Surveying II CEng chapter Seven …

CHAPTER SEVEN
Introduction to Geographic Information System (GIS)
7.1 Overview of GIS
Geographic – location in space
Information - provide further insight into a given location
System – a seamless operation linking the information to the geography – which requires hardware,
networks, software, data, and operational procedures
Geographic/Geospatial Information is the information about places on the earth’s surface. It is the
knowledge about “what is where and when”. The words geographic and geospatial is synonymous.
Then in GIS--what’s in the S? It can be:-
 Systems: the technology,
 Science: the concepts and theory or
 Studies: the societal context.
Considering GIS as Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as Software systems with capability
for input, storage, manipulation/analysis and output/display of geographic (spatial) information.
GPS and RS are sources of input data for a GIS. A GIS provides the capabilities for storing and
manipulating GPS and RS data.
Briefly we can describe GIS as Geographic Information -----
a) Systems:- technology for the acquisition and management of spatial information
b) Science:- comprehending the underlying conceptual issues of representing data and
processes in space-time. Describe the theory and concepts behind the technology
c) Studies:- understanding the social, legal and ethical issues associated with the
application of GISystem and GIScience
Basic Definitions
GIS is defined in different ways by different authors in their books, it can be defined as a tool
box “a powerful set of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and displaying
spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes" (Burrough, 1986, p. 6).
As a computer based system "a computer based system that provides four sets of capabilities to
handle geo-referenced data:
 data input
 data management (data storage and retrieval)
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 manipulation and analysis

 _ data output. " -- Aronoff (1989)
In the information system point of view we can define GIS as:
"An information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geographic
coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for
spatially-referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working with the data" (Star and
Estes, 1990, p. 2).
And another definitions describes it as "automated systems for the capture, storage, retrieval,
analysis, and display of spatial data." (Clarke, 1995, p. 13).
Capability of GIS
A GIS can answer five generic questions for any application. They are:
A. Location: The question seeks to find about the particular location. Location can be described
in many ways such as place name, post code etc. The answer to this question tells us about
the location of any particular object in terms of XY coordinates or latitude/ longitude even
sometimes in the form of an address with place name and post code.
B. Condition: The answer to this question informs where the certain enlisted conditions are
satisfied. (e.g., an un-forested section of at-least 2000 square meters in size, within 100
meters of road, and with soils suitable for supporting buildings).
C. Trends: This question seeks to find out what has changed since? And the answer find
noticeable difference incurred within a particular time period (e.g. in land use/land cover).
D. Pattern: It is about various spatial patterns, which exist. GIS answer this logical question by
giving information about the distribution of spatial features and reasons behind that
distribution. To determine whether an occurrence is caused by its spatial location or
proximity to a certain feature (e.g., whether landslides are mostly occurring near streams).
The task might be just as important to know how many anomalies are there those do not fit
the pattern and where they are located.
E. Modeling: It is about hypothetical problems, what if …? To determine what happens if
something is changed or something occurs (e.g., if a new road is added to a network or if a
toxic substance seeps into the local ground water supply), answering this type of question
requires both geographic and other information (as well as specific models).
In short GIS helps us in
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_Better information management _ Ability to carry out “what if?” scenarios

_Improve project efficiency _Higher quality analysis
Components of a GIS
A GIS can be divided into five components: People, Data, Hardware, Software, and Procedures/
Methods. All of these components need to be in balance for the system to be successful. No one
part can run without the other. A working GIS integrates these five key components

[1]. Hardware
The general hardware component of a geographical information system is the computer or central
processing unit. It is linked to a disk drive storage unit, which provides space for storing data and
programs. A digitizer, scanner and other device is used to convert data from maps and documents
into digital form and send them to computer. A digitizer board is a flat board used for vectorization
of any map object. A plotter or other kind of display device is used to present the result of the data
processing and a tape device is used for storing data or programs on magnetic tape.
Canver defines GIS hard ware as follows:
“Hardware consists of the technical equipment needed to run a GIS including a computer system
with enough power to run the software, enough memory to store large amounts of data, and input
and output devices such as scanners, digitizers, GPS data loggers, media disks, and printers.”
(Carver, 1998)
Today, GIS runs on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to desktop
computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations.
In short we can conclude
 Hard ware consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run.
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 Made up of a configuration of core and peripheral equipment used for acquisition, storage,
analysis, and display of geographic information.
 The computer forms the backbone of the GIS hardware, the heart of which is the Central
Processing Unit (CPU).
[2]. Software
GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic
information. The GIS software includes the programs and the user interface for driving the hardware.
GIS software is essential to generate, store, analyze, manipulate and display geographic information
or data. A good GIS software requires user friendliness, functionalities, compatibilities, updatability,
documentation, cost effectiveness.
Key software components are
o a database management system (DBMS)
o tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information
o tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization
o a graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools
There are many different GIS software packages available today. All packages must be capable of
data input, storage, management, transformation, analysis, and output, but the appearance, methods,
resources, and ease of use of the various systems may be very different. Today’s software packages
are capable of allowing both graphical and descriptive data to be stored in a single database, known
as the object-relational model. Before this innovation, the geo-relational model was used. In this
model, graphical and descriptive data sets were handled separately. The modern packages usually
come with a set of tools that can be customized to the user’s needs (Lo, 2002).
[3]. People
The people are the component who actually makes the GIS work. GIS technology has limited value
without the people who manage the system and develop plans for applying it to real world problems.
GIS user range from technical specialists who design and maintain the system to those who use it to
help them perform their everyday work.
They include a plethora of positions including GIS managers, database administrators, application
specialists, systems analysts, and programmers. They are responsible for maintenance of the
geographic database and provide technical support. People also need to be educated to make
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decisions on what type of system to use. People associated with a GIS can be categorized into:
viewers, general users, and GIS specialists.
 Viewers are the public at large whose only need is to browse a geographic database for
referential material. These constitute the largest class of users.
 General Users are people who use GIS to conducting business, performing professional
services, and making decisions. They include facility managers, resource managers,
planners, scientists, engineers, lawyers, business entrepreneurs, etc.
 GIS specialists are the people who make the GIS work. They include GIS managers, database
administrators, application specialists, systems analysts, and programmers. They are
responsible for the maintenance of the geographic database and the provision of technical
support to the other two classes of users. (Lo, 2002)
The identification of GIS specialist's vs. end users is often critical to the proper implementation of
GIS technology. This is what called 'brain ware' which is equally important as the Hardware and
software. Brain ware refers to the purpose and objectives, and provides the reason and justification,
for using GIS.
[4]. Procedure / Methods
A successful GIS operates according to a well-designed plan and business rules, which are the
models and operating practices unique to each organization.
[5]. Data
Data is the most important component of a GIS. Geographic data and related tabular data can be
collected in house, compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or purchased from a
commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources, often
stored in a DBMS. The integration of spatial and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality
afforded by GIS.
The data may be geographic/spatial or tabular/attribute data
Attribute data/Non spatial data:
Attribute data are additional information that describe the characteristics of spatial data or spatial
features. These characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often
referred to as tabular data.
Spatial data:
Spatial data describes the absolute and relative location of geographic features.
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Geographic data can be classified into three types:

 Geodetic control network – foundation of all geographic data; established by high-precision
surveying methods
 Topographic base – result of mapping programs by mapping agencies
 Graphical overlays – thematic data pertaining to specific GIS applications; may be derived from
the topographic base, site investigation, field survey, remote sensing, etc.
Spatial Data Models
The data model represents a set of guidelines to convert the real world (called entity) to the digitally
and logically represented spatial objects consisting of the attributes and geometry.
There are two major types of geometric/Spatial data model
A. Vector data model B. Raster data model

A) Vector data model

Vector data model is a representation of spatial data using mainly three geographic objects, also
referred to as geometric primitives; point, line and area (polygon).

B) Raster Data Models

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Raster model uses regularly spaced grid cells in specific sequence. An element of the grid cell is
called a pixel which contains a single value of attributes. Referred to as tessellations, describe spatial
objects by filling up the space with an array of regular cells. These cells may be squares, (which are
the most commonly used and are referred to as pixels or grid cells), triangles, hexagons, etc.
 Pixel is the smallest indivisible two-dimensional picture element of an image
 Grid cell is a two dimensional object representing a single element of a continuous surface

GIS Data Sources and Feature

The GIS efficiently stores, retrieves, manipulates, analyses and displays these data according to user
defined specifications. The data used in a GIS represented something about the real world at some
point in time. The most cost effective data collection is to collect only the data you need. It is costly
to collect, store and shift through large quantities of unnecessary data. Excess data makes it more
difficult to use the data you really need.
Data acquisition

Data acquisition is a process of obtaining data in a form that can be input to a GIS. It is a critical
phase in Geographic Information System establishment, and the most expensive and time-
consuming phase. The quality of the data to be stored in the database is determined by this phase of
GIS development. Hence many aspects of data quality need to be considered during this phase.

GIS Data Sources and Classifications

Data for a GIS comes from different sources mainly characterized by the type of data, which include:
 Satellite images  Tabular data and
 Map data,  survey and records
 Aerial photographs,
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Sources of both spatial and attribute data for a GIS may either be of a primary or secondary source
Based on their source, geographic data are classified into two kinds:
1. Primary data and 2. Secondary data
The choice of the Primary or Secondary data will be influenced by:
a. The nature of the problem b. The availability of time and money
A. Primary Spatial Data Sources
The primary data sources refer to those that capture raw data for direct input into a GIS. These data
may require pre-processing prior to becoming compatible with a format recognized by GIS software.
Primary data are direct measurements and Primary data collection is necessary when a researcher
cannot find the data needed in secondary sources.
Three basic means of obtaining primary data are:
i. Observation ii. Surveys, and iii. Experiments.
The Primary Data Capture (first-hand collection) techniques are
 Digitizing
 Tablet digitizing, Heads up digitizing and Automatic digitizing
 Census  Remote sensing
 GPS collections  Other point measurements (in text file)
 Aerial photographs

Ground Surveys
Ground based survey techniques using theodolites & EDMs, levels, total stations, etc. are a good
source of accurate primary vector data such as property boundaries and street centred lines.
GPS
A global positioning system (GPS) is a technology for determining the coordinates of locations on
the earth’s surface in real time.
It consists of:
 satellites: send signals to the earth
 receivers: receive signals from satellites
 control stations: operate and manage satellites
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Aerial Photographs
Aerial photographs are photographs taken by airborne cameras. While ground surveys and GPS are
designed mainly for vector data collection, aerial photographs and satellite images are sources of
raster data.
B. Secondary Spatial Data Sources
These are the kind of sources that provide data which already exist in some format but require
conversion into a format recognized by GIS software. Like primary data, may require some form of
pre-processing prior to becoming compatible with a format recognized by GIS software.
 Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes
other than those of our particular research study.
 Secondary data are data derived by processing primary data or other secondary data.
Example
1. If a government department has conducted a survey of, family food expenditures, then a food
manufacturer might use this data in the organisation's evaluations of the total potential market for a
new product.
 It is far cheaper to collect secondary data than to obtain primary data.
 The time involved in searching secondary sources is much less than that needed to complete
primary data collection.
 Secondary data can be extremely useful both in defining the population and in structuring
the sample to be taken.
Secondary data include:
 Existing Paper Maps and Digitized Paper Maps
 Scanned and Processed Images
 Secondary Data Capture (from others)
 Published or released data (originally primary data)
 All primary data from others are secondary data for you and me
 Free data from the government  Commercial data
 Internet map servers  Data from other GIS users
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Sources of non-spatial (attribute) data

Attribute data are the information linked to the geographic features (spatial data) that describe them. That
is, attribute data are the “non-graphic information associated with a point, line, or area elements in a
GIS.”
Sources of descriptive data in a GIS may include
 Conventional documents (registers and files; annual reports)
 Existing digital data from other systems
 Interviews
 Questionnaires, etc.

Functionality of GIS

Basic principles of GIS software: Integrate visual or graphic data in the form of maps, with
descriptive or attribute information form an organization's internal databases, or from
commercially available data. Provides the tools for users to access, visualize, and query both
graphic and tabular data for better analysis and decision making.

A GIS is a computer-based system that provides four sets of capabilities to handle georeferenced
data.

a. Data inputs b. Data management (storage & retrieval)

c. Manipulation and analysis d. Data Output

a) Data Input:

The function of data input to convert data from their existing form into one that can be used by
GIS. Georeferenced data are commonly provided as proper maps, table of attributes and associated
attribute data, aerial photos and satellite imagery.

Digitization: The process of converting the analog information into digital information is called
Digitization. Information on a map can be captured by digitizing each feature. Thus the process of
digitization is which converts the spatial features on a map into digital format. Therefore, point,
line and area features that compose a map are converted into X & Y coordinates; where a single
co-ordinate represents a point and a string of co-ordinates represent a line.

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 Digitization can be done either using digitizing tablet (Head up digitization) or on the screen
digitization using mouse through scanning and can be stored either as scanned image or vector
coverage.

b) Data Storage and Database Management:

The data storage and management are the functions of database management system of GIS. They
are concerned with the way the data is structured, handled, accessed and perceived by the user of
the system. Effective data management includes all related aspect like data security, data integrity,
data filling and accessibility and data maintenance abilities. Data security ensures security against
modification of GIS or access of data to unauthorized use. Data integrity defines the ability of the
system to protect data from accidental loss or from contamination by extraneous data. Filling and
accessibility provides an authorized user to organize data into categories, directories, study area
etc. Data maintenance provides the authorized user with the ability to update, delete or add data to
the GIS database.

Data Processing: Data processing operations are those performed on the data to produce
information. It includes removal of errors and updating or matching them to other data.

c) Manipulation and Analysis:

Data conversion is only part of the input phase of GIS. What is next is the ability to interpret and
to analyze qualitatively and quantitatively the information that has been collected. Spatial analysis
tools are used to model, make predictions and reach conclusion about the problem of interest. Such
analysis involves combining data from multiple spatial data categories and performing
analysis/statistical operations on the GIS datasets to transform the data into information suitable
for a given application.

Typical operation includes overlaying different thematic maps, computing areas, performing
proximity searches, and buffer zone creation; performing logical operations, scale changing etc.
Other techniques are creation of 3D perspective view using elevation data and generation of slope
maps, network analysis, costing etc. Given in brief a few illustrations of some of these techniques.

 Overlay  Proximity Search

 Buffer Generation  Modeling
 Clipping

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d) Data Presentation /Output:

Display and conversion operations produce graphic output and reports such as maps and color
display drawn on a graphic terminal as well as formulated reports of tabular information, where
geographic entities are represented as a series of points, lines and symbols.

Application of GIS

GIS are now used extensively in government, business, and research for a wide range of
applications including environmental resource analysis, land use planning, locational analysis, tax
appraisal, utility and infrastructure planning, real estate analysis, marketing and demographic
analysis, habitat studies, and archaeological analysis.

One of the first major areas of application was in natural resources management, including
management of:

 Wildlife habitat,  Wetlands,

 Wild and scenic rivers,  Agricultural lands,
 Recreation resources,  Aquifers,
 Floodplains,  Forests

One of the largest areas of application has been in facilities management. Uses for GIS in this area
have included:

 Locating underground pipes and cables,  Planning facility maintenance,

 Balancing loads in electrical networks,  Tracking energy use

Local, state, and federal governments have found GIS particularly useful in land management. GIS
has been commonly applied in areas like:

 Zoning and subdivision planning,  Water quality management,

 Land acquisition,  Maintenance of ownership
 Environmental impact policy,
More recent and innovative uses of GIS have used information based on street-networks. GIS has
been found to be particularly useful in:

 Address matching,  Development of evacuation plans.

 Location analysis or site selection,

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