List of possible outages os Pick an outage from the list & remove that component ¥ Run an AC power fiow on the] current model Test for overloads and voltage limit isolations Is limit violated,