Edexcel AS and A Level Further Mathematics Further Pure Mathematics 1

11 - 19 PROGRESSION
Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics

Further Pure Mathematics 1
Series Editor: Harry Smith
Pearson’s market-leading books are the most trusted resources for Edexcel AS and A level Further
Mathematics.
Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics Further Pure Mathematics 1

This book covers all the content needed for the optional Edexcel AS and A level Further Pure
Mathematics 1 exams.
• Fully updated to match the 2017 specifications, with more of a focus on problem-solving and modelling.
• FREE additional online content to support your independent learning, including full worked solutions
for every question in the book (SolutionBank) and GeoGebra interactives.
• Includes access to an online digital edition (valid for 3 years once activated).
• Includes worked examples with guidance, lots of exam-style questions, practice papers, and plenty of
mixed and review exercises.
Pearson Edexcel AS and A level Mathematics books

Year 1/AS Year 2
line digital
on
ed
n
ludes a
it
ion
inc
Pearson Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics books
Compulsory Options
For more information visit: www.pearsonschools.co.uk/edalevelmaths2017
www.pearsonschools.co.uk
myorders@pearson.com
FP1
1
11 – 19 PROGRESSION
FP1
Authors: Greg Attwood, Ian Bettison, Jack Barraclough, Tom Begley, Lee Cope,
Bronwen Moran, Laurence Pateman, Keith Pledger, Harry Smith, Geoff Staley, Dave Wilkins
F01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PRE_i-vi.indd 1 22/01/2018 18:15

Published by Pearson Education Limited, 80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL.
www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk
Copies of official specifications for all Pearson qualifications may be found on the website:
qualifications.pearson.com
Text © Pearson Education Limited 2018
Edited by Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Typeset by Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead
Original illustrations © Pearson Education Limited 2018
Cover illustration Marcus@kja-artists
The rights of Greg Attwood, Ian Bettison, Jack Barraclough, Tom Begley, Lee Cope, Bronwen Moran,
Laurence Pateman, Keith Pledger, Harry Smith, Geoff Staley, Dave Wilkins to be identified as
authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
First published 2018
21 20 19 18
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978 1292 18335 0 (Print)
ISBN 978 1292 20729 2 (PDF)
Copyright notice
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means
(including photocopying or storing it in any medium by electronic means and whether or not
transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission
of the copyright owner, except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Barnards Inn 86 Fetter Lane, London EC4A 1EN (www.cla.co.uk). Applications for the copyright
owner’s written permission should be addressed to the publisher.
Printed in the UK by Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Acknowledgements
The authors and publisher would like to thank the following for their kind permission to
reproduce their photographs:
(Key: b-bottom; c-centre; l-left; r-right; t-top)
123RF: Destinacigdem 62, 105cr; Alamy Stock Photo: Steve Morgan, 32, 105cl, Kevin Britland 92,
105r; Getty Images: Andrzej Wojcicki/Science Photo Library 01, 105l; Shutterstock: Chaikom 116,
191l, Jag_cz 131, 191cl, SamJonah 149, 191c, Bart Sadowski 161, 191cr, Sky Antonio, 179, 191r
All other images © Pearson Education
A note from the publisher

In order to ensure that this resource offers high-quality support for the associated Pearson
qualification, it has been through a review process by the awarding body. This process confirms
that this resource fully covers the teaching and learning content of the specification or part
of a specification at which it is aimed. It also confirms that it demonstrates an appropriate
balance between the development of subject skills, knowledge and understanding, in addition
to preparation for assessment.
Endorsement does not cover any guidance on assessment activities or processes (e.g. practice
questions or advice on how to answer assessment questions), included in the resource nor does
it prescribe any particular approach to the teaching or delivery of a related course.
While the publishers have made every attempt to ensure that advice on the qualification
and its assessment is accurate, the official specification and associated assessment guidance
materials are the only authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for
definitive guidance.
Pearson examiners have not contributed to any sections in this resource relevant to
examination papers for which they have responsibility.
Examiners will not use endorsed resources as a source of material for any assessment set by
Pearson.
Endorsement of a resource does not mean that the resource is required to achieve this Pearson
qualification, nor does it mean that it is the only suitable material available to support the
qualification, and any resource lists produced by the awarding body shall include this and
other appropriate resources.
Pearson has robust editorial processes, including answer and fact checks, to ensure the
accuracy of the content in this publication, and every effort is made to ensure this publication
is free of errors. We are, however, only human, and occasionally errors do occur. Pearson is not
liable for any misunderstandings that arise as a result of errors in this publication, but it is
our priority to ensure that the content is accurate. If you spot an error, please do contact us at
resourcescorrections@pearson.com so we can make sure it is corrected.
ii

Contents
Contents ● = A level only
Overarching themes iv 5.3 Solving trigonometric equations 122

Extra online content vi ● 5.4 Modelling with trigonometry 124
Mixed exercise 5 127
1 Vectors1
1.1 Vector product 2 ● 6 Taylor series131
1.2 Finding areas 7 ● 6.1 Taylor series 132
1.3 Scalar triple product 11 ● 6.2 Finding limits 135
● 1.4 Straight lines 16 ● 6.3 Series solutions of differential
● 1.5 Solving geometrical problems 20 equations139
Mixed exercise 1 25 Mixed exercise 6 143
2 Conic sections 132 ● 7 Methods in calculus149

2.1 Parametric equations 33 ● 7.1 Leibnitz’s theorem and nth derivatives 150
2.2 Parabolas 35 ● 7.2 L’Hospital’s rule 152
2.3 Rectangular hyperbolas 42 ● 7.3 The Weierstrass substitution 156
2.4 Tangents and normals 45 Mixed exercise 7 158
2.5 Loci 54 8 Numerical methods161
Mixed exercise 2 57 8.1 Solving first-order differential equations
● 3 Conic sections 262 162
● 3.1 Ellipses 63 8.2 Solving second-order differential
equations169
● 3.2 Hyperbolas 65
● 8.3 Simpson’s rule 173
● 3.3 Eccentricity 67
● 3.4 Tangents and normals to an ellipse 74
● 3.5 Tangents and normals to a hyperbola 79 ● 9 Reducible differential equations179
● 3.6 Loci 83 ● 9.1 First-order differential equations 180
Mixed exercise 3 87 ● 9.2 Second-order differential equations 183
● 9.3 Modelling with differential equations 185
4 Inequalities92
4.1 Algebraic methods 93
4.2 Using graphs to solve inequalities 96 Review exercise 2191
● 4.3 Modulus inequalities 99
Mixed exercise 4 102 Exam-style practice: AS198
Review exercise 1105 ● Exam-style practice: A level200
5 The t-formulae116 Answers202

5.1 The t-formulae117
Index241
5.2 Applying the t-formulae to trigonometric
identities120
iii

Overarching themes
Overarching themes
The following three overarching themes have been fully integrated throughout the Pearson Edexcel
AS and A level Mathematics series, so they can be applied alongside your learning and practice.
1. Mathematical argument, language and proof
• Rigorous and consistent approach throughout
• Notation boxes explain key mathematical language and symbols
• Dedicated sections on mathematical proof explain key principles and strategies
• Opportunities to critique arguments and justify methods
2. Mathematical problem solving The Mathematical Problem-solving cycle
• Hundreds of problem-solving questions, fully integrated specify the problem
into the main exercises

• Problem-solving boxes provide tips and strategies interpret results
collect information
• Structured and unstructured questions to build confidence
• Challenge boxes provide extra stretch process and
represent information
3. Mathematical modelling
• Dedicated modelling sections in relevant topics provide plenty of practice where you need it
• Examples and exercises include qualitative questions that allow you to interpret answers in the
context of the model
• Dedicated chapter in Statistics & Mechanics Year 1/AS explains the principles of modelling in
mechanics
Finding your way around the book Access an online

digital edition using
the code at the
front of the book.
Each chapter starts with

a list of objectives
The real world applications
of the maths you are about
to learn are highlighted at
the start of the chapter with
links to relevant questions in
the chapter
The Prior knowledge check

helps make sure you are
ready to start the chapter
iv

Overarching themes
A level content is
clearly flagged
Exercise questions
are carefully graded
so they increase
in difficulty and
gradually bring you
up to exam standard
Exercises are
packed with exam-
style questions
to ensure you
are ready for the
exams
Challenge boxes
give you a chance to
tackle some more
difficult questions
Problem-solving boxes Each section begins Step-by-step Each chapter

Exam-style questions
provide hints, tips and with explanation worked examples ends with a
are flagged with E
strategies, and Watch and key learning focus on the key Mixed exercise
Problem-solving out boxes highlight points types of questions and a Summary
questions are flagged areas where students you’ll need to of key points
with P often lose marks in tackle
their exams
Every few chapters a Review exercise
helps you consolidate your learning
with lots of exam-style questions
AS and A level practice papers

at the back of the book help you
prepare for the real thing.

Extra online content
Extra online content

Whenever you see an Online box, it means that there is extra online content available to support you.
Differentiation 12A
1 a Examples of estimates of gradients:
Gradient of tangent at x = −1 is 2 c i Gradient of AD = y2 − y1
y2 − y1 3 −1 x2 − x1
=
x2 − x1 (−1) − (−0.5) 0.8 − 0.19
=
= −4 0.6 − 0.9
Gradient of tangent at x = 0 is = −1.21 (3 s.f.)
y2 − y1 1 − (−1)
=
x2 − x1 (−0.5) − (0.5) ii Gradient of AC = y2 − y1
= −2 x2 − x1
Gradient of tangent at x = 1 is 0.8 − 0.6
=
y2 − y1 (−1) − (−1)
SolutionBank
0.6 − 0.8
=
x2 − x1 2−0 = −1
=0
Gradient of tangent at x = 2 is iii Gradient of AB = y2 − y1
y2 − y1 (−1) − 1 x2 − x1
=
SolutionBank provides a full worked solution for

x2 − x1 1.5 − 2.5 0.8 − 0.51
=
=2 0.6 − 0.7
Gradient of tangent at x = 3 is = − 0.859 (3 s.f.)
y2 − y1 3 −1
= =4
every question in the book. x2 − x1 d As the points move closer to A, the

3 − 2.5
gradient tends to − 0.75.
x-coordinate −1 0 1 2 3
Estimate for 3 a i Gradient= 16 − 9= 7= 7
gradient of −4 −2 0 2 4 4−3 1
curve
12.25 − 9 3.25
b The gradient of the curve at the point ii Gradient
= = = 6.5
3.5 − 3 0.5
Online Full worked solutions are

where x = p is 2p − 2.
c Gradient of tangent at x = 1.5 is 9.61 − 9 0.61

iii Gradient
= = = 6.1
y2 − y1 (−1.7) − 0.3 3.1 − 3 0.1
=
x2 − x1 0.5 − 2.5
available in SolutionBank.
=1 9.0601 − 9 0.0601
iv Gradient
= = = 6.01
2p − 2 = 2(1.5) − 2 = 1 3.01 − 3 0.01
2 a Substituting x = 0.6 into =

y 1 − x2 : ( 3 + h )2 − 9
v Gradient =
y = 1 − 0.6 2 = 0.64 = 0.8 , therefore the (3 + h) − 3
point A (0.6, 0.8) lies on the curve. 6h + h 2
Download all the solutions as a PDF or

=
b Gradient of tangent at x = 0.6 is h
y2 − y1 1.1 − 0.8 h (6 + h)
= =
h
quickly find the solution you need online

x2 − x1 0.2 − 0.6
=6+h
= − 0.75
© Pearson Education Ltd 2017. Copying permitted for purchasing

institution only. This material is not copyright free.
1
Use of technology
Explore topics in more detail, visualise Online Find the point of intersection
problems and consolidate your understanding graphically using technology.
using pre-made GeoGebra activities.
GeoGebra-powered interactives
Interact with the maths you are learning
using GeoGebra's easy-to-use tools
Access all the extra online content for free at:
www.pearsonschools.co.uk/fp1maths
You can also access the extra online content by scanning this QR code:
vi

Vectors
Objectives
After completing this chapter you should be able to:
● Find the vector product a × b of two vectors a and b → pages 2–6
1
● Interpret |a × b| as an area → pages 7–11
● Find the scalar triple product a.b × c of three vectors a, b and c,
and be able to interpret it as a volume → pages 11–16
● Write the vector equation of a line in the form
(r − a) × b = 0 → pages 16–20
● Find the direction ratios and direction cosines of a line → pages 17–20
● Use vectors in problems involving points, lines and planes and
use the equivalent Cartesian forms for the equations of lines
and planes → pages 20–25
Prior knowledge check

1 Find the scalar product of the vectors
3i + 2j − 3k and 4i − 5j + k.
← Core Pure Book 1, Section 9.3
2 A straight line has vector equation

1 2
(− 2) (5)
r =   4    + λ 3
  .
Write down the Cartesian equation of the

line. ← Core Pure Book 1, Section 9.1
3 A line has vector equation

r = (2i − 3j + k) + λ(i + j − 2k).
A plane has equation r.(3i − 2j + 2k) = 2.
Find:
Additive manufacturing is a technique that
uses 3D printers to build an object up bit a the acute angle between the line and
by bit rather than taking a block of material the plane. Give your answer in radians
and cutting bits away. Designers use vectors correct to 3 significant figures.
to create the 3D models which are then put b the point of intersection of the line
through specialist software to render the and the plane.
object printable. → Exercise 1C Q11 ← Core Pure Book 1, Sections 9.4, 9.5
M01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_1_001-031.indd 1 22/01/2018 18:17

Chapter 1
1.1 Vector product

You have already encountered the scalar (or dot) product of two vectors.
The scalar (or dot) product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b, and defined as
a.b = |a||b|cos θ, Links x
  1 x2
( z  1 ) ( z2 )
where θ is the angle between a and b. If a = 1  and b = y2 
y
 
The scalar product produces a number (or scalar) as an then a.b = x1x2 + y1 y2 + z1z2.
answer. It is useful to define a second type of product ← Core Pure Book 1, Chapter 9
that gives an answer as a vector.
Online Use GeoGebra to
■ The vector (or cross) product of the vectors a and b explore the cross product of two
is defined as vectors.
a × b = |a||b|sin θ n̂
Notation
n̂ is the unit vector that
where θ is the angle between a and b. is perpendicular to both a and b.
Since 0 < θ < 180°, |a||b| sin θis a positive scalar quantity. This means that a × b is a vector quantity
with magnitude |a||b| sin θthat acts in the direction of n̂ .
Problem-solving
The direction of n̂ is that in which a n
You can also use a ‘right-hand rule’
right-handed screw would move when to determine the direction of n̂ , and
turned from a to b. b hence the direction of a × b.
If a is your first finger, and b is your
θ second finger, then a × b acts in
a the direction of your thumb:
a×b
If the turn is in the opposite sense, b a

i.e. from b to a, then the movement θ
of the screw is in the opposite direction b
a
to n̂ , i.e. in the direction of −n̂ .
So b × a = |b||a|sin θ (−n̂ )
= −|a||b|sin θ n̂ –n
= −a × b
Watch out The vector product
■ b × a = −a × b is not commutative: the order of
multiplication matters.

Vectors
Example 1
Find the values of:

a i × i b j × k c i × k.
a i×i=0 sin θ = 0, as the angle between i and itself is zero.
The angle between j and k is 90° and, as j and k

b j × k = 1 × 1 × sin 90°i = i
are unit vectors, each has magnitude 1 unit.
c i × k = −k × i = −1 × 1 × sin 90°j = −j Use the right-hand rule. If i is your k

first finger and k is your second
finger, your thumb will point away j
■ i×i=0
from j, so i × k = –j.
■ j×j=0
■ k×k=0
i
■ i × j = k and j × i = −k
■ j × k = i and k × j = −i
■ k × i = j and i × k = −j
As a × b = |a||b| sin θ n̂ , a × b = 0 implies that a = 0, b = 0 or sin θ = 0.
sin θ = 0 implies that θ = 0 or 180°, so a and b must be parallel.
■ If a × b = 0 then either a = 0, b = 0 or a and b are parallel.
Example 2
() ()
a1 b1
Given that a = a2 and b = b2 find a × b.
a3 b3 Notation You may
assume the vector product
a × b = (a1i + a2 j + a3k) × (b1i + b2 j + b3k) is distributive over vector
= a1b1(i × i) + a1b2(i × j) + a1b3(i × k) addition. This means that
+ a2b1( j × i) + a2b2( j × j) + a2b3( j × k) a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)
+ a3b1(k × i) + a3b2(k × j) + a3b3(k × k)
= a1b2k + a1b3(−j) + a2b1(−k) + a2b3(i) + a3b1(j) + a3b2(−i) Simplify the cross product and
= (a2b3 − a3b2)i + (a3b1 − a1b3)j + (a1b2 − a2b1)k collect like terms.
In determinant form,
i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a×b= 1 a a 2 a 3 = i −j +k You can write each component
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b 3 as the determinant of a 2 × 2
= (a2b3 − a3b2)i + (a3b1 − a1b3)j + (a1b2 − a2b1)k matrix, or the whole vector
product as a determinant of a
3 × 3 matrix.
■ a × b = (a2b3 − a3b2)i + (a3b1 − a1b3)j + (a1b2 − a2b1)k ← Core Pure Book 1, Chapter 6
i j k
a a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a a
■ a×b= 1 2 a3 = i 2 −j +k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

Chapter 1
Example 3
Given that a = 2i − 3j and b = 4i + j − k, find a × b:

a directly
b by a method involving a determinant.
c Verify that a × b is perpendicular to both a and b.
a (2i − 3j) × (4i + j − k)

Use the distributive property
= 8(i × i) + 2(i × j) − 2(i × k) − 12( j × i) − 3( j × j) + 3( j × k)
to multiply out the brackets.
= 0 + 2k + 2j + 12k − 0 + 3i
= 3i + 2j + 14k
Simplify the cross products
i j k of unit vectors.
−3 0
b 2 −3 0 = i − j 2 0 + k 2 −3
1 −1 4 −1 4 1 Problem-solving
4 1 −1
= i(3 − 0) − j(−2 − 0) + k(2 + 12)
Using the discriminant is
= 3i + 2j + 14k usually a quicker way to
c (3i + 2j + 14k).(2i − 3j) = (3 × 2) + (2 × (−3)) + (14 × 0) = 0 evaluate the cross product.
(3i + 2j + 14k).(4i + j − k) = (3 × 4) + (2 × 1) + (14 × (−1)) = 0
Work out (a × b).a and
(a × b).b. If both answers are
0 then a × b is perpendicular
to both a and b.
Example 4
Find a unit vector perpendicular to both (4i + 3j + 2k) and (8i + 3j + 3k).
The vector product will give a perpendicular vector. Watch out You can find vector products
using your calculator. But you might
i j k 4 2 4 3
3 2 encounter a vector with an unknown in it,
4 3 2 =i −j
8 3
+k
8 3 so it is important that you know how to find
3 3
8 3 3 the vector product manually.
= i(9 − 6) − j(12 − 16) + k(12 − 24)
= 3i + 4j − 12k
_______________
Since |3i + 4j − 12k| = √32 + 42 + (−12)2  = 13
   Find the magnitude of your product vector.
__
1
a suitable unit vector is  13 (3i + 4j − 12k).
Divide the vector by its magnitude to obtain
a unit vector.

Vectors
Example 5
Find the sine of the acute angle between the vectors a = 2i + j + 2k and b = −3j + 4k.
|a × b| Rearrange the formula to make sin θthe subject.
So   ______ = sin θ
|a||b| |n̂ | = 1 so |a × b| = |a||b| sin θ.
i j k
a×b= 2 1 2
0 −3 4 Calculate the vector product.
= i(4 + 6) − j(8 − 0) + k(−6 − 0)
= 10i − 8j − 6k Find the magnitude of a × b.
______________
and |10i − 8j − 6k| = √100
   + 64 + 36 
_____
√
200 __________ Also find the magnitude of a and of b and
So sin θ = ________________________
   ____________
       substitute the three surds into the formula for
√
2
  
2 + 1 + 22  √(–3)2 + 42 
2
_____ sin θ.
√
200 
= ________
  __ ___ 
9  √25 
√
__ Simplify your answer.
10√2 
______
=    
3×5
__ Watch out In general, to find the angle between
2√2 
_____
=     two vectors use the scalar product. This gives the
3
cosine of the angle. Immediately we know whether
the angle is acute or obtuse. In this example it is
not clear whether the angle θ is acute or obtuse.
This is similar to the ambiguous case when using
Exercise 1A the sine rule.
1 Simplify:
a 5j × k b 3i × k c k × 3i
d 3i × (9i − j + k) e 2j × (3i + j − k) f (3i + j − k) × 2j
5 1 2 1 1 2 3 1
(−1) ( 3 ) ( 6) ( 3) (−4) (−1) (2) ( 2 )
g
  2  × −1
   
h       × −2 
−1        i   5   × −1
  j 0    × −1 
     
2 Find the vector product of the vectors a and b, leaving your answers in terms of λ in each case.
a a = λi + 2j + k b = i − 3k
b a = 2i − j + 7k b = i − λj + 3k
3 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both 2i − j and to 4i + j + 3k.

__
4 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both 4i + k and j − √2 k.
5 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both i − j and 3i + 4j − 6k.

1 5
(4) (8)
6 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both 6    and to 9    .

Chapter 1
4 0__
(1) (1)
7 Find a vector of magnitude 5 which is perpendicular to both 0    and √  2  
.
8 Find the magnitude of (i + j − k) × (i − j + k).
9 Given that a = −i + 2j − 5k and b = 5i − 2j + k, find:

a a.b
b a×b
c the unit vector in the direction a × b.
10 Find the sine of the angle between each of the following pairs of vectors a and b. You may
leave your answers as surds, in their simplest form.
a a = 3i − 4j, b = 2i + 2j + k
b a = j + 2k, b = 5i + 4j − 2k
c a = 5i + 2j + 2k, b = 4i + 4j + k
11 The line l1 has equation r = i − j + λ(i + 2j + 3k) and the line l2 has equation
r = 2i + j + k + μ(2i − j + k). Find a vector that is perpendicular to both l1 and l2.
(v) (−7)
1 w
(−1)
2
P 12 It is given that a =   3  and b = u    and that a × b = −6
  , where u, v and w are scalar
constants. Find the values of u, v and w.
P 13 Given that p = ai − j + 4k, that q = j − k and that their vector product q × p = 3i − j + bk where
a and b are scalar constants,
a find the values of a and b
b find the value of the cosine of the angle between p and q.
P 14 If a × b = 0, a = 2i + j − k and b = 3i + λj + μk, where λ and μ are scalar constants, find the values
of λ and μ.
P 15 If three vectors a, b and c satisfy a + b + c = 0, show that

a×b=b×c=c×a
Challenge
a is a non-zero vector and b and c are non-parallel vectors.
Given that a × b = c × a, show that a is parallel to b + c.

Vectors
1.2 Finding areas

You can use the vector product to solve problems involving areas of triangles and parallelograms.
B
Example 6
Find the area of triangle OAB, where O is the origin, b

A is the point with position vector a and B is the point
with position vector b.
θ
A
Area of triangle OAB =  __
2 (OA) (OB) sin θ
1 O
a
= __
  21 |a||b|sin θ
Use the formula for area of triangle,
= __
  21 |a × b| Area = _  12 ab sin C, and let the angle AOB = θ.
Use the definition of vector product to obtain this

result.
■ If A and B have position vectors a and b respectively, then

Area of triangle OAB = _  12 |a × b|
C
Example 7
Find the area of triangle ABC, where the position vectors
of A, B and C are a, b and c respectively.
Area of triangle ABC =  __

2 (AB) (AC) sin θ
1
θ
A B
__1
=   2 |b − a||c − a|sin θ
= __
  21 |(b − a) × (c − a)|
Let the angle BAC = θ.
=  __
2 |(b × c) − (b × a) − (a × c) + (a × a)|
1
Use the definition of the vector product.

=  __
2 |(b × c) + (c × a) + (a × b)|
1
=  __
2 |(a × b) + (b × c) + (c × a)|
1
Expand using the distributive law.
Use a × a = 0, a × b = −b × a and c × a = −a × c.
■ If A, B and C have position vectors a, b and c respectively, then

⟶ ⟶
Area of triangle ABC = _  12 |AB
    |
× AC
= _  12 |(b − a) × (c − a)|
= _  12 |(a × b) + (b × c) + (c × a)|

Chapter 1
Example 8
Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD, where the D C

position vectors of A, B and D are a, b and d respectively.
Area of parallelogram ABCD

θ
= area of triangle ABD + area of triangle BCD A B
= 2 × area of triangle ABD

The two triangles are congruent so have equal
= (AB)(AD) sin θ
area.
= |(b − a) × (d − a)|
= |(a × b) + (b × d) + (d × a)| θ is the angle BAD.
A C
■ If A and B have position vectors a and b respectively, then
a
Area of parallelogram OABC = |a × b|
O B
b
■ If A, B, C and D have position vectors a, b, c and d respectively, then

⟶ ⟶
Area of parallelogram ABCD = |AB
  × AD
  | Online Use GeoGebra to
explore this relationship.
= |(b − a) × (d − a)|
= |(a × b) + (b × d) + (d × a)|
Example 9
Find the area of triangle OAB, where O is the origin, A is the point with position vector i − j and B
is the point with position vector 3i + 4j − 6k.
Area of triangle OAB =  __

2 |(i − j) × (3i + 4j − 6k)|
1
i j k
First find the vector product using the
(i − j) × (3i + 4j − 6k) = 1 −1 0
determinant method.
3 4 −6
= 6i + 6j + 7k
____________
Then use this to find the area of the
So area of triangle = __
  21 |6i + 6j + 7k| = __
  21 √62 + 62 + 72 
  
____ triangle.
√
121 
_____
=     = 5.5
2

Vectors
Example 10
Find the area of triangle ABC, where the position vectors of A, B and C are
4i − 2j + k, −12i + 14j + k and −4i − 2j + k respectively.
⟶
 AB  = (−12i + 14j + k) − (4i − 2j + k) = −16i + 16j Find vectors representing two of the sides of
⟶ the triangle.
 AC = (−4i − 2j + k) − (4i − 2j + k) = −8i
i j k ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
⟶ ⟶ Area of triangle = _  12 |AB 
    |. Find AB 
× AC    × AC 
 
 
AB × AC
  = −16 16 0 = 128k using the discriminant method, then find half
−8 0 0 its modulus. Remember that |pk| = p for any
So area of triangle ABC = __
  21 |128k | = 64 scalar p.
Example 11
Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD, where the position vectors of A, B and D are
2i + j − k, 6i + 4j − 3k and 14i + 7j − 6k respectively.
⟶ ⟶
Area of parallelogram ABCD = |AB   × AD
  |
⟶
 AB = (6i + 4j − 3k) − (2i + j − k) = 4i + 3j − 2k Find vectors representing two adjacent sides
⟶ of the parallelogram.
 AD = (14i + 7j − 6k) − (2i + j − k) = 12i + 6j − 5k
i j k
⟶ ⟶
 
AB × AD
  = 4 3 −2 = −3i − 4j − 12k ⟶ ⟶
Area of parallelogram = |AB 
  × AD 
  |.
12 6 −5
So area of parallelogram = |−3i − 4j − 12k| = 13
Exercise 1B
1 Find the area of triangle OAB, where O is the origin, A is the point with position vector a and
B is the point with position vector b in the following cases.
a a = i + j − 4k b = 2i − j − 2k
b a = 3i + 4j − 5k b = 2i + j − 2k
() ( )
2 2
c a= 3 b= 6
0 −9
2 Find the area of triangle ABC, where the position vectors of A, B and C are a, b and c
respectively, in the following cases:
a a = i − j − k b = 4i + j + k c = 4i − 3j + k
() () ( )
0 1 2
b a = 1 b = 0 c = 0
2 2 −10

Chapter 1
3 Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(1, 0, 2), B(2, −2, 0) and C(3, −1, 1).
4 Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(−1, 1, 1), B(1, 0, 2) and C(0, 3, 4).
5 Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD, shown in D C

the diagram, where the position vectors of A, B and D
are i + j + k, −3i + 4j + k and 2i − j respectively.
A B
6 Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD, shown in

the diagram, in which the vertices A, B and D have
coordinates (0, 5, 3), (2, 1, −1) and (1, 6, 6) respectively.
7 Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD, shown in the diagram, where the position vectors of
A, B and D are j, i + 4j + k and 2i + 6j + 3k respectively.
P 8 Relative to an origin O, the points P and Q have position vectors p and q respectively, where
p = a(i + j + 2k), q = a(2i + j + 3k) and a . 0.
Find the area of triangle OPQ, giving your answer in terms of a.
P 9 a Prove that the area of the parallelogram ABCD is |(b − a) × (c − a)|

b Show that (b − a) × (c − a) = (b − a) × (d − a) implies that (b − a) × (c − d) = 0, and explain the
geometrical significance of this vector product.
E 10 The position vectors of the points A, B and C relative to an origin O are 2i − j − k, 6i − 2k and
3i + 3j respectively.
Find:
⟶ ⟶
a  AC  ×  BC  (3 marks)
b the exact area of triangle ABC. (2 marks)
E 11 The sail of a yacht is modelled as a triangle with vertices at A(−3, 2, −4), B(−2, −3, 1) and
C(1, 2, −1), where the dimensions are in metres.
⟶ ⟶
a Find AB 
  × AC 
  . (3 marks)
b Hence find the area of fabric needed to construct the sail according to this model. (2 marks)
c Suggest, with a reason, whether the actual area of fabric needed to construct the sail will be
larger or smaller than this value. (1 mark)
E 12 A jeweller makes gold pendants in the shape of a parallelogram ABCD where sides AB and DC
are equal and parallel. She designs the pendants in 3D space and models the pendants as having
vertices A(−1, 2, 0), B(3, −3, −2) and D(−2, 0, 3) where each unit represents 1 cm.
a Find the coordinates of point C. (2 marks)
Given that gold costs £595 per cm3, and that the pendants will be 3 mm thick,
b find, correct to the nearest pound, the cost of making one pendant. (4 marks)
10

Vectors
Challenge
In the diagram below, ABCD and CDEF are parallelograms which lie in
the same plane.
C
q r
B F
p
D
A E
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
 AB  = p,  BC  = q and  CF  = r
By considering area, show that |p × (q + r)| = |p × q| + |p × r|.
1.3 Scalar triple product

You can find the scalar triple product of three vectors
a, b and c, and use it to find the volume of a parallelepiped Online Use GeoGebra to
and of a tetrahedron. explore the scalar triple product.
Notation A parallelepiped is a
three-dimensional solid with six
parallelogram-shaped faces.
You know that b × c = (b2c3 − b3c2)i + (b3c1 − b1c3)j + (b1c2 − b2c1)k, where b = b1i + b2 j + b3k and
c = c1i + c2 j + c3k.
So if a = a1i + a2 j + a3k, then
■ a.(b × c) = a1(b2c3 − b3c2) + a2(b3c1 − b1c3) + a3(b1c2 − b2c1)
This can also be written as
a1 a2 a3
■ a.(b × c) = b1 b2 b3 , and a.(b × c) is known as the scalar triple product.
c1 c2 c3
11

Chapter 1
Example 12
Given that a = 3i − j + 4k, b = i + j − k and c = 2i + 3j + 5k, find

a a.(b × c) b b.(c × a) c a.(a × c)
You could calculate a.(b × c) directly as a

determinant:
| |
3 −1 4
a b×c=
i
1
j
1
k
−1 = 8i − 7j + k
1
 
2
1   
3
− 1 
5
|
1
= 3  
3
−1
5 | |
1
   − (−1)  
2
−1
5 | | 13|1
   + 4  
2
2 3 5 = 24 + 7 + 4 = 35
So a.(b × c) =
(3i − j + 4k).(8i − 7j + k)
= 24 + 7 + 4
Notice that
= 35
a.(b × c) = b.(c × a)
i j k
b c×a= 2 3 5 = 17i + 7j − 11k
3 −1 4
So b.(c × a) = (i + j − k).(17i + 7j − 11k)
= 17 + 7 + 11
= 35
c a × c = −c × a = −17i − 7j + 11k Use the result that a × c = − c × a
So a.(a × c) =
(3i − j + 4k).(−17i − 7j + 11k)
= −51 + 7 + 44
This scalar product is zero since a × c is
=0
perpendicular to a.
The above worked example illustrates two important points.

■ The scalar triple product is cyclic:
a.(b × c) = b.(c × a) = c.(a × b)
Hint You can use the first of these to prove the
■ If a vector is repeated then the scalar triple second:
product is equal to zero: a.(a × p) = p.(a × a) = p.0 = 0
a.(a × p) = a.(p × a) = 0 for any vector p.
Example 13
Find the volume of the parallelepiped shown in the A

figure, given that O is the origin and A, B and C have
position vectors a, b and c respectively. The angle ϕ
h a
between b and c is θ and the angle between the c
C
D
perpendicular height and a is ϕ. θ
O b B
12

Vectors
The volume of the parallelepiped is given by

(area of base) × h where h is the perpendicular distance
between the base and the top face.
The base, OBDC is a parallelogram and its area is |b × c|.   h  
As cos ϕ = ____
OA
So the volume of the parallelepiped is |b × c|h
But h = OA cos ϕ Since b × c is in the direction of the
perpendicular height, ϕ is the angle
So volume is |b × c|OA cos ϕ
between vector a and vector b × c.
= |b × c||a|cos ϕ
= a.(b × c) From the definition of scalar product.
■ If three sides of a parallelepiped are given by vectors a, b and c

as shown in the diagram, then the volume of the parallelepiped
is given by |a.(b × c)|. a
Note a, b and c can be any three non- c

parallel sides of the parallelepiped.
b
Example 14
Find the volume of the tetrahedron shown in the figure, given that O is the origin and A, B and C
have position vectors a, b and c respectively. The angle between b and c is θ and the angle between
the perpendicular height and a is ϕ.
h
a
b B
ϕ
θ
O c C
The volume of the tetrahedron is given by the
formula  __
1
3 (area of base) × h The volume of a pyramid is _ 13 (area of base) × h.
where h is the perpendicular height.
The triangular base, OBC has area __
 21 |b × c|
And h = OA cos ϕ = |a|cos ϕ As in Example 13, b × c is in the direction of
__1 __1
So volume of tetrahedron is  3 ×   2 |b × c||a|cos ϕ the perpendicular height, so ϕ is the angle
= __
  61 a.(b × c) between vector a and vector b × c.
■ If three sides of a tetrahedron are given by vectors a, b and c as shown in

the diagram, then the volume of the tetrahedron is given by _ 16 | a.(b × c)|.
b
a
Note a, b and c can be any three non-
c
coplanar sides of the tetrahedron.
13

Chapter 1
Example 15
Find the volume of a tetrahedron which has vertices at (1, 1, −1), (2, 4, −1), (3, 0, −2) and (0, 4, 5).
If the vertices are labelled A, B, C and D in the order Find expressions for the vectors
given above and have position vectors a, b, c and d describing the displacement from
respectively, then: one of the vertices to the other three.
⟶
  AB = b − a = i + 3j
⟶ Use the scalar triple product to find
 AC = c − a = 2i − j − k
the volume.
⟶
 
AD = d − a = −i + 3j + 6k
1 ⟶ ⟶ ⟶ Problem-solving
Volume of tetrahedron =  __ 6 |AB 
  .( AC  × AD 
  )|
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
1 3 0  AB .( AC  × AD 
  ) is negative. If you
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
AB 
  .( AC  × AD 
  ) = 2 −1 −1 = −36 swapped any pair of vectors in this
−1 3 6 scalar triple product the answer
would be 6 instead of –6.
So the volume is  __ 1
6 |−36| = 6. ⟶ ⟶ ⟶
For example, AC    .( AB  ×  AD ) = 6.
Exercise 1C
1 Given that a = 5i + 2j − k, b = i + j + k and c = 3i + 4k, find:

a a.(b × c) b b.(c × a) c c.(a × b)
P 2 Given that a = i − j − 2k, b = 2i + j − k and c = 2i − 3j − 5k, find a.(b × c). What can you deduce
about the vectors a, b and c?
3 Find the volume of the parallelepiped ABCDEFGH where the H G

vertices A, B, D and E have coordinates (0, 0, 0), (3, 0, 1), E
F
(1, 2, 0) and (1, 1, 3) respectively.
4 Find the volume of the parallelepiped ABCDEFGH where the D

C
vertices A, B, D and E have coordinates (−1, 0, 1), (3, 0, −1),
A B
(2, 2, 0) and (2, 1, 2) respectively.
5 A tetrahedron has vertices at A(1, 2, 3), B(4, 3, 4), C(1, 3, 1) and D(3, 1, 4).
Find the volume of the tetrahedron.
6 A tetrahedron has vertices at A(2, 2, 1), B(3, −1, 2), C (1, 1, 3) and D(3, 1, 4).
a Find the area of face BCD.
b Find a unit vector normal to the face BCD.
c Find the volume of the tetrahedron.
__ __
3 , 0) and D( 1,    ,    

3 3 )
__ √ 2√6 
3  ____
___
7 A tetrahedron has vertices at A(0, 0, 0), B(2, 0, 0), C(1, √ .
a Show that the tetrahedron is regular.
b Find the volume of the tetrahedron.
14

Vectors
E 8 A tetrahedron OABC has its vertices at the points O(0, 0, 0), A(1, 2, −1), B(−1, 1, 2) and
C(2, −1, 1).
___› ___› ___› ___›
a Write down expressions for AB in terms of i, j and k and find AB
and AC . (3 marks)
× AC
b Deduce the area of triangle ABC. (2 marks)
c Find the volume of the tetrahedron. (3 marks)
E 9 The points A, B, C and D have position vectors a, b, c and d respectively, where

a = 2i + j b = 3i − j + k c = −2j − k d = 2i − j + 3k
___› ___› ___› ___›
a Find AB
× BC × DC
and BD . (4 marks)
b Hence find:
i the area of triangle ABC (2 marks)
ii the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD. (3 marks)
E 10 The edges OP, OQ and OR of a tetrahedron OPQR are the vectors a, b and c respectively,
where
a = 2i + 4j b = 2i − j + 3k c = 4i − 2j + 5k
a Evaluate b × c and deduce that OP is perpendicular to the plane OQR. (4 marks)
b Write down the length of OP and the area of triangle OQR and hence the volume
of the tetrahedron. (3 marks)
c Verify your result by evaluating a.(b × c). (2 marks)
E 11 An architect is designing landscaping sculptures in the shape of tetrahedra. She designs them in
3D software with the origin as her starting point. The position vectors of vertices A, B and C
from the origin are 3i + 2j + k, 2i − j − 4k and −2i + 4j − 2k.
⟶ ⟶
a Find  OB  ×  OC . (3 marks)
She prints solid prototype models using a 3D printer and a scale of 1 unit in her design
representing 2 cm on the model. The density of the plastic used by the printer is 1.13 g/cm3.
b Find, to the nearest gram, the mass of one prototype model. (5 marks)
E/P 12 A scientist is studying the crystal structure of a mineral. The crystal forms a lattice with
parallelepipedal unit cells. He models one cell as having vertices with coordinates (0, 0, 0),
(0.6, 0.6, 0), (0.9, −0.9 ,0), (−0.4, −0.4, −1.3), (0.2, 0.2, −1.3), (1.1, −0.7, −1.3), (0.5, −1.3, −1.3)
and (1.5, −0.3, 0).
Crystallographers measure distances in angstroms, where 10 angstroms is equal to one
nanometre (10−9 metres).
Find the volume of the unit cell of the crystal, in cubic angstroms, if one unit on the scientist’s
scale is one nanometre. Give your answer to two significant figures. (6 marks)
15

Chapter 1
E/P 13 The diagram shows a parallelepiped ABCEFDHG. C H

M is the midpoint of EF. The point N lies on AB such that B
D
AN : NB = 2 : 1. N
a Find the ratio of the volume of the parallelepiped to the
E M
volume of the tetrahedron NCME. (6 marks) G
b State, with justification, how this ratio varies as N moves A F
along the line segment AB. (2 marks)
C
E/P 14 The diagram shows a pyramid with base vertices A(−1, 0, 0), B(0, 2, 1),
C(1, 2, 3) and D(0, 0, 2). The vertex of the pyramid is at E(3, 0, 1).
D
Find the exact volume of the pyramid. (8 marks)
B
Problem-solving E
Split the pyramid into two tetrahedrons. A
Challenge
a Explain why a.(b × c) = (a × b).c.
b Use the result from part a to show that d.(a × b + a × c) = d.(a × (b + c)).
c Hence deduce that a × b + a × c = a × (b + c).
1.4 Straight lines

A
You can use the vector product to write a vector equation Links A vector equation of a
of a line in a form that doesn’t require a parameter. straight line passing through a
Suppose that a is the position vector of a point on a line, point A with position vector a, and
and that the line is parallel to the vector b. parallel to the vector b, is r = a + λ b,
Let r be the position vector of a general point on the line. where λ is a scalar parameter.
← Core Pure Book 1, Chapter 9
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
 AR  = OR 
  −  OA 
=r−a b R
⟶ ⟶ A
Since  AR is parallel to b, AR 
  × b = 0.
So (r − a) × b = 0
a r
■ (r − a) × b = 0 is an alternative form of the vector
equation of a line passing through the point A with
position vector a, and parallel to the vector b.
O
This may also be written as r × b = a × b.
Online Explore the vector

equation of a line, written using a
cross product, with GeoGebra.
16

Vectors
Example 16
A
Find the vector equation of the line through the points (1, 2, −1) and (3, −2, 2) in the form
(r − a) × b = 0.
( )()( )
3 1 2
Any multiple of this vector is also parallel
The line is in the direction −2 − 2 = −4
to the direction of the line.
2 −1 3
( ( )) ( )
You could use the position vector
( ) ( )
3 2
So the equation is r − −2 × −4 = 0 1 3
2 3 2 instead of −2 in this equation.
−1 2
You can use the direction vector of a straight line to find the angles α, β and γ that the line makes
with the positive x-, y- and z-axes respectively. The angles α, β and γ lie in the range
0 < α, β, γ < 180°.
Links For the vector a = xi + yj + zk,
■ If a line is parallel to the vector a = xi + yj + zk, the angle made with the positive x-axis is
the direction ratios of the line are x : y : z, x  
given by cos α =  ___
|a|
and the direction cosines of the line are z
x y z
cos α = ___
    , cos β = ___
   and cos γ = ___
   ,
|a| |a| |a| y
a
and are written as l, m and n respectively.
The sum of the squares of the direction cosines O α

is always 1: x
x  2 + y  2 + z  2 ___ |a|  2 x

l  2 + m  2 + n  2 = __________
    =     = 1
|a|  2 |a|  2 ← Pure Year 2, Section 12.2
■ A line with direction ratios x : y : z has direction
cosines l, m and n such that l  2 + m
 2 + n
 2 = 1.
Example 17
1 4
( (− 1)) ( 2 )
A line has vector equation r −   2  × − = 0.
  3
 
a Find the direction cosines of the line, l, m and n.

x − 1 _____ y−2 z+1
b Show that the Cartesian equation of the line can be written as  _____
  =   m  =  _____
n 
l
17

Chapter 1
A
4 4
a l = ________________
    _______________   = ____
  ___ 
√ 4  2 + (−3)  2 + 2  2  √ 29 
  
−3 3 Use the direction vector of the line in the

m = ________________
   _______________   = −  ____
___  
√ 4  2 + (−3)  2 + 2  2 
   √ 29  formulae for l, m and n.
2 2
n =  ________________
_______________
     = ____
  ___ 
√4
    2 + (−3)  2 + 2  2  √ 29 
Write the Cartesian equation of the line using the
x−1
_____ y−2
______ z+1
_____ x − x1 _____ y − y 1 z − z1
b     =     =     standard formula ______
    =     =  _____
 
4 −3 2 a b c
___
Multiplying each expression by √ 29 ,
x − 1 ______
_____ y − 2 _____ z+1
  ___   =   ___   =   ___   Problem-solving
4 −___
3 2
  √ 29 
___
  √ 29  ___
  √29 
The direction cosines are in the same ratio as the
x − 1 y − 2 _____ z+1 direction ratios.
Which is _____
    =  ______
  =    
l m n l:m:n = x:y:z
Exercise 1D
1 Find an equation of the straight line passing through the point with position vector a which is
parallel to the vector b, giving your answer in the form r × b = c, where c is a vector to be found
for the following pairs a and b:
a a = 2i + j + 2k b = 3i + j − 2k
b a = 2i − 3k b = i + j + 5k
c a = 4i − 2j + k b = −i − 2j + 3k
2 Find a Cartesian equation for each of the lines given in question 1.
3 Find, in the form (r − a) × b = 0, an equation of the straight line passing through the points
with coordinates:
a (1, 3, 5), (6, 4, 2) b (3, 4, 12), (4, 3, 5)
c (−2, 2, 6), (3, 7, 11) d (4, 2, −4), (1, 1, 1)
4 Find a Cartesian equation for each of the lines given in question 3.
5 Find, in the form (r − a) × b = 0, an equation of the straight line given by the following
equations, where λ is a scalar parameter.
a r = i + j − 2k + λ(2i − k) b r = i + 4j + λ(3i + j − 5k) c r = 3i + 4j − 4k + λ(2i − 2j − 3k)
6 Find the equation of the straight line with Cartesian equation

x − 3 y + 1 _______
______ 2z − 3
    = ______
    =    
2 5 3
in the form:
a r×b=c b r = a + tb, where t is a scalar parameter.
18

Vectors
A 7 Given that the point with coordinates (p, q, 1) lies on the line with equation
()( )
E/P 2 8
r × 1 = −7
3 −3
find the values of p and q. (4 marks)
E/P 8 Given that the equation of a straight line is
()()
1 −1 Hint Let a = a1i + a2 j + a3k and
r× 1 = 2 set up simultaneous equations.
−1 1
find an equation for the line in the form r = a + t b, where t is a scalar parameter. (4 marks)
E 9 A line L passes through the points A and B with position vectors −3i + 2j + 7k and 3i + 4j − 5k
respectively.
a Find the direction cosines of L. (3 marks)
b Hence or otherwise write a Cartesian equation of the line. (2 marks)
10 Write down the direction cosines of:

a the x-axis b the y-axis c the z-axis d the line x = y = z
E/P 11 Lines L1 and L2 intersect and have direction vectors i + 2j + 3k and 3i + 2j + k respectively.
a Find the direction cosines l1, m1 and n1 of line L1. (3 marks)
b Find the direction cosines l2, m2 and n2 of line L2. (3 marks)
c Verify that l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = cos θ where θ is the angle between the two lines. (4 marks)
d Prove that the above result is true for any two intersecting lines. (6 marks)
1 1 3 3
P 12 The direction cosines of two lines L1 and L2 are l1 = −  ____ ___  , m  = ____
  ___  , n  = −  ____
___  and l = ____
  ___  ,
11  1 √ 11  1
√ √ 11  2
√ 14 
2 1
m  2 = −  ____
___  , n  = −  ____
___  respectively.
14  2
√ √
14 
Find, in radians correct to three significant figures, the acute angle between the two lines.
P 13 A line L makes angles of α, β and γ with the x, y and z-axes respectively.

Show that cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ = −1.
⟶
P 14 Find, in degrees correct to one decimal place, the angles that the line segment OP 
  makes with
each of the axes given that P has coordinates (2, 3, 4).
P 15 A straight line passes through the origin and makes angles of 45° to the x-axis and 60° with the
z-axis. Find two possible equations of the line.
E/P 16 A line L passes through the point (1, 2, −1) and makes equal angles with the axes.
a Find the direction cosines of L. (3 marks)
x − a _____ y−b z−c
b Hence find the equation of the line in the form  _____
  =     =  _____
  (2 marks)
l m n
19

Chapter 1
A 17 A telephone wire is modelled as a straight line in 3D space. i and j are the horizontal vectors
E/P due east and north respectively, and k is the vertical unit vector. The units are metres.
An engineer inspects the wire at the point with position vector 6k, and finds that it is
horizontal, and directed on a bearing of 015°.
a Find a vector equation of the wire, giving your answer in the form (r − a) × b = 0. (4 marks)
b Hence show that the wire will intersect with a second wire with vector equation
__ __
5 − 2(√  6 − √  2 )
( (1)) ( )
5 __ __
r − 2    × 2  
− (√  6  
2 + √  2 ) = 0 (3 marks)
−5
c Give a possible criticism of this model. (1 mark)
Challenge
z
(z, θ, φ)
r
φ
y
θ
Spherical polar coordinates are defined by the distance from the origin, r,
the ‘azimuthal angle’ (measured anti-clockwise from the x-axis in the xy-plane), θ,
and the ‘polar angle’ (measured from the positive z-axis), φ.
A line L passes through the origin and the point with spherical polar coordinates
π π
(3,  __ , __
4 3)
    .
a Find, in their simplest form, the direction cosines of L.

b Find, in terms of θ and φ, expressions for the direction cosines of the line which
passes through the origin and the point with spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ).
1.5 Solving geometrical problems

You can use the fact that the vector product a × b is perpendicular to both a and b to solve problems
involving planes and lines in three dimensions.
Example 18
a Find, in the form r.n = p, an equation of the plane which contains the line l and the point with
position vector a where l has equation r = 3i + 5j − 2k + λ(−i + 2j − k) and a = 4i + 3j + k.
b Give the equation of the plane in Cartesian form.
20

Vectors
A
a The vector −i + 2j − k is perpendicular to n. Line l lies in the plane. The direction of l is
The vector 4i + 3j + k − (3i + 5j − 2k) also −i + 2j − k, and so this vector is perpendicular
lies in the plane and is also perpendicular to to n.
n, i.e. i − 2j + 3k is perpendicular to n.
The point (4, 3, 1) lies in the plane, and the
i j k
point (3, 5, −2) lies on the line and so also
So n = −1 2 −1
in the plane, so the vector joining these two
1 −2 3
points also lies in the plane.
= 4i + 2j
This vector i − 2j + 3k is also perpendicular
So the equation of the required plane is to n.
r.(4i + 2j) = (4i + 3j + k).(4i + 2j)
⇒ r.(4i + 2j) = 16 + 6 n is in the direction of the vector product of
An equation of the plane is r.(4i + 2j) = 22 −i + 2j − k and i − 2j + 3k.
b In Cartesian form this may be written as
4x + 2y = 22 Replace r with xi + yj + zk and perform the
⇒ 2x + y = 11 scalar product.
Example 19
Find a Cartesian equation of the plane that passes through the points A(1, 0, −1), B(2, 1, 0) and
C (2, 16, 6).
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
 AB =  
OB − OA  = i + j + k
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
AC   =  
OC − OA   = i + 16j + 7k
i j k
⟶ ⟶ This is the direction of the normal to the
 AB × AC
  = 1 1 1
plane.
1 16 7
= −9i − 6j + 15k
So r.(−9i − 6j + 15k) = (i − k).(−9i − 6j + 15k) Use r.n = a.n, where a = i − k
⇒ r.(−9i − 6j + 15k) = −9 − 15 = −24
So the equation of the plane may be written as
r.(3i + 2j − 5k) = 8
Replace r by xi + yj + zk to obtain the
⇒ (xi +yj + zk).(3i + 2j − 5k) = 8
Cartesian equation.
⇒ 3x + 2y − 5z = 8, which is a Cartesian
equation of the plane.
You may wish to check that each point lies on
this plane.
21

Chapter 1
Example 20
A
Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes Π1 and Π2 where Π1 has equation
r.(2i − 2j − k) = 2 and Π2 has equation r.(i − 3j + k) = 5.
Direction vector of line is given by 2 1
( ) (−1) (1)
i j k −5  −2  is normal to Π1 and −3
   
    is normal to
2 −2 −1 = −3 Π2. The line must be perpendicular to both
1 −3 1 −4 normal vectors, so you can use the vector
Π1: 2x − 2y − z = 2 product to find its direction vector.
Π2: x − 3y + z = 5
Set z = 0 and solve simultaneously: Write Cartesian equations of both planes.
Fix the value of one variable and solve
x − 3y = 5}
2x − 2y = 2
   ⇒ x = −1, y = −2 simultaneously to find a point on the line.
Setting z = 0 simplifies the calculation.
So (−1, −2, 0) lies on the line, and the equation for
the line is Problem-solving
−1 5
(0 ) (4)
You could also find two points on the line
    + λ 3  
r = −2
by setting z = 0, and also setting x = 0
(for example), then use these to find an
equation for the line.
Example 21
Show that the shortest distance between the two skew lines with equations r = a + λb and
|(a − c).(b × d)
r = c + μd, where λ and μ are scalars, is given by the formula ____________
    .
|b × d| |
The shortest distance between P
the lines is XY where XY is
perpendicular to both lines. X
The common perpendicular to
the two skew lines is in the
direction b × d and a unit vector Y Q
b×d
______
in that direction is  
|b × d|
If P is a point on the line with equation r = a + λb and Q is
a point on the line with equation r = c + μd then
⟶
 QP = a − c + λb − μd
The projection of PQ in the direction of the common
perpendicular is
This gives PQ cos θ, where θ is the
b×d
(a − c + λb − μd).  ______ angle between PQ and the common
|b × d|
perpendicular.
22

Vectors
A Using the distributive property.

b×d b×d b×d
= (a − c).  ______ + λb.  ______ − μd.  ______
|b × d| |b × d| |b × d|
But b.(b × d) = d.(b × d) = 0 and the shortest distance b × d is perpendicular to both b and d.
must be a positive quantity, so the shortest distance is
|(a − c).(b × d)
given by   _____________
     .
|b × d| | Use the modulus to ensure that the
result is positive.
■ The shortest distance between the two skew lines with equations r = a + λb and
r = c + μd, where λ and μ are scalars, is given by the formula
|
  _____________
  
|b × d| |
(a − c).(b × d)
Example 22
Find the shortest distance between the two skew lines with equations r = i + λ( j + k) and
r = −i + 3j − k 1 μ(2i − j − k), where λ and μ are scalars.
a − c = i − (−i + 3j − k) = 2i − 3j + k Use a = i and c = −i + 3j − k.

i j
k
Take the vector product of the
b×d= 0 11 = 2j − 2k
two direction vectors.
2 −1
−1
|
(2i − 3j + k).(2j − 2k)
| | |
__
−8
So the shortest distance is   ___________________
    __________    =  ___
   __   = √
8  Use the formula for shortest
√22 + (−2)2  √
8  __
= 2√2  distance.
Exercise 1E
1 Find a Cartesian equation of the plane that passes through the points:
a (0, 4, 2), (1, 1, 2) and (−1, 5, 0) b (1, 1, 0), (2, 3, −3) and (3, 7, −2)
c (3, 0, 0), (2, 0, −1) and (4, 1, 3) d (1, −1, 6), (3, 1, −2) and (4, 1, 0)
2 Find, in the form r.n = p, an equation of the plane which contains the line l and the point with
position vector a where:
a l has equation r = i + j − 2k + λ(2i − k) and a = 4i + 3j + k
b l has equation r = i + 2j + 2k + λ(2i + j − 3k) and a = 3i + 5j + k
c l has equation r = 2i − j + k + λ(i + 2j + 2k) and a = 7i + 8j + 6k
3 Find the equation of the line of intersection of the planes Π1 and Π2 where:
a Π1 has equation r.(3i − 2j − k) = 5 and Π2 has equation r.(4i − j − 2k) = 5
b Π1 has equation r.(5i − j − 2k) = 16 and Π2 has equation r.(16i − 5j − 4k) = 53
c Π1 has equation r.(i − 3j + k) = 10 and Π2 has equation r.(4i − 3j − 2k) = 1
23

Chapter 1
A 4 Find the acute angle between the line with equation (r − 3j) × (−4i − 7j + 4k) = 0 and the plane
with equation r = λ(4i − j − k) + μ(4i − 5j + 3k).
5 Find the shortest distance between the two skew lines with equations
r = i + λ(−3i − 12j + 11k) and r = 3i − j + k + μ(2i + 6j − 5k), where λ and μ are scalars.
6 The plane Π has equation r.(i + j − k) = 4.

a Show that the line with equation r = 2i + 3j + k + λ(−i + 2j + k) lies in the plane Π.
b Show that the line with equation r = −i + 2j + 4k + λ(−i + 2j + k) is parallel to the plane Π and
find the shortest distance from the line to the plane.
E 7 A tetrahedron has vertices at A(1, 2, 3), B(0, 1, −2), C(3, 6, 1) and D(5, −2, 4). Find:
a the Cartesian equation of the plane ABC (3 marks)
b the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD. (3 marks)
The normal to the plane ABC through point D intersects the plane at point E.
c Find the angle CDE, giving your answer in radians correct to three decimal places. (5 marks)
E 8 The lines L1 and L2 have equations

−1 3
(1) (− 2)
L1: r = 0   + λ   3 
(− 4) (− 3)
a 2
L2: r =   4  + μ   1 
If the lines L1 and L2 intersect, find:

a the value of a (4 marks)
b an equation for the plane containing the lines L1 and L2, giving your answer in the
form ax + by + cz + d = 0, where a, b, c and d are integer constants. (4 marks)
For other values of a, the lines L1 and L2 do not intersect and are skew lines.
c Given that a = 1, find the shortest distance between the lines L1 and L2. (3 marks)
E 9 The plane Π has equation

1 −1 0
(1) (− 2) (− 1)
r = − + λ 2 + μ   2 
  2
 
a Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane Π. (3 marks)

The line l passes through the point A(2, 3, 2) and meets Π at (1, −2, 1).
The acute angle between the plane Π and the line l is α.
b Find α to the nearest degree. (4 marks)
c Find the perpendicular distance from A to the plane Π. (4 marks)
24

Vectors
A 10 The plane Π1 has Cartesian equation 2x − y + 3z − 1 = 0.

E a Find the perpendicular distance from the point (3, −3, 2) to the plane Π1. (3 marks)
The plane Π2 has vector equation
−2 −1
(0) (3)
r = λ −   + μ 4   ,
4
where λ and μ are scalar parameters.

b Find the acute angle between Π1 and Π2 giving your answer in radians to three
significant figures. (5 marks)
c Find a vector equation of the line of intersection of the two planes. (6 marks)
E/P 11 The plane Π1 has vector equation

2 −1 4
(3) (0) (3)
r = 1    + λ −   + μ −
2   2

 
where λ and μ are real parameters.

Π1 is transformed to the plane Π2 by the transformation represented by the matrix T, where
1 0 2
(0 2 1 )
T = 0    1   − 3
 

Find an equation of Π2 in the form r.n = p. (9 marks)
P 12 Four planes have Cartesian equations

Π1: 2x − y + 3z = 1 Π2: x + y − 3z = 2 Π3: 3x − 2y − z = 4 Π4: x + y = 0
Find the volume of the finite space enclosed by all four planes.
Challenge
a Show that the plane x + y + z = 0 is invariant under the linear transformation represented
2 −1 2
(−1 2 2 )
by the matrix   2  2   
  −1 
.
b Show that the only invariant point in this plane is the origin.
Mixed exercise 1
E 1 The points A, B and C have position vectors a, b and c O

respectively, relative to a fixed origin O, as shown in the diagram.
c
a = 2i + 3j b = i − 2j + 2k c = 3i + 2j − 4k a
Calculate: b C
a b×c (3 marks) A
b a.(b × c) (2 marks)
c the area of triangle OBC (2 marks) B
d the volume of tetrahedron OABC. (1 mark)
25

Chapter 1
E/P 2 A soft drinks manufacturer is designing a package in the shape of a tetrahedron. He designs it
in 3D software with the origin as his starting point. The position vectors of vertices A, B and C
from the origin are 2i + j + 3k, i − 4j − 3k and −i + 3j − k respectively.
⟶ ⟶
a Find  OB  ×  OC . (3 marks)
He prints prototype packages using a 3D printer and a scale of 1 unit in the design representing
4 cm on the model.
b Given that the thickness of the plastic can be considered negligible, find, in cm3, the volume
of one prototype package. (4 marks)
E/P 3 The diagram shows a parallelepiped ABCEFDHG with C D

vertices A(0, 0, 0), E(3, −1, 2), C (4, 1, −2), and F (2, −5, 1). B H
A tetrahedron is formed by joining vertices A, C and E

to the point M on side EF such that the ratio EM : MF is 2 : 1.
E M
Show that the volume of the tetrahedron is _ 9 of the volume
1
F
of the parallelepiped. (8 marks) A G
E/P 4 Relative to an origin O, the points A and B have position vectors a metres and b metres
respectively, where
a = 5i + 2j b = 2i − j − 3k
The point C moves such that the volume of the tetrahedron OABC is always 5 m3.
Determine Cartesian equations of the locus of possible positions of point C. (6 marks)
E/P 5 The lines L1 and L2 have equations r = a1 + sb1 and r = a2 + tb2 respectively, where
a1 = 3i − 3j − 2k b1 = j + 2k
a2 = 8i + 3j b2 = 5i + 4j − 2k.
a Verify that the point P with position vector 3i − j + 2k lies on both L1 and L2. (2 marks)
b Find b1 × b2. (3 marks)
c Find a Cartesian equation of the plane containing L1 and L2. (4 marks)
The points with position
___
vectors
___
a1 and a2 are A1 and A2 respectively.
› ›
d By expressing A1Pand A 2Pas multiples of b1 and b2 respectively, or otherwise, find the area
of the triangle PA1A2. (3 marks)
A 6 The position vectors of the points A, B, C and D relative to a fixed origin O, are −j + 2k,
E i − 3j + 5k, 2i − 2j + 7k and j + 2k respectively.
___
› ___
›
a Find p = AB
× CD
. (3 marks)
___›
b Calculate AC.p. (2 marks)
c Hence determine the shortest distance between the line containing AB and the line
containing CD. (3 marks)
E 7 Relative to a fixed origin O, the point

___
M has position vector −4i + j − 2k.
›
The straight line l has equation r × OM
= 5i − 10k.
a Express the equation of the line l in the form r = a + tb, where a and b are constant vectors
and t is a parameter. (3 marks)
26

Vectors
A b Verify that the point N with coordinates (2, −3, 1) lies on l and find the area of triangle
OMN. (4 marks)
E 8 A plane passes through the three points A, B, C, whose position vectors, referred to an
origin O, are (i + 3j + 3k), (3i + j + 4k), (2i + 4j + k) respectively.
a Find, in the form l i + mj + nk, a unit normal vector to this plane. (4 marks)
b Find also a Cartesian equation of the plane. (3 marks)
c Find the perpendicular distance from the origin to this plane. (3 marks)
E 9 a Show that the vector i + k is perpendicular to the plane with vector equation
r = i + sj + t(i − k). (2 marks)
b Find the perpendicular distance from the origin to this plane. (3 marks)
c Hence or otherwise obtain a Cartesian equation of the plane. (3 marks)
E 10 The points A, B and C have position vectors i + j + k, 5i −2j + k and 3i + 2j + 6k respectively,

referred to an origin O.
a Find a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the points A, B and C. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, find an equation for the plane which contains the points A, B and C,
in the form ax + by + cz + d = 0. (3 marks)
The point D has coordinates (1, 5, 6).
c Find the volume of the tetrahedron ABCD. (4 marks)
E 11 The plane Π passes through A(3, −5, −1), B(−1, 5, 7) and C (2, −3, 0).
___
› ___
›
a Find AC
× BC
. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, find the equation, in the form r.n = p, of the plane Π. (3 marks)
c The perpendicular from the point (2, 3, −2) to Π meets the plane at P. Find the coordinates
of P. (4 marks)
E/P 12 Given that P and Q are the points with position vectors p and q respectively, relative to an
origin O, and that p = 3i − j + 2k and q = 2i + j − k,
a find p × q. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, find an equation of the plane containing O, P and Q in the form
ax + by + cz = d. (3 marks)
The line with equation (r − p) × q = 0 meets the plane with equation r.(i + j + k) = 2 at the
point T.
c Find the coordinates of the point T. (4 marks)
E 13 The planes Π1 and Π2 are defined by the equations 2x + 2y − z = 9 and x − 2y = 7 respectively.

a Find the acute angle between Π1 and Π2, giving your answer to the nearest degree. (3 marks)
b Find in the form r × u = v an equation of the line of intersection of Π1 and Π2. (4 marks)
27

Chapter 1
A 14 The plane Π has vector equation
() () ( )
E/P 1 4 3
r = 3 + u 1 +v 2
4 2 −1
where u and v are parameters.
The line L has vector equation
() ( )
2 2
r= 1 + t 3
−3 −4
where t is a parameter.
a Show that L is parallel to Π. (4 marks)
b Find the shortest distance between L and Π. (3 marks)
E 15 The plane Π has equation 2x + y + 3z = 21 and the origin is O. The line l passes through the
point P(1, 2, 1) and is perpendicular to Π.
a Find a vector equation of l. (3 marks)
The line l meets the plane Π at the point M.
b Find the coordinates of M.
___ ___
(3 marks)
› ›
c Find OP × OM
. (3 marks)
d Hence, or otherwise, find the distance from P to the line OM, giving your answer in surd form.
The point Q is the reflection of P in Π. (3 marks)
e Find the coordinates of Q. (3 marks)
E/P 16 In a tetrahedron ABCD the coordinates of the vertices B, C, D are (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 3) and
(3, 2, 4) respectively. Find:
a the equation of the plane BCD (4 marks)
b the sine of the angle between BC and the plane x + 2y + 3z = 4. (3 marks)
___
c If AC and AD are perpendicular to BD and BC respectively and if AB = √
26 , find the
coordinates of the two possible positions of A. (4 marks)
E 17 Points A and B have position vectors −2i + j + 5k and 4i + 2j − 3k respectively.

⟶
a Find the direction ratios of  AB . (3 marks)
⟶
b Find the direction cosines l, m and n of AB 
  . (3 marks)
c Write down the Cartesian equation of the line through A and B in the form
x − x1 ______ y − y1 _____ z − z1
 ______
  =     =     (2 marks)
l m n
P 18 A line L makes angles α, β and γ with the x-, y- and z-axes respectively.
Prove that sin  2 α + sin  2 β + sin  2 γ = 2.
P 19 Two lines L1 and L2 have direction cosines equal to l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 respectively.
l1 m1 __ n1
Show that if the two lines are parallel, then  __  = ___
  m   =   n  
l2 2 2
28

Vectors
A 20 A radio mast is modelled as a straight rod in 3D space. It is supported by guide wires W1 and
E/P W2 which are modelled as straight lines. W1 passes through the origin and makes angles of 45°,
60° and 60° with the x-, y- and z-axes respectively.
⎜ ⎟
The wire attaches to the pylon at point A.
8 + 3 √ 2  ⎞
⎛_______
__
   
4 3
( 1)
a W2 has vector equation r = 0__   + λ −
  4
 
.
5 √ 2 
____
⎝   4  ⎠
Show that W2 also passes through A and find the coordinates of A. (7 marks)
b The base of the pylon, B, lies in the xy-plane and the pylon is perpendicular to the xy-plane.
Given that each unit in the model represents 10 m, find the distance that B is from the
origin. (4 marks)
c Give one criticism of the model. (1 mark)
E/P 21 The plane Π1 has vector equation

1 0 −4
(− 1) (2) (2)
r =   1  + λ 3    + μ 1  
where λ and μ are real parameters.

The plane Π1 is transformed to the plane Π2 by the transformation represented by the
matrix T, where
1 0 3
(−1 0 2)
T =   
  1     −2   −1
 
4
(4)
Show that the equation of the plane Π2 can be written as r. 5    = d where d is a constant to be
found. (9 marks)
Challenge
The plane Π cuts the x-, y- and z-axes at the points (p, 0, 0),
(0, q, 0) and (0, 0, r) respectively. Given that the shortest distance
between the plane and the origin is d, prove that
1
___ 1 1 ___ 1
    + ___
    + __
    =    
p   2 q  2 r  2 d  2
29

Chapter 1
Summary of key points

1 The scalar (or dot) product of two vectors a and b is written as a.b, and defined as
a.b = |a||b|cos θ
where θ is the angle between a and b.
2 The vector (or cross) product of the vectors a and b is defined as

where θ is the angle between a and b.
3 b × a = −a × b
4 If i, j and k are unit vectors along the x-, y- and z-axes respectively, then:
• i×i=0
k
• j×j=0
• k×k=0 j
• i × j = k and j × i = −k
• j × k = i and k × j = −i
i
• k × i = j and i × k = −j
5 If a × b = 0 then either a = 0, b = 0 or a and b are parallel.
6 a × b = (a2b3 − a3b2)i + (a3b1 − a1b3)j + (a1b2 − a2b1)k
i j k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
= a1 a2 a3 = i − j + k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
7 If A and B have position vectors a and b respectively, then

B
Area of triangle OAB =  _12 |a × b|
θ
O a A
8 If A, B and C have position vectors a, b and c respectively, then

⟶ ⟶
Area of triangle ABC = _  12 |AB 
  |
× AC 
 
= _ 21 |(b − a) × (c − a)|
= _ 12 |(a × b) + (b × c) + (c × a)|
30

Vectors
A C
9 If A and B have position vectors a and b respectively, then
a
Area of parallelogram OABC = |a × b|
10 If A, B, C and D have position vectors a, b, c and d O B

b
respectively, then
⟶ ⟶ D
Area of parallelogram ABCD = |AB  |
C
  × AD 
 
= |(b − a) × (d − a)|
= |(a × b) + (b × d) + (d × a)| A B
11 When a = (a1i + a2 j + a3k), b = (b1i + b2 j + b3k) and c = (c1i + c2 j + c3k),

a.(b × c) = a1(b2c3 − b3c2) + a2(b3c1 − b1c3) + a3(b1c2 − b2c1)
This can also be written as
a1 a2 a3
a.(b × c) = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3
a.(b × c) is known as the scalar triple product.
12 a.(b × c) = b.(c × a) = c.(a × b)

a.(a × p) = a.(p × a) = 0 for any vector p.
13 If three sides of a parallelepiped are given by vectors

a, b and c as shown in the diagram, then the volume of a
the parallelepiped is given by |a.(b × c)|. c
b
14 If three sides of a tetrahedron are given by vectors
a, b and c as shown in the diagram, then the volume
of the tetrahedron is given by  _16 |a.(b × c)|. a b
A 15 (r − a) × b = 0 is an alternative form of the vector equation of a line passing through the

point A with position vector a, and parallel to the vector b.
This may also be written as r × b = a × b.
16 If a line is parallel to the vector a = xi + yj + zk, the direction ratios of the line are x : y : z,
and the direction cosines of the line are
x y z
cos α = ___
    , cos β = ___
    , cos γ = ___
   
|a| |a| |a|
and are written as l, m and n respectively.
17 A line with direction ratios x : y : z has direction cosines l, m and n such that l  2 + m  2 + n  2 = 1.
18 The shortest distance between the two skew lines with equations
(a − c).(b × d)
r = a + λb and r = c + μd, where λ and μ are scalars, is given by the formula ____________
   
|(b × d)| | |
31

2 Conic sections 1
Objectives
● Plot and sketch a curve expressed parametrically
→ pages 33–35
● Work with the Cartesian equation and parametric equations
of a parabola and a rectangular hyperbola → pages 35–45
● Find the equation of tangents and normals to parabolas
and rectangular hyperbolas → pages 45–54
● Understand the focus–directrix property of a parabola
→ pages 54–56
● Solve locus problems involving the parabola and
rectangular hyperbola → pages 55–56

1
1 Sketch the curve with equation y =  __
x 
← Pure Year 1, Chapter 4
2 Find the coordinates of the points of

intersection of the line l with equation
y = −2x + 16 and the curve C with
equation y = −2x2 + 6x + 10.
← Pure Year 1, Chapter 3 This solar power station generates electricity
by reflecting the sun’s rays onto a glass tube
3 Find the equation of the tangent to the containing oil. The cross-section of the mirror
curve y = 2x2 + 6x − 8 at the point where is a parabola, with the tube at its focus.
x = 1. ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 12 → Mixed exercise, Challenge
32

Conic sections 1
2.1 Parametric equations

You can define a curve using parametric equations, where the x- and y- coordinates of each point
on the curve are given in terms of an independent variable (such as t) which is called a parameter.
The parametric equations of a curve are written in the form
x = p(t), y = q(t)
Each value of t within the domain of the functions p and q generates a unique point on the curve.
■ To find the Cartesian equation of a curve Links
given parametrically you eliminate the A Cartesian equation is an equation in terms of
parameter t between the equations. x and y only. ← Pure Year 2, Chapter 8
Example 1
A curve has parametric equations x = at2, y = 2at, t ∈ R where a is a positive constant. Find the
Cartesian equation of the curve.
y = 2at
y
So t = ___
  (1) Rearrange one equation into the form t = …
2a
x = at2 (2)
Substitute (1) into (2):
x = a (___
  )
y 2 y
Substitute t = ___
    into x = at2.
2a 2a
ay2
So x =  ____2 which simplifies to
4a
y2
x =  ___
4a
Hence, the Cartesian equation is
y2 = 4ax This equation now involves x and y and not t.
Note that a is a constant.
Example 2
A curve has parametric equations x = ct, y = _c  , t ∈ R, t ≠ 0, where c is a positive constant.

t
a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve.
b Hence sketch this curve.
a Method 1 To obtain the Cartesian equation, eliminate t from

x = ct the given parametric equations.
x
So t =   __
c (1)
Rearrange one equation into the form t = …
c
y =  __t (2)
33

Chapter 2
x c
Substitute (1) into (2):   c  into y = __
Substitute t = __    
c t
y = ___  x __  
(   c   )
c c2
So y = c × __   x  This simplifies to y = __
  x 

c2 This equation now involves x and y. Note that c is
y =  __
x  a constant.
Method 2
xy = ct × ( __  t   )
c Alternatively, you can multiply x by y on this
occasion to eliminate t.
c2t
xy =  ___
t
xy = c2 This equation now involves x and y. Note that c is
a constant.
This also may be expressed as
c2
y =  __
x
b y
● As c is a positive constant, then c2 is also a
positive constant, which may be denoted by
y = cx
2
another constant, k.
● Hence the Cartesian equation represents a
O x
k
curve of the form y = __
  x , k . 0.
Exercise 2A
1 Find the Cartesian equations of the curves given by these pairs of parametric equations.
b x = _  2  t2, y = t
1
a x = 5t2, y = 10t c x = 50t2, y = 100t
__ __
d x = _ 5  t2, y = _  5  t e x =  _2  t2, y = 5t
1 2 5
f x=√
3 t2, y = 2√3 t
g x = 4t, y = 2t2 h x = 6t, y = 3t2
2 Find the Cartesian equations of the curves given by these pairs of parametric equations.
1 7
a x = t, y = __
  t  , t ≠ 0 b x = 7t, y = __
  t , t ≠ 0
__
__ 3√ 5  t 1
c x = 3√ 5 t, y = ____
  t , t ≠ 0 d x = __
   , y = __
  , t ≠ 0
5 5t
3
3 A curve has parametric equations x = 3t, y = __
  t , t ∈ ℝ, t ≠ 0.
a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve.
b Hence sketch this curve.
34

Conic sections 1
__
__ √
2 
___
4 A curve has parametric equations x = √2 t, y =   t , t ∈ ℝ, t ≠ 0.
a Find the Cartesian equation of the curve. b Hence sketch this curve.
2.2 Parabolas
You have previously encountered parabolas in the form of
quadratic curves, such as y = x2. The parabola is one member
of a family of curves known as the conic sections. These curves
can be obtained by slicing a cone.
The parabola is obtained by slicing the cone parallel
to its slope.
Links The circle is another example of a conic section,

obtained by slicing a cone horizontally. You can learn
about other conic sections later in this chapter and in
the next chapter. → Section 2.5, Chapter 3
You need to be able to recognise and work with the Parabola
parametric form of the equation for a parabola.
y
■ The curve opposite is a parabola with P(x, y)
Cartesian equation y = 4ax, where a is a positive constant.
2
• The curve has parametric equations

x = at 2, y = 2at, t ∈ ℝ O x
• The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.

y2 = 4ax
• A general point P on this curve has coordinates
(x, y) or (at2, 2at).
y
You also need to be able to define a parabola in terms of its X P
focus– directrix properties.
■ A parabola is the locus of points that are the same
distance from a fixed point S, called the focus,
and a fixed straight line called the directrix.
a a S
In the diagram on the right, SP = PX for all –a O a x
points P on the parabola. For the parabola vertex focus
with Cartesian equation y2 = 4ax,
• the focus, S, has coordinates (a, 0) directrix
• the directrix has equation x + a = 0
• the vertex is at the point (0, 0). y2 = 4ax
x+a=0
Online Explore the focus–directrix properties
of a parabola using GeoGebra.
35

Chapter 2
Example 3
Find an equation of the parabola with:

a focus (7, 0) and directrix x + 7 = 0
( )
__ __
√
3 
___ √
 3
___
b focus    , 0 and directrix x = −    
4 4
a Focus (7, 0) and directrix x + 7 = 0 The focus and directrix are in the form (a, 0) and
x + a = 0.
So a = 7
So parabola has equation y2 = 28x
Write equation in the form y2 = 4ax with a = 7.
( )
__ __
√
3  √3 
b Focus ___
    , 0 and directrix x = − ___ 
4 4
__
√
3 
x + ___
    = 0 Rearrange the directrix to the form x + a = 0.
4 __
√
3 
So a = ___   
4
( )
__ __ __
So parabola has equation y2 = √
3 x. √
 
3 √ 
3
With a = ___
   , y2 = 4 ___
     x.
4 4
Example 4
Find the coordinates of the focus and an equation for the directrix of a parabola with equation:
___
a y2 = 24x b y2 = √
32 x.
This is in the form y2 = 4ax with a = 6.
a y2 = 24x
So the focus has coordinates (6, 0) Focus has coordinates (a, 0).
and the directrix has equation x + 6 = 0.
___ Directrix has equation x + a = 0.
b y2 = √
32 x __ ___ __
So the focus has coordinates (√2 , 0)__
√
32  =__4√2 so this is in the form y2 = 4ax with
and the directrix has equation x + √ 2  = 0. a=√ 2 .
Exercise 2B
1 Find an equation of the parabola with:
a focus (5, 0) and directrix x + 5 = 0 b focus (8, 0) and directrix x + 8 = 0
d focus (__
   , 0) and directrix x = − __ 
3 3
c focus (1, 0) and directrix x = −1
__ __
2 2
e focus (
    , 0) and directrix x +     = 0
√
3 
___ √
3 
___
2 2
36

Conic sections 1
2 Find the coordinates of the focus, and an equation for the directrix of each of the following
parabolas.
a y 2 = 12x b y 2 = 20x c y 2 = 10x
__ __ __
d y 2 = 4√3 x e y 2 = √2 x f y 2 = 5√2 x
3 Find the coordinates of the focus, and an equation of the Hint The parabola with
parabola that passes through the general point: general point (6t2, 12t)
__ __
a (6t2, 12t) (3√ 2  t  2 , 6√ 2  t)
b has parametric equations
x = 6t2, y = 12t.
Challenge
1 Find a Cartesian equation of the parabola with:
a focus (0, 4) and directrix y = −4
Problem-solving
b focus (3, 3) and directrix y = 0
c focus (8, 0) and directrix x = 2 Use a matrix transformation
to rotate the general point
2 The parabola C has focus (2, 2) and directrix x + y + 4 = 0. Show that a (at2, 2at), for a suitable
Cartesian equation for C is x + y =  __
1
16 (x – y) .
2
value of a.
Example 5
The point P(8, −8) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 8x. The point S is the focus of the
parabola. The line l passes through S and P.
a Find the coordinates of S.
b Find an equation for l, giving your answer in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are
integers.
The line l meets the parabola C again at the point Q. The point M is the midpoint of PQ.
c Find the coordinates of Q.
d Find the coordinates of M.
e Draw a sketch showing the parabola C, the line l and the points P, Q, S and M.
a y2 = 8x This is in the form y2 = 4ax with a = 2.

The focus, S, has coordinates (2, 0)
−8 − 0 −8 The focus has coordinates (a, 0).

b m =  _______  =  ___ 
8−2 6
y2 − y1
So m = − _43  Use m = ______
  x − x   , where (x1, y1) = (2, 0) and
2 1
y − 0 = − _43  (x − 2) (x2, y2) = (8, −8).
3y = −4(x − 2)
3y = −4x + 8 Use y − y1 = m(x − x1). Here m = −  _43 and
(x1, y1) = (2, 0).
4x + 3y − 8 = 0
The line l has equation 4x + 3y − 8 = 0. Rearrange into the form ax + by + c = 0.
37

Chapter 2
c l: 4x + 3y − 8 = 0 (1) As the line l meets the curve C, solve these

equations simultaneously.
C: y2 = 8x
8x + 6y − 16 = 0
Multiply (1) by 2.
y2 + 6y − 16 = 0
(y + 8)(y − 2) = 0
Use y2 = 8x.
So y = −8 or y = 2.
y = −8 corresponds to point P.
When y = 2, x =  __1
2 so Q has coordinates Use y = 2 to find the x-coordinate of Q.
(  2 , 2).
__1
 
8+_
d The midpoint is _____
2
(
 21   −8 + 2
  ,  _______
2
   ) Use ( ______
 
2
  ,  
2 )
y1 + y2
x1 + x2 ______
  , where
The point M has coordinates (__ P = (x1, y1) = (8, −8) and Q = (x2, y2) = ( _  12 , 2).
4 , −3).
  17
e The parabola C has equation

Simplify.
y2 = 8x
The line l has equation
4x + 3y − 8 = 0
The line l cuts the parabola at the points
P(8, −8) and Q (_
  21  , 2).
The points S(2, 0) and M(__ 4 , −3)also lie on
  17
the line l.
y
C: y2 = 8x
Notation
The line segment PQ is a chord of the parabola.
A chord which passes through the focus is
Q ( 21 , 2) sometimes called a focal chord.
S(2, 0)
O x
M ( 17
4 , –3 )
P(8, – 8)
l: 4x + 3y – 8 = 0
38

Conic sections 1
Example 6
The parabola C has general point (at2, 2at). The line x = k intersects C at the points P and Q.
Find, in terms of a and k, the length of the chord PQ.
If x = k, then k = at2. The x-coordinate of a point on the curve is x = at2.

k
So t2 = __
  a 
__ Solve the equation for t.
__
t=± √
k
  a  
__ __
√ √
___
k k Substitute each value for t separately to obtain
If t = __
  a  , then y = 2a __
  a   = 2√ak 
__ the two y-values.
√
___
k
__
Similarly, if t = −   a  , then y = −2√ak 
___ This is a vertical line segment, so the distance
The coordinates
___
of P and Q are (k, 2√ak  ) and from P to Q can be found by subtracting the
(k, −2 ak ).
√
y-coordinates.
___
The length of the chord PQ is 4√
ak .
Problem-solving
You could also solve this problem by finding a
Cartesian equation of C and substituting x = k to
find two corresponding values of y.
Exercise 2C
1 The line y = 2x − 3 meets the parabola y2 = 3x at the points P and Q.

Find the coordinates of P and Q.
2 The line y = x + 6 meets the parabola y2 = 32x at Hint Use the distance formula
the points A and B. Find the exact length of AB, _________________
d= √
(x
   2 − x1) + (y 2 − y1)  
2 2
giving your answer as a surd in its simplest form.
3 The line y = x − 20 meets the parabola y2 = 10x at the points A and B. The midpoint of AB is
the point M. Find the coordinates of M.
P 4 The parabola C has parametric equations x = 6t2, y = 12t. The focus of C is at the point S.
a State the coordinates of S and the equation of the directrix of C.
b Sketch the graph of C.
The points P and Q on the parabola are both at a distance 9 units away from the directrix of
the parabola.
c State the distance PS.
d Find the exact length PQ, giving your answer as a surd in its simplest form.
__
e Find the area of the triangle PQS, giving your answer in the form k√2 , where k is an integer.
39

Chapter 2
5 The parabola C has equation y2 = 4ax, where a is a constant. The point ( _ 4  t2, _ 2  t)is a general
5 5
point on C.
a Find a Cartesian equation of C.
The point P lies on C and has y-coordinate 5.
b Find the x-coordinate of P.
The point Q lies on the directrix of C where y = 3. The line l passes through the points P and Q.
c Find the coordinates of Q.
d Find an equation for l, giving your answer in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are
integers.
E 6 A parabola C has equation y2 = 4x. The point S is the focus of C.

a Find the coordinates of S. (1 mark)
The point P with y-coordinate 4 lies on C.
b Find the x-coordinate of P. (1 mark)
The line l passes through S and P.
c Find an equation for l, giving your answer in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and
c are integers. (2 marks)
The line l meets C again at the point Q.
d Find the coordinates of Q. (3 marks)
e Find the distance of the directrix of C to the point Q. (2 marks)
E/P 7 The diagram shows the point P which lies on the y

parabola C with equation y2 = 12x. P
Q
The point S is the focus of C. The points Q and R
lie on the directrix to C. The line segment PQ is 12
parallel to the line segment RS as shown in the
diagram. The length of PS is 12 units.
R O S x
a Find the coordinates of R and S. (2 marks)
b Hence find the exact coordinates of
P and Q. (2 marks)
c Find the area of the quadrilateral __PQRS,
giving your answer in the form k√ ,
3 C
where k is an integer. (2 marks)
E/P 8 The points P(16, 8) and Q(4, b), where b , 0 lie on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax.
a Find the values of a and b. (2 marks)
P and Q also lie on the line l1. The midpoint of PQ is the point R.
b Find an equation of l1, giving your answer in the form y = mx + c, where m and c are
constants to be determined. (3 marks)
c Find the coordinates of R. (1 mark)
40

Conic sections 1
The line l2 is perpendicular to l, and passes through R.

d Find an equation of l2, giving your answer in the form y = mx + c, where m and c are
The line l2 meets the parabola C at two points.
___
e Show that the x-coordinates of these two points can be written in the form x = λ ± μ√
13 ,
where λ and μ are integers to be determined. (4 marks)
E/P 9 The point P(at2, 2at) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax. The line l passes through P
and the focus of the parabola, S.
a Find an expression for the gradient of l in terms of t. (2 marks)
The line intersects the parabola again at a point Q.
b Find the coordinates of Q, giving your answer in terms of a and t. (4 marks)
x = 10
y
P 10 The diagram shows the parabola with equation
y2 = 36x. The region R is bounded by the parabola,
the x-axis and the line x = 10. Find the exact area
of R.
R
Problem-solving
____ x
The equation y = √ 4ax represents the top half of O 10
the parabola y2 = 4ax. Use integration to find the
area under this curve between x = 0 and x = 10.
y2 = 36x
y
11 The diagram shows the parabola C with equation y  2 = _  2 x.
1
E/P
The straight line lwith equation y = _  8 x cuts C at the
1 P
points O and P. Find the area of the shaded region R.
R l
(4 marks)
O x
41

Chapter 2
E/P 12 The diagram shows the points P(2, a) and Q(2, b) which y l
C
lie on the parabola C with equation y2 = 8x. The point T
lies on the directrix to C. P(2, a)
a Find the values of a and b. (1 mark)
T and P lie on the line l.
b Find an equation of l, giving your answer R
T x
O
in the form y = mx + c, where m and c are
c Find the area of the shaded region R. (4 marks)
Q(2, b)
E/P 13 A parabola C has equation y2 = 16x. y

The point S is the focus to C.
The point P with y-coordinate 4 lies on C. P
b Find the x-coordinate of P. (1 mark) S

O x
The straight line l passes through S and P.
R
c Find an equation for l giving your answer in the form
y = mx + c, where m and c are constants to be found. (2 marks)
The line l meets C again at Q. The shaded region R is C
Q
bounded by the curve C, the line l and the x-axis.
l
d Find the area of the shaded region R. (6 marks)
2.3 Rectangular hyperbolas

If you slice through a cone in such a way that the slice intersects
both halves, you obtain a curve called a hyperbola.
Notation
A hyperbola has two sections. These are sometimes
called different branches of the hyperbola.
In this chapter you will consider one specific type of

hyperbola called a rectangular hyperbola. Hyperbola Hyperbola
This curve has two asymptotes which meet at right angles.
42

Conic sections 1
■ The curve opposite is a rectangular hyperbola with y

Cartesian equation xy = c where c is a positive constant.
2,
P(x, y)
• The curve has parametric equations
c
x = ct, y = __
  , t ∈ ℝ, t ≠ 0
t x
O
• The curve has asymptotes with equations x = 0
(the y-axis) and y = 0 (the x-axis). xy = c2
• A general point P on this curve has coordinates (x, y) or ( ct, __
  ).
c
t
Example 7
The rectangular hyperbola H has Cartesian equation xy = 64. The line l with equation x + 2y − 36 = 0
intersects the curve at the points P and Q.
a Find the coordinates of P and Q.
b Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of PQ in the form y = mx + c.
a x + 2y − 36 = 0 ⇒ x = −2y + 36 Rearrange to obtain x = …

(−2y + 36)y = 64
Substitute into xy = 64.
−2y2 + 36y − 64 = 0
y2 − 18y + 32 = 0 Expand and then factorise the quadratic.
(y − 16)(y − 2) = 0
y = 2 ⇒ x = 32 ⇒ P(32, 2) Substitute the y-coordinates into either equation
y = 16 ⇒ x = 4 ⇒ Q(4, 16) to calculate the x-coordinates.
The midpoint of (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is

b Midpoint of PQ is (18, 9)
(______
2 )
x  1  + x  2 ______
y 1  + y 2
    ,    
2
Gradient of PQ is −  __
1
2
Gradient of perpendicular bisector is 2. Rearrange x + 2y − 36 = 0 to obtain y = −  _12 x + 18.
y − 9 = 2(x − 18)
The gradients of perpendicular lines multiply to
⇒ y = 2x − 27 equal −1.
Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with m = 2 and

(x1, y1) = (18, 9).
43

Chapter 2
Exercise 2D
1 A rectangular hyperbola has equation xy = 12.

a Sketch the curve.
The line l with equation y = −3x + 15 intersects the curve at the points P and Q.
b Find the coordinates of P and Q.
c Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of PQ.
d Find the x-coordinates of the points where the perpendicular bisector intersects the
rectangular hyperbola.
2 The rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = 9 and the straight line with equation y = x
intersect at the points P and Q.
a Find the coordinates of the points P and Q.
The lines 3x − y + 6 = 0 and x − 3y − 6 = 0 intersect the rectangular hyperbola at P and also at
the points S and T respectively.
b Find the length of ST.
c Show that the midpoint of ST lies on the straight line y = x.
P 3 The straight line 3x + 4y + 48 = 0 intersects the rectangular hyperbola with parametric equations
6
x = 6t, y = __
    , t ≠ 0, at the points P and Q. The straight line 4x − 3y − 11 = 0 intersects the
t
rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = 36 at the points Q and R. Find the area of the
triangle PQR.
4 The points P( cp,  __

p ) and Q( cq,   q )both lie on the hyperbola with equation xy = c .
c c
__ 2
P
Show that the chord PQ has equation x + pqy = c( p + q).
P 5 The parabola C has equation y2 = 4ax and the rectangular hyperbola H has equation xy = c2,
where a . 0 and c . 0. Show that C and H intersect exactly once, and find the coordinates of the
point of intersection, giving your answer in terms of a and c.
c
E/P 6 The rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2 contains point P with x-coordinate __
    and
2
point Q with x-coordinate −4c. Find, in terms of c, the exact length of the chord PQ.
(5 marks)
9
E 7 A rectangular hyperbola H has parametric equations x = 9t, y = __   , t ≠ 0. The straight line l
t
with equation 4x − 3y + 69 = 0 intersects H at the points P and Q.
a Show that l intersects H where 12t2 + 23t − 9 = 0. (3 marks)
b Hence, or otherwise, find the coordinates of P and Q. (4 marks)
44

Conic sections 1
12
E 8 The rectangular hyperbola H has parametric equations x = 12t, y = ___
   , t ≠ 0.
t
a Write the Cartesian equation of H in the form xy = c2. (1 mark)
P and Q are points on the hyperbola such that t = _  2 and t = 6 respectively.
1
___
b Find the length of the line segment PQ, giving your answer in the form a√ 10 . (3 marks)
c Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of PQ. (3 marks)
E/P 9 The diagram shows the straight line with equation y xy = 8

x + 2y − 10 = 0 that intersects the rectangular hyperbola
with equation xy = 8 at the points P and Q. P
a Find the coordinates of P and Q. (2 marks) x + 2y – 10 = 0

b Find the exact area of the shaded region, R, R
Q
bounded by the hyperbola and the line. x
O
Give your answer in the form a + b ln c,
where a, b and c are constants to be found. (5 marks)
Challenge Problem-solving
The rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2 is rotated The resulting curve is a rectangular
through 45° anticlockwise about the origin. Show that the hyperbola with asymptotes y = x
resulting curve can be written in the form y2 − x2 = k2, where and y = −x.
k . 0, giving k in terms of c.
2.4 Tangents and normals

You can use parametric differentiation or implicit differentiation to find the gradient of any point on a
parabola. You do not need to be able to use either of these techniques if you are studying for AS level
Further Maths only.
Links
A Parametric differentiation Implicit differentiation Parametric and implicit differentiation are
dx covered in Pure Year 2.
x = at2 ⇒ ___     = 2at y2 = 4ax
dt ← Pure Year 2, Sections 9.7, 9.8
dy dy
y = 2at ⇒  ___  = 2a 2y  ___  = 4a These two expressions are equivalent, since
dt dx y
___dy ___ dy ___ dx __ 1 ___dy ___ 2a t = ___
   . However, it is sometimes useful to
    =     ÷     =         =   y  2a
dx dt dt t dx find the gradient in terms of the parameter.
■ For the general parabola y2 = 4ax, the gradient Watch out If you need to use this result
dy 2a
is given by  ___ = ___
  in an AS exam, it will be given with the
dx y question. In an A level exam you would
You can find the gradient at any point on a rectangular be expected to derive this result if the
hyperbola by rearranging the equation into the form question says ‘prove’ or ‘use calculus’.
c  2
y = __
  x  and differentiating.
45

Chapter 2
Example 8
The point P, with x-coordinate 2, lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = 8.
Find:
a the equation of the tangent, T, to H at point P
b the equation of the normal, N to H at the point P
giving your answers in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers.
a H: xy = 8
8
y = __   x  ⇒ y = 8x−1
dy 8
 ___  = −8x−2 = − __2 
dx x
dy 8 Substitute x = 2 to calculate the gradient of the
When x = 2, mT = ___
  = − __2  = −2
dx 2 tangent to H at P.
8
When x = 2, y = __
    = 4
2 Find the y-coordinate when x = 2.
T: y − 4 = −2(x − 2) Hence P has coordinates (2, 4).
T: 2x + y − 8 = 0
Use y − y1 = mT (x − x1) to find the equation of
Therefore, the equation of the tangent the tangent, T.
to H at P is 2x + y − 8 = 0. Here mT = −2 and (x1, y1) = (2, 4).
b Gradient of tangent at P is mT = −2.

Then rearrange into the required form.
So gradient of normal is mN = _
 21  
N: y − 4 = _
 21   (x − 2)
−1 −1 __ 1
N: 2y − 8 = x − 2 Use mN = ___
  m   = ___
    =    
T −2 2
N: x − 2y + 6 = 0
Use y − y1 = mN (x − x1) to find the equation of
Therefore, the equation of the normal
the normal, N. Here mN = _  12 and (x1 , y1) = (2, 4).
to H at P is x − 2y + 6 = 0.
Rearrange into the required form.
Example 9
The point P with coordinates (75, 30) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 12x.
Find the equation of the tangent to C at P, giving your answer in the form y = mx + c, where m and
c are constants.
46

Conic sections 1
y2 = 12x dy
Use implicit differentiation to find ___    .
dy dx
2y ___  = 12 Students who are only studying for AS Further
dx
dy 2a
dy 6 Maths could use the result  ___  =  ___
  with a = 3.
 ___  = __    dx y
dx y
dy 6
When y = 30, ___
    = ___
    = __
  51 so m = __
  51
dx 30 dy 6
__1 Use ___
    =  __  to find the gradient of the tangent.
y − 30 =   5 (x − 75) dx y
⇒ y = __
  51 x + 15
Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) to find the equation of the
Therefore, the equation of the tangent to C tangent. Here m = _  15 and (x1, y1) = (75, 30).
at P is y =  __
1
5 x + 15.
Example 10
The point P(4, 8) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax. Find:
a the value of a
b an equation of the normal to C at P.
The normal to C at P cuts the parabola again at the point Q. Find:
c the coordinates of Q
d the length PQ, giving your answer as a simplified surd.
Substitute (x, y) = (4, 8) into y2 = 4ax and simplify

a 82 = 4a × 4 ⇒ a = 4
to find a.
b y2 = 16x
dy dy 8 dy 2a
2y ___  = 16 so ___
    =  __ y  Use ___
    = ___
    or implicit differentiation.
dx dx dx y
8
When y = 8, mT = __     = 1
8
Use mT for the gradient of the tangent and mN
So gradient of normal is mN = −1.
for the gradient of the normal.
y − 8 = −1(x − 4) −1
⇒ y = −x + 12 mN = ___
  m  
T
Therefore, the equation of the normal to C
at P is y = −x + 12. Use y − y1 = mN(x − x1) to find the equation of
c When the normal cuts the curve, the tangent. Here mN = −1 and (x1, y1) = (4, 8).
(−x + 12)2 = 16x
x2 − 24x + 144 = 16x Substitute y = −x + 12 into y2 = 16x.
x2 − 40x + 144 = 0
(x − 4)(x − 36) = 0 Multiply out and solve the quadratic.
So x = 4 or x = 36
When x = 36, y = −36 + 12 = −24. x = 4 corresponds to point P.
So Q has coordinates (36, −24).
_____________________
d PQ = √ (36
    − 4)2 + (−24 − 8) 2 Use the distance formula to find the length of
_____________ ______ __
PQ = √ 32
   2 + (− 32)2  = √ 2048  = 32√ 2  PQ, and give your answer as a simplified surd.
47

Chapter 2
Exercise 2E
In this exercise, AS students may use, without proof, the result that, for the general parabola y2 = 4ax,
___dy 2a
    = ___
   
dx y
1 Find the equation of the tangent to the curve:
__
a y2 = 4x at the point (16, 8) b y2 = 8x at the point (4, 4√2 )
d xy = 4 at the point where x = _  2 
1
c xy = 25 at the point (5, 5)
__
e y2 = 7x at the point (7, −7) f xy = 16 at the point where x = 2√2 .
Give your answers in the form ax + by + c = 0.
2 Find the equation of the normal to the curve:

a y2 = 20x at the point where y = 10
b xy = 9 at the point ( − _2 , −6 ).
3
Give your answers in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers.
3 The point A(−2, −16) lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = 32.
a Find an equation of the normal to H at A.
The normal to H at A meets H again at the point B.
b Find the coordinates of B.
P 4 The points P(4, 12) and Q(−8, −6) lie on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = 48.
a Show that an equation of the line PQ is 3x − 2y + 12 = 0.
The point A lies on H. The normal to H at A is parallel to the chord PQ.
b Find the exact coordinates of the two possible positions of A.
5 The distinct points A and B, where x = 3, lie on the parabola C with equation y2 = 27x.
a Find the coordinates of A and B.
Line l1 is the tangent to C at A and line l2 is the tangent to C at B. Given that at A, y . 0,
b draw a sketch showing the parabola C. Indicate on your sketch the points A and B and the
lines l1 and l2.
c Find:
i an equation for l1
ii an equation for l2
giving your answers in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers.
__
__ √
3 
___
E 6 The rectangular hyperbola H is defined by the__
equations x = √
3 t, y =   t , t ∈ ℝ, t ≠ 0.
The point P lies on H with x-coordinate 2 √3 . Find:
a a Cartesian equation for the curve H (2 marks)
b an equation of the normal to H at P. (4 marks)
The normal to H at P meets H again at the point Q.
c Find the exact coordinates of Q. (3 marks)
48

Conic sections 1
E 7 The point P(4t 2, 8t) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 16x. The point P also lies on the
rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = 4.
a Find the value of t, and hence find the coordinates of P. (3 marks)
The normal to H at P meets the x-axis at the point N.
b Find the coordinates of N. (4 marks)
The tangent to C at P meets the x-axis at the point T.
c Find the coordinates of T. (3 marks)
d Hence, find the area of the triangle NPT. (2 marks)
Example 11
The point P(at2, 2at), lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax where a is a positive constant.
Show that an equation of the normal to C at P is y + tx = 2at + at3.
dy dy 2a
2y ___  = 4a so ___
    =  ___
y 
dx dx
dy 2a _1 dy 2a
If y = 2at, then ___
    = ____
    =     Substitute y = 2at into ___
    = ___
   
dx 2at t dx y
1
Gradient of tangent at P is mT = _ 
t
So gradient of normal is mN = −t.
P has coordinates (at2, 2at).
Use y − y1 = mN(x − x1) to find the equation of the
N: y − 2at = −t(x − at2)
normal, N. Here mN = −t and (x1, y1) = (at2, 2at).
N: y − 2at = −tx + at3
N: y + tx = 2at + at3 Rearrange into the required form.
Therefore, the equation of the normal to C at
P is y + tx = 2at + at3
■ An equation of the normal to the parabola with equation

y2 = 4ax at the point P(at2, 2at) is y + tx = 2at + at3
You can use a similar method to find an equation for a tangent to a parabola.
■ An equation of the tangent to the parabola with equation Links
y2 = 4ax at the point P(at2, 2at) is ty = x + at2 The derivation of this result is left
as an exercise. → Exercise 2F Q4
Example 12
( )
The point P ct, _c    , t ≠ 0, lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = c2 where c is a
t
positive constant.
a Show that an equation of the tangent to H at P is x + t2y = 2ct.
A rectangular hyperbola G has equation xy = 9. The tangent to G at the point A and the tangent to
G at the point B meet at the point (−1, 7).
b Find the coordinates of A and B.
49

Chapter 2
a H: xy = c2
c2
y =  __
x  ⇒ y = c x
2 −1 Rearrange the equation for H in the form y = xn.
dy c2
 ___  = −c2x−2 = − __2  Differentiate to determine the gradient of H.
dx x
At P, x = ct and
dy c2 c2 1 Substitute x = ct, to calculate the gradient of the
mT =  ___  = − ____   = − ____ __
2t2  = − 2 
dx (ct)2 c t tangent to H.
1
Gradient of tangent at P is mT = −__2 .
t
c
P has coordinates ( ct, __  t ) . Use y − y1 = mT (x − x1) to find the equation of
c 1 the tangent, T.
T: y − __  t = − __2 (x − ct)
t
T: t2y − ct = −(x − ct)   12 and (x1, y1) = ( ct, _  ct ) .
Here mT = − __
t
T: t2y − ct = −x + ct
T: x + t2y = 2ct Rearrange into the required form.
Therefore, the equation of the tangent to

H at P is x + t2y = 2ct.
__
b Compare xy = 9 with xy = c2. c2 = 9 ⇒ c = √  ⇒ c = 3.
9
As c is positive, c = 3.
Substitute c = 3 into the equation of the tangent
Tangent to G is x + t2y = 6t (1)
derived in part a.
−1 + t2(7) = 6t
7t2 − 6t − 1 = 0 Substitute x = −1 and y = 7 in (1) as the tangent
(7t + 1)(t − 1) = 0 goes through point (−1, 7).
⇒ t = − _71   or t = 1
c
P has coordinates ( ct, __  t ) = 3t, ( 3
__
)
  t   . Substitute c = 3 into the general coordinates of P.
When t = − _71   , the coordinates are
( ( )7 − _1   )
3
1    , ___
3 − __ ( 3
)
     = − __  , −21
7
7
Substitute t = − _17  into P ( 3t, __
  ) .
3
t
When t = 1, the coordinates are
( 3
3 × 1, ___ )
     = (3, 3).
1 Substitute t = 1 into P ( 3t, __
  ) .
3
t
Therefore, the coordinates of A and B are
( − _37 , −21 )and (3, 3).
■ An equation of the tangent to the rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2 at the point
P(ct, __
  ) is x + t2y = 2ct
c
t
You can use a similar method to find an equation for a normal to a rectangular hyperbola.
■ An equation of the normal to the rectangular hyperbola Links
with equation xy = c2 at the point The derivation of this result is left
P(ct, __  ) is t3x − ty = c(t4 − 1)
c as an exercise. → Mixed exercise Q6
t
50

Conic sections 1
Example 13
y C
The parabola C has equation y2 = 20x. The point P(5p2,10p)
is a general point on C. The line l is normal to C at the P
point P.
a Show that an equation for l is px + y = 10p + 5p3.
R
The point P lies on C. The normal to C at P passes
through the point (30, 0) as shown on the diagram.
O (30, 0) x
The region R is bounded by this line, the curve C and
the x-axis.
b Given that P lies in the first quadrant, show that
the area of the shaded region R is ___
1100
  3
l
a y2 = 20x
dy dy 10 Use the fact that mT × mN = −1 to find the
2y___
  = 20 so  ___  = ___
  y  gradient of the normal.
dx dx
dy 10 1
At P(5p2, 10p), ___
    = ____
    = __
  p 
dx 10p Problem-solving
So, the gradient of the tangent at P is Since you know the gradient in terms of the
1 parameter p, you can find an equation for the
mT =   __
p  normal at P in terms of p.
Therefore, the gradient of the normal is Use y − y1 = mN(x − x1) with mN = −p and
mN = −p. (x1, y1) = (5p2, 10p).
y − 10p = −p(x − 5p2)
y − 10p = −px + 5p3 Use the fact that the line passes through (30, 0)
px + y = 10p + 5p3 to find the value of p.
b At (30, 0), 30p = 10p + 5p3

Problem-solving
5p3 − 20p = 0
The three solutions correspond to the three
p(p2 − 4) = 0
different normals to the curve that pass through
p = 0, p = −2 or p = 2 the point (30, 0). You are interested in the one
Discard p = 0 and p = −2, so p = 2. that lies in the first quadrant, so choose p = 2.
y
p=2
p=0 (30, 0)
O x
p = –2
51

Chapter 2
Coordinates of P are (20, 20). Substitute p = 2 into P(5p2, 10p).

y C
P
Split the area into two parts as shown. R1 can
be found using integration. R2 is the area of a
R1 triangle.
R2
O 20 30 x
l
R1 = 20   2 ∫   x  2 dx
20 __1 _1 _1 _1
If y2 = 20x, then y = (20x)  2 = 20  2 x  2.
__1
0
R1 = ∫
b _1 _1
= 20   2 [__
  23 x   2]  0 
__1 3 20
__   y dx with a = 0, b = 20 and y = 20  2 x  2.
a
__
2 ___
800
=   3   × 202 =   3
R2 = __
  21 bh =  __
1
2 × 10 × 20 = 100
R2 is a triangle with base 10 and height 20.
R = R1 + R2 = 100 + ___
  800 ____
1100
3 =   3
Exercise 2F
In this exercise, AS students may use, without proof, the result that, for the general parabola y2 = 4ax,
___dy 2a
    = ___
   
dx y
1 The point P(3t2, 6t) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 12x.
a Show that an equation of the tangent to C at P is yt = x + 3t2.
b Show that an equation of the normal to C at P is xt + y = 3t3 + 6t.
2 The point P (6t, __

  t ), t ≠ 0, lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = 36.
6
a Show that an equation of the tangent to H at P is x + t2y = 12t.

b Show that an equation of the normal to H at P is t3x − ty = 6(t 4 − 1).
3 The point P(5t2, 10t) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax, where a is a constant
and t ≠ 0.
a Find the value of a.
b Show that an equation of the tangent to C at P is yt = x + 5t2.
The tangent to C at P cuts the x-axis at the point X and the y-axis at the point Y. The point O
is the origin of the coordinate system.
c Find, in terms of t, the area of the triangle OXY.
52

Conic sections 1
P 4 The point P(at2, 2at), lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax, where a is a positive
constant.
a Show that an equation of the tangent to C at P is ty = x + at2.
The tangent to C at the point A and the tangent to C at the point B meet at the point with
coordinates (−4a, 3a).
b Find, in terms of a, the coordinates of A and B.
5 The point P (4t, __

  t ), t ≠ 0, lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = 16.
4
E
a Show that an equation of the tangent to H at P is x + t2y = 8t. (4 marks)
The tangent to H at the point A and the tangent to H at the point B meet at the point X with
y-coordinate 5. X lies on the directrix of the parabola C with equation y 2 = 16x.
b Write down the coordinates of X. (1 mark)
c Find the coordinates of A and B. (3 marks)
d Deduce the equations of the tangents to H which pass through X. Give your answers in the
form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers. (4 marks)
E/P 6 The point P(at2, 2at) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax, where a is a constant
and t ≠ 0. The tangent to C at P cuts the x-axis at the point A.
a Find, in terms of a and t, the coordinates of A. (4 marks)
The normal to C at P cuts the x-axis at the point B.
b Find, in terms of a and t, the coordinates of B. (4 marks)
c Hence find, in terms of a and t, the area of the triangle APB. (4 marks)
E/P 7 The point P(2t2, 4t) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 8x.
a Show that an equation of the normal to C at P is xt + y = 2t3 + 4t. (4 marks)
The normals to C at the points R, S and T meet at the point (12, 0).
b Find the coordinates of R, S and T. (4 marks)
c Deduce the equations of the normals to C which all pass through the point (12, 0). (4 marks)
E/P 8 The point P(at2, 2at) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax, where a is a positive
constant and t ≠ 0. The tangent to C at P meets the y-axis at Q.
a Find in terms of a and t, the coordinates of Q. (5 marks)
The point S is the focus of the parabola.
b State the coordinates of S. (1 mark)
c Show that PQ is perpendicular to SQ. (4 marks)
E 9 The point P(6t2, 12t) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 24x.
a Show that an equation of the tangent to the parabola at P is ty = x + 6t2. (4 marks)
The point X has y-coordinate 9 and lies on the directrix of C.
b State the x-coordinate of X. (1 marks)
The tangent at the point B on C goes through point X.
c Find the possible coordinates of B. (4 marks)
53

Chapter 2
E/P 10 The points P(4p2, 8p) and Q(4q2, 8q) lie on the parabola with equation y2 = 16x. Prove that the
normals to the parabola at points P and Q meet at (8 + 4( p2 + pq + q2), −4pq( p + q)). (8 marks)
(8p,  __
p ) and
8
E/P 11 The rectangular hyperbola, H, has Cartesian equation xy = 64. The points P
Q(8q,  __
q ) lie on H.
8
a Show that the equation of the tangent at point P is p2y + x = 16p. (4 marks)
The tangents at P and Q meet at the point R.
b Given that the line OR is perpendicular to the line PQ, prove that p  2 q  2 = 1. (9 marks)
E/P 12 A parabola is defined by the parametric equations x = at 2 and y = 2at.
a Show that the equation of the tangent to the parabola at the point P(at 2, 2at) is ty = x + at2.
(4 marks)
b Show that the tangent intersects the x-axis at T (−at , 0).
2 (4 marks)
P is the point (at2, 2at) and S is the focus of the parabola.
c By considering gradients, or otherwise, show that PT can never be perpendicular
to PS. (4 marks)
y
E/P 13 The point P( p2, 2p) lies on the parabola C with
equation y 2 = 4x. The line l is tangent to C at P
the point P.
a Show that an equation for l is py = x + p2. (4 marks) l
R
b Find the area of the shaded region R. (4 marks) x
O
C
2.5 Loci
You can use the focus–directrix property of a parabola to derive its general equation.
Example 14
The curve C is the locus of points that are equidistant from the line with equation x + 6 = 0 and the
point (6, 0). Prove that C has Cartesian equation y2 = 4ax, stating the value of a.
y C The (shortest) distance of P to the line x + 6 = 0

is the distance XP.
6 x
X P(x, y) The line XP is horizontal and has distance
XP = x + 6.
d The distance SP is the same as the distance XP.
O S(6, 0) x
The locus of P is the curve shown.
x+6=0
54

Conic sections 1
From sketch, the locus satisfies

SP = XP. This means the distance SP is the same as the
distance XP.
Therefore, SP2 = XP2:
(x − 6)2 + (y − 0)2 = (x + 6)2
Use d 2 = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)2 to find SP2, where
x2 − 12x + 36 + y2 = x2 + 12x + 36
S(6, 0) and P(x, y).
−12x + y2 = 12x
This simplifies to y2 = 24x. This is in the form y2 = 4ax.
So the locus of P has an equation of the form
So 4a = 24, gives a = 6.
y2 = 4ax, where a = 6.
You can solve other locus problems involving the parabola and the rectangular hyperbola by
considering general points on each curve.
Example 15
The point P lies on a parabola with equation

Use the general point on the parabola to find
y2 = 4ax. Show that the locus of the midpoints
the coordinates of the midpoint of OP in
of OP is a parabola. terms of the parameter. The locus can then
be determined by considering the parametric
The general point on the parabola y2 = 4ax has
equations for this general point.
coordinates (at2, 2at).
  21 at2, at)
Midpoint of OP = (__
Problem-solving
x =  __
2 at , y = at ⇒ y = 2ax
1 2 2
Any equation of the form y2 = kx is a parabola.
This is the equation of a parabola with focus ( __
1
2 a , 0) You can find its focus by setting k = 4a.
Exercise 2G
P 1 A point P obeys a rule such that the distance of P to the point (7, 0) is the same as the distance
of P to the straight line x + 7 = 0. Prove that the locus of P has a Cartesian equation of the form
y2 = 4ax, stating the value of the constant a.
__
P 2 A point P obeys a rule such that the distance
__ of P to the point (2√5 , 0) is the same as the
√
distance of P to the straight line x = −2 5 . Prove that the locus of P has an equation of the form
y 2 = 4ax, stating the value of the constant a.
P 3 A point P obeys a rule such that the distance of P to the point (0, 2) is the same as the distance
of P to the straight line y = −2.
a Prove that the locus of P has an equation of the form y = kx2, stating the value of the constant k.
Given that the locus of P is a parabola,
b state the coordinates of the focus of P, and an equation of the directrix to P
c sketch the locus of P with its focus and its directrix.
E/P 4 A point P is equidistant from the point (a, 0) and the straight line x + a = 0. Prove that
the locus of P is a parabola with equation y2 = 4ax. (4 marks)
55

Chapter 2
y
E/P 5 A point P is equidistant from the point
Q
S(3, 0) and the line x + 3 = 0. W
a Prove that the locus of P has an equation of the form P

y2 = kx, where k is a constant to be found. (4 marks)
__
The point Q with y-coordinate 6 √ 6  lies on the locus.
b Show that the equation
__
of the line through Q
__
√
2 6  √
6 6 
and S is y = ____
    x −  ____  (4 marks) O S x
5 5 V R
The line also intersects the curve at the point R.
c Find the coordinates of the point R. (3 marks)
d Find the area of the trapezium QRVW. (2 marks)
y xy = c2
E/P 6 Given that P(x, y) is a general point on a
rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2,
show that the locus of points Q(x, _  2 y)is also
1 P(x, y)
a rectangular hyperbola, stating its equation

in the form xy = k2, where k is given in terms (
Q x, 12 y )
of c. (5 marks)
O x
Hint Q is the midpoint of P
and its ‘foot’ on the x-axis.
E/P 7 The points A and B lie on the x- and y-axes y

respectively. The point M is the midpoint
B
of AB. A and B vary such that the area of
triangle AOB is a constant value, q.
M
a Prove that the locus of M is a rectangular Online Explore the
hyperbola. (4 marks) locus of M using GeoGebra.
O A x
b Give the equation of the locus from part a
in the form xy = c2, where c is given in
terms of q. (1 mark)
Challenge Problem-solving y
A coordinate grid is drawn on a piece of paper. The parabola

The point (a, 0) and the line x + a = 0 are marked. will form the
The paper is then folded and creased in such envelope to
a way that the point meets the line. Prove that the family of
the crease line is a tangent to the parabola with crease lines
constructed in –a O a x
equation y2 = 4ax.
this way.
56

Conic sections 1
Mixed exercise 2
E 1 A parabola C has equation y2 = 12x. The point S is the focus of C.

The line l with equation y = 3x intersects C at the point P where y . 0.
b Find the coordinates of P. (2 marks)
c Find the area of the triangle OPS, where O is the origin. (3 marks)
E 2 A parabola C has equation y2 = 24x. The point P with coordinates (k, 6), where k is a
constant, lies on C.
a Find the value of k. (1 mark)
The point S is the focus of C.
b Find the coordinates of S. (1 mark)
The line l passes through S and P and intersects the directrix of C at the point D.
c Show that an equation for l is 4x + 3y − 24 = 0. (2 marks)
d Find the area of the triangle OPD, where O is the origin. (3 marks)
E 3 The parabola C has parametric equations x = 12t2, y = 24t. The focus to C is at the
point S.
a Find a Cartesian equation of C. (2 marks)
The point P lies on C where y . 0. P is 28 units from S.
b Find an equation of the directrix of C. (1 mark)
c Find the exact coordinates of the point P. (3 marks)
__
d Find the area of the triangle OSP, giving your answer in the form k√3 , where k is an
integer. (3 marks)
E 4 The point (4t2, 8t) lies on the parabola C with equation y 2 = 16x. The line l with equation
4x − 9y + 32 = 0 intersects the curve at the points P and Q.
a Find the coordinates of P and Q. (4 marks)
b Show that an equation of the normal to C at (4t2, 8t) is xt + y = 4t3 + 8t. (4 marks)
c Hence, find the equations of the normals to C at P and at Q. (1 mark)
The normal to C at P and the normal to C at Q meet at the point R.
d Find the coordinates of R and show that R lies on C. (4 marks)
___
e Find the distance OR, giving your answer in the form k√97 , where k is an integer. (2 marks)
E/P 5 The point P (at2, 2at) lies on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax, where a is a positive
constant. The point Q lies on the directrix of C, and on the x-axis.
a State the coordinates of the focus of C and the coordinates of Q. (2 marks)
The tangent to C at P passes through the point Q.
b Find, in terms of a, the two sets of possible coordinates of P. (5 marks)
57

Chapter 2
c
E 6 The point P (ct, _  t ) , c . 0, t ≠ 0, lies on the rectangular hyperbola H with equation xy = c2.
a Show that the equation of the normal to H at P is t3x − ty = c(t 4 − 1). (4 marks)
b Hence, find the equation of the normal n to the curve J with the equation xy = 36
at the point (12, 3). Give your answer in the form ax + by = d, where a, b and d are
integers. (2 marks)
The line n meets J again at the point Q.
c Find the coordinates of Q. (4 marks)
E 7 A rectangular hyperbola H has equation xy = 9. The lines l1 and l2 are distinct tangents to H.
The gradients of l1 and l2 are both −  _4 . Find the equations of l1 and l2.
1
(5 marks)
E 8 The point P lies on the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, where c . 0. The tangent to the
c
rectangular hyperbola at the point P (ct, _  t ) , t . 0, cuts the x-axis at the point X and cuts the
y-axis at the point Y.
a Find, in terms of c and t, the coordinates of X and Y. (6 marks)
b Given that the area of the triangle OXY is 144, find the exact value of c. (3 marks)
E 9 The points P(4at2, 4at) and Q(16at2, 8at) lie on the parabola C with equation y2 = 4ax,
where a is a positive constant.
a Show that an equation of the tangent to C at P is 2ty = x + 4at2. (4 marks)
b Hence, write down the equation of the tangent to C at Q. (1 mark)
The tangent to C at P meets the tangent to C at Q at the point R.
c Find, in terms of a and t, the coordinates of R. (5 marks)
c
E/P 10 A rectangular hyperbola H has Cartesian equation xy = c2, c . 0. The point ( ct, _  t ) ,
where t . 0 is a general point on H.
c
a Show that an equation of the tangent to H at ( ct, _  t ) is x + t2y = 2ct. (4 marks)
The point P lies on H. The tangent to H at P cuts the x-axis at the point X with coordinates
(2a, 0), where a is a constant.
b Use the answer to part a to show that P has coordinates ( a,   __ a ) .
c2
(2 marks)
The point Q, which lies on H, has x-coordinate 2a.
c Find the y-coordinate of Q. (2 marks)
d Hence, find the equation of the line OQ, where O is the origin. (2 marks)
The lines OQ and XP meet at point R.
e Find, in terms of a, the x-coordinate of R. (3 marks)
Given that the line OQ is perpendicular to the line XP,
f show that c2 = 2a2 (2 marks)
g find, in terms of a, the y-coordinate of R. (1 mark)
58

Conic sections 1
E/P 11 The line with equation 2x − y − 12 = 0 intersects the parabola C y

with equation y2 = 12x at the points P and Q. Q
a Find the coordinates of P(a, b) and Q(m, n). (3 marks)

b Find the area of the shaded region R bounded
by the curve C and the lines y = b and x = m. (5 marks)
O x
P R
2x – y – 12 = 0 C
E/P 12 The point P(9p2, 18p) lies on the parabola with y Q

equation y2 = 36x. The line l is normal to the
parabola at P.
a Show that an equation for l is y + px = 18p + 9p3. l
(4 marks) R
Given that the line passes through the point T(27, 0),
O T(27, 0) x
b find the coordinates of the three possible positions
of P. (3 marks) P
y2 = 36x
Given further that l has positive gradient, and that it
intersects the parabola again at point Q, as shown in
the diagram,
c find the coordinates of Q (2 marks)
d find the area of the shaded region R, bounded by l, the parabola and the x-axis.(6 marks)
E/P 13 Points P(ap2, 2ap) and Q(aq2, 2aq) lie on the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax.
a Show that the equation of the line joining P and Q is ( p + q)y − 2x = 2apq. (4 marks)
Given that the line PQ passes through the focus,
b show that pq = −1 (2 marks)
c find the coordinates of the point of intersection of the tangents to the parabola
at the points P and Q (3 marks)
d show that this point of intersection lies on the directrix. (2 marks)
E/P 14 If P is a general point on a rectangular hyperbola, and the tangent at P cuts the x- and y-axes
at A and B respectively, show that:
a AP = PB (3 marks)
b the triangle AOB has constant area. (3 marks)
59

Chapter 2
E/P 15 The chord PQ of a parabola with equation y2 = 4ax y

passes through the focus of the parabola as shown in
the diagram. Show that: P(ap2, 2ap)
a the tangents to the parabola at P and Q meet on the
directrix (7 marks)
S(a, 0)
b the locus of the midpoint of PQ has equation
O x
y2 = 2a(x − a) (8 marks)
Q(aq2, 2aq)
y2 = 4ax
Challenge
When a ray of light is reflected, the angle between the incident ray and
the normal at the point of contact with the surface is the same as the
angle between the normal and the reflected ray.
The diagram below shows a parabolic mirror, with equation y2 = 4ax.
A ray of light parallel to the x-axis hits the mirror at the point
P(at2, 2at). The line N is the normal to the mirror at the point P, and the
angles of incidence and reflection, α, are shown on the diagram.
y
P
α
α
O S x
y2 = 4ax
a Prove that tan α = t.

b Hence find an expression for tan 2α in terms of t, and show that the
2t
gradient of the reflected ray is _____
  2  
t −1
c Hence show that the reflected ray passes through the focus of the
parabola, S.
60

Conic sections 1

1 To find the Cartesian equation of a curve given parametrically you eliminate the parameter t
between the equations.
y
2 The curve opposite is a parabola with Cartesian P(x, y)
equation y2 = 4ax, where a is a positive constant.
• This curve has parametric equations x = at2, y = 2at, t ∈ ℝ.
• The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis. O x
• A general point P on this curve has coordinates
y2 = 4ax
(x, y) or (at2, 2at).
y
3 A parabola is the locus of points that are the
same distance from a fixed point S, called X P
the focus, and a fixed straight line called the
directrix. In the diagram on the right,
SP = PX for all points P on the parabola.
For the parabola with Cartesian equation y2 = 4ax, S
a a
• the focus, S, has coordinates (a, 0) –a O a x
vertex focus
• the directrix has equation x + a = 0
• the vertex is at the point (0, 0).
directrix
y2 = 4ax
x+a=0
y
4 The curve opposite is a rectangular hyperbola with
Cartesian equation xy = c2, where c is a positive constant.
P(x, y)
• This curve has parametric equations
c
   , t ∈ ℝ, t ≠ 0
x = ct, y = __ x
t O
• The curve has asymptotes with equations x = 0
xy = c2
(the y-axis) and y = 0 (the x-axis).
• A general point P on this curve has coordinates (x, y) or (ct, __  ).
c
t
dy 2a
5 For the general parabola y2 = 4ax, the gradient is given by ___    = ___
    .
dx y
6 An equation of the tangent to the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax at the point P(at2, 2at) is
ty = x + at2
An equation of the normal to the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax at the point P(at2, 2at) is
y + tx = 2at + at3
7 An equation of the tangent to the rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2 at the point
P(ct, __
   ) is x + t2y = 2ct
c
t
An equation of the normal to the rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2 at the point
P(ct, __   ) is t3x – ty = c(t4 – 1)
c
t
61

3 Objectives
Conic sections 2

● Identify an ellipse or a hyperbola from its Cartesian or
parametric equations → pages 63–67
● Find the foci, directrices, and eccentricity for an ellipse or a
hyperbola → pages 67–74
● Find tangents and normals to these curves → pages 74–83
● Solve simple loci questions → pages 83–87

1 The curve C has equation x2 – 9y2 = 20.
Find the gradient of C at the point ( 6, _  43 ).
2 Find the x-coordinates of the points of

intersection of the circle with equation
x2 + y2 = a2 and the line y = kx, giving
your answer in terms of a and k.
3 Find the Cartesian equation for the locus The Earth’s motion around the Sun can be
of points that are equidistant from modelled as following an elliptical path,
A(–8, 4) and B(10, 10). where the Sun is located at one focus of
← Pure Year 1, Chapter 6 the ellipse.
62
M03_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_3_03_062-091.indd 62 22/01/2018 18:20

Conic sections 2
3.1 Ellipses
A In the previous chapter you encountered the
parabola and the rectangular hyperbola, A circle is a special case of an ellipse
which are both examples of conic sections.
If you slice a cone in such a way as to produce a
Ellipse
closed curve, the resulting curve is called
an ellipse. Online Explore conic
sections using GeoGebra.
■■ A standard ellipse has the Cartesian equation
___x y
2 2 y
x2 y2
    + __
    = 1 b + 2 =1
a 2
b 2 a 2
b
y2
When x = 0, __   2  = 1 and so y = ± b. –a a x
b O
x2
When y = 0, ___
  2  = 1 and so x = ± a. –b
a
You can define a general point P on the ellipse in terms of a parameter, t.
■■ The standard ellipse has parametric equations
Note Substituting x = a cos t and y = b sin t
x = a cos t, y = b sin t, 0 < t , 2π x  2 y 
2
into  ___2  + ___
  2  produces cos2 t + sin2 t which is
a  b 
■■ A general point P on an ellipse has coordinates equal to 1. ← Pure Year 1, Section 10.3
(a cos t, b sin t).
Example 1
The ellipse E has equation 4x2 + 9y2 = 36.
a Sketch E. b Write down parametric equations for E.
a 4x2 + 9y2 = 36
4x2 9y2 First put the equation for E into standard
 ____  +  ____  = 1
36 36 form.
x2 ___
___ y2
    +     = 1
9 4
So a = 3 and b = 2 Identify the value of a and the value of b.
So sketch of E is
y
2
E
Draw the sketch: mark on intersections with
the axes.
–3 O 3 x
–2
b Parametric equations are

x = 3 cos t, y = 2 sin t, 0 < t , 2π
63

Chapter 3
Example 2
A
The ellipse E has parametric equations
x = 3 cos θ, y = 5 sin θ, 0 < θ , 2π
a Sketch E. b Find a Cartesian equation of E.
a −5 < y < 5
−3 < x < 3 Since sin θ and cos θ are both between
−1 and 1.
y
5
E
–3 O 3 x
–5
x2 y2
b a = 3 and b = 5, so the equation is ___
    +  ___  = 1 Compare with the standard formula.
9 25
Exercise 3A
1 a Sketch the following ellipses showing clearly where the curves cross the coordinate axes.
i x2 + 4y2 = 16 ii 4x2 + y2 = 36 iii x2 + 9y2 = 25
b Find parametric equations for these curves.
2 a Sketch ellipses with the following parametric equations.

i x = 2 cos θ, y = 3 sin θ ii x = 4 cos θ, y = 5 sin θ
iii x = cos θ, y = 5 sin θ iv x = 4 cos θ, y = 3 sin θ
b Find a Cartesian equation for each ellipse.
P 3 The diagram shows the circles with equations x2 + y2 = a2 and y

x2 + y2 = b2. The line OS makes an angle θ with the positive S
x-axis and intersects the circles at points P and Q respectively. Q
The point R has the same y-coordinate as P and the same
x-coordinate as Q, as shown in the diagram. P
R
a Find the coordinates of R in terms of a, b and θ. θ
O a b x
b Hence describe the locus of R as θ varies from 0 to 2π, and
give its Cartesian equation.
c Sketch the curve with parametric equations
π 3π
x = 4 cos t, y = sin t, __
    < t < ___
   
2 2
showing clearly any points where the curve meets or intersects the coordinate axes.
64

Conic sections 2
A The curve C is formed by rotating the ellipse with equation Write the position vector of a general
x2 y  2 point on the original ellipse as
 __2  + ___
  2  = 1 through 45° anticlockwise about the origin.
(
b sin t )
a b  a cos t
  and then apply a suitable
y
linear transformation.
C
a
b
O x
(x + y)  2 _______
(x – y)2
Show that C has equation  _______   +     = 1
2a  2 2b2
3.2 Hyperbolas
In the previous chapter, you encountered rectangular hyperbolas with y
__c
parametric equations x = ct, y =     ,     t ∈ ℝ ,      t ≠ 0, where c is a positive

t c
constant. The Cartesian equation of this rectangular hyperbola is (
P ct, t )
xy = c2. This family of curves have perpendicular asymptotes with
equations x = 0 (the y-axis) and y = 0 (the x-axis). A general point O x
P on the curve has coordinates P( ct,    ).
c
__
t xy = c2
In general, hyperbolas do not need to have perpendicular asymptotes.

You can find Cartesian and parametric equations for a standard hyperbola.
■■ A standard hyperbola has Cartesian equation
___x2 y   2
  2 – ___
    = 1
a b   2
y
When y = 0, x2 = a2 and so the curve crosses y=– bx y= bx
a a
the x-axis at (±a, 0). As x and y tend to infinity, x2 y2
– 2 =1
__ x2 y2 a2 b
  2  < __
  2 and so the equations of the
a b
b
asymptotes are y = ±  __ a  x.
–a
O
a x
When a = b, this creates a rectangular

hyperbola with equation x  2 – y  2 = a  2 with
asymptotes at y = x and y = –x.
These asymptotes are perpendicular to one
Note The equations of the asymptotes are given in the
another.
formula booklet.
Watch out Although x2 – y2 = a2 is an example of a rectangular

hyperbola because its asymptotes are perpendicular, it is not part of the
family of curves of the form xy = c2 encountered in the previous chapter.
65

Chapter 3
A In the previous section you saw that the parametric equations of the ellipse were connected to the
trigonometric relationship cos2 θ + sin2 θ ≡ 1. You can use the corresponding relationship for the
hyperbolic functions to find parametric equations for the hyperbola.
■■ The standard hyperbola has parametric equations Links cosh2 x – sinh2 x ≡ 1

x = ±a cosh t, y = b sinh t, t ∈ ℝ ← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 6
■■ The standard hyperbola has alternative parametric equations

π
x = a sec u, y = b tan u, –π < u , π, u ≠ ±  __ 
2
■■ A general point P on a hyperbola has coordinates (± a cosh t, b sinh t) or (a sec u, b tan u).
Example 3
The hyperbola H has equation 9x2 – 4y2 = 36.

a Sketch H.
b Write down the equations of the asymptotes of H.
c Find parametric equations for H.
a Rearrange the equation to get

x2 y2
___x2 y2 Write the equation in the form __  2  – __
    = 1
    –  ___  = 1 a b2
4 9
and identify values for a and b.
So a = 2 and b = 3
y
H
–2 O 2 x
b Equations of the asymptotes are

y=_
 32 x and y = –  _32 x b
The equations of the asymptotes are y = ±  __
a x.
c Parametric equations are
x = ±2 cosh t, y = 3 sinh t, t ∈ ℝ Use x = a cosh t and y = b sinh t.
Example 4
A hyperbola H has parametric equations

π
x = 4 sec t, y = tan t, –π < t , π, t ≠ ± __ 
2
a Find a Cartesian equation for H.
b Sketch H.
c Write down the equations of the asymptotes of H.
66

Conic sections 2
A
a Using sec2 t – tan2 t ≡ 1,
Alternatively, compare with x = a sec θ and
(   4 ) – y = 1
x 2
__ 2
y = b tan θ and use the standard equation.
Cartesian equation is
___x2
    – y2 = 1
16
b a = 4 and b = 1
y
H
x 2 y2
By comparing with __
  2  – __
  2  = 1 and using
a b
x a = 4 and b = 1.
–4 O 4
c Equations of asymptotes are b

y = ± __
  41  x Use y = ±  __
a  x.
Exercise 3B
1 Sketch the following hyperbolas showing clearly the intersections with the x-axis and the
equations of the asymptotes.
x2 y2
a x2 – 4y2 = 16 b 4x2 – 25y2 = 100 c  __  – __
    = 1
8 2
2 a Sketch the hyperbolas with the following parametric equations. Give the equations of the
asymptotes and show points of intersection with the x-axis.
π
i x = 2 sec θ, y = 3 tan θ, –π < θ , π, θ ≠ ±  __ 
2
ii x = ±4 cosh t, y = 3 sinh t, t ∈ ℝ
iii x = ±cosh t, y = 2 sinh t, t ∈ ℝ
π
iv x = 5 sec θ, y = 7 tan θ, –π < θ , π, θ ≠ ±  __ 
2
b Find the Cartesian equation for each of the hyperbolas from part a.
Challenge
The rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c 2 is rotated
through 45° anticlockwise about the origin. Show that the
resulting curve satisfies the equation y2 – x2 = a2, and state the
relationship between a and c in this case.
3.3 Eccentricity
You can define the ellipse and hyperbola in terms of Links The parabola with equation y2 = 4ax
their focus–directrix properties. In order to do this, you is the locus of all the points, P, that are
need to generalise the approach used for the parabola in equidistant from a fixed point, S, (the focus)
the previous chapter. To do this you need to consider the and a fixed line (the directrix). ← Section 2.2
eccentricity of a particular conic section.
67

Chapter 3
A ■■ For all points, P, on a conic section, the ratio of the distance of P from a fixed point (called
the focus) and a fixed straight line (called the directrix) is constant. This ratio, e, is known as
the eccentricity of the curve.
The diagram shows a fixed point, S, a fixed straight line, the directrix, P
and a point, P, on a conic section. M
PS
For all points, P, on the curve, the ratio ____
    = e is constant.
PM
S directrix
■■ If 0 , e , 1, the point P describes an ellipse.
focus
■■ If e = 1, the point P describes a parabola.
■■ If e . 1, the point P describes a hyperbola. Watch out The special case where e = 0
represents a circle, and the special case where e is
infinite represents a straight line. These are both
examples of conic sections, but you will not need
to consider them in this chapter.
Example 5
a x2 y2
Show that, for 0 , e , 1, the ellipse with focus (ae, 0) and directrix x = __
  has equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1.
e a b
Let P be the point with coordinates (x, y).
PS
  ___   = e ⇒ PS2 = e2PM2
PM
y
y P
M
Draw a diagram.
S
O ae x a x
a
x= e
PS2 = (x – ae)2 + y2
Find expressions for PS 2 and PM 2 in terms of a,
PM2 = ( __
    – x) = ________
a 2 (a – ex)2 e and x, y.
   
e e2
So PS2 = e2PM2 gives
x2 – 2aex + a2e2 + y2 = a2 – 2aex + e2x2
Simplify.
x2(1 – e2) + y2 = a2(1 – e2)
x
___
2 y2
_________ Problem-solving
    +     = 1
a2 a2(1 – e2)
This equation only produces an ellipse if 0 , e , 1.
So if b2 = a²(1 – e2) then you have the If e = 0, then 1 – e2 = 1 and the equation reduces
standard equation of the ellipse. to the equation of a circle. If e . 1, then 1 – e2 is
negative and the equation produces a hyperbola.
68

Conic sections 2
A Because the ellipse is y

symmetrical about the y-axis,
the above derivation will also
work for a focus (–ae, 0) with a
a
directrix x = – __
  e  S9 S
–a –ae O ae a x
Online Explore the foci

and directices of an ellipse
x2 y2
using GeoGebra. + 2 =1
a a2 b a
x5– e x5e
x2 y2
■■ For an ellipse with equation ___
  2  +  __2  = 1, and a . b,
a b Notation
• the eccentricity, 0 , e , 1, is given by b2 = a2(1 – e2) Foci is the plural of focus and
• the foci are at (± ae, 0) directrices is the plural of directrix.
a
• the directrices are x = ±  __
e 
Notice that the foci are on the major axis which in this case is the x-axis because a . b.
If the major axis is along the y-axis (b . a), then the foci will be on the y-axis at (0, ± be) and the
b
directrices will have equations y = ± __
  e . The eccentricity will be given by a2 = b2(1 – e2).
Example 6
Find the foci of the ellipses with the following equations and give the equations of the directrices.
x2 y2 x2 y2
a  __  +  __  = 1 b  ___  + ___
    = 1
9 4 16 25
In each case sketch the ellipse, and show the directrices and foci.
x2 y2 Note that a = 3 and b = 2.

a  ___  + __
    = 1 Since a . b use b2 = a2(1 – e2).
9 4
b = a2(1 – e2) gives 4 = 9(1 – e2) so e2 = __
2   59 
__
√ 5  Use (±ae, 0).
So e =  ___ 
3 __
Foci are at (±√ 5 , 0). a
Use x = ± __
  e 
9__
Directrices are x = ±  ___  
√
5 
y
2
–3 O 3 x
– 5 5
–2 x2 y2
+ =1
x=–9 9 4 x= 9
5 5
69

Chapter 3
A
x2 y2
b  ___  + ___
    = 1
16 25
Note that a = 4 and b = 5.
a2 = b2(1 – e2) gives 16 = 25(1 – e2)
Since b . a use a2 = b2(1 – e2).
So e2 = ___ 9
  25  and e = __
  35 
Foci are at (0, ± 3). Use (0, ± be).
___
25
Directrices are y = ±   3 
b
y Use y = ± __
  e 
y = 25
3
5
x2 y2
+ =1
16 25 3
–4 O 4 x
–3
–5
y = – 25
3
Example 7
x2 y2
The ellipse with equation  __2  + __
    = 1 has foci at S(ae, 0) and S9(–ae, 0). Show that if P is any
a b2
point on the ellipse then PS + PS9 = 2a.
P
M9 M
S9 S
–a –ae O x ae a x
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
a a 2
b a
x=– e x= e
a
Let M be the point on the directrix x = __
  e where PS = ePM. Use the focus and directrix
a
Let M9 be the point on the directrix x = – __   e where PS9 = ePM9. definitions of an ellipse.
Let P be (x, y).
a PM and PM9 are parallel to
PM =  __e – x
a the x-axis.
PM9 = x + __   e 
So PS + PS9 = ePM + ePM9
= e(  __e – x ) + e(  __e + x ) = a – ex + a + ex
a a Note This is an important
= 2a property of an ellipse.
70

Conic sections 2
Example 8
A a
Show that for e . 1 the hyperbola with foci at (± ae, 0) and directrices at x = ±  __
e  has equation
x y
2 2
 __2  – __
    = 1
a b2
Let P(x, y) be a point on the hyperbola.
P(x,y)
M
Draw a diagram.
focus S
directrix
(ae, 0) x x
a
x= e
PS
___
  = e ⇒ PS2 = e2PM 2
PM
PS2 = (x – ae)2 + y2
Find expressions for PS 2 and
( )
a 2 (ex – a)2
PM2 = x – __
    = ________
    PM 2 in terms of a, e and x, y.
e e2
So PS2 = e2PM2 gives
x2 – 2aex + a2e2 + y2 = e2x2 – 2aex + a2 Simplify
a2(e2 – 1) = x2(e2 – 1) – y2
x2 y2 e . 1 so a2(e2 – 1) will be
1 = __
  2  – _________
  2 2  
a a (e – 1) positive.
So if b2 = a2(e2 – 1) you have the standard equation of a
hyperbola.
y
a
x y 2   2 x= e
■■ For a hyperbola with equation ___
    − ___
    = 1,
a2 b  2
• the eccentricity, e > 1, is given by
S9 S
b2 = a2(e2 − 1) –ae –a O a ae x
• the foci are at (± ae, 0)
a
= ±  __
• the directrices are x
e a x2 y2
– 2 =1
x=– e a 2
b
Example 9
Find foci of the following hyperbolas.
In each case, sketch the hyperbola and show the directrices.
x2 y2 x 2 y2
a  __  – __
    = 1 b  ___  – ___
    = 1
9 4 16 25
71

Chapter 3
A
x2 y2 Compare the equation with
a  ___  –  ___  = 1, so a = 3 and b = 2. x2 y2
9 4 __
  2  – __
    = 1 and identify a and b.
Eccentricity is given by b2 = a2(e2 – 1). a b2
4 = 9(e2 – 1)
So __
  49 + 1 = e2 Use b2 = a2(e2 – 1).
___ ___
⇒ e = ___
9 √
13 √ 13 
     = ____
   
3
___
Foci are at (± √ 13 , 0). Use (±ae, 0).
9 a
Directrices are x = ±  ____
___  Use x = ±  __
e 
√
13 
y
x2 y2
9 – 4 =1
Online Explore the foci
and directices of a hyperbola
– 13 –3 O 3 13 x
using GeoGebra.
x=– 9 x= 9
13 13
Compare the equation with
x2 y2 x2 y2
b  ___  – ___
    = 1, so a = 4 and b = 5.  __2  – __
    = 1 and identify a and b.
16 25 a b2
Eccentricity is given by b2 = a2(e2 – 1).
25 = 16(e2 – 1) ___ ___
Use b2 = a2(e2 – 1).
25
___
 
16
  + 1 = e2 so e = ___
___
16 √
41 √ 41 
     = ____
   
4
Foci are at (±√ 41 , 0). Use (±ae, 0).
16
Directrices are x = ±  ____ ___ 
√
41 
y
Problem-solving
x2 y 2 In this example b . a.
16 – 25 = 1 However, unlike with an
ellipse, the foci do not move
to the y-axis. Setting x = 0 in
–4 O 4 x the general equation of a
– 41 41 y2
hyperbola would give –  __2  = 1
b
which is never satisfied for real
values of y.
x = – 16 x = 16
41 41
72

Conic sections 2
Exercise 3C
A
1 Find the eccentricity of the following ellipses.
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y
2
a  __  +  __  = 1 b  ___  + __
    = 1 c  __  + __     = 1
9 5 16 9 4 8
2 Find the foci and directrices of the following ellipses.
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
a  __  +  __  = 1 b  ___  + __     = 1 c  __  +  __  = 1
4 3 16 7 5 9
x 2
__ __ y2
3 An ellipse with equation   2  +   2  = 1 has focus (3, 0) and the equation of the directrix is x = 12.
a b
a Explain why a . b.
b Find:
i the eccentricity of the ellipse ii the values of a and b.
c Sketch the ellipse, showing the directrices and any points of intersection with the coordinate axes.
x2 y2
4 An ellipse with equation __
  2  + __
    = 1 has focus (0, 2) and the equation of the directrix is y = 8.
a b2
a Explain why b . a.
b Find:
i the eccentricity of the ellipse ii the values of a and b.
c Sketch the ellipse, showing the directrices and any points of intersection with the coordinate axes.
5 Find the eccentricities of the following hyperbolas.

x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
a __
    –  __  = 1 b  __  –  __  = 1 c  __  –  ___  = 1
5 3 9 7 9 16
6 Sketch the following hyperbolas, showing clearly the positions of their foci and directrices.
x2 y2 x2 y2 x2 y2
a __
    –  __  = 1 b  ___  – __
    = 1 c  __  –  __  = 1
4 8 16 9 4 5
7 a For each of the following hyperbolas, find the eccentricity and show that the foci are at (±5, 0).
x2
___ y2
___ x2 __
___ y2 x2 ___
__ y2
i     – y = 1
2 ii x –     = 1
2 iii     –     = 1 iv     –     = 1
24 24 16 9 9 16
b Hence sketch all four hyperbolas on the same graph, showing the foci and labelling each curve
with its eccentricity.
E/P 8 The latus rectum of an ellipse is a chord perpendicular to the major axis that passes through a
x2 y2
focus. Show that the length of the latus rectum of the ellipse with equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1, where
a b
2b 2
a . b, is ___
    (5 marks)
a
E/P 9 The distance between the foci of an ellipse is 16 and the distance between the directrices is 25.
a Find the eccentricity of the ellipse. (3 marks)
b Given that both the foci of the ellipse lie on the y-axis, find its equation in the form
__ x2 y2
  2  + __
  2  = 1. (2 marks)
a b
E/P 10 The__point P lies __
on the ellipse with equation x2 + 4y2 = 36, and A and B are the points
– 3√ 3 , 0 and 3√ 3 , 0 respectively. Prove that PA + PB = 12. (4 marks)
73

Chapter 3
x2 __
__ y2
A 11 Ellipse E has equation     +     = 1, such that a . b. The foci of E are at S and S9 and the point
a2 b2
P is (0, b).
E/P
Show that cos (PSS9) = e, the eccentricity of E. (6 marks)
E/P 12 The ellipse E has foci at S and S9. The point P on E is such that angle PSS9 is a right angle and
angle PS9S = 30°.
1
Show that the eccentricity of the ellipse, e, is ___
  __  (6 marks)
√
3 
3.4 Tangents and normals to an ellipse

You can use parametric differentiation or implicit Watch out If you are asked to prove
differentiation to find the equations of the tangent and a result you will need to show enough
normal to an ellipse at a given point. It is often simpler to working to demonstrate your process
derive the equations rather than memorising formulae. for finding the gradient.
Example 10
x2 y2
Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse with equation __
    +  __  = 1 at the point
9 4
P(3 cos t, 2 sin t).
Find the gradient.
y = 2 sin t, x = 3 cos t
dy
___ Problem-solving
dy ___    
___ dt 2 cos t
    =     = _______
    You could also differentiate the equation
dx ___ dx –3 sin t
    dy dy 4x
dt implicitly: _  29 x + _  12 y  ___  = 0and therefore ___
    = –  ___ 
dx dx 9y
2 cos t
y – 2 sin t = _______
    (x – 3 cos t)
–3 sin t
Write down the equation of the tangent using
3y sin t – 6 sin2 t = –2x cos t + 6 cos2 t
y – y1 = m(x – x1).
3y sin t + 2x cos t = 6(cos2 t + sin2 t)
3y sin t + 2x cos t = 6 Simplify.
Use cos2 t + sin2 t ≡ 1.
Example 11
x2 y2
Show that the equation of the normal to the ellipse with equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1 at the point
a b
P(a cos t, b sin t) is ax sin t – by cos t = (a – b ) cos t sin t
2 2
dy
___ b cos t
    = _______
    Find the gradient.
dx –a sin t
a sin t
Gradient of normal is ______
    Use the perpendicular gradient rule.
b cos t
a sin t
Equation is y – b sin t = ______
    (x – a cos t) Use y – y1 = m(x – x1) and simplify.
b cos t
by cos t – b2 cos t sin t = ax sin t – a2 cos t sin t
ax sin t – by cos t = (a2 – b2) cos t sin t
74

Conic sections 2
x y  
A ■■ An equation of the normal to the ellipse with equation ___
2 2
  2  + ___
  2  = 1at the point
a b 
P(a cos t, b sin t) is ax sin t – by cos t = (a2 – b2) cos t sin t.
You can use a similar method to find the general equation of a tangent to an ellipse.
■■ An equation of the tangent to the ellipse with
x2 y   2 Links The derivation of this result is
equation ___
  2  + ___
    = 1at the point P(a cos t, b sin t)
a b   2 left as an exercise. → Exercise 3D Q3
is bx cos t +ay sin t =ab.
Example 12
__
The point P(2,  

2 )
3√  3
____
 lies on the ellipse E with parametric equations x = 4 cos θ, y = 3 sin θ, 0 < θ , 2π.
a Find the value of θ at the point P.
The normal to the ellipse at P cuts the x-axis at the point A.
b Find the coordinates of the point A.
1 π 5π Set a cos θ as the x-coordinate and b sin θ as the

a 4 cos θ = 2 ⇒ cos θ = __     so θ = __
   , ___   
__ 2
__
3 3 y-coordinate and solve to find θ. Choose the value
√ 3 
___ √
___ 3  π 2π of θ in the given range that satisfies both equations.
3 sin θ = 3     ⇒ sin θ =     so θ = __    ,  ___ 
2 2 3 3
π
__
So θ =     Use the general point to find the gradient.
3
dy 3 cos θ
 ___  = _______
b   Use the perpendicular gradient rule then
dx –4 sin θ
4 sin θ substitute the value of θ.
So gradient of normal is _______  
3 cos θ
At P the gradient of the normal is This can be found by implicit differentiation on
√
__
x2 y2
3 
___
    __ the Cartesian equation ___     +  __  = 1. Differentiating:
2 4√ 3  16 9
______ ____
4 ×     =     __ d y d y 9x   and
3 × __   1   3   16 x + _  9 y  ___  = 0 so ___
2 2
    = –  ____
2 dx dx 16y
Equation of normal at P is dy –18 __ ____ –3
__ __ using the coordinates of P,  ___  = ________     =   __ 
√
3  4 3  √ dx √
___  4√  
3 3
y – 3 ___  = ____
   (x – 2) __ 16 × 3   
2 3 4   √ 3 2
__ __ so normal gradient is ____    
Cuts x-axis at –9√ 3  = 8√ 3 (x – 2) 3
So A is (__
  78 , 0)
Let y = 0 and solve to find x.
Example 13
x2 y2
Show that the condition for y = mx + c to be a tangent to the ellipse __
  2  + __
  2  = 1 is b2 + a2m2 = c2.
a b
x2 (mx + c)2
The line meets the ellipse when __
  2  + _________
    = 1 Substitute mx + c for y.
a b2
So b2x2 + a2m2x2 + 2a2mxc + a2c2 = a2b2
Multiply out and rearrange as a quadratic equation
x2(b2 + a2m2) + 2a2mcx + a2(c2 –b2) = 0 in x.
75

Chapter 3
A Use the properties of the discriminant.

To be a tangent there must be only one real root.
Therefore the discriminant of this quadratic is 0. ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 2
(2a2mc)2 = 4(b2 + a2m2)a2(c2 – b2) Multiply out and simplify.

So 4a42m2c2 = 4a2(b2c2 – b4 + a2m2c2 – a2b2m2)
a2m2c2 = b2c2 – b4 + a2m2c2 – a2b2m2 Cancel b2.
b4 + a2b2m2 = b2c2 Problem-solving

b2 + a2m2 = c2
This is a general result about tangents to
ellipses. Unless you are asked to prove it, you
could quote it in your exam.
y
Example 14
x2 y2 Q
The ellipse C has equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1. The line l is normal C
5 3
to the ellipse at P and passes through the point Q, where
C cuts the y-axis, as shown in the diagram. x
O R
Find the exact coordinates of the point R where l cuts
the positive x-axis. P
x 2 y2 Deduce the values for a and b from the general

___
   + ___
  2  = 1 so a = 5 and b = 3 x2 y2
52 3 equation of an ellipse, __
  2  + __
  2  = 1
a b
ax sin θ – by cos θ = (a2 – b2) cos θ sin θ
5x sin θ – 3y cos θ = 16 cos θ sin θ State the general equation for the normal of an
Q cuts the y-axis at (0, 3) ellipse and substitute a = 5 and b = 3.
–9 cos θ = 16 cos θ sin θ The ellipse cuts the y-axis at (0, ±b) and b = 3.
–9 = 16 sin θ
Substitute x = 0, y = 3 into the general equation
sin θ = –  __
9
16 for the normal to an ellipse.
________
cos θ = √ 1 __ – sin2 θ
Use your value of sin θ to find the value of cos θ
5√ 7 
= ____
   
16
Problem-solving __
So the equation__of l is: 5√ 7 
__
cos2 θ sin2 θ ≡ 1 gives cos θ = ±  ____ 
5(–   16 )x − 3(   )y = 16( 
16 )( 16 )
5√ 7  5√ 7  __ The identity +
__
9 ____ ____
  –   9 16
16 __ However, from the diagram you can see that P is
__
–3x − √ 7 y = –3√ 7  in the fourth quadrant, so cos θ must be positive.
When y = 0
__ Substitute your exact values for sin θ and cos θ to
–3x = –3√ 7  find the equation of l.
__
x = √ 7 
__ Substitute y = 0 to find the points where l cuts the
So l cuts the x-axis at (√ 7 , 0). x-axis.
76

Conic sections 2
Exercise 3D
A
1 Find the equations of tangents and normals to the following ellipses at the points given.
x2 x2 y2
a  __  + y2 = 1 at (2 cos θ, sin θ) b  ___  + __
    = 1 at (5 cos θ, 3 sin θ)
4 25 9
2 Find equations of tangents and normals to the following ellipses at the points given.
x2 y2 x2 y2 __
    = 1 at ( √
5 , _ 3 )
__
a  __  + __ b  ___  + __    = 1 at (–2, √3  )
2
9 1 16 4
x2 y  2
P 3 Show that the equation of the tangent to the ellipse __   2  + ___
  2  = 1at the point (a cos t, b sin t) is
a b 
bx cos t + ay sin t = ab.
__ x2 y2
4 a Show that the line y = x + √ 5 is a tangent to the ellipse with equation __     + __
    = 1.
4 1
b Find the point of contact of this tangent.
x2 y2
5 a Find an equation of the normal to the ellipse with equation __     + __
    = 1 at the point
9 4
P(3 cos θ, 2 sin θ).
This normal crosses the x-axis at the point ( –  _6 , 0).
5
b Find the value of θ and the exact coordinates of the possible positions of P.
y2
6 The line y = 2x + c is a tangent to x2 + __
    = 1.
4
Find the possible values of c.
y2
7 The line with equation y = mx + 3 is a tangent to x2 + __
    = 1.
5
Find the possible values of m.
x2 y2
E 8 The line y = mx + 4 (m . 0) is a tangent to the ellipse E with equation __
    + __
    = 1 at the point P.
3 4
a Find the value of m. (4 marks)
b Find the coordinates of the point P. (2 marks)
The normal to E at P crosses the y-axis at the point A.
c Find the coordinates of A. (5 marks)
The tangent to E at P crosses the y-axis at the point B.
d Find the area of triangle APB. (5 marks)
x y2 2
E 9 The ellipse E has equation __
    + __
    = 1.
9 4
a Show that the gradient of the tangent to E at the point P(3 cos θ, 2 sin θ) is –  _3  cot θ. (4 marks)
2
b Show that the point Q( _ 5 , – _ 5 ) lies on E.

9 8
(2 marks)
c Find the gradient of the tangent to E at Q. (1 mark)
The tangents to E at the points P and Q are perpendicular.
d Find the value of tan θ and hence the exact coordinates of the two possible positions
of P. (4 marks)
x 2 y 2 x 2 y 2
P 10 The line y = mx + c is a tangent to both of the ellipses __
    + ___
    = 1 and ___
    + ___
    = 1.
9 46 25 14
Find the possible values of m and c.
77

Chapter 3
x __
A 11 The ellipse E has equation  __ y
2 2
 2 +   2  = 1. The line l1 is tangent to E at the point P(8 cos θ, 4 sin θ)
8 4
E/P
and the line l2 is normal to E at the point P(8 cos θ, 4 sin θ). Line l1 cuts the x-axis at A and line
l2 cuts the y-axis at B. Find the equation of the line AB. (6 marks)
x2 y2
E/P 12 The ellipse E has equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1. The line l1 is tangent to E at the point P(5 cos θ, 3 sin θ).
5 3
a Use calculus to show that an equation for l1 is 3x cos θ + 5y sin θ = 15. (5 marks)
The line l1 cuts the y-axis at Q. The line l2 passes through the point Q, perpendicular to l1.
b Find the equation of the line l2. (3 marks)
_4
c Given that l2 cuts the x-axis at (– 4, 0), show that cos θ =   5 (3 marks)
x 2 y2
E/P 13 The ellipse E has equation  __  +  ___  = 1. The line l1 is tangent to E at the point P(2 cos t, 4 sin t).
4 16
a Use calculus to show that an equation for l1 is 2x cos t + y sin t = 4. (5 marks)
The line l2 passes through the origin and is perpendicular to l1. The lines l1 and l2 intersect at
the point Q.
b Show that the coordinates of Q are ( _____________
4 cos  t + sin  t 4 cos  2 t + sin  2 t )
8 cos t 4 sin t
     2 2
  ,  _____________
     . (4 marks)
y
E/P 14 The line l1 is tangent to the ellipse with
x2 y2
equation  __2  + __
  2  = 1 at the point (a cos t, b sin t). (a cos t, b sin t)
a b
Show that the area of the shaded region is
ab cosec 2t. (6 marks) O x
l1
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
x2 y2 y
E/P 15 The diagram shows the ellipse with equation __  2  + __
  2  = 1.
6 4
__
Show that the area of the shaded region is 8π – 6 √ 3 .
(6 marks)
O 3 x
Problem-solving
Use the substitution 6 sin u = x and simplify x2 y2
+ 2 =1
6 2
4
the resulting integrand using an appropriate
trigonometric identity.
Challenge
x2 y2
Prove that the area inside the ellipse with equation __   2  = 1is πab.
  2  + __
a b
78

Conic sections 2
3.5 Tangents and normals to a hyperbola

A
You can find the equations of the tangent and normal to a hyperbola at a given point.
Example 15
x2 y2 __
Find the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola with equation __
    – __
    = 1 at the point (6, 2√3 ).
9 4
dy
Differentiating, __  29 x – __
 24y  ___  = 0 Use implicit differentiation.
__
dx
At (6, 2√ 3 ),
__ __
__ 4√ 3  ___
____ dy dy
___ 4√ 3 
____
12
      = 0 ⇒     =    
  9 –  
4 dx dx 9
Equation of tangent is
__
__
4√ 3 
____
y – 2√ 3  =    (x – 6) Use y – y1 = m(x – x1).
9
__ __
4√
____3  2√ 3 
____
or y =    x –    
9 3
Example 16
x2 y2
Show that the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola with equation __
  2  – __
a b2
(a cosh t, b sinh t) can be written as bx cosh t – ay sinh t = ab.
x = a cosh t, y = b sinh t dy
Use the chain rule to find ___    
dy dx
___ d
dy ___   Remember that __    (sinh t) = cosh t and
___ dt b cosh t
    =     = _______
  dt
dx ___ dx a sinh t __ d
     (cosh t) = sinh t ← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 6
dt dt
Equation of tangent is
b cosh t
y – b sinh t = _______
  (x – a cosh t) Use y – y1 = m(x – x1).
a sinh t
ay sinh t – ab sinh2 t = bx cosh t – ab cosh2 t
ay sinh t + ab(cosh2 t – sinh2 t) = bx cosh t
ay sinh t + ab = bx cosh t Use cosh2 t – sinh2 t ≡ 1.
bx cosh t – ay sinh t = ab
x2 y2
■■ An equation of the tangent to the hyperbola with equation ___
  2  – __
P(a cosh t, b sinh t) is ay sinh t + ab = bx cosh t.
a b2
You can use the alternative form of a general point on a hyperbola to find a different general
equation of a tangent to a hyperbola.
■■ An equation of the tangent to the hyperbola with
x2 y   2 Links
equation ___
  2  − ___
    = 1at the point P(a sec θ, b tan θ) The derivation of this result is
a b   2 left as an exercise. → Exercise 3E Q3
is bx sec θ − ay tan θ = ab.
79

Chapter 3
Example 17
A x2 y2
Show that an equation of the normal to the hyperbola with equation __
  2  – __
    = 1 at
a b2
(a sec θ, b tan θ) is by + ax sin θ = (a2 + b2) tan θ.
y = b tan θ, x = a sec θ
dy
___
dy   ___
___ dθ

b sec2 θ b dy
    =     =   __________ ______
a sec θ tan θ =  a sin θ
   Use the chain rule to find ___
   
dx ___ dx dx
 
dθ
a sin θ
So gradient of normal is –  _____   Use the perpendicular gradient rule.
b
Equation of the normal is
a sin θ
y – b tan θ = –  _____  (x – a sec θ) Use y – y1 = m(x – x1).
b
by – b2 tan θ = –ax sin θ + a2 tan θ
So by + ax sin θ = (a2 + b2) tan θ
x2 y   2
  2  − ___
■■ An equation of the normal to the hyperbola with equation ___     = 1at the point
a b   2
P(a sec θ, b tan θ) is by +ax sin θ = (a2 +b2) tan θ
You can use the other form of a general point on a hyperbola to find a different general equation of a
normal to a hyperbola.
■■ An equation of the normal to the hyperbola with
x2 y   2 Links The derivation of this result is
equation ___
  2  – ___
    = 1at the point P(a cosh t, b sinh t) left as an exercise → Exercise 3E Q4
a b   2
is ax sinh t +by cosh t =(a2 +b2) sinh t cosh t
Example 18
x2 y2
Show that the condition for the line y = mx + c to be a tangent to the hyperbola __
  2  – __
    = 1 is
a b2
that m and c satisfy b2 + c2 = a2m2.
Substitute mx + c for y in the equation of the

(mx +c)2 hyperbola.
x2
  2  – _________
__
    = 1
a b2
Multiply out and collect terms as a quadratic in x.
b2x2 – a2(m2x2 + 2mxc + c2) = a2b2
(b2 – a2m2)x2 – 2mca2x – a2(c2 + b2) = 0 Use discriminant properties.
Since the line is a tangent the discriminant Cancel 4a2.

must be zero.
4m2c2a42 = –4(b2 – a2m2)a2(c2 + b2) Cancel b2.
m2c2a2 = –b4 – b2c2 + a2m2c2 + a2m2b2 Problem-solving

b2 + c2 = a2m2 This is a general result about tangents to
hyperbolas. Unless you are asked to prove it, you
could quote it in your exam.
80

Conic sections 2
Example 19
A The tangent to the hyperbola with equation __
x2 y2
    –  __  = 1 at the point (3 cosh t, 2 sinh t) crosses
9 4
the y-axis at the point (0, –1). Find the value of t.
Remember that for a hyperbola with equation
Equation of tangent is x2 y   2
__
  2  – ___
    = 1, the equation of the tangent at point
3y sinh t + 6 = 2x cosh t a b  2
Passes through (0, –1) (a cosh t, b sinh t) is ay sinh t + ab = bx cosh t.
–3 sinh t + 6 = 0 Here a = 3 and b = 2.
so sinh t = 2
Then t = arsinh 2 ______ Substitute x = 0 and y = –1.
but arsinh x = ln (x + √ x__2 + 1 )
so t = ln (2 + √ 5 ) Use the formula for arsinh (x) from the formula
booklet.
Example 20
x2 y  2
The hyperbola H has equation ___     – ___
    = 1
36 9
The line l1 is the tangent to H at the point P(6 cosh t, 3 sinh t). The line l2 passes through the origin
and is perpendicular to l1. The lines l1 and l2 intersect at the point Q.
Show that the coordinates of the point Q are ( _______________
4 sinh  2 t + cosh  2 t )
6 cosh t 12 sinh t
      , – _______________
      .
4 sinh  t + cosh  t
2 2
The general form of the equation of a tangent

to a hyperbola is ay sinh t + ab = bx cosh t Here a = 6 and b = 3.
So the equation of l 1 is
6y sinh t + 18 = 3x cosh t
The gradients of perpendicular lines multiply to
2y sinh t + 6 = x cosh t
equal –1.
cosh t
The gradient of l1 is ______    
2 sinh t
2 sinh t
The gradient of a perpendicular line is –   ______  The line l2 passes through (0, 0), so its equation is
cosh t y = mx.
The equation of a perpendicular line through
2x sinh t
(0, 0) is y = −  _______
  Rearrange the equation for line l1 into the form
cosh t
x cosh t – 6 y=…
l1: 2y sinh t + 6 = x cosh t ⇒ y = ___________
  
 
 
2 sinh t
x cosh t – 6
2x sinh t ___________
At Q, –  _______  =   
 
  The lines intersect at Q. Set the two equations
cosh t 2 sinh t
–4x sinh2 t = x cosh2 t – 6 cosh t equal to each other.
–x(4sinh2 t + cosh2 t) = –6 cosh t

6 cosh t Simplify to obtain an expression for the
x = ________________
    
     x-coordinate.
4 sinh  2 t + cosh  2 t
y = ( –  ______ )(________________
cosh t 4 sinh  2 t + cosh  2 t )
2 sinh t 6 cosh t
   
   
Substitute the expression for the x-coordinate
2x sinh t
12 sinh t into y = –  _______  
y = –  ________________
   
   cosh t
So the coordinates of Q are
(     4 sinh  2 t + cosh  2 t )

6 cosh t
_______________ 12 sinh t
    , – _______________     
    
81

Chapter 3
Exercise 3E
A
1 Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the hyperbolas with the following equations
at the points indicated.
x2 y2 x2 y2
a  ___  – __
    = 1 at the point (12, 4) b  ___  – ___
    = 1 at the point (12, 6)
16 2 36 12
x y
2 2
c  ___  – __    = 1 at the point (10, 3)
25 3
2 Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the hyperbolas with the following equations
at the points indicated.
x2 y2 x2 y2
a  ___  – __
    = 1 at the point (5 cosh t, 2 sinh t) b  __  –  __  = 1 at the point (sec t, 3 tan t)
25 4 1 9
x2 y  2
P 3 Show that the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola __   2  – ___
    = 1at the point (a sec t, b tan t) is
a b  2
bx sec t – ay tan t = ab.
x2 ___
__ y  2
P 4 Show that the equation of the normal to the hyperbola   2  –   2  = 1at the point
a b 
(a cosh t, b sinh t) is ax sinh t + by cosh t = (a + b ) sinh t cosh t.
2 2
x2 y2
5 The point P(4 cosh t, 3 sinh t), t ≠ 0, lies on the hyperbola with equation ___     – __    = 1.
16 9
The tangent at P crosses the y-axis at the point A.
a Find, in terms of t, the coordinates of A.
The normal to the hyperbola at P crosses the y-axis at B.
b Find, in terms of t, the coordinates of B.
c Find, in terms of t, the area of triangle APB.
x2 y2
6 The tangents from the points P and Q on the hyperbola with equation __     – __     = 1 meet at the
4 9
point (1, 0). Find the exact coordinates of P and Q.
x2 y2
7 The line y = 2x + c is a tangent to the hyperbola ___
    – __     = 1. Find the possible values of c.
10 4
x2 y2
8 The line y = mx + 12 is a tangent to the hyperbola ___     – ___    = 1 at the point P.
49 25
Find the possible values of m.
x2 y2 x2 y2
9 The line with equation y = mx + c is a tangent to both of the hyperbolas __     – ___
    = 1 and __
    –  ___  = 1.
4 15 9 95
Find the possible values of m and c.
x2 y2
10 The line y = –x + c, c . 0, touches the hyperbola ___     –  ___  = 1 at the point P.
25 16
a Find the value of c. b Find the exact coordinates of P.
x
__
2 y
__
2
E 11 The hyperbola H has equation   2  –   2  = 1.
a b
a Use calculus to show that the equation of the normal to H at the point (a cosh t, b sinh t), t ≠ 0,
may be written in the form ax sinh t + by cosh t = (a2 + b2) sinh t cosh t. (4 marks)
The line l1 is the normal to H at the point (a cosh t, b sinh t). Given that l1 meets the x-axis at the
point P.
b find, in terms of a, b and t, the coordinates of P. (2 marks)
82

Conic sections 2
A The line l2 is the tangent to H at the point (a, 0). Given that l1 and l2 meet at the point Q,
c find, in terms of a, b and t, the coordinates of Q. (2 marks)
x2 y2
E/P 12 The hyperbola H has equation  ___  – ___
    = 1.
49 25
The line l1 is the tangent to H at the point (7 sec θ, 5 tan θ).
a Use calculus to show that an equation of l1 is 7y sin θ = 5x – 35 cos θ. (5 marks)
The line l2 passes through the origin and is perpendicular to l1. The lines l1 and l2 intersect at
the point Q.
b Show that the coordinates of the point Q are ( ____________
25 + 49 sin  θ 25 + 49 sin  2 θ )
175 cos θ _____________– 245 sin θ cos θ
     2
,    
   . (5 marks)
E/P 13 P and Q are two distinct points on the hyperbola described by the equation x2 – 4y2 = 16.
The line l passes through the point P and the point Q. The tangent to the hyperbola at P and
the tangent to the hyperbola at Q intersect at the point (m, n). Show that an equation of the
line l is mx – 4ny = 16. (9 marks)
x 2 y2
P 14 Show that there are exactly two tangents to the hyperbola __  2  – __
    = 1 passing through the point
4 22
(6, 4) and find each of their equations.
y
y 2 H
__
E/P 15 The hyperbola H has equation x2 –     = 1.
4
The line l is a normal to the hyperbola at the P
point P with x-coordinate 2. The finite region R R l

is bounded by the hyperbola H, the line l and O x
the x-axis.
__
Show that the exact area of R is 10√ 3  – arcosh 2.
(10 marks)
Problem-solving
You will need to use a substitution such
as x = cosh u when integrating.
E/P 16 The point P lies on the hyperbola H with equation x2 – y2 = 1. The tangent to H at P cuts the
asymptotes of P at the points A and B.
a Prove that P is the midpoint of the line segment AB. (6 marks)
b Prove that OA × OB remains constant as the position of P varies on H. (3 marks)
3.6 Loci
Each of the conic sections can be defined as a locus of points. For example, the parabola is the locus
of points equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed straight line. You can use the properties of the
conic sections, and the general points on each curve, to find other loci associated with these curves.
Example 21
x2 y2
The tangent to the ellipse with equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1 at the point P(a cos t, b sin t) crosses the
a b
x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
Find an equation for the locus of the midpoint of AB as P moves round the ellipse.
83

Chapter 3
A Online Explore the locus of the

y
midpoint of AB using GeoGebra.
B
x2 y2
+ 2 =1 P A diagram might help and it is always
a2 b
worth drawing a rough sketch.
O A x
dy
Use the chain rule to find ___
   
Parametric equations of the ellipse are dx
x = a cos t and y = b sin t
dy
___ This result was found in Exercise 3D
dy ___    
dt b cos t question 3. You could quote it directly in a
Gradient:     =     = ______
___
   
dx ___ dx – a sin t question such as this.
   
dt
Equation of tangent:
Use x = 0 to find B and y = 0 to find A.
b cos t
y – b sin t = _______
  sin t(x – a cos t)
–a
or ay sin t + bx cos t = ab To find the locus of the midpoint, let the
A is (a sec t, 0). coordinates of the midpoint be (X, Y ) and
B is (0, b cosec t). then form parametric equations for X and Y.
The midpoint of AB has coordinates (X, Y ) where
a sec t
X = ______
    Eliminate the parameter (t in this case) to
2
b cosec t find an equation in X and Y.
Y = ________
   
2
Rearranging:
a b Problem-solving
cos t =  ___  and sin t = ___    
2X 2Y In some questions, you may be asked to
Using cos2 t + sin2 t ≡ 1 gives the locus show that the locus has a particular shape,
(
___ )
a 2
( )
     + ___
2X
b 2
     = 1
2Y
so you may need to rearrange the final
equation into an appropriate form.
You might also need to use properties of the parabola and rectangular hyperbola when solving loci
questions. This table summarises the results from the previous chapter.
Parabola Rectangular hyperbola

Standard Cartesian equation y2 = 4ax xy = c2
Parametric equations x = at2, y = 2at x = ct, y = _c   

t
General point, P (at2, 2at) ( t )

ct, _c   
Equation of tangent at P ty = x + at2 x + t2y = 2ct

Equation of normal at P y + tx = 2at + at3 t3x – ty = c(t4 – 1)
84

Conic sections 2
Example 22
A
The normal at P(ap2, 2ap) and the normal at Q(aq2, 2aq) to the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax
meet at R.
a Find the coordinates of R.
The chord PQ passes through the focus (a, 0) of the parabola.
b Show that pq = −1.
c Show that the locus of R is a parabola with equation y2 = a(x − 3a).
a To find R, find the intersections of the normals.

Normal at P is y + px = 2ap + ap3 Use the standard result for the
equation of a normal to a parabola at
Normal at Q is y + qx = 2aq + aq3
(at2, 2at): y + tx = 2at + at3
Subtracting,
(p – q)x = 2a(p – q) + a(p3 – q3) Problem-solving
(p – q)x = 2a(p – q) + a(p – q)(p2 + pq + q2)
The factorisations of
x = 2a + a(p2 + pq + q2) (p3 ± q3) = (p ± q)(p2 7 pq + q2) are
y = 2ap + ap3 – 2ap – ap3 – ap2q – apq2 particularly useful in this type of
= –apq(p + q) problem and should be learned.
So R is (2a + a(p2 + pq + q2), –apq(p + q))
b Chord PQ has gradient Substitute for x to find y.

2a(p – q) ____________
2(p – q) 2
 _________   =   
    =  _____
a(p2 – q2) (p – q)(p + q) p + q y1 – y2
Use ______
  x – x  
Equation of chord is 1 2
2
y – 2ap = _____
 p + q (x – ap2)
Problem-solving
⇒ y(p + q) = 2x + 2apq
Notice that if you let p = q in the
Since the chord passes through (a, 0), equation of the chord you get the
0 = 2a + 2apq equation of the tangent at Q. This is
⇒ pq = –1 sometimes a useful technique to use.
c Using pq = –1 the coordinates of R become

(a + a( p2 + q2), a( p + q)) The following technique is particularly
Let R be (X, Y ), then useful when tackling questions of this
X = a + a(p2 + q2) sort.
Y = a(p + q) Since ( p + q)2 = p2 + q2 + 2pq
So X = a + a((p + q)2 – 2pq) then p2 + q2 = ( p + q)2 – 2pq.
and using pq = –1 Using pq = –1 gives p2 + q2 = ( p + q)2 + 2.
X = 3a + a(p + q)2
But p + q =  Y
__
a Now use Y to eliminate p and q.
So X = 3a + a  Y ( )
__ 2
a  
⇒ Y 2 = a(X – 3a) Rearrange to the specified form.
85

Chapter 3
Exercise 3F
A 1 The tangent at P(ap2, 2ap) and the tangent at Q(aq2, 2aq) to the parabola with equation
P y2 = 4ax meet at R.
a Find the coordinates of R.
The chord PQ passes through the focus (a, 0) of the parabola.
b Show that the locus of R lies on the line x = –a.
Given instead that the chord PQ has gradient 2,
c find the locus of R.
  2 ___
x
___ y   2
E/P 2 The hyperbola H has equation   2  –   2  = 1. The line l1 is tangent to H at the point
a  b 
P(a sec t, b tan t).
a Use calculus to show that an equation for l1 is bx sec t – ay tan t = ab. (4 marks)
The line l1 cuts the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
a2 b2
b Show that the locus of the midpoint of AB is ___   2  – ___
  2  = 1 (5 marks)
4x 4y
x2 y2
E/P 3 The hyperbola H has equation __   2  – __    = 1. The line l1 is normal to H at the point P(a sect, b tant).
a b2
a Use calculus to show that an equation for l1 is ax sin t + by = (a  2 + b  2)tan t. (4 marks)
b Show that the locus of the midpoint of AB is 4a2x  2 = (a  2 + b  2)2 + 4b  2 y  2. (5 marks)
x 2 y2
E/P 4 The ellipse E has equation ___     + __     = 1. The line l1 is normal to E at the point P(5 cos θ, 3 sin θ).
25 9
a Use calculus to show that an equation for l1 is 3y cos θ = 5x sin θ – 16 sin θ cos θ. (4 marks)
The line l1 cuts the x-axis at M and the y-axis at N.
25x2 9y2
b Show that the locus of the midpoint of MN is ____     +  ___  = 1 (5 marks)
64 64
The tangent at the point P (cp, __  p   )and the tangent at the point Q (cq, __  q  )to the rectangular
c c
E/P 5
hyperbola xy = c2, intersect at the point R.
(
2cpq _____
a Show that R is  _____
2c
)
p + q ,  p + q   . (4 marks)
b Show that the chord PQ has equation ypq + x = c( p + q). (3 marks)
c Find the locus of R, given that:
i the chord PQ has gradient 2 (2 marks)
ii the chord PQ passes through the point (1, 0) (2 marks)
iii the chord PQ passes through the point (0, 1). (2 marks)
P 6 a Find the gradient of the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax at the point P(at2, 2at).
b Hence show that the equation of the tangent at this point is x – ty + at2 = 0.
The tangent meets the y-axis at T, and O is the origin.
c Show that the coordinates of the centre of the circle through O, P and T are ___
at2
    + a, __
2
at
     .
2 ( )
d Deduce that, as t varies, the locus of the centre of this circle is another parabola.
86

Conic sections 2
A 7 The chord PQ to the rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 passes through the point (0, 1).
E/P Find the equation of the locus of the midpoint of PQ as P and Q vary. (7 marks)
x 2 y2
E/P 8 The point P lies on the ellipse with equation  __  +  ___  = 1. The point N is the foot of the
4 16
perpendicular from point P to the line y = 6. M is the midpoint of PN.
a Find an equation for the locus of M as P moves around the ellipse. (4 marks)
b Show that this locus is a circle and state its centre and radius. (3 marks)
Challenge
x2 y2
The points A and B lie on an ellipse with equation  __2  +  __2  = 1,
a b
such that the chord AB has gradient k. Show that the locus of
the midpoints of all possible such chords AB has equation
ka2y + b2x = 0, and describe this locus.
Mixed exercise 3
1 The ellipse E has parametric equations x = 4 cos θ, y = 9 sin θ.

a Find a Cartesian equation of the ellipse.
b Sketch the ellipse, labelling any points of intersection with the coordinate axes.
c Find the equation of the normal to the ellipse at P(4 cos θ, 9 sin θ).
2 The hyperbola H has parametric equations x = ±2 cosh t, y = 5 sinh t.

a Find a Cartesian equation of the hyperbola.
b Sketch the hyperbola, giving the equations of the asymptotes and show points of intersection
of the hyperbola with the x-axis.
c Find the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola at Q(2 cosh t, 5 sinh t).
x2 y2
E/P 3 A hyperbola of the form __  2  – __
    = 1 has asymptotes with equations y = ±mx and passes
a b2
through the point (a, 0).
a Find an equation of the hyperbola in terms of x, y, a and m. (4 marks)
A point P on this hyperbola is equidistant from one of the hyperbola’s asymptotes and the
x-axis.
b Prove that, for all values of m, P lies on the curve with equation
(x2 – y2)2 = 4x2(x2 – a2) (3 marks)
4 a Prove that the gradient of the chord joining the point P (cp, __
 p  )and the point Q (cq, __
 q  ) on
c c
E/P
1
the rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2 is –  ___
pq (5 marks)
The points P, Q and R lie on a rectangular hyperbola, such that the angle QPR is a right angle.
b Prove that the angle between QR and the tangent at P is also a right angle. (5 marks)
87

Chapter 3
A 5 a Show that an equation of the tangent to the rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = c2
(with c . 0) at the point (ct, _  t   ) is
c
E/P
t2y + x = 2ct (4 marks)
Tangents are drawn from the point (–3, 3) to the rectangular hyperbola with equation xy = 16.
b Find the coordinates of the points of contact of these tangents with the
hyperbola. (4 marks)
E/P 6 The point P lies on the ellipse with equation 9x2 + 25y2 = 225, and A and B are the points
(– 4, 0) and (4, 0) respectively.
a Prove that PA + PB = 10. (4 marks)
b Prove also that the normal at P bisects the angle APB. (6 marks)
c
E/P 7 A curve is given parametrically by x = ct, y = _  t
a Show that an equation of the tangent to the curve at the point ( ct, __
  t ) is t2y + x = 2ct.
c
(4 marks)
The point P is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to this tangent.
b Show that the locus of P is the curve with equation (x2 + y2)2 = 4c2xy. (6 marks)
E/P 8 The points P(ap2, 2ap) and Q(aq2, 2aq) lie on the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax.
The angle POQ = 90°, where O is the origin.
a Prove that pq = –4. (4 marks)
Given that the normal at P to the parabola has equation
y + xp = ap3 + 2ap
b write down an equation of the normal to the parabola at Q. (1 mark)
c Show that these two normals meet at the point R, with coordinates
(ap2 + aq2 – 2a, 4a( p + q)) (3 marks)
d Show that, as p and q vary, the locus of R has equation y2 = 16ax – 96a2. (4 marks)
________
E/P 9 Show that, for all values of m, the straight lines with equations y = mx ± √ b2 + a2m2  are
x2 y2
tangents to the ellipse with equation  __2  + __
  2  = 1. (6 marks)
a b
E/P 10 The chord PQ, where P and Q are points on xy = c2, has gradient 1.
Show that the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents from P and Q is the
line y = –x. (6 marks)
x2 y2
E/P 11 The ellipse E has equation  ___  + ___
    = 1. The line l1 is tangent to E at the point
36 16
P(6 cos θ, 4 sin θ).
9 4
b Show that the locus of the midpoint of AB is ___   2  + ___
  2  = 1. (5 marks)
x  y 
88

Conic sections 2
____x2 ___ y2
A 12 The ellipse E has equation     +     = 1. The line l1 is tangent to E at the point
169 25
E/P P(13 cos θ, 5 sin θ).
The line l1 cuts the y-axis at A. The line l2 passes through the point A, perpendicular to l1.
b Find the equation of the line l2. (3 marks)
c Given that l2 cuts the x-axis at the focus of the ellipse (−ae, 0), show that cos θ = e. (3 marks)
x2 y2
E/P 13 The hyperbola H has equation ___
    – ___
    = 1. The line l1 is normal to H at the point
16 64
P(4 sec θ, 8 tan θ).
a Use calculus to show that an equation for l1 is x sin θ + 2y = 20 tan θ. (4 marks)
b Show that the locus of the midpoint of AB is also a hyperbola and find the equation of this
hyperbola. (6 marks)
x2 y2
E/P 14 The ellipse E has equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1. The line l1 is normal to E at the point P(a cos t, b sin t).
a b
a Use calculus to show that an equation for l1 is ax sin t – by cos t = (a2 – b2) cos t sin t.
(4 marks)
The line l1 cuts the x-axis at M and the y-axis at N.
b Show that the locus of the midpoint of MN is 4b2y2 + 4a2x2 = (a2 – b2)2. (5 marks)
x2 y2
E/P 15 The ellipse E with equation  __2  + __
  2 has foci at S and S9. Prove that for any point P on the
5 3
ellipse, PS + PS9 = 10. (5 marks)
y
P 16 The line l1 is tangent to the ellipse
x2 y2
with equation __   2  + __
  2  = 1. A line segment
a b
connects point P and the origin. P (a cos t, b sin t)
Show that the area of the shaded l1
region is  _2 ab tan t.
1
O x
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
17 The line l1 is tangent to the ellipse with y

x2 y2
equation __   2  + __
__
6 3 ( 3 3
P 3, 2 )
P(3,  ____
2 )
√
3 3 
 . Show that the exact value l1
for the area of the shaded region is

__ O x
9 √ 3  – 3π
x2 y2
+ 2 =1
62 3
89

Chapter 3
x ___
A 18 The hyperbola H has equation  __ y 2 2
  –     = 1. The tangents to the hyperbola at points P and Q
P
9 16
both meet one directrix of H at a single point A with y-coordinate 0, and the other directrix of
H at points B and C. Find the area of triangle ABC.
y
H
E/P 19 The hyperbola H has equation – = 1. The tangents to
x2 y2
the hyperbola at points P and Q meet at the point ( _  3 , 0). P
1
a Find the exact coordinates of P and Q. (3 marks)

R
b Show that the exact area of the region R enclosed by the __ x
O 1 1
tangents at P and Q and the hyperbola H is arcosh 3 – k√ 2 , 3
where k is a rational constant to be found. (7 marks)

Q
Challenge
Let P be a point on an ellipse with eccentricity e. The normal to the ellipse
at P meets the major axis at Q. Prove that QS = ePS, where S is a focus.
y
x2 + y2 = 1 P
a2 b2
O Q S x

x2 y2
1 A standard ellipse has Cartesian equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1
a b
• The standard ellipse has parametric equations x = a cos t, y = b sin t, 0 < t , 2π
• A general point P on an ellipse has coordinates (a cos t, b sin t).
x2 y2
2 A standard hyperbola has Cartesian equation __
  2  – __
    = 1
a b2
• The standard hyperbola has parametric equations x = ±a cosh t, y = b sinh t, t ∈ ℝ
• The standard hyperbola has alternative parametric equations
π
x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ, –π < θ , π, θ ≠ ±  __
2
• A general point P on a hyperbola has coordinates (±a cosh t, b sinh t) or (a sec θ, b tan θ).
90

Conic sections 2
A
3 For all points, P, on a conic section, the ratio of the distance of P from a fixed point (called the
focus) and a fixed straight line (called the directrix) is constant. This ratio, e, is known as the
eccentricity of the curve.
• If 0 , e , 1, the point P describes an ellipse.
• If e = 1, the point P describes a parabola.
• If e . 1, the point P describes a hyperbola.
x2 y2
4 For an ellipse with equation __
  2  + __
  2  = 1, and a > b,
a b
• the eccentricity, 0 , e , 1, is given by b2 = a2(1 − e2)
• the foci are at (±ae, 0)
a
e 
x2 y2
5 For a hyperbola with equation __   2  – __
    = 1,
a b2
• the eccentricity, e . 1, is given by b2 = a2(e2 – 1)
• the foci are at (±ae, 0)
a
e 
x2 y2
6 An equation of the tangent to the ellipse with equation __
  2  + __
a b
P(a cos t, b sin t) is bx cos t + ay sin t = ab.
x2 y2
7 An equation of the normal to the ellipse with equation __   2  + __
a b
P(a cos t, b sin t) is ax sin t – by cos t = (a2 – b2) cos t sin t.
x2 y2
8 • An equation of the tangent to the hyperbola with equation __
  2  – __     = 1 at the point
a b2
P(a cosh t, b sinh t) is ay sinh t + ab = bx cosh t.
x2 y2
• An equation of the tangent to the hyperbola with equation __
  2  – __
a b2
P(a sec θ, b tan θ) is bx sec θ − ay tan θ = ab.
x2 y2
9 • An equation of the normal to the hyperbola with equation __   2  – __
a b2
P(a cosh t, b sinh t) is ax sinh t + by cosh t = (a2 + b2) sinh t cosh t.
x2 y2
• An equation of the normal to the hyperbola with equation __   2  – __     = 1 at the point
a b2
P(a sec θ, b tan θ) is by + ax sin θ = (a2 + b2) tan θ.
91

4 Inequalities
Objectives
• Manipulate inequalities involving algebraic fractions → pages 93–96
• Use graphs to find solutions to inequalities → pages 96–99
• Solve inequalities involving modulus signs → pages 99–102

1 Solve:
a 3x2 − 2x − 1 . 0
Inequalities are used in collision-detection b x2 + 4x − 2 , 0
algorithms in video games. Positions of ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 3
objects on a screen can be defined by x-
and y-coordinates, and the area in which a 2 Solve:
player or an object is allowed to move can be a |3x − 1| . 5 b |4x − 8| , 2
defined by inequalities. ← Pure Year 2, Chapter 2
92
M04A_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_4_092-104.indd 92 22/01/2018 18:22

Inequalities
4.1 Algebraic methods

If you multiply both sides of an inequality by a negative number you reverse the direction of the
inequality sign.
You need to be more careful if you multiply or divide both sides of an inequality by a variable or
expression. If the variable or expression could take either a positive or a negative value then you don’t
know which direction is correct for the inequality sign. You can overcome this problem by multiplying
by an expression squared.
1
Suppose you want to solve the inequality __
 x  . x, x ≠ 0.
y 1 y y y = x3
y=x y = x2
y=x y=x
y=1
–1 –1
O 1 x O x
–1 O 1 x 1
The values of x where the If you multiply both sides of the If you multiply both sides of
1 inequality by x you get 1 . x2. the inequality by x2 you get
graph of y = __
  x is above
The solution to this inequality x . x 3. The graph of y = x is
the graph of y = x give you
is −1 , x , 1, which is not the above the graph of y = x3 for
the solution: x , −1 or
required solution. x , −1 and 0 , x , 1, which
0 , x , 1.
is the solution to the original
inequality.
In the third example above, you can solve the inequality x . x3 by algebraically rearranging and
factorising.
x3 − x , 0 You can add or subtract any term from both sides of an inequality.
x(x2 − 1) , 0
x(x − 1)(x + 1) , 0
The critical values are x = 0, x = 1 and x = −1. You can consider a sketch of the graph of
y = x(x − 1)(x + 1) to work out which intervals satisfy the inequality.
■ To solve an inequality involving algebraic fractions:
• Step 1: multiply by an expression squared to remove fractions
• Step 2: rearrange the inequality to get 0 on one side
• Step 3: find critical values
• Step 4: use a sketch to identify the correct intervals
93

Chapter 4
Example 1
x2
Use algebra to solve the inequality  _____  , x + 1, x ≠ 2.
x−2
Multiply both sides by (x − 2)2 Problem-solving

x2
(x − 2)2 × ______
    , (x − 2)2 × (x + 1) A natural first step would be to multiply both
x−2 sides by (x − 2) but we cannot be sure that this
x2
(x − 2)2 × _______
    , (x − 2)2 × (x + 1) is positive. A simple solution is to multiply both
(x − 2)
sides of the inequality by (x − 2)2 as this will
(x − 2)x2 − (x + 1)(x − 2)2 , 0
always be positive.
(x − 2)(x2 − (x + 1)(x − 2)) , 0
(x − 2)(x2 − x2 + x + 2) , 0
Do not aim to multiply out but cancel, collect
or (x − 2)(x + 2) < 0
terms on one side and factorise.
Critical values are x = ±2
The sketch of y = (x − 2)(x + 2) is
This is a quadratic inequality so you can solve it in
y the usual way. ← Pure Year 1, Chapter 3
y = (x – 2)(x + 2)
Watch out When a question says 'Use
–2 O 2 x algebra…' you can still use a sketch to identify
which intervals to include in your solution
set. However, you should make sure you show
algebraic working to find the critical values.
The solution to (x − 2)(x + 2) , 0

is −2 , x , 2.
When the inequality is not strict you have to be Hint Values for which one side of the inequality
a bit more careful. In the above example, the is undefined will usually be explicitly excluded. In
left-hand side of the inequality is undefined the above example you are given x ≠ 2.
when x = 2, so you cannot include x = 2
in your solution set.
■ When solving an inequality involving < or >, check whether or not each of your critical
values should be included in the solution set.
Example 2
x 2
Find all values of x such that  _____  < _____
   , where x ≠ −1 and x ≠ −3, and express your answer
x+1 x+3
using set notation.
94

Inequalities
Multiply both sides by In order to remove the fractions and guarantee

(x + 1)2(x + 3)2 that you are not multiplying by a negative
So quantity, use (x + 1)2(x + 3)2.
x(x + 1)2(x + 3)2 _______________
_______________ 2(x + 1)2(x + 3)2
  
       <   
      
x+1 x+3 Cancel terms on each side.
x(x + 1)(x + 3)2 − 2(x + 1)2(x + 3) < 0
(x + 1)(x + 3)(x(x + 3) − 2(x + 1)) < 0 Collect terms on LHS.
(x + 1)(x + 3)(x2 + x − 2) < 0
(x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1) < 0 Factorise as much as possible.
So the critical values are:
x = −1, −3, −2 or 1 To find the critical values you need to solve
A sketch of y = (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1) is (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1) = 0.
y
The curve y = (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1) is a
quartic graph with positive x4 coefficient, so it
–3 –2 –1 O 1 x
starts in top left and ends in top right and passes
through (−3, 0), (−2, 0), (−1, 0) and (1, 0).
y = (x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 2)(x – 1)
The solution to
(x + 1)(x + 3)(x + 2)(x − 1) < 0 corresponds
The inequality is non-strict so you need to check
to the sections of this graph that are on or
whether the critical values should be included in
below the x-axis.
the solution. The conditions x ≠ −1 and x ≠ −3 are
So the solution is given in the question, so use strict inequalities to
{x : −3 , x < −2} ∪ {x : −1 , x < 1} exclude these values.
Exercise 4A
1 Solve the following inequalities.
2 2
a x2 , 5x + 6 b x(x + 1) > 6 c  ______  . 1 d  ______   . 1
x2 + 1 x2 − 1
x 3 2 3 2 3
e  _____  < 2x x ≠ 1 f  _____  , __
    g  ____________
    , 1 h  __2  > ____________
    
x−1 x+1 x (x + 1)(x − 1) x (x + 1)(x − 2)
2 3 1
 i  _____  , 3 j  _____  . _____
   
x−4 x+2 x−5
2 Solve the following inequalities, giving your answers using set notation.
3x2 + 5
_______ _____ 3x 1+x 2−x
a     . 1 b     . x c  _____  . _____
   
x+5 x−2 1−x 2+x
x2 + 7x + 10
___________ _____x+1 x2 1
d
    . 2x + 7 e
  2  . 6  _____  . __
f    
x+1 x x+1 6
95

Chapter 4
2x + 1 _____ x+2
E 3 a Use algebra to find the set of values for which ______
    ,     (6 marks)
x+5 x+4
x 1
E 4 a Use algebra to find the set of values for which ______
    , _____
   , giving your answer
2x + 1 x − 3
in set notation. (6 marks)
x 1
E/P 5 A teacher asks a student to solve the inequality ______
    , __
   
3x + 4 x
The student’s attempt was as follows:
x
______ 1
    , __
   
3x + 4 x
x2 , 3x + 4
x2 − 3x − 4 , 0
(x − 4)(x + 1) , 0
−1 , x , 4
a Identify the mistake made by the student and explain why it will produce an incorrect
answer. (2 marks)
b Solve the inequality correctly. (6 marks)
4 1
E/P 6 Use algebra to solve __
    , x , ______
   , giving your answer using set notation. (6 marks)
x 2x + 1
Challenge Hint You probably won’t be able to sketch the

1 1 graph in this question. Find the critical values,
Solve ______
  , __
 
1 − ex ex then test values within each interval to determine
the solution set.
4.2 Using graphs to solve inequalities

■ If you can sketch the graphs of y = f(x) Watch out If you are asked to solve an
and y = g(x) then you can solve an inequality algebraically you should not start by
inequality such as f(x) , g(x) by observing sketching graphs.
when one curve is above the other.
The critical values will be the solutions to
the equation f(x) = g(x).
Example 3
7x
a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of the curves with equations y = ______
    and y = 4 − x.
3x + 1
7x
b Find the points of intersection of y = ______
    and y = 4 − x.
3x + 1
7x
c Solve ______
    , 4 − x.
3x + 1
96

Inequalities
7x Problem-solving
a Sketch y = 4 − x and y = ______
   :
3x + 1 To sketch unfamiliar curves, look for:
y = 4 − x is a straight line crossing the axes at ● points where the curve meets or crosses
(4, 0) and (0, 4). the axes
7x
y = ______
   crosses the coordinate axes at (0, 0). ● vertical asymptotes (where the
3x + 1 denominators of fractions equal 0)
There is a vertical asymptote at x = −  __
1
3
● behaviour on either side of vertical
asymptotes
There is a horizontal asymptote at y =  __
7
3
● behaviour as x gets very large or very
small
So the sketch looks like this
You can find horizontal asymptotes by
y
rearranging the fraction to see how it
behaves as x → ∞.
4
3x + 1 3 (3x + 1 ) 3 ( 3x + 1 )
y= 7 7x
______ 7 3x 7 1
3     = __
    ______
    = __
    1 − ______
   
y=
7x 1
3x + 1 As x → ∞,  ______  → 0 so the curve has a
3x + 1
O 4 x
horizontal asymptote at y =  _73
y= 4 – x
x = – 31
b Using algebra to find critical values:

Multiply both sides by 3x + 1. This is an
7x
______
    = 4 − x equation, not an inequality, so you don't
3x + 1
7x = 12x + 4 − 3x2 − x need to multiply by an expression squared.
3x2 − 4x − 4 = 0
Multiply out and collect terms to form a
(3x + 2)(x − 2) = 0 quadratic equation.
So x = −  __
2
3 or 2
c Marking these points on the graph: Solve the equation in the usual way: this
y one factorises.
4 7 Look on the sketch for the places where the

y= 3
line is above the curve.
y=
7x These places will give the solution.
3x + 1
– 2 O 2 4 x
3
y= 4 – x
Watch out Any vertical asymptotes will
1 also be critical values when you are finding
x=– 3
your solution set.
So the solution is
x , −  __
2 __1
3 or −   3 , x , 2 Online Explore the solution to the
inequality using GeoGebra.
97

Chapter 4
Exercise 4B
1 Sketch the graphs of the following functions.
a y = x  2 − 5x + 6 b y = x  3 + 2x  2 − 3x
1 4x
c y =  _____  d y =  ______ 
x+1 1 − 2x
2 Sketch each of the following pairs of functions on the same sets of axes.
__ 1
y = x  2 − 2x + 1and y = 4 − 4 x  2
a b y = xand y =   x 
3 x
c y = 2x − 1 and y = _____    d y = 4 − 3xand y = ______
   
x−2 4x − 2
3 Find the points of intersection of the following pairs of functions.
2 1 3x
a y = _____
    and y =  _____  b y = x − 2and y =  _____ 
x+1 x−3 x+2
4(x + 2)
c y = x  2 − 4and y = _______
   
x−2
4
E 4 a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = x − 1and y = _____     (3 marks)
x−1
4
b Find the points of intersection of y = x − 1 and y = _____     (2 marks)
x−1
4
c Write down the solution to the inequality x − 1 . _____     (2 marks)
x−1
3 2
E/P 5 f(x) =__
2 , x ≠ 0 and g(x) = _____  , x ≠ 3
x 3−x
a Sketch y = f(x) and y = g(x) on the same set of axes. (3 marks)
b Solve f(x) = g(x) (2 marks)
c Hence write down the solution to the inequality f(x) . g(x). Give your answer
using set notation. (3 marks)
3x 4x
E/P 6 a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = _____     and y = _______     (4 marks)
2−x (x − 1)2
3x 4x
b Find the points of intersection of y = _____
    and y = _______     (2 marks)
2−x (x − 1)2
3x 4x
c Hence, or otherwise, solve the inequality _____     <_______
    (2 marks)
2 − x (x − 1)2
6(2 − x)
E/P 7 a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = x − 2and y = ____________       (4 marks)
(x + 2)(x − 3)
6(2 − x)
b Find the points of intersection of y = x − 2and y = ____________       (3 marks)
(x + 2)(x − 3)
6(2 − x)
c Write down the solution to the inequality x − 2 < ____________       (2 marks)
(x + 2)(x − 3)
1 x
E 8 a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = __     and y = _____     (3 marks)
x x+2
1 x
b Find the points of intersection of y = __    and y = _____     (2 marks)
x x+2
1 x
c Solve __
    . _____
    (2 marks)
x x+2
98

Inequalities
Challenge
a Sketch the circle with equation (x − 2) 2+ (y − 4) 2= 10.
b Determine the coordinates of all points of intersection between this circle
4x − 5
and the curve with equation y = ______
 
x−2
c Sketch this curve on the same set of axes as your answer to part a.
d Hence, or otherwise, find the solutions to the inequality
(x − 2)2 + (______ − 4) , 10
4x − 5 2
 
x−2
4.3 Modulus inequalities

A You need to be able to solve inequalities that include modulus signs. It is often useful to sketch the
relevant modulus graph when solving inequalities like this.
Example 4
Solve ∣ x2 − 4x∣ , 3
Sketch y = ∣ x2 − 4x∣ and y = 3 on the same set of

Sketch y = | x2 − 4x| and y = 3:
axes. To sketch y = ∣ x2 − 4x∣ consider the graph of
y y = |x2 – 4x| y = x2 − 4x, and reflect any sections of the graph
that are below the x-axis in the x-axis.
← Pure Year 2, Section 2.5
3 y= 3
Watch out Solve ∣ x2 − 4x∣ = 3 to find the
critical values. You need to consider the two
separate cases: when the argument of ∣ x2 − 4x∣ is
O 4 x
positive and when it is negative. Use your sketch
To find the critical values, solve |x2 − 4x| = 3 to determine whether these critical values all
x2 − 4x = 3 ⇒ x2 − 4x − 3 = 0 correspond to points of intersection.
(x – 2)2 – 4 – 3 = 0
(x – 2)2 = 7 __ Complete the square or use the quadratic formula.
x = 2 ± √ 7 
−(x − 4x) = 3 ⇒ x2 − 4x + 3 = 0
2
The line y = 3 intersects the graph of y = ∣x2 − 4x∣
(x − 3)(x − 1) = 0 at four places, so all of these values of x correspond
x = 1 or 3 to points of intersection. Look at example 6 for a
situation where this is not the case.
99

Chapter 4
A
Marking these values on the sketch:
y y = |x2 – 4x|
3 y= 3
You need to identify where the points of
intersection are on the sketch.
2– 7 O 1 3 4 2+ 7 x
So the solution is:
__ __ Finally write down the solution to the inequality:
2 − √ 7  , x , 1 or 3 , x , 2 + √ 7 
the points where the line y = 3 is above the curve.
Sometimes a little simple rearranging first can make the sketching much simpler.
Example 5
Solve ∣3x∣ + x < 2
Rearranging gives: Problem-solving

|3x| < 2 − x Sketching y = ∣3x∣ + x is quite difficult so it is
Sketching y = |3x| and y = 2 − x gives usually simpler to rearrange and isolate the
y modulus function.
y = |3x|
y= 2– x
O 2 x
Critical values are given by:

3x = 2 − x
4x = 2 Find the critical values in the usual way.
x = __
  21 Remember the two cases.
or
−3x = 2 − x
−2 = 2x
x = −1 By considering the positions of the critical values,
So the line is above |3x| for identify the places where the line is above the
−1 < x <  __ 1
2
V-shaped graph.
100

Inequalities
A Sometimes care must be taken to identify the correct roots when solving modulus equations.
Example 6
Find all values of x such that ∣x2 − 19∣ < 5(x − 1), expressing your answer in set notation.
Sketching both graphs: Online Explore the solution to the

y inequality using GeoGebra.
y = |x2 – 19| Sketch the graphs.
O 3 7 x
y = 5(x – 1)
x2 − 19 = 5x − 5 ⇒ x2 − 5x − 14 = 0
(x − 7)(x + 2) = 0
x = 7 or −2
Find the critical values.
−(x2 − 19) = 5x − 5 ⇒ x2 + 5x − 24 = 0
(x + 8)(x − 3) = 0 Watch out Solving the equations gives four
x = −8 or 3 values but the graphs only have two crossing
points. The valid critical values are x = 3 and x = 7.
The set of points for which the line is above
the curve can be written as
{x : 3 < x < 7}. Write down the solution.
Exercise 4C
1 Solve the following inequalities.
a |x − 6| . 6x b |x − 3| . x2 c |(x − 2)(x + 6)| , 9
x+3
d |2x + 1| > 3 e |2x| + x . 3 f  ______  , 2
|x| + 1
2 a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = |3x − 2|and y = 2x + 4.
b Solve, giving your answer in set notation, |3x − 2| < 2x + 4.
4
3 a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = | x 2 − 4|and y = ______
  2  
x −1
4
b Solve | x 2 − 4| < ______
  2  
x −1
3−x
E/P 4 Solve the inequality ______
    . 2, giving your answer in set notation. (5 marks)
|x | + 1
Problem-solving
E/P 5 Solve the inequality  
x
_____
x+2 | |
  , 1 − x, To sketch y = _____
 
x
x+2
 rearrange it into the
giving your answer in set notation. B (5 marks)

form y = A +  _____  for constants A and B.
x+2
101

Chapter 4
A 1
  x − a  and y = 4∣x − a∣.
6 a On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = _____ (5 marks)
E/P
1
  x − a , , 4∣x − a∣.
b Solve, giving your answer in terms of the constant a, _____ (3 marks)
4x
E/P 7 Solve ______
    , x (6 marks)
|x | + 2
E/P 8 A student attempts to solve the inequality | x 2 + x − 8 | , 4x + 2.
The working is shown below:
x  2 + x − 8 = 4x + 2 ⇒ x  2− 3x − 10 = 0

and
− x  2 − x + 8 = 4x + 2 ⇒ x  2 + 5x − 6 = 0
So critical values are x = −6, −2, 1, 5.
Solution is:
−6 , x , −2and 1 , x , 5
a Identify the mistake in the student’s answer. (1 mark)

b Find the correct values of x for which the inequality is satisfied. (3 marks)
Challenge
f(x) = x 3+ 3 x 2− 13x − 15
a Show that (x + 1)is a factor of f(x).
b Find the other factors and hence sketch the graph of y = f(x).
c Hence or otherwise, solve the inequality | x 3+ 3 x 2− 13x − 15| < x + 5.
Mixed exercise 4
1 2
E 1 Use algebra to solve _____
    < __
    (6 marks)
x−2 x
2x2 − 2
E 2 Use algebra to solve _______
    . 4. (4 marks)
x+2
2x2 − 3x + 4
E 3 Use algebra to solve ___________
    , 4x − 2. (4 marks)
x−2
x+1 1
E 4 Use algebra to find the set of values of x for which ______
    , _____
   , giving your answer
2x − 3 x − 3
in set notation. (6 marks)
(x + 3)(x + 9)
E 5 Use algebra to find the set of values of x for which ____________
  
    . 3x − 5, giving
x−1
your answer in set notation. (4 marks)
102

Inequalities
P 6 a Sketch, on the same axes, the line with equation y = 2x + 2and the graph with
2x + 4
equation y =  ______ 
x−2
2x +4
_____
b Solve the inequality 2x + 2 .    
x−2
2x − 4
P 7 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, the graph with equation y = ______
  2  and the line with
x −2
equation y = 2 − 4x.
2x − 4
b Solve the inequality 2 − 4x ,  ______  
x2 − 2
x−2 2
E/P 8 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, the graphs with equations y = ______
    and y = _____
   
3x − 1 x+2
(4 marks)
x−2 2
b Solve the inequality  ______  , _____
    (3 marks)
3x − 1 x + 2
x+1 2x − 1
E/P 9 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, the graphs with equations y = _____
    and y = ______
   
x−2 x+4
(4 marks)
x + 1 2x − 1
b Solve the inequality  _____  , ______
    (3 marks)
x−2 x+4
A 10 Solve the inequality ∣x2 − 7∣ , 3(x + 1)
x2
11 Solve the inequality  ______  , 1
∣x∣ + 6
E 12 Find the set of values of x for which ∣x − 1∣ . 6x − 1 (3 marks)
E 13 Find the complete set of values of x for which ∣x2 − 2∣ . 2x (3 marks)
E 14 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, the graph with equation y = ∣2x − 3∣, and the line
with equation y = 5x − 1 (3 marks)
b Solve the inequality ∣2x − 3∣ , 5x − 1 (3 marks)
E 15 a Use algebra to find the exact solution of ∣2x2 + x − 6∣ = 6 − 3x (4 marks)
b On the same diagram, sketch the curve with equation y = ∣2x2 + x − 6∣ and the line
with equation y = 6 − 3x (3 marks)
c Find the set of values of x for which ∣2x2 + x − 6∣ . 6 − 3x (1 mark)
E/P 16 a On the same diagram, sketch the graphs of y = ∣x2 − 4∣ and y = ∣2x − 1∣, showing the
coordinates of the points where the graphs meet the x-axis. (4 marks)
b Solve ∣x2 − 4∣ = ∣2x − 1∣, giving your answers in surd form where appropriate. (4 marks)
c Hence, or otherwise, find the set of values of x for which ∣x2 − 4∣ . ∣2x − 1∣ (1 mark)
103

Chapter 4
A 17 A teacher asks a student to solve the inequality ∣x2 + 3x + 1∣ . 3x + 2, expressing their answer
E/P in set notation. The student’s work is shown below.
We find critical values

x  2 + 3x + 1 = 3x + 2 ⇒ x  2− 1 ⇒ x = ± 1
and
__
x  2 + 3x + 1 = − 2 − 3x ⇒ x  2 + 6x + 3 = 0 ⇒ x = − 3 ± √ 6 
Hence inequality is satisfied when x is in the set
__ __
{x : x , − 3 − √ 6  } ∪ {x : − 1 , x , − 3 + √ 6  } ∪ {x : x . 1}
a Identify the mistake in the student’s working. (1 mark)

b Write down the correct solution to the problem. (3 marks)
Challenge
Solve the inequality | x 2 − 5x + 2 | . |x − 3|
Give your answer in set notation, expressing any critical values as surds where appropriate.

1 To solve an inequality involving algebraic fractions:
• Step 1: multiply by an expression squared to remove fractions
• Step 2: rearrange the inequality to get 0 on one side
• Step 3: find critical values
• Step 4: use a sketch to identify the correct intervals
2 When solving an inequality involving < or >, check whether or not each of your critical values
should be included in the solution set.
3 If you can sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x) then you can solve an inequality such
as f(x) , g(x) by observing when one curve is above the other. The critical values will be the
solutions to the equation f(x) = g(x).
104

Review exercise
In this exercise, AS students may use, without E/P 5 The points A, B, C and D have
1
proof, the result that, for the general parabola coordinates (3, 1, 2), (5, 2, −1), (6, 4, 5)
dy 2a and (−7, 6, −3) respectively.
y2 = 4ax, ___
    = ___
    ⟶ ⟶
dx y a Find  AC  × AD 
  . (3)
E 1 Find the magnitude of the vector b Find a vector equation of the line
(−i − j + k) × (−i + j − k). (3) through A which is perpendicular to
⟶ ⟶
← Section 1.1  
AC and AD
  . (3)
2 k
(3) ( 0)
c Verify that B lies on this line. (2)
E/P 2 p=− and q = 1  , where k is a real
  1 
d Find the volume of the tetrahedron
constant. ABCD. (2)
← Sections 1.1, 1.3
a Find p × q, giving your answer as a
column vector in terms of k. (3)
A 6 The points A, B and C have position
b Hence find the least possible value of vectors, relative to a fixed origin O,
E/P
|p × q|, and state the value of k for a = 2i − j
which it occurs. (3)
b = i + 2j + 3k
← Section 1.1
c = 2i + 3j + 2k
E/P 3 Referred to a fixed origin O, the position respectively. The plane Π passes through
vectors of three non-linear points A, B A, B and C.
⟶ ⟶
and C are a, b and c respectively. By a Find AB 
  × AC 
  . (3)
⟶ ⟶
considering  AB  × AC 
  , prove that the area b Show that a Cartesian equation of Π
of triangle ABC can be expressed in the is 3x − y + 2z = 7. (3)
form  _2 |a × b + b × c + c × a|.
1
(5)
The line l has equation
← Section 1.2
(r − 5i − 5j − 3k) × (2i − j − 2k) = 0
E 4 The figure shows a E The line l and the plane Π intersect at the
right prism with point T.
D F
triangular ends ABC c Find the coordinates of T. (4)
and DEF, and parallel B d Show that A, B and T lie on the same
edges AD, BE, CF. straight line. (4)
Given that A C ← Sections 1.1, 1.4
A is (2, 7, −1), B is (5, 8, 2), C is (6, 7, 4) 7 Vector equations of the two straight lines
E/P
and D is (12, 1, −9), l and m are respectively
⟶ ⟶
a find  AB  × AC 
  (3) r = j + 3k + t(2i + j − k)
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b find AD 
  .( AB  × AC 
  ) (3) r = i + j − k + u(−2i + j + k)
c Calculate the volume of the prism. (2) a Show that these lines do not
← Sections 1.1, 1.3 intersect. (4)
105
M04B_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_RE1_105-115.indd 105 22/01/2018 18:23

Review exercise 1
A The point A with parameter t1 lies on l A c Show that 4i + 13j + 25k is

and the point B with parameter u1 lies perpendicular to both n1 and n2. (2)
on m. Given that the point (1, 1, 1) lies on both
⟶
b Write down the vector AB 
  in terms of Π1 and Π2,
i, j, k, t1 and u1. (1) d write down an equation of the line of
Given that the line AB is perpendicular to intersection of Π1 and Π2 in the form
both l and m, r = a + t b, where t is a parameter. (4)
c find the values of t1 and u1 and show ← Section 1.5
that, in this case, the length of AB
7__ E/P 11 Relative to a fixed origin O, the point A
is  ___   (4)
√
5  has position vector a(4i + j + 2k) and
← Section 1.4
the plane Π has equation
E 8 A line L passes through the points with r.(i − 5j + 3k) = 5a,
2 −1 where a is a scalar constant.
(0) ( 2)
position vectors 5    and 3   . a Show that A lies in the plane Π. (3)
The point B has position vector
a Find the direction cosines of L. (3)
a(2i + 11j − 4k).
b Hence or otherwise, write a Cartesian ⟶
b Show that BA  is perpendicular to
equation of L. (2)
← Section 1.4
the plane Π. (3)
c Calculate, to the nearest one tenth
E 9 The points A, B and C lie on the plane Π of a degree, OBA.(3)
and, relative to a fixed origin O, they have ← Section 1.5
position vectors
a = 3i − j + 4k E/P 12 The line l1 has equation
b = −i + 2j r = i + 6j − k + λ(2i + 3k)
c = 5i − 3j + 7k and the line l2 has equation
respectively. r = 3i + pj + μ(i − 2j + k)
⟶ ⟶
a Find AB 
  × AC 
  . (3) where p is a constant.
b Obtain the equation of Π in the form The plane Π1 contains l1 and l2.
r.n = p. (3) a Find a vector which is normal to Π1.(3)
The point D has position vector b Show that an equation for Π1 is
5i + 2j + 3k. 6x + y − 4z = 16. (3)
c Calculate the volume of the c Find the value of p. (2)
tetrahedron ABCD. (2)
The plane Π2 has equation
← Sections 1.1, 1.3, 1.5
r.(i + 2j + k) = 2
E 10 The plane Π1 has vector equation d Find an equation for the line of
r = 5i + j + u(−4i + j + 3k) + v(j + 2k) intersection of Π1 and Π2, giving your
where u and v are parameters. answer in the form (r − a) × b = 0. (4)
← Section 1.5
a Find a vector n1 normal to Π1. (3)
The plane Π2 has equation 3x + y − z = 3. E/P 13 The plane Π passes through the points
b Write down a vector n2 normal P(−1, 3, −2), Q(4, −1, −1) and R(3, 0, c),
to Π2. (1) where c is a constant.
106

Review exercise 1
⟶ ⟶
A a Find, in terms of c, RP 
  × RQ 
  . (3) A Given that B lies on Π2,
⟶ ⟶
  × RQ 
Given that RP    = 3i + dj + k, where c find the value of d. (3)
d is a constant, The planes Π1 and Π2 intersect in the
b find the value of c and show that line L.
d = 4. (2) d Find an equation of L in the form
c Find an equation of Π in the form r = p + tq, where t is a parameter. (3)
r.n = p, where p is a constant. (3) e Find the position vector of the
The point S has position vector point X on L where OX is
i + 5j + 10k. The point S9 is the image of perpendicular to L. (4)
S under reflection in Π. ← Sections 1.1, 1.5
d Find the position vector of S9. (4)
E/P 16 The points A, B and C have position
vectors j + 2k, 2i + 3j + k and i + j + 3k,
E 14 The points A, B and C lie on the plane Π1 respectively, relative to the origin O.
and, relative to a fixed origin O, they have The plane Π contains the points A, B
position vectors and C.
a = i + 3j − k a Find a vector which is perpendicular
b = 3i + 3j − 4k to Π. (4)
c = 5i − 2j − 2k b Find the area of triangle ABC. (3)
respectively. c Find a vector equation of Π in the
a Find (b − a) × (c − a). (2) form r.n = p. (3)
b Find an equation of Π1, giving your d Hence, or otherwise, obtain a
answer in the form r.n = p. (2) Cartesian equation of Π. (2)
The plane Π2 has Cartesian equation e Find the distance of the origin O
x + z = 3 and Π1 and Π2 intersect in the from Π. (2)
line l. The point D has position vector
c Find an equation of l in the form 3i + 4j + k. The distance of D from Π
1
(r − p) × q = 0. (3) is  ____
___ 
√
17 
The point P is the point on l that is
f Using this distance, or otherwise,
nearest to the origin O.
calculate the acute angle between the
d Find the coordinates of P. (3) line AD and Π, giving your answer in
← Section 1.1, 1.5
degrees to one decimal place. (3)
E/P 15 The points A(2, 0, −1) and B(4, 3, 1) have
position vectors a and b respectively with E/P 17 The plane Π passes through the points
respect to a fixed origin O. A (−1, −1, 1), B(4, 2, 1) and C(2, 1, 0).
a Find a × b. (2) a Find a vector equation of the line
The plane Π1 contains the points O, A perpendicular to Π which passes
and B. through the point D(1, 2, 3). (3)
b Verify that an equation of Π1 is b Find the volume of the tetrahedron
x − 2y + 2z = 0. (3) ABCD. (3)
The plane Π2 has equation r.n = d where c Obtain the equation of Π in the form
n = 3i + j − k and d is a constant. r.n = p. (3)
107

Review exercise 1
A The perpendicular from D to the plane Π E 20 The rectangular hyperbola, H, with

meets Π at the point E. 8
equation x = 8t ,  y = ___
  t  intersects the line
d Find the coordinates of E. (3)
with equation y = _  4 x + 4 at the points A
1
___
11√35 
e Show that DE = ______
    (2) and B. The midpoint of AB is M. Find
35 the coordinates of M. (4)
The point D9 is the reflection of D in Π. ← Section 2.3
f Find the coordinates of D9. (4)
E 21 The curve C has equations x = 3t2, y = 6t.
a Sketch the graph of the curve C. (3)
E/P 18 Relative to a fixed origin O the lines l1 The curve C intersects the line with
and l2 have equations equation y = x − 72 at the points A and B.
l1 : r = −i + 2j −4k + s(−2i + j + 3k) b Find the length AB, giving your answer
l2 : r = −j + 7k + t(−i + j − k) as a surd in its simplest form. (4)
where s and t are variable parameters. ← Section 2.1
a Show that the lines intersect and are

E/P 22 The points P(1, a) , where a . 0, and
perpendicular to each other. (4)
Q(b, 6) lie on the parabola C with
b Find a vector equation of the straight equation y  2 = 4x. The perpendicular
line l3 which passes through the point bisector of PQ meets the parabola at
of intersection of l1 and l2 and the the points M and N. Show that the
point with position vector 4i + λj − 3k, x-coordinates of M and N can be written
___
where λ is a real number. (4) √
in the form x = λ ± μ 29 , where λ and μ
The line l3 makes an angle u with the are rational numbers to be found. (6)
plane containing l1 and l2. ← Section 2.2
c Find sin u in terms of λ. (4) E 23 A parabola C has equation y2 = 16x. The
Given that l1, l2 and l3 are coplanar, point S is the focus of the parabola.
d find the value of λ. (3) a Write down the coordinates of S. (1)
The point P with coordinates (16, 16) lies
on C.
E 19 Referred to a fixed origin O, the planes b Find an equation of the line SP, giving
Π1 and Π2 have equations r.(2i − j + 2k) = your answer in the form ax + by + c = 0,
9 and r.(4i + 3j − k) = 8 respectively. where a, b and c are integers. (2)
a Determine the shortest distance from
The line SP intersects C at the point Q,
O to the line of intersection of Π1
where P and Q are distinct points.
and Π2. (3)
c Find the coordinates of Q. (4)
b Find, in vector form, an equation of ← Section 2.2
the plane Π3 which is perpendicular
to Π1 and Π2 and passes through the E/P 24 The diagram shows the parabola C with
point with position vector 2j + k. (3) equation y2 = 20x. The straight line l with
gradient _  3 passes through the focus, S, of
4
c Find the position vector of the point
that lies in Π1, Π2 and Π3. (3) the parabola and intersects C at the point
← Sections 1.4, 1.5 P with positive y-coordinate.
108

Review exercise 1
y C a Find the coordinates of P and Q. (2)

P b Find the exact area of the shaded
region. Leave your answer in the form
a + b ln c, where a, b and c are rational
R numbers to be found. (5)
← Section 2.3
O S x
E 28 The point P(24t2, 48t) lies on the
l parabola with equation y2 = 96x. The
point P also lies on the rectangular
hyperbola with equation xy = 144.
Find the area of the shaded region R a Find the value of t and, hence, the
bounded by C, l and the x-axis. (6) coordinates of P. (3)
← Section 2.2
b Find an equation of the tangent to the
E 25 A rectangular hyperbola H has parabola at P, giving your answer in
4 the form y = mx + c, where m and c are
parametric equations x = 4t and y =  __t  ,
real constants. (3)
t ≠ 0. The straight line l with equation
c Find an equation of the tangent
2x − y = − 4 intersects H at the points P
to the rectangular hyperbola at P,
and Q. Find the coordinates of P and Q.
giving your answer in the form
(4)
y = mx + c, where m and c are real
← Section 2.3
constants. (4)
16 ← Section 2.4
E 26 The curve H with equation x = 8t, y =  ___
t
intersects the line with equation
y =  _4 x + 4 at the points A and B.
1 E/P 29 The point P(at2, 2at), where t . 0, lies on
The midpoint of AB is M. Find the the parabola with equation y2 = 4ax. The
coordinates of M. (5) tangent and normal to the parabola at P
← Section 2.3 cut the x-axis at the points T and N
PT
respectively. Prove that ____
  = t. (6)
E/P 27 The diagram shows the straight line PN
← Section 2.4
x + 2y = 12 that intersects the rectangular
hyperbola xy = 10 at the points P and Q.
E/P 30 A rectangular hyperbola H has cartesian
( )
y
equation xy = 9. The point 3t, __3    is a
t
general point on H.
x + 2y = 12
a Show that an equation of the tangent
( )
P
R to H at 3t, __3    is x + t 2y = 6t. (2)
Q t
O x ( )
The tangent to H at 3t, __3    cuts the
t
x-axis at A and the y-axis at B. The point
xy = 10
O is the origin of the coordinate system.
b Prove that, as t varies, the area of the
triangle OAB is constant. (3)
← Section 2.4
109

Review exercise 1
E/P
t( )
31 The point P ct, _c    lies on the hyperbola The tangent to C at P cuts the x-axis at
with equation xy = c2, where c is a the point X and the y-axis at the point Y.
positive constant. c Find the exact area of the triangle
a Show that an equation of the normal OXY. (4)
to the hyperbola at P is ← Section 2.4
t3x − ty − c(t4 − 1) = 0. (4)
E 35 a Show that the normal to the
The normal to the hyperbola at P meets rectangular hyperbola xy = c2, at the
( )
the line y = x at G. Given that t ≠ ±1,
point P ct, _c    , t ≠ 0, has equation
b show that PG 2 = c2 (t 2 + __
  2 ).
1 t
(5)
t c
_
y = t x +   − ct3.
2
(3)
← Section 2.4 t
The normal to the hyperbola at P meets
E/P 32 The parabola C has equation y2 = 32x. the hyperbola again at the point Q.
a Write down the coordinates of the b Find, in terms of t, the coordinates of
focus S of C. (1) the point Q. (4)
b Write down the equation of the
Given that the midpoint of PQ is (X, Y)
directrix of C. (1)
and that t ≠ ±1,
The points P (2, 8) and Q (32, −32) lie on X 1
c show that __  = − __
  2  (4)
C. Y t
← Section 2.4
c Prove that the line joining P and Q
goes through S. (3) E 36 The rectangular hyperbola C has
equation xy = c2, where c is a positive
The tangent to C at P and the tangent to
constant.
C at Q intersect at the point D.
a Show that the tangent to C at the point
d Prove that D lies on the directrix of C.
(5) ( )
P cp, p__  c  has equation p2y = −x + 2cp.
← Sections 2.2, 2.4 (3)
E/P 33 The point P(at2, 2at), t ≠ 0, lies on the

( )
c
The point Q has coordinates Q cq, q__    ,
q ≠ p.
parabola with equation y2 = 4ax, where a
is a positive constant. The tangents to C at P and Q meet at N.
Given that p + q ≠ 0,
a Show that an equation of the normal
to the parabola at P is b show that the y-coordinate of N
2c
y + xt = 2at + at3. (3) is _____
  p + q  (4)
The normal to the parabola at P meets The line joining N to the origin O is
the parabola again at Q. perpendicular to the chord PQ.
b Find, in terms of t, the coordinates c Find the value of p2q2. (4)
of Q. (5) ← Section 2.4
← Section 2.4
E/P 37 The point P lies on the rectangular
E 34 The point P(2, 8) lies on the parabola C hyperbola xy = c2, where c is a positive
with equation y2 = 4ax. Find: constant.
a the value of a (1) a Show that an equation of the tangent
b an equation of the tangent to C at P (3) ( )
to the hyperbola at the point P cp, p__  c  ,
p . 0, is yp2 + x = 2cp. (3)
110

Review exercise 1
x2 y2
This tangent at P cuts the x-axis at the A 42 An ellipse, with equation __
    + __
    = 1, has
9 4
point S. E/P foci S and S9.
b Write down the coordinates of S. (1) a Find the coordinates of the foci of the
c Find an expression, in terms of p, for ellipse. (2)
the length of PS. (2) b Using the focus–directrix property of
the ellipse, prove that, for any point P
The normal at P cuts the x-axis at the
on the ellipse, SP + S9P = 6. (5)
point R. Given that the area of triangle
RPS is 41c2,
d find, in terms of c, the coordinates of 43 a Find the eccentricity of the ellipse with
E
the point P. (5) equation 3x2 + 4y2 = 12. (3)
← Section 2.4
b Find an equation of the tangent to the
E/P 38 A point P lies on hyperbola H with ellipse with equation 3x2 + 4y2 = 12 at
the point with coordinates (1, _  2 ).
3
equation xy = c  2. Prove that the locus of (4)
the midpoints of OP, where O is the origin, This tangent meets the y-axis at G. Given
form a hyperbola and state its equation.(3) that S and S9 are the foci of the ellipse,
← Section 2.5
c find the area of triangle SS9G. (5)
E/P 39 A point P with coordinates (x, y) moves
so that its distance from the point (5, 0)
is equal to its distance from the line with E 44 The points S1 and S2 have Cartesian
coordinates ( −  __  √ 3 , 0)and ( __
    √ 3 , 0)
a __ a __
equation x = −5.
2 2
Prove that the locus of P has an equation respectively.
of the form y2 = 4ax, stating the value of a. a Find a Cartesian equation of the
(5) ellipse which has S1 and S2 as its two
← Section 2.5 foci, and a major axis of length 2a. (4)
x y 2 2 b Write down the equations of the
A 40 An ellipse has equation ___
    + __
    = 1. directrices of this ellipse. (1)
16 9
E a Sketch the ellipse. (2) Given that parametric equations of this
b Find the value of the eccentricity e. (2) ellipse are
c State the coordinates of the foci of x = a cos ϕ, y = b sin ϕ
the ellipse. (2) c express b in terms of a. (4)
← Sections 3.1, 3.3 π
__
The point P is such that ϕ =    and the
π 4
x y 2 2
point Q such that ϕ = __    .
E 41 The hyperbola H has equation ___
    − __
    = 1. 2
16 4 d Show that an equation of the chord
ind:
F __
PQ is (√ 2  − 1)x + 2y − a = 0. (3)
a the value of the eccentricity of H (2) ← Section 3.3
b the distance between the foci of H. (2)
x2 y2 E/P 45 a Find the eccentricity of the ellipse
The ellipse E has equation ___
    + __
    = 1.
16 4 x2 __
__ y2
c Sketch H and E on the same diagram,     +     = 1 (2)
9 4
showing the coordinates of the points b Find also the coordinates of both foci
where each curve crosses the axes. (4) and equations of both directrices of
← Sections 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 this ellipse. (2)
111

Review exercise 1
A c Show that an equation for the tangent A Show that the exact value for the area
to this ellipse at the point of the shaded region is aπ, where a is a
P(3 cos θ, 2 sin θ) is rational number to be found. (6)
x cos θ
______ y sin θ ← Section 3.2
   + ______
    = 1 (4)
3 2
E/P 48 The line with equation y = mx + c is
d Show that, as θ varies, the foot of the a tangent to the ellipse with equation
perpendicular from the origin to the
x2 y2
tangent at P lies on the curve   __2  + __
  2  = 1
a b
(x2 + y2)2 = 9x2 + 4y2 (6)
a Show that c2 = a2m2 + b2. (4)
b Hence, or otherwise, find the equations
E/P 46 a Show that an equation of the normal of the tangents from the point (3, 4) to
x2 y2 x2 y2
to the ellipse __  2  + __
  2  = 1 at the point the ellipse with equation ___
    + ___
    = 1.
a b 16 25
(4)
P(a cos θ, b sin θ) is
← Section 3.4
ax sec θ − by cosec θ = a2 − b2 (3)
x2 y2
The normal at P cuts the x-axis at G. E/P 49 The ellipse E has equation  __2  + __
  2  = 1 and
a b
b Show that the coordinates of M, the the line L has equation y = mx + c, where
midpoint of PG are m . 0 and c . 0.
( _______ cos θ, __
    sin θ)
2a2 − b2 b a Show that, if L and E have any points of
(3)
2a 2 intersection, the x-coordinates of these
c Prove that, as θ varies, the locus of points are the roots of the equation
M is an ellipse and determine the (b2 + a2m2)x2 + 2a2mcx + a2(c2 − b2) = 0.
equation of this ellipse. (4) (4)
Given that the normal at P meets the Hence, given that L is a tangent to E,
y-axis at H and that O is the origin, b show that c2 = b2 + a2m2. (2)
d prove that, if a . b, then the ratio The tangent L meets the negative x-axis
of the area of △OMG to the area of at the point A and the positive y-axis at
△OGH is b2 : 2(a2 − b2). (4) the point B, and O is the origin.
c Find, in terms of m, a and b, the area
of the triangle OAB. (3)
E/P 47 The diagram shows the ellipse with
y   2
x  2 __ d Prove that, as m varies, the minimum
__
equation   2  +   2  = 1. The point P has area of the triangle OAB is ab. (3)
8  4 
__
e Find, in terms of a, the x-coordinate
coordinates (4, 2√ 3  )
of the point of contact of L and E
y
when the area of the triangle is a
P
minimum. (2)
← Section 3.4
O x E/P 50 a Find equations for the tangent and

normal to the rectangular hyperbola
x2 + y2 = 1 x2 − y2 = 1, at the point P with
82 42 coordinates (cosh t, sinh t), t . 0. (5)
112

Review exercise 1
A The tangent and normal cut the x-axis at A c Show that both P and Q lie on the
T and G respectively. The perpendicular directrix L and give the coordinates of
from P to the x-axis meets an asymptote P and Q. (3)
in the first quadrant at Q. Given that the line SP meets the
b Show that GQ is perpendicular to this hyperbola at the point R,
asymptote. (4) d prove that the tangent at R passes
The normal cuts the y-axis at R. through the point Q. (4)
c Show that R lies on the circle with
centre at T and radius TG. (4) E/P 54 Show that the equations of the tangents
← Section 3.5 with gradient m to the hyperbola with
equation x2 − 4y2 = 4 are
E/P 51 The point P lies on the hyperbola _______
x2 y2 y = mx ± √ 4m2 − 1 , where |m| . _  12 

  __2  − __
  2  = 1, and N is the foot of the (6)
a b
← Section 3.5
perpendicular from P onto the x-axis.
The tangent to the hyperbola at P meets x2 y2
E 55 An ellipse has equation  __2  + __
  2  = 1,
the x-axis at T. a b
where a and b are constants and a . b.
Show that OT × ON = a2, where O is the
origin. (6) a Find an equation of the tangent at the
← Section 3.5 point P(a cos t, b sin t). (3)
b Find an equation of the normal at the
x2 y2 point P(a cos t, b sin t). (3)
E/P 52 The hyperbola C has equation  __2  − __
  2  = 1.
a b The normal at P meets the x-axis at
a Show that an equation of the normal the point Q. The tangent at P meets the
to C at the point P(a sec t, b tan t) is y-axis at the point R.
ax sin t + by = (a2 + b2)tan t (6) c Find, in terms of a, b and t, the
The normal to C at P cuts the x-axis coordinates of M, the midpoint of
at the point A and S is a focus of C. QR. (4)
Given that the eccentricity of C is _ 2 , and
3 π
Given that 0 , t ,  __ ,
that OA = 3OS, where O is the origin, 2
d prove that, as t varies, the locus of M
b determine the possible values of t,
has equation (______  2 ) + ___
( 2y )
2ax 2 b 2
for 0 < t < 2π. (3)   2   = 1. (4)
a −b
← Section 3.5
E 53 a Show that the hyperbola x2 − y2 =__ a2, E/P 56 a Find the equations for the tangent and
a . 0, has eccentricity equal to √ 2 . (3) normal to the hyperbola
b Hence state the coordinates of the x2 y2
focus S and an equation of the   __2  − __
  2  = 1
a b
corresponding directrix L, where at the point (a sec θ, b tan θ). (6)
both S and L lie in the region x . 0.(2)
b If these lines meet the y-axis at P and
The perpendicular from S to the line Q respectively, prove that the circle
y = x meets the line y = x at P and the with PQ as a diameter passes through
perpendicular from S to the line y = −x the foci of the hyperbola. (5)
meets the line y = −x at Q. ← Sections 3.5, 3.6
113

Review exercise 1
2 1
E/P 57 Use algebra to solve  _____  , _____
    (6) A 64 a On the same set of axes, sketch the
x−2 x+1
← Section 4.1 E
graphs of
y = |x − 5| and y = |3x − 2| . (3)
E 58 Find the set of values of x for which b Finds the coordinates of the points of
x2 intersection of y = |x − 5| and
  _____  . 2x (5)
x−2 y = |3x − 2|. (3)
← Section 4.1
c Write down the solution to the inequality
E 59 Find the set of values of x for which |x − 5| , |3x − 2| (2)
x2 − 12
  _______
x  . 1 (5) ← Section 4.3
← Section 4.1
E 65 a Sketch the graph of y = |x + 2|. (2)
E 60 Find the set of values of x for which b Use algebra to solve the inequality
2x − 5 . __
3
  x  2x . |x + 2|. (4)
← Section 4.3
giving your answer using set notation. (5)
← Section 4.1 E 66 a Sketch the graph of y = |x − 2a|,
given that a . 0. (2)
E/P 61 Given that k is a constant and that k . 0,
b Solve |x − 2a| . 2x + a, where a . 0.
find, in terms of k, the set of values of
x+k (4)
k
x for which ______
  . __
    (7) ← Section 4.3
x + 4k x
← Section 4.1
E 62 a On the same set of axes, sketch the

E/P  
x
67 Solve the inequality _____
x−3| |
  , 8 − x,
graphs of giving your answer in set notation. (6)

2 ← Section 4.3
y = 2 − x and y = −  _____ (3)
x−1
b Find the points of intersection of E 68 a On the same set of axes, sketch the
2 graphs of y = x and y = |2x − 1|. (3)
y = 2 − x and y = −  _____ (2)
x−1 b Use algebra to find the coordinates of
c Write down the solution to the the points of intersection of the two
inequality graphs. (2)
2 c Hence, or otherwise, find the set of
2 − x . −  _____  (2)
x−1 values of x for which |2x − 1| . x. (4)
← Section 4.2
← Section 4.3
E 63 a On the same set of axes sketch the
4x 2x E/P 69 Use algebra to find the set of real values
graphs of y =  _____  and y = _______     (4)
2−x (x + 1)  2 of x for which |x − 3| . 2|x + 1|. (5)
b Find the points of intersection of ← Section 4.3
4x 2x
y = _____
    and y = _______
    (2)
2−x (x + 1)  2 E/P 70 Solve, for x, the inequality
c Hence, or otherwise, solve the inequality |5x + a| < |2x|, where a . 0. (6)
4x 2x ← Section 4.3
 _____  < _______
   
2 − x (x + 1)  2
giving your answer using set notation. E/P 71 a Using the same set of axes, sketch the
(2) curve with equation y = |x2 − 6x + 8|
← Section 4.2 and the line with equation 2y = 3x − 9.
114

Review exercise 1
A State the coordinates of the points Challenge

where the curve and the line meet the 1 The hyperbola with equation xy = c2 is
x-axis. (4) rotated through 135° anticlockwise about the
b Use algebra to find the coordinates origin. Show that the resulting curve can be
of the points where the curve and the written in the form x2 − y2 = k2, giving k in
line intersect and, hence, solve the terms of c. ← Section 2.3
inequality 2|x2 − 6x + 8| . 3x − 9. (5)
2 Solve in the range 0 , x , 2π,
← Section 4.3
1 1
 ________  ,  _____  ← Chapter 4
1 − sin x sin x
E 72 a Sketch, on the same set of axes, the
graph of y = |(x − 2)(x − 4)|, and the A 3 The lines L1 and L 2 intersect and have
line with equation y = 6 − 2x. (3) direction cosines l1, m1, n1 and l2, m 2, n2
respectively.
b Find the exact values of x for which a By means of a diagram, show that there
|(x − 2)(x − 4)| = 6 − 2x. (3) are two lines that bisect the angles
c Hence solve the inequality between L1 and L 2.
|(x − 2)(x − 4)| , 6 − 2x. (2) b Show that these lines have direction ratios
← Section 4.3 l1 + l2, m1 + m 2, n1 + n2 and l1 − l2, m1 − m 2,
n1 − n2 respectively, and explain why these
E/P 73 y are not, in general, direction cosines.
← Section 1.4
4 a Prove that for two lines y = m1x + c1 and

y= x –1
2
y = m 2x + c2, m1 ≠ m 2, the acute angle α
|x + 2| between the two lines satisfies
m  2 − m  1
tan α
=  _________ 
1 + m  1 m  2
b Hence, or otherwise, prove that the
–2 –1 O 1 x
normal to an ellipse at any point P bisects
the angle SPS ′, where S and S ′ are the
foci of the ellipse. ← Section 3.3
The diagram above shows a sketch of the
curve with equation
x2 − 1
y = ______
  , x ≠ −2
|x + 2|
The curve crosses the x-axis at x = 1
and x = −1 and the line x = −2 is an
asymptote of the curve.
a Use algebra to solve the equation
x2 − 1
  ______ = 3(1 − x) (6)
|x + 2|
b Hence, or otherwise, find the set of
values of x for which
x2 − 1
  ______ , 3(1 − x)
|x + 2|
Give your answer using set notation.
(2)
← Section 4.3
115

5 The t-formulae
Objectives
● State the t-formulae → pages 117–120
● Apply the t-formulae to trigonometric identities → pages 120–122
● Use the t-formulae to solve trigonometric equations
→ pages 122–124
● Use the t-formulae for modelling with trigonometry
→ pages 124–126

1 Show that sec2 θ ≡ 1 + tan2 θ.
Your blood pressure varies periodically, ← Pure Year 2, Section 6.4
based on your pulse rate, and can be
2 Use the double-angle formulae to write
modelled using trigonometric functions.
sin 3θ in terms of sin θ.
The t-formulae allow us to convert
trigonometric equations to algebraic
equations. This is a powerful way to 3 Solve the equation
analyse these models and their solutions. cos 2θ = sin θ, 0 < θ < 2π
→ Mixed exercise, Q19 ← Pure Year 2, Section 7.4
116

The t-formulae
5.1 The t-formulae

The t-formulae are a set of formulae that allow you to express sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in terms of
θ
t = tan  __. They can be very useful for solving trigonometric equations, and proving trigonometric
2
identities, as they allow you to write expressions involving sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in terms of a single
variable, t.
θ
■■ When t = tan  __:
2
Watch out You should learn these formulae.
2t
• sin θ = _____
    They are not given in the formulae booklet, and
1 + t  2
provided you are not asked to prove or derive
1 − t  2
• cos θ =  _____2  them, you may quote them in your exam.
1 + t 
2t
• tan θ = _____
   
1 − t  2
You need to know how to derive the t-formulae using the definitions of the trigonometric ratios and the
θ
double-angle formulae. You can do this by constructing a right-angled triangle with acute angle __
 
2
1 + t2 Make the side opposite the angle t, and the side adjacent 1.____
t
θ Then by Pythagoras’ theorem, the hypotenuse has length √ 1 + t  2 .
2
1
Applying the definitions of the trigonometric ratios to this triangle gives:

θ
tan  __  = t
2
θ t
sin  __  = _______
  ____  
2 √ 1 + t  2 
θ 1
cos  __  = _______
  ____  
2 √ 1 + t  2 
Therefore, using double-angle formulae gives Links The double-angle formulae are:
θ θ t 1 2t sin 2θ ≡2 sin θ cos θ
sin θ ≡ 2 sin  __ cos  __ = 2  _______
____   × _______
  ____   = ______
   
2 2 √ √
1 + t    1 + t   
2 2 1 + t  2 cos 2θ ≡cos2 θ – sin2 θ
≡2 cos2 θ – 1 ≡1 – 2 sin2 θ
( √ 1 + t  2  ) 1 + t  2

θ θ
2 ( √ 1 + t  2  )
2 2
1 t 1 − t  2
cos θ ≡ cos  2  __ − sin  2  __ = _______
  ____     − _______
  ____     = ______
    2 tan θ
tan 2θ ≡  _________  
2 1 − tan  2 θ
sin θ 2t 1 + t  2 ______ 2t ← Pure Year 2, Section 7.3
tan θ ≡  _____  = ______
    × ______
    =    
cos θ 1 + t  1 − t  1 − t  2
2 2
θ
The above proof assumes that the angle  __is acute, but the formulae hold in general.
2
To see this, you can also derive the formulae purely algebraically.
θ θ
2 tan  __ 2 tan  __
θ θ θ θ 2 2 2t
sin θ ≡ 2 sin   cos   ≡ 2 tan   cos  2   ≡  
__ __ __ __ ______   ≡   _________   ≡ ______
   
2 2 2 2 θ
__ θ
__ 1 + t  2
sec    1 + tan   
2 2
2 2
117

Chapter 5
Similarly,
cos θ ≡ cos  2  __  − sin  2  __ ≡ cos  2  __(1 − tan  2  __)

θ θ θ θ
2 2 2 2
θ θ Links These algebraic proofs make use of the
1 − tan  2  __ 1 − tan  2  __ identity sec2 θ ≡1 + tan2 θ.
_________ 2 _________ 2 ______ 1 − t  2
≡     ≡     ≡    
θ
__ θ 1 + t  2
__ sec θ = _____
 
1

sec   
2 1 + tan   
2
cos θ
2 2
1
Finally, prove the identity for tan θ exactly as before. cosec θ = ____   
sin θ
sin θ ______2t 1 + t  2 ______ 2t 1
cot θ =  _____ 
tan θ ≡ _____
  ≡    2 × ______
    ≡     tan θ
cos θ 1 + t  1 − t  1 − t  2
2
Example 1
θ 3
Given that tan  __ = _  4 , find the exact values of:
2
a sin θ b cos θ
a t = __
  34
2t
______
2(__
  34 )
_______
So sin θ =     =     = ___24
  25 Use the t-formula for sin.
1 + t  2 1 + (   4 ) 
3 2
__
1 − ( __
  34 )  ___
2
1 − t  2
______ _______
b cos θ =     =   7
  =   25 Use the t-formula for cos.
1 + t  2 1 + (   4 ) 
__3 2
Example 2
π θ θ 8
Given that __
  < __
  , π and sin  __ = __
  , find:
2 2 2 17
a the exact value of cot θ
b the value of sec θ + cosec θ, correct to 3 significant figures.
_________ ________ θ θ θ
Use sin2  __ + cos2  __ ≡1 to find the exact value of cos  __
θ
__
a cos   = − 1 −
2 √ 2
θ
√
= − 1 − (   17 )    = −   17
sin  2  __  8 2
__ __
15 2 2 2
θ
sin  __ Watch out Make sure you choose the correct
θ ______
θ 17 ( 17 )
__ 2
So tan   =     = __   8 ÷ − __
  15 = − __ 8
  15 π θ
2 __ sign when taking square roots. Since __   , π
  < __
cos   2 2
2 θ
θ you know that cos  __must be negative.
Set t = tan  __ = − __ 8
  15 2
2
1
____ 1 − t  2 _________
______
1 − (−  __
15 ) 
8 2
cot θ ≡   =   =     = −  ___ 161

240 . Use the definition of cot and the t-formula for tan.
tan θ 2t 2(−  __8
) 15
118

The t-formulae
1 1 Use the definitions of sec and cosec and the

b sec θ + cosec θ ≡ _____
  + ____
 
cos θ sin θ t-formulae for cos and sin.
1 + t  2 1 + t  2
=  _____2  + _____  
1 − t  2t
1 + ( −  __
_________ 15 )  _________
8 2
1 + ( −  __
15 ) 
8 2
=     +    
1 − ( −  __
8 2
)  2 (−  __
15 )
8
15
22 831
=  ________ = 0.591 (3 s.f.)
38 640
Exercise 5A
θ 2
1 Given that tan  __ = _  3 , use the t-formulae to find the exact values of:
2
θ
a sin  __ b sin θ
2
c cos θ d tan θ
θ
2 Given that tan  __ = 2, use the t-formulae to find the exact values of:
2
a sin θ b cos θ
c tan θ d sec θ + cot θ
θ 4 θ π
3 Given that sin  __ = _  5 and that 0 < __
  , __  , use the t-formulae to find the values of:
2 2 2
a sin θ b cos θ
cos θ
c sec θ d  _____________
  
sin θ(1 + cot θ)
θ π __ θ
4 Given that cos  __ = −  __ __
5
2 13 and that  2 <   2 , π, use the t-formulae to find the values of:
a cos θ b tan2 θ
sec θ
c sec θ + cosec θ d  _____________
  
cosec θ + cos θ
θ 25 π θ
5 Suppose that cosec  __ = __
  where __
  < __
  , π. Use the t-formulae to find the values of:
2 24 2 2
a tan θ b sin 2θ
c cos 2θ d cot 2θ
__
θ π √
3 − 1
E 6 Suppose that 0 <   ,   and that sin θ = ______
__ __
  __ 
2 __2 2√ 2
√
3 − 1
______
a Show that tan θ =  
__ (2 marks)
√
3 + 1
b Using the t-formulae, find sin 2θ and cos 2θ. (3 marks)
c Hence deduce the value of θ.(1 mark)
119

Chapter 5
____
__
π √ 2 + √ 2  
E 7 Suppose that __
  < x , π and that cos x = −  ______
2 ____ __ 2
√ 2 − √ 2  
______
a Show that tan x = −   ____ __   (2 marks)
√ 2 + √ 2  
b Using the t-formulae, find tan 2x. (2 marks)
c Hence deduce the value of x. (1 mark)
5π
E/P 8 Given that t = tan  ___,
12
a show that t2 − 4t + 1 = 0 __ (3 marks)
2 + √ 3
b show further that t2 = ______
  __  (3 marks)
2 − √ 3
c deduce the exact value of t. (1 mark)
P 9 Consider the following diagram, where θ is an acute angle.
θ 2t
2
θ
1 – t2
θ
Show that t = tan  __and hence derive the t-formulae for sin θ, cos θ and tan θ.
2
5.2 Applying the t-formulae to trigonometric identities

You can use the t-formulae to prove trigonometric identities.
Example 3
θ
1 + tan  __
1 + cosec θ 2 π
Prove that __________
  ≡ ________
   , θ ≠ (2n + 1) __, n ∈ ℤ.
cot θ θ 2
1 − tan  __
2
θ 1 + t  2 1 – t2 Use the t-formulae with the identities

Let t = tan  __. Then cosec θ = _____
  and cot θ= _____
  1 1
2 2t 2t cosec θ ≡ ____
  and cot θ ≡ _____
 
sin θ tan θ
1 + cosec θ __________
2t + 1 + t  2
So  __________=      
cot θ 1 − t  2
The denominator is the difference of
(1 + t)  2
=  ___________
   two squares.
(1 − t)(1 + t)
1+t
____
=  
1−t
θ
1 + tan  __
________ 2
=    
θ
1 − tan  __
2
120

The t-formulae
Example 4
π
Prove that tan 2θ cot θ ≡1 + sec 2θ, θ ≠ (2n + 1)  __ , n ∈ ℤ.
4
Since this equation uses θ and 2θ it makes
Let t = tan θ θ
sense to use t = tan θ rather than t = tan  __
1 2t 1 + t  2 2
We have cot θ = __  , tan 2θ = _____     and sec 2θ = _____
   
t 1 − t  2 1 − t  2
2
tan 2θ cot θ = _____     From the t-formulae and the definition of
1 − t  2
cot θ.
1 − t  2 + 1 + t  2
= ____________
  
   
1 − t  2
1 − t  2 _____ 1 + t  2 Problem-solving
= _____
    +    
1 − t  1 − t  2
2
When proving identities, you should always
1 + t  2 start from one side and work towards the
= 1 +  _____2 
1 − t  other side. For example, if you start with
= 1 + sec 2θ the left-hand side, look at the right-hand
Hence tan 2θ cot θ ≡ 1 + sec 2θ side to give you an idea of what form you
need your expression for t to be in.
1 + t  2
Here, you need to find sec 2θ =  _____2  on
1 − t 
the right-hand side, so you need to try to
isolate this term in your expression.
Exercise 5B
P 1 Using the t-formulae, prove the following trigonometric identities.
tan  2 θ
a sin  2 θ + cos  2 θ ≡ 1 b  _________ ≡ sin  2 θ
tan  2 θ + 1
cosec θ cot θ nπ
c  ______−  _____ ≡ 1, θ ≠ nπ, n ∈ ℤ d cot 2θ + tan θ ≡ cosec 2θ, θ ≠ ___   , n ∈ ℤ
sin θ tan θ 2
P 2 Using the t-formulae, prove the following trigonometric identities.
nπ
a tan θ + cot θ ≡ sec θ cosec θ, θ ≠ ___    , n ∈ ℤ
2
1 + cos θ sin θ
b  _________≡  _________, θ ≠ nπ, n ∈ ℤ
sin θ 1 − cos θ
1 − sin θ cos θ (2n + 1)π
c  _______ ≡  _______, θ ≠ ________
  , n ∈ ℤ
cos θ 1 + sin θ 2
(2n + 1)π
d tan θ sin θ + cos θ ≡ sec θ, θ ≠ ________
  , n ∈ ℤ
2
θ
E/P 3 Using the substitution t = tan  __, prove that sin θ + sin θ cot2 θ ≡ cosec θ for θ ≠ nπ, n ∈ ℤ
2
(4 marks)
θ
__
E/P 4 Using the substitution t = tan   , prove that
2
cos θ
_______ cos θ (2n + 1)π
    − _______
    ≡ 2 tan θ for θ ≠ ________
  , n ∈ ℤ (4 marks)
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ 2
121

Chapter 5
x
E/P 5 Using the substitution t = tan  __, prove that
2
cosec x cos x
_____________
cos  x ≡  
2 (4 marks)
tan x + cot x
θ
E/P 6 Using the substitution t = tan  __ , prove that
2
cos θ
________ 1 + sin θ
________ (2n + 1)π
  +   ≡ 2 sec θ for θ ≠  ________, n ∈ ℤ (4 marks)
1 + sin θ cos θ 2
θ
2
cos θ (2n + 1)π
sec θ + tan θ ≡ _______     for θ ≠ ________
  , n ∈ ℤ (4 marks)
1 − sin θ 2
E/P 8 Using the substitution t = tan x, prove that
1 + sin 2x − cos 2x ________ 1 + tan x (2n + 1)π
 ________________
   ≡   for x ≠ nπ, ________    , n ∈ ℤ (4 marks)
sin 2x + cos 2x − 1 1 − tan x 4
θ
E/P 9 Using the substitution t = tan  ___, prove that
2
cos θ
________ (2n + 1)π
  − tan θ ≡ sec θ, for θ ≠ ________   , n ∈ ℤ (4 marks)
1 − sin θ 2
θ
2
1 + sin θ (2n + 1)π
tan  2 θ + tan θ sec θ + 1 ≡ _______
  for θ ≠ ________
  , n ∈ ℤ (4 marks)
cos  θ
2 2
E/P 11 Use the substitution t = tan x to prove the identity
cos 2x cot x + 1 π
 ________ ≡ ________
  , x ≠ (4n + 1)  __, n ∈ ℤ (5 marks)
1 − sin 2x cot x − 1 4
Challenge
Using the t-formulae, prove the identity
sin  θ + cos  θ
3 3
____________
  ≡ 1 − sin θ cos θ
sin θ + cos θ
5.3 Solving trigonometric equations

The t-formulae can be used to convert equations given in terms of different trigonometric functions of θ
into equations in t.
■■ To solve trigonometric equations using the t-formulae: Watch out This substitution is only
θ θ
• use the substitution t = tan  __  valid when tan  __ is defined. If the
2 2
• write any trigonometric functions in the equation in original equation has solutions of
terms of t the form θ = (2n + 1), n ∈ ℤ this
method will not find those solutions.
• solve the resulting equation algebraically to find the
value(s) of t
• find corresponding values of θ which satisfy the original equation.
122

The t-formulae
Example 5
Solve 2 sin θ – 3 cos θ = 1 for 0 < θ < 2π. Give your answers to 2 decimal places.
θ
Using the substitution t = tan  __ Apply the t-formulae so that everything is in terms of t.
2
4t 3(1 − t  2)
 _____2  − _______
    = 1
1 + t  1 + t  2 Multiply both sides by 1 + t2.
4t – 3 + 3t2 =1+ t2
2t2 + 4t – 4 = 0 Solve the resulting quadratic equation by completing
(t + 1)2 –3=0 the square, or using the quadratic formula.
__
t = –1 ± √ 3
θ __
θ Problem-solving
So tan  __ = –1 ± √ 3 , 0 < __   < π.
2 2 Use the substitution to find the corresponding values
θ __
tan  __ = –1 + √ 3 of θ that lie within the given range. The range of
2
θ values of θ is 0 < θ < 2π, so the range
 __ = 0.6319… so θ = 1.26 (2 d.p.) θ θ
2 of values for __   < π. Make sure you
  will be 0 < __
θ __ 2 2
tan  __ = –1 – √ 3 solve separately for each value of t.
2
θ
 __ = 1.9216… so θ = 3.84 (2 d.p.)
2
You could also solve the original equation by writing
2 sin θ – 3 cos θ in the form R cos(θ + α).
Exercise 5C
1 Using the t-formulae, solve the following trigonometric equations for θ in the range 0 < θ < 2π,
giving your answers to 2 decimal places in each case.
a 2 sin θ – cos θ = 2 b sin θ + 5 cos θ = –1
c tan θ – 5 sec θ = 7 d 7 cot θ + 3 cosec θ = 9
e 2 cot θ – cosec θ = 0
__
E 2 a Using the substitution
__
t = tan__
θ, show that the equation sin 2θ – 2 cos 2θ = 1 – √ 3 cos 2θ can be
written as (√ 3 – 1)t2 – 2t – (√ 3 − 3) = 0. (3 marks)
__
b Hence find the exact solutions of sin 2θ – 2 cos 2θ = 1 – √ 3 cos 2θ in the range 0 < θ < 2π.
(3 marks)
x
E/P 3 a Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that the equation Problem-solving
nπ 2
16 cot x – 9 tan x = 0, x ≠ ___
   , n ∈ ℤ, can be written as This quartic equation is a
2
4t4 – 17t2 + 4 = 0. (3 marks) quadratic in t2. Solve it using
the substitution u = t2.
b Hence find all solutions of 16 cot x – 9 tan x = 0 in the range
0 < x < 2π to two decimal places. (4 marks)
123

Chapter 5
θ
E 4 a Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that the equation 10 sin θ cos θ – 3 cos θ = –3 can be
2
written as t(t – 2)(3t2 – 4t – 5 = 0. (3 marks)
b Hence find all solutions of 10 sin θ cos θ – 3 cos θ = –3 in the range 0 < θ < 2π to 2 decimal
places. (4 marks)
E/P 5 a Using the substitution t = tan θ, show that the equation 3 sin 2θ + cos 2θ + 3 tan 2θ = 1,
(2n + 1)π
θ ≠  _________
 , n ∈ ℤ, can be written as t4 – t2 + 6t = 0. (3 marks)
2
b Given that (t + 2) is a factor of t4 – t2 + 6t, find all solutions of 3 sin 2θ + cos 2θ + 3 tan 2θ = 1
in the range 0 < θ < 2π to 2 decimal places. (4 marks)
E/P 6 a Using the substitution t = tan θ, show that the equation tan θ + cos 2θ = 1 can be written
as t3 – 2t2 + t = 0. (3 marks)
b Hence find all solutions of tan θ + cos 2θ = 1 in the range 0 < θ < 2π. (4 marks)
E/P 7 a Using the substitution t = tan θ, show that the equation 2 sin 2θ – cos 4θ – 4 tan θ = –1
can be written as t5 + t3 – 2t2 = 0. (4 marks)
b Hence find all solutions of 2 sin 2θ – cos 2θ – 4 tan θ = –1 in the range 0 < θ < 2π. (3 marks)
E/P 8 Solve 5 cos θ – 12 cosec θ = 12 for 0 < θ < 2π. (7 marks)
Challenge
Show that the equation 5 sin 2θ + 12 cos θ = −12 has exactly two
solutions in the range 0 < θ < 2π, and state their values.
5.4 Modelling with trigonometry

A Trigonometric functions appear frequently in mathematical models describing quantities that
vary periodically. By adding or subtracting multiples of different trigonometric functions, more
complicated situations can be modelled.
Models involving different trigonometric functions can be simplified and analysed using the
t-formulae.
Example 6
The displacement of a particle moving in a straight line, s m, at time x seconds is given by
s = sin 4x + 2 sin 2x + 2
8
a Show that the velocity of the particle at time x seconds is given by v = _______
    (1 − 3t  2), m s−1,
(1 + t  2)  2
where t = tan x.
b Hence find the value of x where 0 < x < π for which the displacement is maximised.
124

The t-formulae
A
a Differentiating, we have To find the velocity you differentiate the
ds
v = ___
    = 4 cos 4x + 4 cos 2x displacement with respect to time.
dx
Substituting the t-formulae and using a ← Statistics and Mechanics Year 1, Chapter 11
double-angle formula:
( (1 + t  2)  2 (1 + t  2)  2)

(1 − t  2)  2 _______ 4t  2 4(1 − t  2) cos 2x ≡ cos2x – sin2 x, so
v = 4 ________     −     + _________
   
1 + t  2 cos 4x = cos2 2x – sin2 2x
4
= _______
    (1 − 2t  2 + t  4 − 4t  2 + 1 − t  4)
(1 + t  2)  2
8 Problem-solving
= _______
    (1 − 3t  2)
(1 + t  2)  2 You could also substitute using the
ds t-formulae before you differentiate:
b Solving for ___   = 0 we have 4t(1 − t2) _____ 4t
dx sin 4x + 2 sin 2x + 2 =  ________   +     + 2
1__ π 5π (1 + t2)2 1 + t2
t = ±  __  which implies that x = __   , ___
 
√
3 6 6 You still need to differentiate with respect
To check which point is a maximum we ds ds ___ dt
differentiate again. to x, so use ___     = ___
    ×    , together with
dx dt dx
d  2s dv dt
___
 ____2  = ___
      = sec2x = 1 + t2.
dx
dx  dx
= − 16 sin 4x − 8 sin 2x
16
= −  _______   (4t(1 − t  2) + t(1 + t2  ))
(1 + t  2)  2
16t
= −  _______   (5 − 3t  2)
(1 + t  2)  2
1__ ____ d  2s 1__
When t =  ___  ,   2  , 0 and when t = −  ___  ,
√
3  dx  √
3 
d  2s
 ____2  . 0
dx 
1
so the maximum is at t = __   __ 
√
3
Converting back to x, we get
tan is periodic with period π, so we get
1 π
tan x = ___  __  ⇒ x = __   infinitely many solutions, but only one of
√
3  6
them is in the correct range.
Exercise 5D
E/P 1 The displacement of a particle moving in a straight line, s m, at time x seconds is given by
s = 10 – 5 sin x – 12 cos x, 0 < x < 2π.
ds 1 x
a Show that ___    = _____
    (5t  2 + 24t − 5) where t = tan  __ (6 marks)
dx 1 + t  2 2
b Hence find all values of x for which displacement is minimised. (3 marks)
E/P 2 The displacement of a particle moving in a straight line, s m, at time x seconds is given by
s = 1 + 2 sin x – cos 2x, 0 < x < 2π.
ds 2 x
a Show that ___  = _______
    (1 − t  2)(t  2 + 4t + 1) where t = tan  __ (6 marks)
dx ( 1 + t  ) 
2 2 2
b Hence find all values of x for which the particle is stationary. (3 marks)
125

Chapter 5
A 3 The height in cm of a car chassis above the road x seconds after it drives over a speed bump is
E/P
modelled by the function h(x) = 3 sin 2x − 4 cos 2x + 25, 0 < x < π.
−2
a Show that the vertical velocity of the chassis at time x is given by v(x) =   _____2  (3t  2 − 8t − 3)
1 + t 
where t = tan x. (6 marks)
b Find the time between oscillations according to the model. (2 marks)
c Using part a find the value of x for which the displacement is minimised. (3 marks)
x 2x 1 x
4 The figure below shows the graph of the function y(x) = _  2 sin  __ + sin  ___ + _  2 cos  __ + 2.
1
E/P
5 5 5
y
O 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 x
a Show that
dy
___ (3t  2 − 8t − 5)(t  2 + 2t − 1) x
  = ______________________
       where t = tan  ___ . (6 marks)
dx ( 2 )
10 1 + t   
2 10
Below is a graph showing the intensity of x-rays emitted over time by a pulsar, a type of rotating
neutron star that emits a beam of x-rays in a specific direction.
0.4
Intensity
0.3
0.2
0.1
O 25 50 75 100 125 150

Time (milliseconds)
The graph of ky(x), where k is a constant and x is measured in milliseconds can be used to
model the predicted intensity of x-ray radiation observed on Earth.
b i Suggest a value of k that could be used to approximate the observed data with the graph
of ky(x).
ii Why might such a model be suitable for predicting the times of the peaks, but not the
intensity of those peaks? (3 marks)
c Use the second graph and the result from part a to estimate, to the nearest millisecond, the
time of the most intense peak in the observed data. (6 marks)
126

The t-formulae
Mixed exercise 5
1 Consider the following diagram.
1
θ
2
2
θ
Using the t-formulae with t = tan  __, find the values of:
2
a cos θ b sin θ c sec θ + tan θ d sec θ cosec θ
2 Consider the following diagram.
4
θ
2
5
θ
Using the t-formulae with t = tan  __, find the values of:
2
a tan θ b sec θ c sin θ d cot θ + cosec θ
3 Given that tan θ = 3, use the substitution t = tan θ to find:

sec 2θ
a sin 2θ b cos 2θ c tan2 2θ d   ______________
  
cosec 2θ + cot 2θ
4 Given that t = tan θ = −2, use the t-formulae find:

a tan 2θ b sec 2θ cosec 2θ c sec2 2θ d cot 2θ + tan 2θ
5 a Using the t-formulae, show that tan2 θ ≡ sec2 θ – 1.

__
3π −2√ 2
Suppose that π < θ <   , and that sec θ = ______
___
  __ 
2 1 + √ 3
b Using the result from part a or otherwise, find tan θ.
c Using the t-formulae, compute sin 2θ and cos 2θ.
d Hence deduce the value of θ.
π
E 6 Let t = tan  __
8 π π
a By writing down expressions for cos  __ and sin  __in terms of t, find the exact value of t.(4 marks)
4 4
π π
b Using the identity sec  2 θ ≡ tan  2 θ + 1, find sec   , and hence deduce the values of sin  __ and
__
π 8 8
cos  __ (2 marks)
8
x 1 + sin x − cos x ________1 + sin x
E/P 7 Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that ______________
 
     ≡   cos x
2 sin x + cos x − 1
(2n + 1)π
for x ≠ ________
   , n ∈ ℤ. (4 marks)
2
127

Chapter 5
θ (2n + 1)π
E/P 8 Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that tan2 θ – sin2 θ ≡ tan2 θ sin2 θ for θ ≠ ________
  , n ∈ ℤ.
2 2
(4 marks)
θ
E/P 9 Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that sin θ cos θ tan θ ≡ 1 – cos2 θ.
2
(4 marks)
θ 1 + sin θ _______
1 − sin θ
E/P 10 Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that _______
  −   ≡ 4 tan θ sec θ
2 1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ
(2n + 1)π
for θ ≠  _________, n ∈ ℤ. (4 marks)
2
x 1 + tan  2 x ____________ 1 (2n + 1)π
E/P 11 Using the substitution t = tan   __, show that _________
  ≡      for x ≠ ________
  , n ∈ ℤ.
2 1 − tan  2 x cos  2 x − sin  2 x 4
(4 marks)
θ 1 1
E/P 12 Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that ________
  − ________
  ≡ 2 tan θ sec θ
2 1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ
(2n + 1)π
for θ ≠  ________, n ∈ ℤ. (4 marks)
2
θ cos θ (2n + 1)π
E/P 13 Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that tan θ + ________
  ≡ sec θ for θ ≠ _________
  , n ∈ ℤ.
2 1 + sin θ 2
(4 marks)
θ
E/P 14 Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that (sin θ + cos θ)(tan θ + cot θ) ≡ sec θ + cosec θ
2
nπ
for θ ≠ ___   , n ∈ ℤ. (4 marks)
2
x
E 15 a Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that the equation 3 cos x − sin x = − 1 can be written as
2
t  2 + t − 2 = 0. (3 marks)
b Hence find all solutions of 3 cos x − sin x = −1 in the range 0 < x , 2π to 2 decimal places.
(3 marks)
θ
16 a Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that the equation sin θ + cos θ = −  _5 can be written
1
E
2
as 2t  2 − 5t − 3 = 0. (3 marks)
b Hence find all solutions of sin θ + cos θ = −  _5 in the range 0 < θ < 2π to 2 decimal places.
1
(3 marks)
θ
E 17 a Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that the equation 6 tan θ + 12 sin θ + cos θ = 1 can be
2
written as t(t − 2)(t2 − 4t − 9) = 0. (4 marks)
b Hence find all solutions of 6 tan θ + 12 sin θ + cos θ = 1 in the range 0 < θ < 2π to 2 decimal
places. (2 marks)
x
18 a Using the substitution t = tan  __, show that the equation 5 cot x + 4 cosec x = _  4 can be written
9
E
2
as 2t  2 + 9t − 18 = 0. (4 marks)
b Hence find all solutions of 5 cot x + 4 cosec x = _  4 in the range 0 < x < 2π to 2 decimal places.
9
(2 marks)
128

The t-formulae
E/P 19 The graph below shows how arterial blood pressure varies over time in humans.
A 200
Pressure (Torr)
100
O Time
Ursula is trying to model blood pressure mathematically, and uses the following function to
describe blood pressure at time x seconds.
p(x) = 8 sin 5x + 16 cos 5x – 4 sin 10x + __
16
  3 cos 10x + 100.
The graph of y = p(x) is shown below.
y
150
125
100
75
50
25
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
dp −80t(t + 2)(3t  2 − 8t + 7)
a Using the t-formulae, show that ___
  = _____________________
       (5 marks)
dx 3(1 + t  2)  2
b This model is very simple. What might it fail to take into account? (1 mark)
c Using the figure and the result from part a, find the time in seconds of the first pressure
low-point in the model. (3 marks)
Challenge
θ
a Given that tan  __  = _  14 , find the values of tan θ, sin θ and cos θ
2
as fractions in their lowest terms.
b Hence construct a right-angled triangle with integer sides and
acute angle θ.
θ
c Given that tan  __ is a rational number between 0 and 1, show that
2
it is possible to construct a right-angled triangle with integer sides
and acute angle θ.
A Pythagorean triple is a set of three positive integers a, b and c,
such that a2 + b2 = c2. A Pythagorean triple is primitive if a, b and c
have no common factors.
d Prove that there are infinitely many primitive Pythagorean triples.
129

Chapter 5

1 The t-formulae are a set of formulae that allow you to express sin θ, cos θ and tan θ in terms
θ
of t = tan  __ 
2
2t
• sin θ =  _____2 
1 + t 
1 − t  2
• cos θ =  _____2 
1 + t 
2t
• tan θ =  _____2 
1 − t 
2 You can use the t-formulae to prove trigonometric identities.
3 To solve trigonometric equations using the t-formulae:

θ
• use the substitution t = tan  __ 
2
• write any trigonometric functions in the equation in terms of t
• solve the resulting equation algebraically to find the value(s) of t
• find corresponding values of θ which satisfy the original equation.
4 Models involving different trigonometric functions can be simplified and analysed using the
t-formulae.
130

Taylor series
Objectives
6
• Derive and use Taylor series for simple functions → pages 132–135
• Use series expansions to evaluate limits → pages 135–139
• Use the Taylor series method to find a series solution

to a differential equation → pages 139–143
Screenshot Arkanoid, or similar classic

computer game.
1 Differentiate:
a cos (1 + x  3 ) b ln arctan x
1
c  _______   ← Pure Year 2, Chapter 9
ex sin x
Taylor series can be used to approximate
2 Find the general solution to the functions by polynomials. Mathematicians
d2y dy and engineers use them to approximate
differential equation  ____2  + 2 ___  + 2y = 0.
dx dx and model solutions to complex differential
equations such as those that describe
the flow of air over an aircraft wing. In
3 Find the Maclaurin series for the
this chapter you will use Taylor series to
following functions.
find approximate solutions to differential
a ex b sin x c ln (x + 1) equations that can’t be solved easily by
← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 2 other methods. → Section 6.3
131

Chapter 6
6.1 Taylor series

A In Core Pure Book 2 you used Maclaurin series Links The Maclaurin series expansion requires
expansions to write a function of x as an infinite that f(n)(0)exists and is finite for all n P ℕ.
series in ascending powers of x. However, the 1
If f(x) = ln x then f9(x) =  __
conditions of the Maclaurin series expansion x  so f9(0) is undefined.
mean that some functions, such as ln x, cannot be
expanded in this way.
The construction of the Maclaurin series expansion focuses on x = 0 and, for a value of x very close to
0, a few terms of the series may well give a good approximation of the function.
For values of x further away from 0, even if they Note An extreme example of this is in using
are in the interval of validity, more and more x = 1 in the series for ln(1 + x) to find ln 2;
terms of the series are required to give a good thousands of terms of the series are required to
degree of accuracy. reach 4 significant figure accuracy.
To overcome these problems, a series expansion focusing on x = a can be derived.
This series expansion, called a Taylor series, is a more general form of the Maclaurin series.
Consider the functions f and g, where f(x + a) ; g(x). Note For example,
f(x) = ln x, g(x) = ln(x + 1)
Then f(r)(x + a) = g(r)(x), r = 1, 2, 3… .
In particular, f(r)(a) = g(r)(0), r = 1, 2, 3…
So the Maclaurin series expansion for g,

g0(0) g-(0) g(r)(0) r
g(x) = g(0) + g9(0)x + _____
   x2 + _____
   x3 + … + _____
   x + …
2! 3! r!
becomes
Note The Taylor
f 0(a) 2 f_____ -(a) 3 f(r)(a) r
f(x + a) = f(a) + f9(a)x +   _____
■  x +    x + … +   _____  x + … (A) series allows you to
2! 3! r! approximate the value of
Replacing x by x − a, gives a second useful form: f(x) close to x = a.
f 0(a) f -(a) f(r)(a)

■ f(x) = f(a) + f9(a)(x − a) +   _____ (x − a)2 +   _____ (x − a)3 + … +   _____  (x − a)r + … (B)
2! 3! r!
The expansions (A) and (B) given above are known as Taylor series expansions of f(x) at (or
about) the point x = a.
The Taylor series expansion is valid only if f(n)(a) exists and is finite for all n ∈ ℕ, and for
values of x for which the infinite series converges.
Watch out Neither version of the Taylor series

expansion is given in the formula booklet so
make sure you learn them both.
132

Taylor series
Example 1
A
Find the Taylor series expansion of e−x in powers of (x + 4) up to and including the term in (x + 4)3.
Use the Taylor series expansion

Let f(x) = e−x and a = −4.
(B).
f0(−4) f-(−4)
f(x) = f(−4) + f9(−4)(x + 4) + _____
    (x + 4)2 + ______
    (x + 4)3 + …
2! 3!
f(x) = e−x ⇒ f(−4) = e4
f9(x) = −e−x ⇒ f9(−4) = −e4 You need to find f(−4), f9(−4),
f0(x) = e−x ⇒ f0(−4) = e4 f0(−4) and f-(−4).
f-(x) = −e−x ⇒ f-(−4) = −e4
Substituting the values in the series expansion gives
e4 e4
e−x = e4 − e4(x + 4) + ___     (x + 4)2 − ___     (x + 4)3 + …
2! 3!
Take a factor of e4 out of each
e−x = e4 (1 − (x + 4) + __
  21   (x + 4)2 − __  61 (x + 4)3 + …)
term on the right-hand side.
Example 2
π
Express tan(x + __
   )as a series in ascending powers of x up to and including the term x3.
4
π π
Let f(x) = tan x, then tan (x + __   ) = f(x + __
   ). You need to use the Taylor
4 4 series expansion (A) with
π π
f(x) = tan x ⇒ f(__   ) = 1 f(x) = tan x and a = __
   
4 4
π
f9(x) = sec2 x ⇒ f9( __ ) = 2
4
f0(x) = 2 × sec x × (sec x tan x)
π
= 2 × sec2 x × tan x ⇒ f0( __ ) = 2 × 2 × 1 = 4 Online Explore the
4
Taylor series expansion of
f-(x) = 2 × sec2 x × sec2 x + 2 × tan x (2 × sec2 x tan x)
π f(x) = tan x using GeoGebra.
⇒ f-(__ ) = 2 × 2 × 2 + 2 × 4 = 16
4
f0(a) f-(a) 3
Using f(x + a) = f(a) + f9(a)x +  ____  x2 +  ____   x + …
2! 3!
π 4 16 Watch out
tan (x + __
   ) = 1 + 2x + __    x2 + ___
    x3 +… Make sure you
4 2! 3! simplify your coefficients as
__
8 3
= 1 + 2x + 2x +   3  x + …
2
much as possible.
Example 3
π π
a Show that the Taylor series about __     of sin x in ascending powers of (x − __
   )up to and including
__ 6 6
π 2 √
3  π π 2
the term (x −    ) is sin x =     +    (x −    ) −    (x −    )
__ __ 1 ___ __ __1 __
6 2 2 6 4 6
b Using the series in part a find, in terms of π, an approximation for sin 40°.
133

Chapter 6
A π
a f(x) = sin x, f9(x) = cos x,__f 0(x) = −sin x, Find f(a), f9(a) and f0(a) where a = __
   
6
π π √
3  π
so f(__
   ) = __
   , f9( __ ) = ___
   , f 0( __ ) = −  __ 
1 1
6 2 6 2 6 2
__
√
3  π π 2
so sin x =     +    (x − __
   ) − ______
2 × 2! (
   ) − …
1
__ ___ 1 Substitute into Taylor series
    x − __ π
2 2 6 6 expansion (B) with a = __
   
__ 6
π√
3  π 2
=     +    (x − __
   ) − __
   (x − __
   ) − …
1
__ ___ 1

2 2 6 4 6
b sin 40° = sin (___

   ), so substituting x = ___
2π 2π
   
9 9
in to the series from part a gives
__
√
3  ___π 1 π 2
sin 40° ≈     +    (   ) − __    (___
4 18 )
__ 1 ___
   
2 2 __18
1 π√ 3  _____ π2 The percentage error in this
≈ __
    + ____
    −    
2 36 1296 approximation is about 0.1%.
Exercise 6A
__
1 a Find the Taylor series expansion of √ x in ascending powers of (x − 1) as far as the term
in (x − 1)4.
___
b Use your answer in a to obtain an estimate for √ 1.2 , giving your answer to 3 decimal places.
2 Use Taylor series expansion to express each the following as a series in ascending powers of
(x − a) as far as the term in (x − a)k, for the given values of a and k.
π
a ln x (a = e, k = 2) b tan x (a = __
   , k = 3) c cos x (a = 1, k = 4)
3
3 a Use Taylor series expansion to express each of the following as a series in ascending powers
of x as far as the term in x4.
π π
i cos (x + __
   ) ii ln (x + 5) iii sin (x − __
   )
4 3
b Use your result in ii to find an approximation for ln 5.2, giving your answer to
4 significant figures.
E 4 Given that y = xe x,
dny
a show that ____
  n = (n + x)ex (3 marks)
dx
b find the Taylor series expansion of xex in ascending powers of (x + 1) up to and including
the term in (x + 1)4. (3 marks)
E 5 a Find the Taylor series for x3 ln x in ascending powers of (x − 1) up to and including

the term in (x − 1)4. (4 marks)
b Using your series from part a, find an approximation for ln 1.5, giving your answer to
4 decimal places. (2 marks)
134

Taylor series
6 Find the Taylor series expansion of tan (x − α) about 0, where α = arctan(__    ), in ascending
A 3
4
E powers of x up to and including the term in x2. (4 marks)
π π
E 7 Find the Taylor series expansion of sin 2x about __    in ascending powers of ( x − __    ) up to
6 6
π 4
and including the term in ( x −    )  .
__
(4 marks)
6
1
E 8 Given that y = ________
  ______ ,
√ (1 + x) 
dy d2y
a find the values of ___   and ____
  2  when x = 3 (3 marks)
dx dx
1
b find the Taylor series of ________
  ______ , in ascending powers of (x − 3) up to and
√ (1 + x) 
including the term in (x − 3)2. (4 marks)
E 9 Find the Taylor series expansion of cosh x about x = ln 5 in ascending powers of
(x − ln 5) up to and including the term in (x − ln 5)4. (5 marks)
E/P 10 a Given that the coefficient of (x − ln 2) in the Taylor series expansion of sinh ax about ln 2
is __
17
  4 , find the value of a. (3 marks)
b Find the Taylor series of sinh ax about ln 2 in terms up to the term (x − ln 2)3. (3 marks)
E/P 11 Show that the Taylor series of ln x in powers of (x − 2) is
∞ (x − 2)  n
ln 2 + ∑(−1)  n − 1  _______   (6 marks)
n=1 n 2  n
Challenge
a Find the Taylor series expansion of ln (cos 2x) about π in ascending powers of
(x − π) up to and including the term in (x − π)4.
__
(2)
√ 3 
b Hence obtain an estimate for ln ___
    .
6.2 Finding limits

In your A level maths course, you considered limits of a function as x approaches 0, or infinity. By
looking at how different parts of the function behave, you can evaluate the limit. Here is a very simple
example:
 lim (2 + h) = 2 Links Results like this are used when
h→0
It is clear that as h gets closer to 0, (2 + h) gets differentiating from first principles.

closer to 2.
In general, we say that f(x) → L as x → a if we can Notation L is the limit of f(x) as x approaches
make f(x) arbitrarily close to L by choosing a
a. You sometimes say that ‘f(x) tends to L as x
value of x sufficiently close to a. If this is possible tends to a’.
then we write
l  im f(x) = L
x→a
135

Chapter 6
A You can use some simple properties of limits to evaluate certain limits. These rules are sometimes
referred to as the algebra of limits:
im   f(x) = L and lx→a
■ Given lx→a im   g(x) = M, then:
• lim
x→a
 (f(x) + g(x)) = L + M
• If c is a constant, then lim
x→a
  c f(x) = cL
• lim
x→a
  f(x) g(x) = LM
f(x) L
• If M ≠ 0, then lx→a im    ____  = ___
 
g(x) M
Example 4
5−x
Find   lim _____
 
x→0 2 + x
  lim (5 − x) = 5 and  lim(2 + x) = 2

x→0 x→0
5−x
______ 5
__ f(x) L
So   lim     =     l  im  ____  = ___
Use x→a  
x→0 2+x 2 g(x) M
Example 5
2 − 3x
Find   lim ______
 
x→∞ 1 + x
⎛ __ ⎞ Problem-solving
⎜ ⎟
2
2 − 3x   x − 3
_______ ______ 2 – 3x → –∞and 1 + x → ∞ as x → ∞, so it
  lim   = x→∞
  lim    
x→∞ 1 + x 1
⎝x ⎠
__
  + 1 is not possible to evaluate the limit directly.
lim ( 
x − 3) −
______ 2 However, by dividing each term in the numerator
 x→∞  
3 and denominator by x, you can determine the
=  ___________
       =     = − 3
___
lim (  x + 1)

1
__ 1 limit.
 x→∞
In many cases, the above methods will not allow Notation 0

When a function tends to  __ ,
you to calculate a limit. Suppose you wanted 0
it is known as an indeterminate form. Other
sin x ∞
to find   lim   ____
x . Both the numerator and
x→0 ∞ , 0 × ∞
examples are functions which tend to  ___
denominator tend to 0 as x → 0, so you cannot or 0 .0
f(x) L
use   lim   ____   = ___
   
x → 0 g(x) M
In order to evaluate this limit, we need a more precise way of comparing sin x and x for values of x
close to 0. You can use a Maclaurin series to do this. The Maclaurin series expansion (or in other words,
the Taylor series expansion at x = 0) of sin x is
x
  3 x
  5 x   7
sin x = x − __
    +   __   −   __   + . . .
3! 5! 7!
136

Taylor series
A Therefore we have
sin x x
  2 ___x
  4
  ____ ___
x  = 1 −   3!  +   5!  − . . .
You can cancel a factor of x from each term.
and so
(    − . . .)
sin x x
  2 __ x  4
l  im   ____
x   = l
  im 1 −  __    +  
x→0 x→0 3! 5!
sin x
Each of the terms containing a positive power of x tends to 0 as x → 0, so lim     ____
x  = 1. x→0
Example 6
sin x − x
Find   lim ________
   
x→0 x3
x  3 x  5 This is the Taylor series expansion of x at x = 0, or

sin x = x − ___     + ___     − . . .
3! 5! the Maclaurin series expansion.
− x3 x5
( )
____
    + ___
    − . . .
sin x − x
________ 3!
_____________ 5!
So  xlim
→0
    =   lim
→
      
x 3 x 0 x3 Subtracting x in the numerator leaves terms in x3
(   − . . .)
1
___ ___ x  2 and higher. You can now cancel a factor of x3 from
= x  lim −     +  
→0 3! 5! each term to leave you with one constant term,
sin x − x 1 and terms in positive powers of x, which all tend
Therefore  xlim  ________   = −  __ 
→0 x3 6 to 0.
Example 7
π
Find limπ (x − __
   )tan x
x→ _2 2
Problem-solving
π You cannot expand tan x
x − __
    π
π
(x −    )tan x =  
__ ______2 about x = __
   , so rewrite
2
2 cot x
the function as a
f(x) = cot x
quotient using the fact
Then f9(x) = − cosec  2 x, f0(x) = 2 cot x cosec  2 x,
1
f - (x) = − 2(cos 2x + 2) cosec  4 x that tan x = _____  
cot x
π π
f0(__
   ) f-(__
   )
π π π 2 π 2 _____ 2 π 3
cot x = f(   ) + f9(   )(x −    ) +  
2! (
  x −    )  +  
3! (
__ __ __ _____ __
   ) 
  x − __ Find the Taylor series
2 2 2 2 2
π 0 π π expansion of cot x about
= 0 − ( x − __    ) + ___     (x − __    )  − ___
    (x − __
2
   )  + . . .
2 3
π
2 2! 2 3! 2 x = __
   
2
π π 3
= − (x − __
   ) − __     (x − __    )  + . . .
1

2 3 2
⎛
⎜
⎞
⎟
π
x − __     The subsequent terms
π
  lim (x −    )tan x =   lim    
__ ________________________ 2 will have higher powers
     
2 π π3
⎝ ( 2) 3( 2)
π π __ 1
__ __ π
of ( x − __
   )
x→ __  x→ __ 
2 2 − x −     −     x −       + . . .
⎠ 2
1
=   lim ___________________
2( )
   
      = − 1
π 2
3( 2)
π 1
x→    − 1 −     x − __
__ __
      + . . .
137

Chapter 6
Example 8
A 3 ln x
Find lim     __________  
x → 1 x  2 + 2x − 3
1 1 2
f(x) = ln x then f9(x) = __
  x , f0(x) = −  ___2 , f - (x) = ___
  3 
 
x  
x
Calculate the Taylor series
f0(1)
ln x = f(1) + f9(1)(x − 1) + ____     (x − 1)  2 + . . . expansion of ln x around x = 1.
2!
= (x − 1) −  __
1
2  (x − 1)  + . . .
2
Factorise the denominator and
Also x  2 + 2x − 3 = (x − 1)(x + 3) cancel (x − 1)in the numerator
and denominator of each term.
x → 1 (x + 3
  + . . .) = __
3 ln x 3 3(x − 1)
Hence  xlim   ___________
    =   lim  
______
  − ________
    43 
→ 1 x2 + 2x − 3 2(x + 3)
The second and subsequent terms
will all contain a factor of (x − 1),
Exercise 6B which → 0 as x → 1.
1 Evaluate the following limits. Hint In parts c

7+x 3 − 2x 4 − 2x 4x + 1
a lim   _____ b lim   ______  lim  ______
c   x→∞  lim  ______
d x→∞ and d, divide the
x→0 5 − x x→0 x + 2 2+x 3 + 2x numerator and
2 Evaluate the following limits. denominator by x.
sin 4x cos x − 1 x x
a lim    _____
x b lim    ________   c lim   ______   d lim   __________ 
x→0 x→0 x  2 x→0 e  3x − 1 x→0 arctan 4x
3 Evaluate the following limits.

x−π sin (x2 − 4)
a x  lim  _____ b x  lim _________
   
→ π sin x →2 x−2
P 4 Evaluate the following limits.
ln (1 + x  2 )
_________ ln x
a  xlim     b  xlim   ______
__  
→0 x  2 →1 √ x − 1
e  x − e  −x − 2x
______________ e  x  2 sin x − x
___________
c x  lim     
  
→ 0 x  2 − x ln (1 + x)
  d x  lim  
→ 0 x ln (1 + x  2 )
 
E/P 5 a Find the Taylor series expansions about x = 0 of sin x and e  −x. (4 marks)
b Hence evaluate   lim (____
1 − e  −x)
1 1
  − _______
    (4 marks)
x → 0 sin x
__
E/P 6 a Find the Taylor series expansions about x = 1 of ln x and √ x . (4 marks)
b Hence evaluate   lim (___
x ln x − 1 )
1 1
  __  − _______
    (4 marks)
x→1 √
E/P 7 a Find the Taylor series expansion about x = 0 of sinh xup to the term in x  5. (4 marks)
b Hence find lim  (2x cosech 3x). (4 marks)
x→0
_____
E/P 8 a Find the Taylor series expansion of √ 1 + 4x  at x = 2up to the term in (x − 2)  2. (4 marks)
_____
√
1 + 4x  − 3
b Hence find lim   ___________
    (4 marks)
x→2 x  4 − 2 x  2 − 8
138

Taylor series
Challenge
______
A a Find the Taylor series expansion of √ 1 + 5y  about y = 0 up to the term in y3.
_______
1
b Using part a and the substitution y = __  lim √ x2 + 5x  − x.
  x , find x→∞
6.3 Series solutions of differential equations

You can use Taylor series to find series solutions Links You can use integrating factors or auxiliary
of differential equations that can’t be solved equations to solve some first and second-order
using other techniques. This can allow you differential equations directly.
to find useful approximate solutions, and to ← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 7
find solutions that cannot be expressed using
elementary functions.
Suppose you have a first-order differential Watch out f(x, y) denotes a function of both
dy
equation of the form ___   = f(x, y) and know the x and y, such as x2y + 1, or exy. Such functions
dx cannot always be written as a product of
initial condition that at x = x0, y = y0, then you functions g(x)h(y).
can calculate ___
dy
|
    by substituting x0 and y0
dx x0
into the original differential equation. Notation
By successive differentiation of the original

dy
___
|
    is used to denote the value of     when
dx x dx
dy
___
y
|
0
d 2
x = x .
differential equation, the values of  ____2    , 0
dx x0
|
d3y
 ____    and so on can be found by substituting previous results into the derived equations.
dx3 x0
dy
■ The series solution to the differential equation ___   = f(x, y) is found using the Taylor series
dx
expansion in the form
y = y0 + (x − x0) ___
dy
dx x0
  |
2!
d2y
(x − x0)2 ____
    + ________     2    + ________
dx x0
 
3! |
(x − x0)3 ____d3y
    3    + ….
dx x0 | (C)
■ In the situation where x0 = 0, this reduces to the Maclaurin series

dy
|
y = y0 + x  ___   + ___
x2 d2y
|
     ____2    + ___
dx 0 2! dx 0 3! dx 0
x3 d3y
|
     ____3    + …. (D)
Second order, and higher differential equations can be solved in the same manner.
139

Chapter 6
Example 9
A
Use the Taylor series method to find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including
the term in x3, of
d2y
____
  2  = y − sin x
dx
dy
given that when x = 0, y = 1 and ___
    = 2.
dx
The given conditions are x0 = 0, y0 = 1, ___

dy
    = 2
dx 0 |
Substituting x0 = 0 and y0 = 1, into ____
d2y
  2  = y − sin x
dx
First find ____
d2y
|
  2   
dx 0
d
|
2y
gives ____
      = 1 − sin 0 = 1
dx2 0
Differentiate the given differential equation
d3y dy
____ with respect to x.
  3  = ___
  − cos x (1)
dx dx
Substituting x0 = 0 and ___

dy
    = 2 into (1)
dx 0 |
gives ____
d3y
|
  3    = 2 − cos 0 = 1.
dx 0
Find ____
d3y
|
  3   
dx 0
Substituting the results into
dy
| x2 d y
| x3 d y
|
2 3
y = y0 + x ___
    + ___
     ____2    +  ___   ____3    + …
dx 0 2! dx 0 3! dx 0
x2 x3
gives y = 1 + x × 2 + ___
    × 1 +  ___  × 1 + …
2! 3!
x2 x3
= 1 + 2x + ___
    +  ___  + …
2 6
Example 10
d2y dy dy
Given that ____
  2  + 2 ___  = xy and that y = 1 and ___
    = 2, at x = 1, express y as a series in ascending
dx dx dx
powers of (x – 1) up to and including the term in (x – 1)4.
You need to find

The given conditions are x0 = 1, y0 = 1, ___
dy
      = 2 |
dx 1 ____
| |
d2y d3y
  2    , ____
dx 1 dx 1
  3    and ____
d4y
|
  4    .
dx 1
Substituting x0 = 1, y0 = 1 and ___
dy
      = 2 into
dx 1 |
d y dy d2y
|
2
____
    + 2 ___
  dx = xy gives  ____2    = –3
dx2
dx 1
140

Taylor series
A
d y
___
3 d2y dy Differentiate the given
    + 2  ___2  = y + x___ (1)
dx3 dx dx equation with respect to x.
Substituting x0 = 1, y0 = 1, ___ |dy

      = 2 and ____
dx 1 |
d2y
  2    = –3 into (1)
dx 1
d y
|
3
gives ____
  3    = 9
dx 1
d 4y d3y dy d2y dy Watch out
  4  + 2  ____3  = ___
____
  dx + x____
  2  + ___  dx (2) The initial
dx dx dx
conditions are given at
Substituting x0 = 1, ___
dy
|
      = 2, ____
dx 1 |
d2y
  2    = –3 and ____
dx 1
d3y
|
  3    = 9
dx 1
x 0 = 1so you need to
make sure you expand
d y
|
4
about this point in order
into (2) gives ____
  4    = –17
dx 1 to use the series solution.
Substituting all the values into
Then use the Taylor series
dy
dx 1 |  
(x – x0)2 ____
y = y0 + (x – x0) ___     + ________
2!
d2y
| (x – x0)3 ____
    2    + ________
dx 1
 
3!
d3y
|
    3    + …
dx 1
expansion (C).
–3
____ 9
___ –17
____
gives y = 1 + 2(x – 1) +     (x – 1)2 +     (x – 1)3 +     (x – 1)4 + …
2! 3! 4!
y = 1 + 2(x – 1) – __
  32 (x – 1)2 + __
  32 (x – 1)3 – ___ 17
  24  (x – 1)4 + …
Example 11
dy
Given that y satisfies the differential equation  ___  = y2 − x and that y = 1 at x = 0, find a series
dx
solution for y in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3.
The given conditions are x0 = 0, y0 = 1.

dy
Substituting x0 = 0 and y0 = 1 into ___
  = y2 − x
dx
You need to find
gives ___
dy
|
    = 12 − 0 = 1
dx 0 ____
| |
d2y d3y
  2    , ____
  3    and ____
d 4y
|
  4    .
dx 1 dx 1 dx 1
dy
___
2 dy
___
    = 2y − 1 (1)
dx2 dx
Differentiate the given
Substituting y0 = 1 and ___
dy
|
    = 1 into (1)
dx 0
equation with respect to x.
gives ____
d2y
| |
dy
  2    = 2y0  ___   − 1 = 2 × 1 × 1 − 1 = 1
dx 0 dx 0
dy d2y dy 2
( )
3
___
  3  = 2y___
2  + 2 ___
  (2) Differentiate (1).
dx dx dx
Substituting y0 = 1, ___
dy
|
    = 1 and ____
dx 0 | d2y
  2    = 1 into (2)
dx 0
| |
2
d d dy
|
3y 2y
gives ____
  3    = 2y0____
  2    + 2  ___     = 2 × 1 × 1 + 2 × 12 = 4
dx 0 dx 0 dx 0
141

Chapter 6
A
Substituting all of the values into
dy
| x2 d y
| x3 d y
|
2 3
y = y0 + x  ___   + __
    ____
  2    +  __  ____
  3    + … Use Taylor series expansion (D).
dx 0 2! dx 0 3! dx 0
gives y = 1 + x + __
  21 x2 + __
  23 x3 + …
Exercise 6C
E 1 Find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x4, for the
d2y dy 1
differential equation  ____2  = x + 2y, given that at x = 0, y = 1 and  ___  = _  2 . (8 marks)
dx dx
d2y dy dy
E 2 The variable y satisfies (1 + x2)   ____2  + x ___  = 0 and at x = 0, y = 0 and  ___  = 1.
dx dx dx
Use the Taylor series method to find a series expansion for y in powers of x up to and including
the term in x3. (8 marks)
dy
E 3 Given that y satisfies the differential equation  ___  + y − ex = 0, and that y = 2 at x = 0, find
dx
a series solution for y in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3. (6 marks)
d2y dy
E 4 Use the Taylor series method to find a series solution for  ____2  + x ___  + y = 0, given
dx dx
dy
___
that x = 0, y = 1 and     = 2, giving your answer in ascending powers of x up to and
dx
including the term in x4. (8 marks)
d2y dy
E 5 The variable y satisfies the differential equation  ____2  + 2   ___  = 3xy, and y = 1 and
dx dx
dy
___
    = −1 at x = 1.
dx
Express y as a series in powers of (x − 1) up to and including the term in (x − 1)3. (8 marks)
E 6 Find a series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term x4, to the
d2y dy dy
differential equation  ____2  + 2y ___  + y3 = 1 + x, given that at x = 0, y = 1 and  ___  = 1. (8 marks)
dx dx dx
dy
E/P 7 (1 + 2x)  ___  = x + 2y2
dx
( dx   )
2
dy
____
3 dy2
____ dy
___
a Show that (1 + 2x)     + 4(1 − y)     = 4   (4 marks)
dx3 dx2
dy
b Given that y = 1 at x = 0, find a series solution of (1 + 2x)  ___  = x + 2y2, in ascending
dx
powers of x up to and including the term in x3. (4 marks)
142

Taylor series
π
A 8 Find the series solution in ascending powers of (x − __    )up to and including the term
4
( π
) dy π
E/P 2 __
in x − __
     for the differential equation sin x  ___  + y cos x = y2 given that y = √ 2  at x = __
   
4 dx 4
(6 marks)
dy
E/P 9 The variable y satisfies the differential equation  ___  − x2 − y2 = 0.
dx
a Show that:
d2y dy
i   ____2  − 2y ___  − 2x = 0 (2 marks)
dx dx
(  ___
dx )
2
d3y d2y dy
ii   ____3  − 2y   ____2  − 2    = 2 (2 marks)
dx dx
d4y d3y d2y dy
b Derive a similar equation involving  ____4  ,   ____3  ,   ____2  , ___
    and y. (3 marks)
dx dx dx dx
c Given also that y = 1 at x = 0, express y as a series in ascending powers of x in
powers of x up to and including the term in x 4. (4 marks)
dy
E/P 10 Given that cos x  ___  + y sin x + 2y3 = 0, and that y = 1 at x = 0, use the Taylor series
dx
method to show that, close to x = 0, y ≈ 1 − 2x + __   2 x2 − __
11 56
  3 x3. (6 marks)
d2y dy
E/P 11  ____2  = 4x  ___  − 2y (1)
dx dx
a Show that
d  5y   4y
d d  3y
 ____5  = px  ____4  + q  ____3  ,
dx  dx  dx 
where p and q are integers to be determined. (4 marks)
b Hence find a series solution, in ascending powers of (x − 1) up to the term in x5 of
dy
differential equation (1), given that y = ___
    = 2 when x = 1. (5 marks)
dx
Mixed exercise 6
1 Using Taylor series, show that the first three terms in the series expansion of x − __
π
(
     cot x, in
4 )
__π
4 ( ) __π
4 ( ) π 2
( )
π 3
powers of x −      , are x −      − 2( x −      ) + 2 x −      .
__
4
__
4
2 a For the function f(x) = ln (1 + ex), find the values of f9(0) and f0(0).
b Show that f-(0) = 0.
c Find the Taylor series expansion of ln (1 + ex), in ascending powers of x up to and including
the term in x2.
143

Chapter 6
A 3 a Write down the Taylor series for cos 4x in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term
in x 6.
b Hence, or otherwise, show that the first three non-zero terms in the series expansion of
sin2 2x are 4x2 − __
  3  x4 + ___
16 128
  45  x6.
P 4 Given that terms in x5 and higher powers may be neglected, use the Taylor series for ex and
cos x, to show that ecos x ≈ e 1 − __
x2 x4
(
    + __
2
     .
6 )
dy
E 5  ___  = 2 + x + sin y
dx
a Given that y = 0, when x = 0, use the Taylor series method to obtain y as a series in
ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3. (5 marks)
b Hence obtain an approximate value for y at x = 0.1. (1 mark)
E 6 Given that |2x| , 1, find the first two non-zero terms in the Taylor series expansion
of ln((1 + x)2(1 − 2x)) in ascending powers of x. (5 marks)
E 7 Find the series solution, in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3, of the
d2y dy dy
differential equation  ____2  − (x + 2)  ___  + 3y = 0, given that at x = 0, y = 2 and  ___  = 4. (5 marks)
dx dx dx
E/P 8 a Use differentiation and Maclaurin series expansion, to express ln (sec x + tan x) as a
series in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3. (4 marks)
sin x − ln (sec x + tan x)
b Hence find lim   ____________________
        (4 marks)
x→0 x(cos x − 1)
P 9 Find an expression in terms of n for the nth term in the Taylor series expansion of cosh x about
ln 2 in the case when:
a n is even b n is odd
(x − π)  2
P  lim  ________ 
10 Find x→π
1 + cos x
arctan x − x
P 11 Find lim   __________ 
x→0 sin x − x
12 Show that the results of differentiating the following series expansions

x2 x3 xr
ex = 1 + x + __     + __     + … + __     + …,
2! 3! r!
x 3 x 5 x7 (−1)rx2r + 1
sin x = x − __
    + __     − __    + … +  _________  + …
3! 5! 7! (2r + 1)!
x x __
2 4 x 6 x2r
cos x = 1 − __     + __     −     + … + (−1)r ____     +…
2! 4! 6! (2r)!
agree with the results
d d d
a  ___  (ex) = ex b  ___  (sin x) = cos x c  ___  (cos x) = −sin x
dx dx dx
144

Taylor series
A d2y dy dy
13   ____2  + y  ___  = x, and at x = 1, y = 0 and  ___  = 2.
E
dx dx dx
Find a series solution of the differential equation, in ascending powers of (x − 1) up to
and including the term in (x − 1)3. (8 marks)
x2 x4 x2 5 4
E 14 a Given that cos x = 1 − __
    + __
    − …, show that sec x = 1 + __
    + __
  x + … . (4 marks)
2! 4! 2 24
x3 x5
b Using the result found in part a, and given that sin x = x − __
    + __
    − …, find the first
3! 5!
three non-zero terms in the series expansion, in ascending powers of x, for tan x. (4 marks)
tan x
c Find lim   ______   (4 marks)
x→0 e2x − 1
E/P 15 a By using the Taylor series expansions of ex and cos x, or otherwise, find the expansion
of ex cos 3x in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3. (4 marks)
ex cos 3x − sin x − cos x
____________________
b Hence find lim           (4 marks)
x→0 x3 + 2x2
d2y dy dy
E 16   ____2  + x2  ___  + y = 0 with y = 2 at x = 0 and  ___  = 1 at x = 0.
dx dx dx
a Use the Taylor series method to express y as a polynomial in x up to and including
the term in x3. (4 marks)
dy 4
b Show that at x = 0,  ____4  = 0. (3 marks)
dx
E 17 a Find the first three derivatives of (1 + x)2 ln (1 + x). (4 marks)

b Hence, or otherwise, find the Taylor series expansion of (1 + x)2 ln (1 + x) in ascending
powers of x up to and including the term in x3. (4 marks)
E 18 a Expand ln (1 + sin x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x 4. (6 marks)
∫
π
__
   
6
b Hence find an approximation for   ln (1 + sin x) dx giving your answer to
0
3 decimal places. (3 marks)
x3
E/P 19 a Using the first two terms, x + __     , in the Taylor series of tan x, show that
3
__x2 __ x3
e tan x = 1 + x +     +     + … (4 marks)
2 2
b Deduce the first four terms in the Taylor series of e−tan x, in ascending powers of x. (2 marks)
e  tan x  − e  x
c Hence find lim   ________  (4 marks)
x→0 sin x − x
  2 (x − sin x)  2

x
______________
P 20 Find lim      
    
x→0 2 cos x  2  − 2 + x  4
145

Chapter 6
E/P
A d2y
21 y  ____2  +
dx
( ) dy 2
 ___   + y = 0
dx
d3y
a Find an expression for ____   3  (5 marks)
dx
dy
Given that y = 1 and  ___  = 1 at x = 0,
dx
b find the series solution for y, in ascending powers of x, up to an including the term
in x3. (5 marks)
c Comment on whether it would be sensible to use your series solution from part b to
give estimates for y at x = 0.2 and at x = 50. (2 marks)
x2 x4
P 22 a Using Maclaurin series, and differentiation, show that ln cos x = −  __  − ___
    + …
2 12
x
( )
b Using cos x = 2 cos2  __   − 1, and the result in part a, show that
2
x2 x4
ln (1 + cos x) = ln 2 − __     − ___
    + …
4 96
ln (1 + cos x ) − ln (2 cos x)
c Find lim    _____________________
        
x→0 1 − cos x
P 23 a By writing 3x = ex ln 3, find the first four terms in the Taylor series of 3x.
__
b Using your answer from part a, with a suitable value of x, find an approximation for √
3 ,
giving your answer to 3 significant figures.
24 Given that f(x) = cosec x,

a show that:
i f 0(x) = cosec x (2 cosec2 x − 1)
ii f -(x) = −cosec x cot x (6 cosec2 x − 1)
π
b Find the Taylor series expansion of cosec x in ascending powers of (x − __
   )up to and
4
π
( )
3
including the term x − __
     .
4
πx
E/P 25 a Given that f(x) = ln(1 + 2 cos (___
   )), find f9 and f 0. (4 marks)
2
b Hence, using Taylor series, show that the first two non-zero terms, in ascending
πx π2
powers of (x − 1), of ln(1 + 2 cos (___
   )) are − π(x − 1) −  __  (x − 1)  2. (2 marks)
2 2
πx
ln (1 + 2 cos (___
   ))
_________________ 2
c Find lim            (4 marks)
x→1 3 ln (2 − x)
146

Taylor series
Challenge
A a Use induction to prove that the nth derivative of ln x is given by
(n − 1)!
d  n   ln x = (−1)  n+1  _______
 ____ x  n 

dx  n
= a of ln (x),
b Hence write down the Taylor series expansion about x
where a . 0.
The ratio test is a sufficient condition for convergence of an infinite
∞ a  n+1
series. It says that a series ∑an  converges if n→∞
n=1
| |
  lim   ____ , 1and diverges
a  n 
a  n+1
if  n→∞ | |
lim   ____ . 1.
a  n 
(If the limit is 1 or doesn’t exist then the test is inconclusive.)
c Using the ratio test, show that the Taylor series expansion of ln x about
x = aconverges for x such that 0 , x , 2a.
When the ratio test is inconclusive, one possible alternative is the
∞
alternating series test. It states that for a series of the form ∑  (−1)  n+1 b   n,
n=1
if the coefficients b  n satisfy:
b  n
● > 0for each n
● b  n > b  n+1 for each n
●  lim b
n→∞ n
  = 0
then the series converges to a finite limit.
d Use the alternating series test and the result from part c to show that the
Taylor series expansion of ln x about x = a converges for each x such that
0 , x < 2a.
147

Chapter 6

A f 0(a) 2 f _____
-(a) f(r)(a)
1 f(x + a) = f(a) + f9(a)x +   _____   x +     x3 + … + _____
    xr + … (A)
2! 3! r!
f 0(a) f -(a) f(r)(a)
f(x) = f(a) + f9(a)(x − a) +   _____   (x − a)2 +   _____   (x − a)3 + … + _____
    (x − a)r + … (B)
2! 3! r!
The expansions (A) and (B) given above are known as Taylor series expansions of f(x) at (or
about) the point x = a.
The Taylor series expansion is valid only if f(n)(a) exists and is finite for all n ∈ ℕ, and for values
of x for which the infinite series converges.
 lim f(x) = L and x→a

2 Given x→a  lim g(x) = M, then:
x→a(
•  lim f(x) + g(x)) = L + M
• If c is a constant, then lim x→a cf(x) = cL
•  lim
x→a
f(x) g(x) = LM
f(x) L
• If M ≠ 0, then  x→a
lim  ____  = __
   
g(x) M
dy
3 • The series solution to the differential equation ___     = f(x, y) is found using the Taylor series
dx
expansion in the form
y = y0 + (x − x0) ___
dy
|
  + _________
dx x0
 
2!
d2y
(x − x0)2 ____
|
    2  + _________
dx x0
 
3! |
(x − x0)3 ____d3y
    3  + … (C)
dx x0
• In the situation where x0 = 0, this reduces to the Maclaurin series
dy
| x2 d y
| | x3 d y
2 3
y = y0 + x  ___  + __
     ____2  + __
     ____3  + …. (D)
dx 0 2! dx 0 3! dx 0
148

Methods in calculus
Objectives
● Apply Leibnitz’s theorem for differentiating products
→ pages 150–152
7
● Understand the use of derivatives to evaluate limits of
indeterminate forms using L’Hospital’s rule → pages 152–156
● Use tangent half-angle substitutions to find definite and
indefinite integrals using Weierstrass substitution → pages 156–158

1 Differentiate: __
a e3x cos x b √ x  ln x When money is invested in a savings
← Pure Year 2, Section 9.4 account, if the interest is paid more
2 Show that cosec x − cot x cos x ≡ sin x. frequently, the size of each payment
← Section 5.1
decreases. In the limit, we make infinitely
x many payments of size zero. ‘Infinity times
3 Use the substitution t = tan  __  to write zero’ is an example of an indeterminate
2
2 cos x − sin x = 1 in the form at2 + bt + c = 0 form. L’Hospital’s rule is a powerful
where a, b and c are constants to be technique for evaluating limits like this.
determined. ← Section 5.3 → Exercise 7B Q13
149

Chapter 7
7.1 Leibnitz’s theorem and nth derivatives

A You can use the product rule to differentiate the product of two functions.
If y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then

dy
___ dv du
    = u  ___  + v  ___  The product rule generates two terms.
dx dx dx
Applying the product rule again gives
  2y
d d  2v du ___ dv du ___ dv   2u
d
  2  = u  ____2  + ___
____         + ___        + v  ____2 
dx  dx  dx dx dx dx dx 
d  v
2 du dv d  u
2
= u  ____2  + 2  ___   ___  + v  ____2 
dx  dx dx dx 
Repeatedly applying the product rule gives
  3y
d
____ d  3v du d  2v d  2u dv d3u
  3  = u  ____3  + 3  ___   ____2  + 3  ____2   ___  + v  ____3  The coefficients follow
dx  dx  dx dx  dx  dx dx the same pattern as the
d  4y
____ d  v
4 du d  v
3 d  u d  v
2 2   3u dv
d d4u binomial expansion.
  4  = u  ____4  + 4  ___   ____3  + 6  ____2   ____2  + 4  ____3   ___  + v  ____4 and so on.
dx  dx  dx dx  dx  dx  dx  dx dx
The nth derivative of a product of two functions follows a pattern that is summarised by Leibnitz’s
theorem.
■■ Leibnitz’s theorem gives a general formula for the Notation
( k ) =   k !(n − k )! is the
n n!
_________
n th derivative of the product of two functions.
If y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then binomial coefficient.
  y
d
n d  0u d  0v
(k) dx  kdx  n−k
n n d  u d  v
k n−k ____
  0  = u and  ____0  = v.
____
    =  ∑       ____   _____  dx  dx 
dx  n k=0
Example 1
d  4y
Use Leibnitz’s theorem to calculate ____
  4  for y = ex sin x.
dx 
Let u = ex and v = sin x

d  nu
 ____n  = ex for every n The derivative of ex is ex.
dx 
___ dv d  2v d  3v d  4v
    = cos x, ____   2  = −sin x, ____   3  = −cos x, ____   4  = sin x
dx dx  dx  dx  Apply Leibnitz’s theorem for n = 4:
d  4y d  4v d  3v
du ____ d  2u ____
d  2v d  3u dv d4u
  4  = u   4  + 4       3  + 6   2    2  + 4  ____3   ___  + v  ____4 
____ ____ ___ ____
  4  =  ∑    (    )  ____k    _____
d  4y
____
4
4 d  ku d  4−kv
dx  dx  dx dx  dx  dx  dx  dx dx  
dx  k=0 k dx  dx  4−k
= ex sin x − 4ex cos x − 6ex sin x + 4ex cos x + ex sin x
= −4ex sin x Simplify.
150

Methods in calculus
Example 2
A d  3y
Use Leibnitz’s theorem to calculate ____
  3  for y = x3 cosh 2x.
dx 
Let u = x3 and v = cosh 2x

___ du d  2u d  3u
    = 3x2, ____   2  = 6x, ____   3  = 6 Use the chain rule to differentiate
dx dx  dx  cosh 2x and sinh 2x.
___ dv d  2v d  3v
    = 2 sinh 2x,   2  = 4 cosh 2x, ____
____
  3  = 8 sinh 2x
dx dx  dx 
Apply Leibnitz’s theorem for n = 3:
____ d   3y d  v
3 du d  v 2 d  u dv
2   3u
d
  3  = u  ____3  + 3  ___   ____2  + 3  ____2   ___  + v  ____3 
  3  =  ∑    (    )  ____k    _____
d  3y 3
3 d  ku d  3−kv
dx  dx  dx dx  dx  dx dx  ____  
dx  k=0 k dx  dx  3−k
= 8x3 sinh 2x + 36x2 cosh 2x + 36x sinh 2x + 6 cosh 2x
You can use Leibnitz’s theorem to find an expression for the nth derivative of a product.
Example 3
Given that y = x  2 e  −x, use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that for n . 2,
d  ny
 ____n  = ( −1)  n e  −x(x  2 − 2nx + n(n − 1))
dx 
Problem-solving
Let u = x2 and v = e−x
d  kv
___ du   2u
d   ku
d Write a general expression for  ____k 
    = 2x, ____   2  = 2, ____   k  = 0 for k . 2 dx 
dx dx  dx  using the fact that (−1)k generates
___ dv d   2
v d  3v d  kv
    = −e−x,   2  = e−x, ____
____
  3  = −e−x, ____   k  = (−1)ke−x the sequence 1, −1, 1, −1, …
dx dx  dx  dx 
d
____   ny
dx dx  n−1 (2) dx  2dx  n−2
  n  = u  ____n  + ( 1  )  ___   _____
d  vn n du d  v n−1 n d  u d  n−2v
2
  +      ____   _____  + . . . d  ku
dx  dx  Apply Leibnitz’s theorem. As ____
  k  = 0 for
dx 
n(n − 1)
= x  2 (−1)  ne  −x + n(2x)(−1)  n−1e  −x + ________     (2) (−1)  n−2e  −x k . 2, the remaining terms disappear.
2
= (−1)  n e  −x(x2 − 2nx + n(n − 1))
Use the fact that (−1)n − 1 = (−1)(−1)n
and (−1)n − 2 = (−1)n to simplify.
Exercise 7A
1 For each of the following functions:
dy d  2y d  3y   ny
d
i find ___
   , ____
  2  and ____
  3  ii deduce an expression for ____
  n 
a y = e5x b y = e−x c y = xm d y = xe−x
2 Use Leibnitz’s theorem to calculate the following:
d  2y d  2y
a  ____2  for y = (2x2 + x − 2)(4x2 − 3x + 8) b  ____2  for y = ln x sin x
dx  dx 
d
  2y d  2y
c  ____2  for y = e3x cos 2x d  ____2  for y = x3 ln(2x + 1)
dx  dx 
d
  3y d  3y ___
e  ____3  for y = (x2 − x + 2)(x3 − 1) f  ____3  for y = √ 2x  sinh 3x
dx  dx 
d
  4y d  4y
g  ____4  for y = (x2 − x) cosh 2x h  ____4  for y = cos x sinh x
dx  dx 
151

Chapter 7
A 3 Use Leibnitz’s theorem to calculate the following:

__
d  y
____
2
x 
√
____ d  3y ln x
P
a     for y =    b  ____3  for y =   _____ 
dx  2 ln x dx  x+3 Hint Rewrite each
  3y
d e  x + 1 d  4y
____ sin x quotient as a product.
c  ____3  for y =   ______ d   4  for y =   ____2 
 
dx  e  x − 1 dx  4 x 
d  y
6 dy
E/P 4 Show that y = ex cos x satisfies ____
  6  + 8  ___  − 8y = 0. (4 marks)
dx  dx
E/P 5 Given that y = 2x3e2x, use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that
d  ny
 ____n  = 2  n−2 e  2x( 8x  3 + 12nx  2 + 6n(n − 1)x + n(n − 1)(n − 2)) (4 marks)
dx 
1 d  ny n!
E/P 6 a Using proof by induction, or otherwise, show that if y = __   x , then ____
  n  = ( −1)  n   ____   (4 marks)
dx  x  n+1
b Hence use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that if y = x ln x, then 3
d  ny ______________

6( − 1)  n(n − 4)!
 ____n  =   
   , for n > 4 (5 marks)
dx  x  n−3
E/P 7 Given that y = x2 sinh kx, where k is a constant, show that for any even integer n,
____d  ny
  n  = k  n−2 sinh kx(k  2 x  2 + n(n − 1)) + 2nk  n−1 x cosh kx
dx 
and for any odd integer n,
____ d  ny
  n  = k  n−2 cosh kx(k  2 x  2 + n(n − 1)) + 2nk  n−1 x sinh kx (5 marks)
dx 
a Given that F(x) = f(x)g(x), show that when n = 1, You can change the summation limits to
the formula simplify an expression:
F(n)(x) =  ∑   ( k ) f(k) (x)g(n−k) (x)
n n n n+1
 ∑   f(k) =  ∑ f (k − 1)
k=0 k=0 k=1
reduces to F9(x) = f(x)g9(x) + g(x)f9(x). You can also use the following result when
b Hence use the product rule and proof by induction simplifying binomial coefficients:
(  k ) + ( k
 )  = ( k
r )
to prove Leibnitz’s theorem for all n P ℤ+. + 
1
r−1 r
7.2 L’Hospital’s rule
You can use L’Hospital’s rule to find limits of some indeterminate forms. It allows you to find a limit of
f(x)
a function that can be written in the form ____
   , where f and g are differentiable functions, at points
g(x)
where f(x) and g(x) both tend to 0, or both tend to ± ∞.
■■ L’Hospital’s rule states that for two functions f(x) and Watch out 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, 00,
g(x), if either:
1∞ and ∞0are also indeterminate
im  f(x) = lx→a
•• lx→a im  g(x) = 0, or forms, but you can only apply
im  f(x) = ± ∞ and lx→a
•• lx→a im  g(x) = ± ∞ 0
L’Hospital’s rule to the forms __   
±∞ 0
f(x) f(x) f′(x) and  ____
then provided that lim x→a
   ____  exists, lx→a
im   ____  = lx→a
im   _____  ± ∞ 
g(x) g(x) g′(x)
152

Methods in calculus
Example 4 Links It is often easier to use L’Hospital’s rule to

A evaluate a limit than to use Taylor series.
sin x
Calculate lim    ____
x  ← Section 6.2
x→0
sin x
____ f(x)
Let f(x) = sin x and g(x) = x    
x is in the form ____
   
g(x)
f(0) = sin 0 = 0 and g(0) = 0, so we can Check that this expression is an indeterminate
apply L’Hospital’s rule. form by considering how the value of each
f′(x) = cos x and g′(x) = 1 function behaves at or near x = 0.
By L’Hospital’s rule,
sin x cos x _1
lim  ____
 x→0 lim  _____
x =  x→0   =     = 1 Find the derivatives of f(x) and g(x).
1 1
Watch out
Do not differentiate the whole
f(x)
expression of ____
   . You need to differentiate f(x)
g(x)
and g(x) separately.
If the limit of the derivatives is also indeterminate, then you can apply L’Hospital’s rule a second time.
■■ In general, you can apply L’Hospital’s rule repeatedly, provided that the conditions are
met at each step, and that the numerator and denominator can both be differentiated the
required number of times.
Example 5
1 − cos x
Calculate lim   ________  
x→0 x  2
Let f(x) = 1 − cos x and g(x) = x2 f(x) 0

When x = 0, ____
   is the indeterminate form __
   
f(0) = 1 − cos 0 = 0 and g(0) = 02 = 0, g(x) 0
so we can apply L’Hospital’s rule.
f′(x) = sin x and g′(x) = 2x
By L’Hospital’s rule, Find the derivatives of f(x) and g(x).
1 − cos x sin x
  lim  _________ lim  ____ 
  =  x→0
x→0 2
x  2x
sin x
f′(0) = sin 0 = 0 and g′(0) = 2 × 0 = 0 When x = 0,  ____ is an indeterminate form, so we
2x
f″(x) = cos x and g″(x) = 2 can apply L’Hospital’s rule a second time.
1 − cos x sin x cos x __1
lim  _________
 x→0 lim  ____ =  x→0
  =  x→0 lim  _____
  =   2 This limit is not indeterminate.
x  2 2x 2
You may be able to rewrite functions as a quotient and apply L’Hospital’s rule.
153

Chapter 7
Example 6
A
Calculate lim  (cosec x − cot x)
x→0
Problem-solving
  lim (____
sin x )
1 cos x
lim (cosec x − cot x) = x→0
 x→0     − _____
   
sin x Use trigonometric relationships to rewrite the
1 − cos x
  lim  _________
= x→0   function as a quotient.
sin x
Let f(x) = 1 − cos x and g(x) = sin x
f(x) 0
f(0) = 1 − cos 0 = 0 and g(0) = sin 0 = 0, When x = 0, ____
   is the indeterminate form __
   
g(x) 0
so we can apply L’Hospital’s rule.
f′(x) = sin x and g′(x) = cos x Find the derivatives of f(x) and g(x).
1 − cos x sin x 0
lim  _________
 x→0   lim  _____
=  x→0 cos x  =
__
    = 0
sin x 1
You can use the following rule, together with L’Hospital’s rule, to evaluate the limits of some
indeterminate forms.
■■ If lx→a im  e f(x) = e  lx→a
im  f(x) exists, then lx→a im f(x)
Example 7
a x
im  (1 + __
  x ) 
a x
Use the relationship t = eln t to calculate lx→∞ lim (1 + __
 x→∞   x )  has the indeterminate form 1∞.
a x Use the relationship given in the question to

lim (1 + __  x )  = x→∞
a x
  lim e  ln(1 +  x ) 
__
 x→∞
a x
rewrite the function as an exponential.
lim ln(1 + __
= e   x→∞   x ) 
a x a
x→∞ (
  x )  = x→∞  lim x ln(1 + __   x )   e  f(x) = e  lx→a
Apply the rule lim im f(x)
  lim ln 1 + __ x→a
a
ln(1 + __   x )   lim ln (1 + __
Consider x→∞
a x
  x )  and use the rule
________
=
 x→∞ lim    
__ 1 ln an = n ln a.
  x 
a 1
Let f(x) = ln(1 +  __ x ) and g(x) =   x 
__
Problem-solving
a
lim f(x) = ln 1 = 0 and x→∞
 x→∞  limg(x) = 0 lim x ln(1 + __
 x→∞   x )has the indeterminate form ∞ × 0.
So apply L’Hospital’s rule: Writing the function as quotient will allow you to
a
−  ___2  apply L’Hospital’s rule.
x  1
f′(x) =   _____ ___
a  and g′(x) = −   x  2 
1 + __   x  Find the derivatives of f(x) and g(x). Use the
By L’Hospital’s rule, chain rule to differentiate f(x).
a
−  ___2 
a x
ln(1 + __   x ) a a
lim  ________
 x→∞   =  x→∞ 1 +  __
lim = x  x→∞   lim  _____ a  
Simplify and evaluate the limit.
__ 1 1 + __  x 
  x  1
−  ___2 
x Online Explore the graph of this function
a
= _____
    = a
1+0 using GeoGebra.
154

Methods in calculus
A
a x
  lim ln (1 + __
So x→∞   x )  = a
a x
a x  lim ln (1 + __
Use the fact that if x→∞   x )  = a then
Hence x→∞   lim (1 + __   x )  = ea a
  lim ln(1 +   x )  = ea.
__ x
e  x→∞
Exercise 7B
1 Use L’Hospital’s rule to calculate the following limits.
x  2 − 1 x__− 4 ln x
a lim   __________   b lim   ______       ____
c lim  
x→1 x  2 + 3x − 4 x→4 √ x  − 2 x→∞
x  2
x  2 − x e4x − 4x − 1 arctan 4x
d lim   __________   e lim   __________   f lim   ________ 
x→0 x  2 − sin πx x→0 ex − cos x x→0 arctan 5x
P 2 Use L’Hospital’s rule to calculate the following limits.

__
x sin x
______ √ x 
_____ x  2 + x + 1
a lim    x   b lim         _________
c lim  
x→0 e  − 1 x→0 tan x x→∞ e  x
P 3 Evaluate the following limits, giving your answers as exact values where appropriate.
1 1
a
lim  x  x b  x→∞
lim x   x  c lim  1 − x   x Hint
__ __
x→0 x→0
 lim e  f(x) = e  x→a
Use x→a  lim f(x)
2x  2 + x − 1 B C
4 a Show that  ___________
     ≡ A + ______
    + _____
   , where A, B and C are rational constants to
3x  2− 2x − 1 3x + 1 x − 1
be found.
2x  2 + x − 1
b Hence write down the value of x→∞  lim  ___________
    
3x  2− 2x − 1
2x  2 + x − 1
c Use two applications of L’Hospital’s rule to evaluate x→∞  lim  ___________
    
3x  2− 2x − 1
x  2− 5x + 6
P 5 Anton uses L’Hospital’s rule to find the value of lim   __________. He writes down the following
x→3 4x
working:
x  2− 5x + 6 2x − 5 _____6 − 5 __ 1
lim__________
 x→3   
    lim  ______
= x→3   =     =    
4x 4 4 4
a Explain the mistake Anton has made.

b Write down the correct value of this limit.
cosh x
E/P 6 a Explain why you cannot use L’Hospital’s rule to evaluate lim    ______   (1 mark)
x→0 2x  2
cosh x − 1
b Find lim    _________   (5 marks)
x→0 2x  2
sin  2 x
E/P 7 Use L’Hospital’s rule to find the value of lim   ______  (5 marks)
x→0 x tan x
x  2 e  x
E/P 8 Use L’Hospital’s rule to find the value of lim   ______   (5 marks)
x→0 tan  2 x
E/P 9 Use L’Hospital’s rule to find the value of lim  (ln x sin x). (5 marks)
x→0
155

Chapter 7
__ __ 6
__
A √ x  − √ k  ____ 3 √ k 
10 Use L’Hospital’s rule to show that lim   _______
__ __  =     (5 marks)
E/P
x→k 3 3
√ x  − √ k  2
_1
E/P 11 Use L’Hospital’s rule to find the value of lim  (cos x)   x (6 marks)
x→0
f(x + h) − f(x)
P 12 Use the definition of the derivative, f ′(x) = lim   ____________
     and L’Hospital’s rule, to show that
h→0 h
if f(x) = sin x then f ′(x) = cos x.
P 13 When savings accounts pay interest, they often compound. That is, they pay interest on
previous interest payments.
a Show that a £1000 savings account paying 5% interest each year will contain £1276.28 after
5 years.
Usually interest rates are quoted annually. If the interest is paid more frequently than annually,
then the effects of compounding mean that the interest rate can be measured in two different ways.
The nominal interest rate is the interest paid as a percentage of the initial sum ignoring the effects
of compounding. The effective interest rate is the interest paid as a percentage of the initial sum,
including the effects of compounding. For example, if the nominal interest rate is 5%, and the
interest payments are made monthly, then the savings account will pay __
5
 12  % interest each month.
b Show that if the nominal interest rate is 10%, and payments are made monthly, then the
effective interest rate is approximately 10.47%.
c Suppose that the initial amount is A, the nominal rate Hint This is known as ‘continuous
of interest is 100r%, and it is paid in n equal payments compounding’. It is the result of
throughout the year. Write down a formula for An(r), letting the time between interest
payments go to zero while
the amount after 1 year, in terms of A, r and n.
maintaining a fixed nominal rate.
d Hence show that A∞(r) = ln→∞ im  An  (r) = Ae  r.
7.3 The Weierstrass substitution

x
You can use the substitution t = tan  __ to simplify integrals.
2
Example 8
Find ∫cosec x dx.
2t
x 1 + t  2 Use the t-formula sin x = _____
    and
Let t = tan  __ , then cosec x = ______     1 1 + t  2
2 2t cosec x ≡ ____
    ← Chapter 5
dx dx (
    tan  __ ) = __
dt d x 1 x sin x
Also  ___  = ___     sec  2  __ 
2 2 2
=  __ (1 + tan  2  __ ) = ______
1 x 1 + t  2
    Use the identity sec2 θ ≡ 1 + tan2 θ.
2 2 2
2
So dx = ______
    dt.
1 + t  2
Hence
∫ 1 + t2 ______
______
∫   cosec xdx =      2t   
2
 
1 + t2 dt
∫ _1
=      t  dt
= ln|t| + c
x
| |
= ln tan  __  + c
2
156

Methods in calculus
__ x
A ■■ The Weierstrass substitution is t = tan    , and the corresponding substitution for dx is
2
2
dx = _____
    dt
1 + t2
When using the Weierstrass substitution, you replace each trigonometric function by the
corresponding function of t using the t-formulae:
Function Substitution
2t
Links The t-formulae can be used to prove
sin x  _____2  trigonometric identities and solve equations.
1 + t 
_____ 1 − t  2 ← Chapter 5
cos x    
1 + t  2
2t
tan x  _____2 
1 − t 
_____ 1 + t  2
sec x    
1 − t  2
1 + t  2
cosec x  _____  
2t
_____ 1 − t  2
cot x    
2t
After using the Weierstrass substitution, you are usually left with a rational function, i.e. a quotient
of polynomials. You can integrate this using partial fractions or any other appropriate technique,
then reverse the substitution to get the answer.
Example 9
∫    ______________
π
_
  2
1
Find     dx
π
_ 1 + sin x − cos x
  3
Using the Weierstrass substitution,
∫
  2π
__
_______________1
__π       1     dx The limits have been transformed by the
  3 + sin x − cos x π π
∫ 1 − t2 ( 1 + t2 )
substitution. When x = __    , t = tan  __  = 1, and when
1
____________________ 1 2
( 1 + (   1 + t2 ) − (   1 + t2 ))
= __1           ______     dt 2 4
  √ 3 
__ 2t
______ ______ π
__ π ___
__ 1__
x =    , t = tan     =    
3 6 √ 3 
∫
1
1 + t2
_________________ 2
= __1            ______2  dt
  √ 1 + t + 2t − 1 + t 1 + t
2 2
__
3 
∫
1
1
______
1__ t(t
__
     
+ 1) dt
  √ 3 
1 A B
1 1 1 Write ______
    = __
   + ____
   , so 1 = A(t + 1) + Bt.
Rewriting the integrand, ______     = __    − ____
    t(t + 1) t t + 1
t(t + 1) t t + 1
So Then t = 0 implies A = 1 and t = −1 implies B = −1.
∫ ∫
  2π
__
1 (t
      −   t + 1 ) dt
1
1
_______________ 1 _____
_ 1
__π       1  
+ sin x − cos x
  dx =
__
 
3   __
√ 3 
= [ ln _____   ]   

t
| |
1
|
 
t
t + 1 __ |
  1 __
√ 3 
ln|t| − ln|t + 1| = ln____
 
t+1
  .
1 1 __
= ln  __  − ln  _______   Problem-solving
2 1 + √
3 
__
= ln (1 + √ 3  ) − ln 2 You don’t need to make the substitution back into
__ x for a definite integral as long as you transform
= ln(______
2 )
1 + √ 3 
    the limits.
157

Chapter 7
Exercise 7C
A x
1 Use the substitution t = tan  __ to integrate the following:
2
∫ 1
_________
a      1 + 3 cos x  dx b    sec x dx ∫ ∫ 1
___________
c      sin x + tan x  dx ∫ 2
________
d      1 − sin x  dx
x
2 Use the substitution t = tan  __ to evaluate the following:
2
∫ ∫ ∫     1 + cos x  dx ∫    __________

_ π _ π π
_ __
2π
  2   2   2
sec x
________ 1 − cos x
_______________ sin x
_________ cot x
  3
a     1 + tan x  dx b            dx c d  
1 + cosec x dx
0 1 + sin x + 2 cos x
π
_ 2 π
_
0   3   2
x
E 3 a Using the substitution, t = tan  __ , show that the integral
2
∫ 1
___________
     12 − 13 sin x  dx
can be written as
∫   ___________
 
2
1
6t − 13t + 6
  dt (3 marks)
∫
π
_
  3
1
___________
b Hence evaluate     12 − 13 sin x  dx (5 marks)
0
∫    ________
π
_
  2
1
  dx = ____ π
P 4     where a is a positive integer.
__
0 a + cos x 3 √ 3 
Find the value of a.
arccos ( ______2 )
1 − x2
∫ 1+x π2
1
_____________
P 5 Show that           dx = ___
   
0 1+x 2
16
Challenge Hint Consider the substitution x = sin θ.

______
∫
1 √ 1 − x 2 
_______
Evaluate     1 + x2  dx
−1
Mixed exercise 7
1 Use Leibnitz’s theorem to calculate the following:

  2y
d d  2y d  3y
a  ____2  for y = (3x2 − 2x)(x3 + 2x − 6) b  ____2  for y = e4x tan 2x c  ____3  for y = x   2 arctan 2x
_3
dx  dx  dx 
sin x d  2
2 By writing tan x =   _____
cos x ,
  use Leibnitz’s theorem to compute ____
    tan x.
dx  2
158

Methods in calculus
A 3 y = fgh where f, g and h are functions of x.

E a Use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that
  2  gh + f   ____2  h + fg  ____2  + 2(___      ___  h +  ___  g  ___  + f   ___   ___ )
d  2y d2f
____ d  2g d2h df dg df dh dg dh
  2  = ____ (4 marks)
dx  dx dx  dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
d  y
2
b Hence compute ____   2  for y = ex sin 2x cos 3x. (2 marks)
dx  _____
d  3y
____ √
3x + 2 
_______
E/P 4 Use Leibnitz’s theorem to calculate     for   cos x  (5 marks)
dx  3
E/P 5 a Using proof by induction, or otherwise, show that if y = sin x, then
d  ny
  n  = sin(___
    + x)
____ nπ
(4 marks)
dx  2
b Hence use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that if y = x2 sin x, then
d  ny
 ____n  = sin(  ___  + x)(x2 + n − n2) − 2nx cos (___
    + x)
nπ nπ
(4 marks)
dx  2 2
6 Use L’Hospital’s rule to find:

e  2x − 1 tan x x  2 + x − 2 sin πx
a lim   ______   b lim   _________  c lim   _________   d lim   __________ 
x→0 3x x→0 2x + sin x x→1 x ln x x→1 x  2 + 7x − 8
cos(_  2 x)
1
_______
E/P 7 Use L’Hospital’s rule to find the value of lx→π
im    x − π (3 marks)
x−2
E/P 8 Given that n is a positive integer, find lim   ______  , giving your answer in terms of n. (4 marks)
x→2 x  n − 2  n
_1
E/P 9 Use L’Hospital’s rule to find the value of lx→∞
im  (1 + ax)   x (6 marks)
x
10 Use the substitution t = tan  __ to integrate the following:
∫ ∫ ∫
3 2 sec x 2
_________ ____________ ___________
a      2 + 4 cos x  dx b        
sin x + 2 cos x
  dx c      sin x + cos x  dx
x
11 Use the substitution t = tan  __ to evaluate the following:
2
∫ ∫
_ π
  2 π
2
________________ 1
_________
a          dx b     dx
7 + 2 sin x + 8 cos x 2π 2 − 2 cos x
__
0   3
x
E 12 a Using the substitution, t = tan  __ , show that the integral
2
∫
       
1
_____________
  dx
4 cos x − 3 sin x
can be written as
∫
     2
−1
__________
2t + 3t − 2
  dt (3 marks)
∫
π
_
  2
1
_____________
b Hence evaluate _π          dx (5 marks)
  3 4 cos x − 3 sin x .
∫
π
_
  2
1 − cosec x
__________ __
1
E/P 13 Show that _π     sin x  dx = ln √ k  − ___
  __  where k is a positive integer to be found. (8 marks)
  3 √
k 
159

Chapter 7
Challenge
A x  n
 lim  ___x  = 0 for all n ∈ ℕ.
Use proof by induction to prove that x→∞
e 

1 Leibnitz’s theorem gives a general formula for the nth derivative of the product of two
functions. It states that if y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then
d  ny
 ____n  =  ∑  (    )  ____k   _____
n n
d  ku d
  n−kv
 
dx  k=0 k dx  dx  n−k
2 L’Hospital’s rule states that for two functions f(x) and g(x) if either:
  f(x) = lx→a
• lim
x→a
im  g(x) = 0, or
  f(x) = ± ∞ and lx→a
• lim
x→a
im  f(x) = ± ∞
f(x) f(x) f′(x)
then provided that lx→a im   ____  exists, lx→a
im   ____  =  lim
x→a
   ____ 
g(x) g(x) g′(x)
3 In general, you can apply L’Hospital’s rule repeatedly, provided that the conditions are met at
each step, and that the numerator and denominator can both be differentiated the required
number of times.
4 im  e  f(x) = e  lx→a

im  f(x) exists, then lx→a
If lx→a im f(x)
x
5 The Weierstrass substitution is t = tan  __ , and the corresponding substitution for dx is
2
2
dx = _____
    2 dt
1 + t 
160

Numerical methods
Objectives
8
● Find numerical solutions to first-order differential equations using
Euler’s method and the midpoint method → pages 162–168
● Extend Euler’s method to find numerical solutions to second-order

differential equations → pages 169–172
● Use Simpson’s rule to find an approximation for a given definite

integral → pages 173–175

1 The curve C has equation y = x  2 + bx. The point P
on the curve has x-coordinate x 0 − h, and the point
Q has x-coordinate x 0 + h. Show that the gradient of
the chord between P and Q is 2x 0 + b.
2 Solve, by using an appropriate integrating factor, the Differential equations are used to
dy model the prices of stocks, shares
differential equation  ___  − y = 4 sin x, given that and commodities. Many non-linear
dx
y = 0 when x = 0. ← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 7 differential equations cannot be
solved exactly using algebra, but
3 Use the trapezium rule with 4 strips to find the
numerical approximations can
∫
3
approximate value of   e  x  2 dx. be found to a suitable degree of
1
← Pure Year 2, Chapter 11 accuracy. → Exercise 8A, Q4
161

Chapter 8
8.1 Solving first-order differential equations
Some first-order differential equations Notation Solving analytically means to use an algebraic
of the form dy
method. Some differential equations of the form ___
    = f(x, y)
___dy dx
    = f(x, y) can be solved analytically by separating the variables or using
dx
an integrating factor.
can be solved analytically. ← Pure Year 2, Chapter 11; Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 7;
However, in some cases this might be difficult or impossible. You can use numerical methods to find
approximate solutions to differential equations in this situation.
dy
Consider the first-order differential equation ___
    = 2x. This is an equation which describes the
dx
relationship between a given x-value and the gradient of the curve at that point. For example, at the
point where x = 3, the gradient of the curve is 6.
You can use the differential equation to sketch the gradient at any given point in the xy-plane.
y
4
Notation Diagrams like this are sometimes called tangent
2 fields or compass point diagrams.
–4 –2 O 2 4 x Online Explore tangent

fields using GeoGebra.
–2
Each short line is part of a tangent to one member of the

–4
family of solution curves.
Links When you solve a differential equation analytically, you find the general solution
first and then use given initial (or boundary) conditions to find the particular solution.
For the example given above, you can find the general solution using simple integration:
y = ∫2x dx = x
  2 + c
If you are given an initial condition, such as y = 2 when x = 1, the value of c can be found and you can
write down the particular solution to the differential equation.
y y
4 4 This particular
solution
The general corresponds
2 2
solution to the solution
corresponds to curve through
–4 –2 O 2 4 x the (infinite) set –4 –2 O 2 4 x the point (1, 2).
of curves that fit In this case,
–2 the tangent field. –2 the particular
solution is
–4 –4 y = x  2 + 1.
162

Numerical methods
If the given differential equation is not solvable using an analytical technique, some of these ideas
can be adapted to find approximate solutions using numerical methods.
dy
Consider the differential equation ___
    = x  2 + y  3with the initial condition that y = 1 when x = 1.
dx
This equation cannot be solved analytically.
You can, however, work out the gradient of the curve at the given point by substituting into the
dy
expression for  ___ :
dx y
dy
 ___  = 1  2 + 1  3 = 2
dx
Using this information, it is possible to plot
one line of the tangent field at the point P0(1, 1) The gradient of the
for this differential equation. solution curve when
P0(1, 1) x = 1 and y = 1 is 2.
O x
A second point on the solution curve can be

approximated by considering a small move along
P1(1.1, 1.2) The gradient of the
the tangent line.
2h tangent is 2. So, if
Consider a small step of length h in the x-direction P0(1, 1) the x-step is h, the
h
from the initial point. y-step is 2h.
For example, if h = 0.1, the coordinates of the point O x
P1 at the end of the tangent line will be (1.1, 1.2).
This represents the coordinates of the next point
on the approximate solution curve.
This process can be repeated with the new initial y
coordinate of (1.1, 1.2):
___dy P2(1.2, 1.4938)
    = 1.1  2 + 1.2  3 = 2.938
dx
0.2938
For a step of 0.1, the coordinates of the next point P1(1.1, 1.2)
on the approximate solution curve will be: 0.1
0.2
P0(1, 1)
x = 1.1 + 0.1 = 1.2 0.1
y = 1.2 + 0.1 × 2.938 = 1.4938
O x
Links This method of approximation is iterative,

because the first approximation is used as the
starting point for the second approximation.
163

Chapter 8
In general, if the coordinates of the initial given point Notation

(___    ) is used to denote
dy
are (x 0, y  0)and the next point is (x 1, y 1), where
dx 0
x1 = x0 + h, you can write (    )  ≈ ______
dy y  − y  y 1 − y 0 dy
___  x 1 − x0    = ______
    the value of the gradient function ___    
dx 0 1 0 h dx
when x = x0.
■ Euler’s method for finding approximate solutions
to first-order differential equations uses the approximation
(    )  ≈ ______
dy y  1 − y  0
___    
dx 0 h
It is often more useful to write this as an iterative formula:
y  r+1 ≈ y r + h (___    )  , r = 0, 1, 2, ...

dy
dx r
Example 1
dy x  2 + y
y = f(x) satisfies the differential equation ___
    = _____
   and the initial condition, f(3) = −1.
dx y  2 − x
Use two iterations of Euler’s method to estimate the value of f(4), giving your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
You need to use two iterations to get from x0 = 3
h = 0.5
to x2 = 4, so your step length will be 0.5.
(x 0 , y 0) = (3, −1)
   )  = _________
(___
dy   2 − 1
3 Substitute the values of x 0 and y 0 into the
    = −4
dx 0 (−1)  2 − 3
differential equation to find the value of
y  1 ≈y  0 + h(___    ) 
dy
(___
   )  .
dy
dx 0 dx 0
= −1 + 0.5 × (−4)
= −3 Your values of x1 and y1 determine the starting
(x 1, y 1) = (3.5, −3) point for the next iteration. Use the differential
(___
   )  = ___________
dy 3.5  2 − 3 equation to find the gradient at (x1, y1).
      = 1.6818…
dx 1 (−3)  2 − 3.5
y 2 ≈ y 1 + h(___

   ) 
dy
dx 1
= −3 + 0.5 × 1.6818…
= −2.15909…
So f(4) ≈ −2.16 (2 d.p.) Do not round any values until your final answer.
Exercise 8A
1 Use Euler’s method to estimate the value at x = 2 of the particular solution to the differential
equation
___dy
    = x  2 + y  2 Hint You will need to carry
dx
out 4 iterations.
which passes through the point (1, 2). Use a step length of 0.25.
164

Numerical methods
2 y = f(x) satisfies the differential equation

dy
___
_______
    = √ ex + 2ey 
dx
Given that f(2.5) = 0, use five iterations of Euler’s method to estimate the value of f(3).
E/P 3 The differential equation

dy
 ___  = ln (x + y  2)
dx
has a particular solution that passes through the point (e, 2).
Use of the approximation formula, (    )  ≈ _____

dy y 1 − y 0
___    , gives y 1 = 2.4.
dx 0 h
a Determine the value that was used for the step length, h. (2 marks)
b Using this step length, calculate, correct to three decimal places, the values of y 2 and y 3.
(5 marks)
E/P 4 The value, v thousand pounds, of a particular asset in a stock portfolio t days after it is
purchased is modelled by the differential equation
dv
__ v−t
    =  _____3 
dt vt − t 
Given that the asset is worth £10 000 two days after it is purchased, use two iterations of the
approximation formula (___

   )  ≈ _____
dy y 1 − y 0
    to estimate, correct to the nearest hundred pounds,
dx 0 h
the value of the asset five days after it is purchased. (6 marks)
E/P 5 A pendulum consists of a light, inextensible string of length 1 m with a metal ball attached to
one end. The other end is fixed to a point about which the pendulum is free to swing.
The pendulum swings in a vertical plane and the equation of motion is modelled using the
differential equation
dθ _____________
 __  = √   
9.8(2 cos θ − 1) 
dt
where θ is the angle the string makes with the downward vertical.
Given that θ = 0 when t = 0, use two iterations of the approximation formula (    )  ≈
dy y 1 − y 0
___ _____
   
dx 0 h
to find the value of θ when t = 0.3. (6 marks)
165

Chapter 8
You can visualise Euler’s method by constructing a right-angled triangle with one vertex at (x0, y0) and
with its hypotenuse as a tangent to the curve at (x0, y0).
y
If the curve representing the particular solution is quite

(x1, y1)
convex (or concave) near (x0, y0), the approximation is
quite a long way from the true value.
(x0 , y0)
O x
The accuracy of Euler’s method can be improved by reducing the y P1

step length. However, another way of addressing this issue is
to use a different method. Consider the diagram to the right:
The gradient of the chord joining points P −1 and P1  is
approximately the same as the gradient of the tangent P0
y1
to the curve at P 0. Hence you can write
P–1
(    )  ≈ ________
dy y 1 − y −1 y 1 − y −1 y0
___   x  − x    = _______
    , where h is the step length x 1 − x0.
dx 0 1 −1 2h y–1
Generalising further, you can write: O x–1 x0 x1 x
■ The midpoint method for finding approximate solutions to first-order differential equations
uses the formula
(
  ___ )  ≈ _______
dy y1 − y−1
   
dx 0 2h
y  r+1 ≈ y  r−1 + 2h(   ___ )  , r = 0, 1, 2, ...

dy
dx r
Example 2
Use the midpoint formula with a step length of 0.25 to estimate the value at x = 0.5 of the
particular solution to the differential equation
dy
___ xy + y
    = ______
  2  
dx y  + x2
which passes through the point (0, 2). Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
166

Numerical methods
y 2 ≈ y 0 + 2h(__

   ) 
dy Your initial condition will be (x0, y0), so rewrite the
dx 1 midpoint formula using y2 and y0.
 0 = 0, y 0 = 2, h = 0.25
x
x 1 = 0.25 Watch out Write down the information you
know. You can’t calculate (___
   )  without a value
x 2 = 0.5 dy
(___
   )  = _______
dy 0 × 2 + 2 __1 dx 1
  2   =   2 
dx 0 2  + 0  2 for y1, so the first step in your method is to use
y 1 ≈ y 0 + (___

   )  h
dy Euler’s method to find y1.
dx 0
= 2 + __
  21   × 0.25
= 2.125
Calculate (    )  using your value of y1.

(   dx )  1 =     
dy 0.25 × 2.125 + 2.125 dy
___ _______________
     = 0.58020… ___
2.125  2 + 0.25  2 dx 1
y 2 ≈ y 0 + 2h (___

   ) 
dy
dx 1
= 2 + 2 × 0.25 × 0.58020…
= 2.2901 (4 d.p.) Use the midpoint formula to calculate y  2.
Exercise 8B
dy
1 A particular solution to the differential equation ___
    = x3 − y  2passes through the point (2, 2).
dx
a Taking (x0, y0) = (2, 2) and x1 = 2.25, apply Euler’s method once to obtain a value for y1.
b Apply the midpoint method once to obtain an approximate value for the solution to the
differential equation at x = 2.5.
2 Use the midpoint formula to estimate the value at x = 1.5 of the particular solution to the
___dy
    = ln x + 3y
dx
which passes through the point (1, 1). Use a step length of 0.1.
E 3 A particular solution to the differential equation

___dy
    = sin xy
dx
passes through the point (1, 2).
a Verify that the approximation formula (    )  ≈ _____

dy y  1 − y 0
___    with a step length of 0.2 gives
dx 0 h
y 1 = 2.1819correct to five significant figures. (3 marks)
b Use the midpoint formula with a step length of 0.2 to obtain an estimate of the value of y
when x = 2. Give your answer to four significant figures. (3 marks)
167

Chapter 8
E/P 4 The population of a given species of rabbit, P, at time t months is modelled by the differential
equation
___ dP
    = 3P − 0.002P  2 − 100 cos (0.6t)
dt
Given that the initial starting population of this species of rabbit is 700, use the approximation
formula
(    )  ≈ ______
dy y  1 − y −1
___    
dx 0 2h
with a step length of 0.5 to estimate, correct to the nearest 10 rabbits, the population
after two months. (6 marks)
E/P 5 The velocity, v, of a bungee jumper, at the point where the bungee cord becomes taut, is
modelled using the differential equation
___dv 1.5x − 24.8
    = __________
  v  − 0.003v
dx
where x is the displacement from the top of the crane from which the jump was made.
Given that v = 12 when x = 10, use the approximation formula (___

   ) ≈ _______
dy y1 − y−1
    with a
dx 0 2h
step length of 0.5 to find the value of v when x = 11.5. (6 marks)
A 6 A particular solution to the differential equation

dy
E  ___  = x2 − x + 1 − 2y (1)
dx
passes through the point (1, 1).
dy y 1 − y 0
___    with a step length of 0.1 gives
dx 0 h
y 1 = 0.9. (3 marks)
b Use the formula (    )  ≈ ______
dy
y   1 −
y   −1
___     with a step length of 0.1 to obtain an estimate of the
dx 0 2h
value of y when x = 1.2. (3 marks)
c Using a suitable integrating factor, find the particular solution to differential equation (1)
at the point where x = 1. (4 marks)
d Find the exact y-value on the solution curve in part c when x = 1.2 and hence find the
percentage error in using the approximation in part b. (3 marks)
Challenge
A particular solution to the differential equation
___dy 2
    = ____
    + y
dx x − 1
passes through the origin.
Use Euler’s method once followed by the midpoint formula to obtain an estimate for the y-value of the
particular solution when x = 1. Use a step length of 0.5.
Explain, with reference to the differential equation and the general solution curve, why this estimate is invalid.
168

Numerical methods
8.2 Solving second-order differential equations

You can extend Euler’s method to find
Links In order to find a particular solution
approximate solutions to second-order
to a second-order differential equation, you
  2  = f(x, y, ___
   ).
d  2y dy
differential equations of the form ____ need two initial conditions. These are often
dx  dx dy
given as a value for y and a value for  ___  at
Consider successive iterations of Euler’s method: dx
some given value for x.
P1 ← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 7
P0
P–1
In this example you are interested in the behaviour of the solution near
y1
y–1 y0 the point P0. For convenience, this has been set as the ‘middle’ point, and
the points on either side have been labelled as P−1 and P1.
h h
x–1 x0 x1
  ≈ (    )  , and the gradient of the line

y 0 − y −1 dy
The gradient of the line segment P−1P0 is given by  ______ ___
h dx −1
segment P0P1 is given by     ≈ (    )  .
y 1 − y 0
_____ dy
___
h dx 0
The second derivative is a measure of the rate of change of the derivative. As such, you can estimate
(___
  2 )  , the value of ___
  2y
d   2y
d dy
  2  at (x0 , y0 ), by considering the change in ___
    across an interval of width h.
dx  0 dx  dx
(    )  − (    ) 
dy dy
___ ___ Problem-solving
(___
  2 )  ≈ _____________
  2y
d dx dx
(___
  2 )  ≈ _______________________________
0 −1
      d  2y (Gradient of P0  P1  ) − (Gradient of P−1
  P0  )
dx  0 h     
     
dx  0 h
y1 − y0 _______
______ y0 − y−1
   −    
h
_______________ h
=   
   
h
y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1

= ____________
  
   
h  2
■ Euler’s method can be extended to find approximate solutions to second-order differential

equations using the formula
(   2 )  ≈ ____________
d  2y 1 y   − 2y  + y  
0 −1
___      
dx  0 h  2
y  r+1 ≈ 2y  r − y   r−1 + h  2 (___

  2 )  , r = 0, 1, 2, …
  2y
d
dx  r
d  2y
If a second-order differential equation is of the form ___
  2  = f(x, y),you can use a single application of
dx 
Euler’s method to find y1 before applying the above iterative formula.
169

Chapter 8
Example 3
d  x
___
2 dx
    − sin (x + t) = 0. When t = 0, x = −1 and ___     = 3.
dt  2 dt
Use the approximations (___    )  ≈ ______   and (___

  2 )  ≈   
dx x 1 − x0 d  2x  1 − 2x 0 + x−1
x
____________
     to obtain estimates for x at
dt 0 h dt  0 h  2
t = 0.1 and t = 0.2, giving your answers correct to 4 decimal places.
x 0 = −1, ( ___

   )  = 3, h = 0.1
dx
dt 0
x1 ≈ x0 + h( ___    ) 
dx You need two values of x to substitute into the
dt 0
 d  x2 . You are given x0 and you
2
approximation for ___
= −1 + 0.1 × 3 dt 
= −0.7 can use Euler’s formula to find x1.
(   dt  2 )  1 = sin (x1 + t1)

d  2x
___
Rearrange the original equation to evaluate
(___
  2 )  , using the value of x1 you have just found.
d  2x
= sin (−0.7 + 0.1)
dt  1
= −0.5646…
x 2 ≈ 2x1 − x0 + h   2(___

  2 ) 
d  2x Watch out Be careful with the index numbers
dt  1
  2x
d
when using the approximation formula for ___   2 .
= 2(−0.7) − (−1) + 0.12(−0.5646…) dt 
  2x
d
= −0.4056 (4 d.p.) The index number of ___
  2  should be one less
dt 
than the index number of the value you are
approximating.
dy
If a second-order differential equation includes a term in ___
   , you will also need to make use of the
dx
approximation (    )  ≈ ______
dy y 1 − y −1
___    
dx 0 2h
Example 4
  2y
d dy dy
The curve y = f(x) satisfies the differential equation ___   2  = x2 + y  2 + ___    . When x = 1, y = 4 and ___
    = 3.
dx  dx dx
Use the approximations (    )  ≈ ______   and (___

  2 )  ≈ __________
dy
y   1 −
y   −1 d
  2y
y   1 − 2y   0 +
y   −1
___     
    with h = 0.2 to estimate the
dx 0 2h dx  0 h  2
value of y when x = 1.2.
y 0 = 4, ( ___

   )  = 3, h = 0.2
dy Write down the initial conditions and step length.
dx 0
Evaluate (   2 )  using the original equation and

d  2y
(
  2 )  =
  2y
d
___ ___
1  2 + 4  2 + 3 = 20 dx  0
dx  0
the initial conditions.
(___
   )  ≈ ______
dy y  1 − y −1
   
dx 0 2h Problem-solving
y  1 − y −1 dy d  2y
_______ Use the approximations for ___
    and  ___2  to form
3 =     ⇒ y1 − y−1 = 1.2 (1) dx dx 
0.4
two simultaneous equations in y1 and y−1.
170

Numerical methods
(___
  2 )  ≈ __________
  2y
d y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1
     
dx  0 h  2
y 1 − 8 + y −1
20 = ________
      ⇒ y1 + y−1 = 8.8 (2)
0.04

Adding (1) and (2),
2y1 = 10 ⇒ y1 = 5
Exercise 8C
1 Use the approximations (    )  ≈ _____   and (___

  2 )  ≈ __________
dy y 1 − y 0 d  2y y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1
___     
   to obtain estimates for
dx 0 h dx  0 h  2
y1, y2 and y3 for the following differential equations. In each case the initial conditions and step
length are given.
d  2y
___ dy
  2  = x + y − 1, given that when x = 2, y = 4 and ___
a     = 1, h = 0.1
dx  dx
  2y
d
___ dy
  2  = x2 + y  2, given that when x = 1, y = 1 and ___
b     = 2, h = 0.2
dx  dx
  2y
d
___ dy
  2  − 2xy + y  2 = 1, given that when x = 2, y = 1 and ___
c     = 1, h = 0.1
dx  dx
  2y
d
___ dy
  2  − sin (xy) + 2 = 0, given that when x = 3, y = 2 and ___
d     = 2, h = 0.05
dx  dx
2 Use the approximations (    )  ≈ ______   and (___

  2 )  ≈ __________
dy y  1 − y −1   2y
d y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1
___     
   to estimate the value
dx 0 2h dx  0 h  2
of y1 for the following differential equations. In each case the initial conditions and step length
are given.
d  2y
___ dy dy
  2  = x + y − ___
a    , given that when x = 1, y = 2 and ___
    = 0.5, h = 0.1
dx  dx dx
d  2y
___ dy dy
  2  = 3x  2 − ___
b     sin y, given that when x = 2, y = 3 and ___
    = 2, h = 0.05
dx  dx dx
d  2y
___ dy dy
  2  − 3x  ___  + y = 0, given that when x = 3, y = 1 and ___
c     = 1, h = 0.1
dx  dx dx
d  2y
___ dy dy
  2  + 2xy  ___  = sin x, given that when x = 0, y = 1.5 and ___
d     = 0.8, h = 0.2
dx  dx dx
171

Chapter 8
d  2y
E 3 A curve C satisfies the differential equation ___
  2  = x3 − y  2and passes through the point (1, 1).
dx 
Given that the gradient of the curve at the point (1, 1) is −1,
a use an approximation of the form (___

   )  ≈ _____
dy y  1 − y 0
    with h = 0.1 to find an estimate for the
dx 0 h
coordinates of the point on the curve where x = 1.1 (2 marks)
b use an approximation of the form (   2 )  ≈ __________

d  2y y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1
___   
    with h = 0.1 to find further
dx  0 h  2
estimates, correct to 4 decimal places, for the coordinates of the points on the curve
where x = 1.2 and x = 1.3. (3 marks)
d  2y
___
E 4
  2  − 3 sin x + y   2 = 1
dx 
    = 0.6, use the approximations (    )  ≈ _____
dy dy y  1 − y 0
Given that at x = 2, y = 1 and ___ ___     and
dx dx 0 h
(___
  2 )  ≈ __________
d  2y y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1
  
   with a step length of 0.2 to obtain estimates for y at x = 2.2, x = 2.4
dx  0 h  2
and x = 2.6. (5 marks)
E 5 The variable y satisfies the differential equation

d  y
___
2   2 − y ___
x dy
   2 = _____
       
dx  3x dx
dy
When x = 2, y = 0 and ___     = 3.
dx
d   2y
___
a Find the value of   2  at x = 2 (1 mark)
dx 
b Use the approximations (   2 )  ≈ ______________   and (___

   )  ≈ _______
  2y
d ( y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1) dy y 1 − y−1
___          , with h = 0.1,
dx  0 h 
2 dx 0 2h
to find an estimate of y at x = 2.1. (6 marks)
E 6 The variable y satisfies the differential equation

d  2y dy
 ___2  + ___     − sin (xy) = 0
dx  dx
dy
Given that y = −3 and ___     = −0.5 when x = 1, use the approximations
dx
(   2 )  ≈ ____________   and (    )  ≈ _______

d  y
2 y1 − 2y0 + y−1 dy y 1 − y−1
___   
  ___     , with h = 0.05, to find an estimate of y
dx  0 h 2 dx 0 2h
at x = 1.05. (7 marks)
172

Numerical methods
8.3 Simpson’s rule

A
Simpson’s rule is a numerical method for finding an approximate value of a definite integral of the
∫
b
form I =   f(x) dx.
a
If you consider the definite integral to be the Links Simpson’s rule approximates each section
area beneath the curve y = f(x)between limits a of a curve as a curve, rather than a straight line.
and b, then Simpson’s rule works by splitting the Because of this, it usually gives a more accurate
area up into an even number of strips of equal estimate than the trapezium rule.
width and then approximating each section of ← Pure Year 2, Chapter 11
the curve by a quadratic function. The area of
each strip can then be found.
∫
2
In the diagram below, four strips of width 0.5 are being used to estimate   (e−x2 + cos x + 1) dx.
0
The strips are paired off and a quadratic curve is used to approximate the curve for each pair.
y Watch out Because the strips are paired off,
4 Simpson’s rule only works with an even number
of strips.
3
The section of the curve between x = 0 and x = 1 is approximated
2 by a quadratic which passes through (0, y0), (0.5, y1) and (1, y2).
There is only one quadratic curve which passes through three
1 given distinct points, so the curve is unique.
A second quadratic is used to approximate the curve between x = 1

O 0.5 1 1.5 2 x
and x = 2. This curve passes through (1, y2), (1.5, y3) and (2, y4).
You find the corresponding y-coordinates by substituting these x-coordinates into the given function.
You can then use a formula to find the approximation.
■ Simpson’s rule for 2n strips of width h is given by
∫
b
  f ( x) dx ≈ _  31 h( y 0 + 4( y 1 + y
 3 + … + y
 2n−1 ) + 2( y 2 + y
 4+ … + y  2n)
 2n−2 ) + y
a
Note You can derive this formula by using the fact that the area
under a quadratic curve which passes through the points (x0, y0),
(x0 + h, y1) and (x0 + 2h, y2) is given by _ 13  h( y 0 + 4y 1 + y 2 ).
→ Mixed exercise, Challenge
Informally, Simpson’s rule is

Watch out You need to
∫
b
  f(x) dx ≈ _  13 h((endpoints) + 4(odd values) + 2(even values)) learn Simpson’s rule. It’s not
a
given in the formulae booklet.
173

Chapter 8
Example 5
A
Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to estimate Online Explore the use of Simpson's
∫   (e
2
rule to estimate the integral using GeoGebra.
−x2 + cos x + 1) dx
0
h = 2 ÷ 4 = 0.5 Make a table of values to show the

xi 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 x-coordinates for the endpoints of
yi 3 2.65638… 1.90818… 1.17613… 0.60216… each strip, and the corresponding
y-coordinates.
∫
2
  (e  −x  2 + cos x + 1) dx
0
≈ __
  31   × 0.5(3 + 4(2.65638… + 1.17613…)
+ 2(1.90818…) + 0.60216…) Substitute the y-values into the
formula for Simpson’s rule and
= 3.791 (4 s.f.)
round your final answer to a
sensible level of accuracy.
Exercise 8D
E 1 Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to estimate
∫    ____
4
ln x
x dx (5 marks)
2
E 2 Use Simpson’s rule with 6 intervals to estimate
∫
3 ______
  √1 + x5  dx (5 marks)
0
E 3 The diagram shows the graph of y = f(x) where

___________ y
f(x) = cos
√    x + tan x .
The shaded area is bounded by the curve, the x-axis
and the lines x = 0 and x = 1.
a Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to estimate the
shaded area. (5 marks)
b Suggest how you could improve your approximation O 1 x
using Simpson’s rule. (1 mark)
E 4 The area shown in the diagram is bounded by the curve y

y = 1 − ln (1 + cos  2 x), the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 2.
a Explain why you cannot use Simpson’s rule with
7 intervals. (1 mark)
b Use Simpson’s rule with 8 intervals to find an estimate
for the shaded area. (6 marks) O 1 2 x
174

Numerical methods
1
_________
A 5 f(x) =    
sin x + tan x
E/P
a Use Simpson’s rule with h = 0.25 to find an approximation for
∫
1.5
  f(x) dx (5 marks)
0.5
b Use the Weierstrass substitution to find the value of the integral
∫
1.5
  f(x) dx
0.5
correct to 5 decimal places. (6 marks)

c Hence find, correct to 2 decimal places, the percentage error in using the method in
part a. (2 marks)
E/P 6 f (x) = x sinh x

a Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to find an approximation for
∫
3
1
b Use integration by parts to show that
∫   f(x) dx = e  + 2e 

3
3 −3 − e  −1 (6 marks)
1
c Hence find, correct to 2 significant figures, the percentage error in using Simpson’s rule
∫
3
to approximate   f(x) dx. (2 marks)
1
E/P 7 The diagram shows a curve defined parametrically as y

x = t + t  2, y = t − t  2
The region enclosed by the curve and the x-axis is rotated
360° about the x-axis.
a Show that the volume of the solid generated is given by
O 2 x
∫
1
π   (t2 − 3t4 + 2t5) dt (6 marks)
0
b Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to estimate the volume of the solid. (4 marks)
c By calculating the exact volume of revolution, show that the percentage error in using
Simpson’s rule is less than 1.6%. (4 marks)
d Explain how your approximation in part b could be improved. (1 mark)
Mixed exercise 8
E 1 y = f(x) satisfies the differential equation

___dy
    = ye  2x − x ln y
dx
Given that f(2) = 1, use two iterations of the approximation formula (___
   )  ≈ _____
dy y  1 − y 0
    to
dx 0 h
estimate the value of f(3), correct to three decimal places. (5 marks)
175

Chapter 8
E/P 2 The variable y satisfies the differential equation

___dy
    = (x + y  2)  2 − (x  2 − y)  2
dx
Given that a particular solution passes through the point (0, 2), use of the approximation
formula (    )  ≈ _____

dy y 1 − y 0
___     gives y 1 = 2.6.
dx 0 h
a Determine the value that was used for the step length. (2 marks)
b Using this step length, calculate, correct to three decimal places, the values of y  2 and y 3.
(5 marks)
E/P 3 The value, x thousand pounds, of a particular tradeable commodity t days after it is purchased is
modelled by the differential equation
___dx x  2 − t
    =  ______2 
dt xt − t 
If the commodity is worth £5000 two days after it is purchased, use two iterations of the
approximation formula (    )  ≈ _____

dy y 1 − y 0
___     to estimate, correct to the nearest hundred pounds,
dx 0 h
the value of the commodity three days after it is purchased. (6 marks)
E/P 4 The velocity, v ms−1, of a particle moving in a straight line, is modelled using the differential
equation
dv 2x − 25.6
 ___  = _______
    − 0.001v
dx 3v
where x cm is the displacement of the particle from its starting position.
Given that v = 8 when x = 5, use the approximation formula (___

   )  ≈ _______
dy y 1 − y −1
   with a step length
dx 0 2h
of 0.25 to estimate the velocity of the particle when it is 5.75 cm from its starting position.
(6 marks)
A 5 A particular solution to the differential equation

E/P dv
__
    = 10t − 2v (1)
dt
has v = 2 when t = 0.
dy y  1 − y 0
___    with a step length of 0.1 gives v 1 = 1.6.
dx 0 h
(3 marks)
b Use the formula (___

   )  ≈ ______
dy y  1 − y −1
    with a step length of 0.1 to obtain an estimate of the value
dx 0 2h
of v when t = 0.2. (3 marks)
c By using a suitable integrating factor, find the particular solution to differential equation (1) at
the point where t = 0. (4 marks)
d Find the exact v-value for the particular solution found in part c when t = 0.2 and hence find
the percentage error in using the approximation in part b. (3 marks)
176

Numerical methods
d  2y
E/P 6  ___2  − 2 cos x + y   3 = 3
dx 
    = 0.5, use the approximations (

 ___ )  ≈ _____
dy dy y 1 − y 0
Given that at x = 1, y = 2 and ___     and
dx dx 0 h
(___
  2 )  ≈ __________
d  2y y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1
  
   with a step length of 0.2 to obtain estimates for y at x = 1.2, x = 1.4
dx  0 h  2
and x = 1.6. (5 marks)
E/P 7 The variable y satisfies the differential equation

d  y
___
2 x  3 − y  2 ___
dy
   2 = ______
       
dx  3xy dx
dy
Given that when x = 1, y = 3 and ___     = 2,
dx
d  2y
___
a find the value of   2  at x = 1 (1 mark)
dx 
b use the approximations (   2 )  ≈ ______________ ( dx )

d  2y ( y 1 − 2y 0 + y −1) dy y  1 − y−1
___   
    and ___
      ≈ _______
    , with h = 0.1,
dx  0 h  2 0 2h
to find an estimate of y at x = 1.1. (6 marks)
A 8 The diagram shows the graph of y = f(x) where f(x) = sin (x  2) + x2. y
E/P The shaded area is bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the lines
x = −2 and x = −1.
a Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to estimate the shaded
area. (5 marks)
–2 –1 O x
b Suggest how you could improve your approximation using
Simpson’s rule. (1 mark)
1
E/P 9 f(x) = _______
   
1 + sin x
a Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to find an approximation, to 3 significant figures, for
∫
1
0
b Use the Weierstrass substitution to find the value of the integral
∫   f(x) dx
1
correct to 5 decimal places. (6 marks)

c Hence find, correct to 2 significant figures, the percentage error in using the method in
part a. (2 marks)
177

Chapter 8
Challenge
A The diagram shows three points, P0 , y
P1 and P2. The horizontal distance P1(x1, y1)
between each point is h. The points are
P0(x0, y0)
joined with a parabola.
P2(x2, y2)
a Show that the area bounded by the
h h
parabola , the x-axis and the lines
x = x0 and x = x2 is _  13  h( y  0 + 4y  1 + y 2). O x0 x1 x2 x
b By considering further subdivisions of the interval [x0, x2], derive the

formula for Simpson’s rule.

1 Euler’s method for finding approximate solutions to first-order differential equations uses the
approximation
(    )  ≈ ______
dy y  1 − y 0
___    

dx 0 h
y  r+1 ≈ y  r + h(___

   )  , r = 0, 1, 2, …
dy
dx r
2 The midpoint method for finding approximate solutions to first-order differential equations
uses the formula
(___
   )  ≈ _______
dy y 1 − y −1
   
dx 0 2h
y  r+1 ≈ y  r−1 + 2h (___

   )  , r = 0, 1, 2, …
dy
dx r
3 Euler’s method can be extended to find approximate solutions to second-order differential

equations using the formula
(___
  2 )  ≈ ____________
d  2y y  1 − 2y 0 + y −1
     
dx  0 h  2
y  r+1 ≈ 2y  r − y  r−1 + h  2(___

  2 )  , r = 0, 1, 2, …
d  2y
dx  r
A 4 Simpson’s rule for 2n strips of width h is given by
∫
b
  f(x) dx ≈ _  13  h( y 0 + 4( y 1 + y 3 + … + y 2n−1) + 2( y 2 + y 4 + … + y 2n−2) + y  2n)
a
178

Reducible differential
equations
Objectives
9
• Use a given substitution to transform a first-order differential
equation into one that can be solved → pages 180–183
• Use a given substitution to transform a second-order differential

equation into one that can be solved → pages 183–185
Solve modelling problems involving reducible differential
equations → pages 185–187
1 Find the general solutions of these

differential equations:
dy
a x  ___  = 2(y − 1)
dx
dy y
b  ___  + __    = 2x
dx x
  2y
d dy
c  ____2  − 4  ___  + 3y = 0
dx  dx
d  2y dy
2 Given that  ____2  − 4  ___  + 4y = 2e  −x,
dx  dx
a verify that _  29 e−x is a particular integral
Many real-life situations can be modelled
of this differential equation using differential equations: for example, the
b find the general solution of this displacement of a point on a vibrating spring
differential equation. from a fixed point, or the distance fallen by a
← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 7 parachutist. → Mixed exercise, Q13
179

Chapter 9
9.1 First-order differential equations

A You can use a substitution to reduce a first-order differential equation into a form that you know how
to solve, either by separating the variables, or by using an integrating factor.
Example 1
a Show that the substitution y = xz transforms the differential equation

___ dy x  2 + 3y  2
    = ________
   
dx 2xy
into
dz 1 + z  2
x ___
    = ______
   
dx 2z
b Hence find the general solution to the original equation, giving y2 in terms of x.
a y = xz (1) Watch out Using the substitution, differentiate

dy dz dy dz
  ___   = x  ___   + z (2) to get   ___   in terms of   ___  . Note that z is a function
dx dx dx dx
dy x2 + 3y2 of x and y, not a constant, so you must use the
Substituting into ___     = ________
    gives
dx 2xy product rule.
dz x2 + 3x2z2
x  ___  + z = __________
  
   
dx 2x2z
x2(1 + 3z2) Substitute into the differential equation using
dz
x  ___  + z = __________
       equations (1) and (2).
dx 2x2z
dz 1 + 3z2
x  ___  = _______     − z
dx 2z Rearrange and simplify your equation.
1 + z2
= ______     as required.
2z
b ∫  2z   dz = __
_____
1 + z2
∫   1   dx
x
Separate the variables, then integrate including a
constant of integration. ← Pure Year 2, Chapter 11
ln(1 + z2) = ln x + c
1 + z2 = Ax, where A is a positive Take exponentials and let A = ec.
constant
(1 + (   2 )) = Ax
y2
___
Use the original substitution to transform the
x
general solution in z back into a general solution
y2 = x2(Ax − 1)
in x and y.
  x  and z2 = ( __
  x )  .
y y 2
y = xz, so z = __
Example 2
dy
a Use the substitution z = y−1 to transform the differential equation ___
    + xy = xy2, into a
dx
differential equation in z and x.
b Solve the new equation, using an integrating factor.
c Find the general solution to the original equation, giving y in terms of x.
180

Reducible differential equations
A Rearrange the substitution to make y the subject.

a As z = y−1, y = z−1
dy 1 dz
 ___  = − __2   ___ 
dx z dx
dy dy dz
Substituting into ___     + xy = xy2 gives Differentiate to give ___
    in terms of ___
   
dx dx dx
1 dz
− __2   ___  + xz−1 = xz−2
z dx
dz
⇒  ___  − xz = −x Rearrange and simplify your equation.
dx
x2
__
−   
b The integrating factor is e∫−x dx = e 2
x2 dz
−  __ x2
−  __ x2
−  __ To solve a differential equation in the form
e 2  ___  − xe 2 z = −xe 2
     
dx ___dy
    + P(x)y = Q(x) , multiply every term in the
d −  __ x2 x2
−  __ dx
 ___  (e 2 z) = −x e 2
   
dx equation by the integrating factor e∫P(x)dx.
x
∫ x
2 2
−  __  −  __  ← Core Pure Book 2, Chapter 7
e 2 z = − xe 2 dx
x
2
−  __ x
−  __
2
   
e 2 z = e 2 +c
x2
Integrate to give result then divide each term by
  __ 
z=1+ ce 2 the integrating factor.
c As y = z−1,
1  
y = _______
  Use the original substitution to write y in terms
x2
  __  of x.
1+ ce 2
Example 3
dy y − x + 2
a Use the substitution u = y − x to transform the differential equation ___
  = ________
   
dx y − x + 3
into a differential equation in u and x.
b By first solving this new equation, show that the general solution to the original equation may
be written in the form (y − x)2 + 6y − 4x − 2c = 0, where c is an arbitrary constant.
a Let u = y − x
du dy du dy
Then  ___  = ___
    − 1 Differentiate to give ___
    in terms of  ___ 
dx dx dx dx
dy y−x+2
Substituting into ___     = _________
    gives
dx y−x+3
du u+2 dy
 ___  + 1 = ______     Make ___
    the subject and substitute.
dx u+3 dx
du u + 2
⇒  ___  = ______
    − 1
dx u + 3
du −1
 ___  = ______
    Rearrange and simplify your equation.
dx u + 3
b ∫(u + 3)du = −∫dx
Separate the variables and integrate.
 __
1 2
2 u + 3u = −x + c
__1
  2 (y − x)2 + 3(y − x) = −x + c Substitute back to give your result in terms of x
∴ (y − x)2 + 6y − 4x − 2c = 0 and y.
181

Chapter 9
Exercise 9A
A y
1 Use the substitution z =  __ x to transform each differential equation into a differential equation
in z and x. By first solving the transformed equation, find the general solution to the original
equation, giving y in terms of x.
dy y __ x dy y __ x2
a  ___ = __     +    , x . 0, y . 0 b  ___ = __     +   2 , x . 0
dx x y dx x y
dy y __ y 2 dy x3 + 4y3
c  ___ = __
    +   2 , x . 0 d  ___ = _______
   , x . 0
dx x x dx 3xy2
E 2 a Use the substitution z = y−2 to transform the differential equation
dy p p
  ___ + (  _12 tan x) y = −(2 sec x)y3, − __  , x ,   __ 
dx 2 2
dz
___
into the differential equation     − z tan x = 4 sec x. (5 marks)
dx
b By first solving the transformed equation, find the general solution to the original equation,
giving y in terms of x. (6 marks)
_1
E 3 a Use the substitution z = x   2to transform the differential equation
___dx _1
    + t 2x = t 2x  2
dt
dz 1
into the differential equation  ___  +  _2 t  2z = _  2 t  2.
1
(4 marks)
dt
giving x in terms of t. (6 marks)
E 4 a Use the substitution z = y−1 to transform the differential equation

___dy 1 (x + 1)3
  − __
  x y = _______
  x y2
dx
dz 1 (x + 1)3
into the differential equation ___     + __
    z = −  _______
  (4 marks)
dx x x
P 5 a Use the substitution z = y2 to transform the differential equation

dy 1
    + 2xy = __
2(1 + x2) ___    
dx y
into a differential equation in z and x.
By first solving the transformed equation,
b find the general solution to the original equation, giving y in terms of x
c find the particular solution for which y = 2 when x = 0.
E/P 6 Show that the substitution z = y−(n − 1) transforms the general equation
___dy
  + P(x)y = Q(x)yn,
dx
dz
into the linear equation  ___ − P(x)(n − 1)z = − Q(x)(n − 1). (5 marks)
dx
182

A 7 a Use the substitution u = y + 2x to transform the differential equation

dy −(1 + 2y + 4x)
E/P
 ___ = _____________
    
dx 1 + y + 2x
into a differential equation in u and x. (3 marks)
b By first solving this new equation, show that the general solution to the original equation may
be written as 4x2 + 4xy + y2 + 2y + 2x = k, where k is a constant. (6 marks)
Challenge
dy
x  2  ___  − xy = y  2
dx
By means of a suitable substitution, show that the general solution
to the differential equation is given by
x
y = −  _______ 
ln x + C
where C is a constant of integration.
9.2 Second-order differential equations

You can use a given substitution to reduce second-order differential equations into differential
  2y
d dy
equations of the form a ____
  2  + b ___
    + cy = f(x).
dx  dx
Example 4
Given that x = eu, show that:

dy dy d2y d2y ___ dy
a x  ___  = ___
    b x2  ____2  = ___
  2  −    
dx du dx du du
c Hence find the general solution to the differential equation
d2y dy
x2 ____
  2  + x  ___  + y = 0
dx dx
dx
a As x = eu ,  ___ = eu = x
du
From the chain rule,
___dy dy ___ dx dy dy dy dy
  = ___
  ×   = eu  ___ = x___   , as required Use the chain rule to express  ___ in terms of  ___
du dx du dx dx dx du
  (___
du du )
d2y d dy
b  ____2  = ___  
du
  ( eu   ___)
d dy
= ___ Differentiate this product using the product rule.
du dx
dy d2y dx
= eu  ___ + eu   ____2   ___
dx dx du dy
dy d2y
dx Use the chain rule to differentiate ___   with
= ___
  + x2   ____2 , as  ___ = eu = x dx
du dx du respect to u, by differentiating with respect to x,
d 2y d2y dy d2y dx
So x2  ____2  =  ____2  −  ___ as required. giving  ____2 , and then multiplying by ___
 
dx du du dx du
183

Chapter 9
A
c Substitute the results from parts a and b
into the differential equation
d  2y dy
d2y dy This is in the form a  ____2  + b  ___  + cy = 0 with
x2 ____     + x ___
  + y = 0 du  du
dx2 dx
d2y dy dy a = 1, b = 0 and c = 1. Find the general solution
to obtain ____   2  −  ___ +  ___ + y = 0 by considering the roots of the auxiliary equation.
du du du
d   2y ← Core Pure Book 2, Section 7.2
____
  2  + y = 0
du 
m2 + 1 = 0 The roots are complex, so the general solution will
m = i or m = −i be in the form y = e  pu(A cos qu + B sin qu), with
So the general solution in terms of u is p = 0 and q = 1. ← Core Pure Book 2, Section 7.2
y = A cos u + B sin u
where A and B are arbitrary constants.
x = eu ⇒ u = ln x and the general solution to
d2y dy
the differential equation x2 ____     + x ___
  + y = 0 Use u = ln x to give y in terms of x.
dx 2 dx
is y = A cos (ln x) + B sin (ln x)
Exercise 9B
1 Find the general solution to each differential equation using the substitution x = eu, where u is a
function of x.
d2y dy d2y dy d2y dy
a x2  ____2  + 6x ___     + 4y = 0 b x2 ____    2 + 5x ___    + 4y = 0 c x2 ____
   2 + 6x ___
    + 6y = 0
dx dx dx dx dx dx
d2y dy d2y dy d2y dy
d x2 ____
   2 + 4x ___
    − 28y = 0 e x2 ____    2 − 4x ___
    − 14y = 0 f x2 ____
   2 + 3x ___    + 2y = 0
dx dx dx dx dx dx
z
E 2 a Show that the transformation y = __   x  transforms the differential equation
dy 2 dy
x2 ____
  2  + (2 – 4x) ___     − 4y = 0 (1)
dx dx
d2z dz
 ____2  – 4 ___  = 0 (2) (6 marks)
dx dx
b Find the general solution to differential equation (2), giving z as a function of x. (4 marks)
c Hence obtain the general solution to differential equation (1) (1 mark)
z
E 3 a Show that the substitution y = __   2 transforms the differential equation
x
d2y dy
x2 ____
    + 2x(x + 2) ___
    + 2(x + 1)2 y = e–x (1)Hint Use a particular integral of the form
dx2 dx
into the differential equation λe–x . ← Core Pure Book 2, Section 7.3
d2z dz
 ____2  + 2 ___  + 2z = e–x (2) (6 marks)
dx dx
b Find the general solution to differential equation (2), giving z as a function of x. (7 marks)
c Hence obtain the general solution to differential equation (1) (1 mark)
184

A 4 a Use the substitution z = sin x to transform the differential equation

d2y dy
E cos x  ____2  + sin x ___
    − 2y cos3 x = 2 cos5 x 
dx dx
into the equation
___d2y
  2  − 2y = 2(1 − z2) (6 marks)
dz
d2y dy
b Hence solve the equation cos x ____   2  + sin x ___
    − 2y cos3 x = 2 cos5 x,
dx dx
E 5 a Show that the transformation x = uttransforms the differential equation

d  2x dx
t  2 ____
  2  − 2t  ___  = − 2(1 − 2t  2)x (1)
dt  dt
d  2u
 ____2  − 4u = 0 (2) (6 marks)
dt 
b By solving differential equation (2), find the general solution to differential equation (1) in the
form x = f(t). (8 marks)
dx
Given that x = 2 and ___     = 1at t = 1,
dt
c find the particular solution to differential equation (1). (5 marks)
Challenge
dy
Use the substitution u = ___
    to find the general solution to the differential equation
dx
d  2y ___
____ dy
x   2  +     = 12x
dx  dx
9.3 Modelling with differential equations

Differential equations can be used to model many real-life situations.
Example 5
A particle is moving along the x-axis and its displacement, x metres, is modelled using the
dx
t  ___  + x = 2t  3x  2, 0 , t , 1.5
dt
where t is the time in seconds.
a Use the substitution u = xt to show that the differential equation can be expressed as
___du
    = 2u  2t
dt
b Hence show that the general solution to the differential equation is
1
x =  ________  
t(A − t  2)
where A is an arbitrary constant.
c Given that x = 1 when t = 0.5, find the displacement after 1.2 seconds.
185

Chapter 9
A
du dx u du
a u = xt ⇒ ___     = t  ___  + x and x = __     Find expressions for ___
   and for x.
dt dt t dt
dx
t  ___  + x = 2t  3x  2
dt
The left-hand side of the differential equation is
 ___  = 2t  3(__
du
   ) 
u 2
dt t du
the same as the expression for ___
   
du
___ dt
    = 2u  t as required.
2
dt
∫
b    ___
1
  2 du = ∫    2t dt
u
Separate the variables.
1
__
− u     = t  + c
2
1
u = −  _____  
t2 + c
1
xt = −  _____  
t +c
2
1 Problem-solving
xt = ______    
A − t2 
1 In order to obtain the equation in the form given,
x = ________     as required. you need to change the constant from c to –A.
t(A − t2)
c x = 1 when t = 0.5 ⇒ A = 2.25
Hence when t = 1.2,
1
x = _______________
       = 1.0288...
1.2(2.25 − 1.2  2)
The displacement after 1.2 seconds is
1.03 m (3 s.f.).
Exercise 9C
E/P 1 A particle is moving along the x-axis and its displacement, x, at time t seconds, is modelled using
the differential equation
dx
tx  ___  − x  2 = 3t  4
dt
a Use the substitution x = ut to show that the differential equation can be expressed as
du
u  ___  = 3t (4 marks)
dt
b Given that x = 3 when t______ = 1, show that the particular solution to the differential equation
can be written as x = t√3t2 + 6  (5 marks)
c Explain the behaviour of the particle as t becomes very large. (2 marks)
E/P 2 The velocity of a particle, v, at time t seconds, is modelled using the differential equation
dv
3v  2t  ___  = v  3 + t  3
dt
a Use the substitution v = zt to show that the differential equation can be expressed as
dz
3z  2t  ___  = 1 − 2z  3 (3 marks)
dt
186

A b Given that v = 2 when t = 1, show that the particular solution to the differential equation can
be written as
_______
√
3 t + 15t
3
v = _______
     (8 marks)
2
c Hence find, correct to 3 decimal places, the velocity and acceleration of the particle when
t = 2. (4 marks)
E/P 3 The displacement of a particle, s, at time t seconds, is modelled using the differential equation
  2s
d ds
t  ___2  + (2 − t) ___  − (1 + 2t)s = e  2t (1)
dt  dt
a Show that the substitution v = st transforms the differential equation into
d  2v dv
 ___2  −  ___  − 2v = e  2t (2) (8 marks)
dt  dt
b Show that the general solution to differential equation (2) can be written as
v = Ae  2t + Be  −t + f(t)
where f(t) is a particular integral to be found. (8 marks)
c Find the general solution to differential equation (1) in the form s = g(t) and state one
condition on t for the model to be valid. (3 marks)
E/P 4 A spring, fixed at one end, has an external force acting on it such that the other end moves in a
straight line. At time t seconds, the displacement of the end of the spring from a fixed point
O is x millimetres.
The displacement from O is modelled by the differential equation
t  ____2  − 2 ___  + (_____ )x = t 
d  2x dx 2 + t  2
  t  4 (1)
dt  dt
a Show that the transformation x = ut transforms equation (1) into the equation
____ d  2u
  2  + u = t  2 (2) (5 marks)
dt 
b Hence find the general equation for the displacement of the end of the spring from O at time
t seconds. (8 marks)
c State what happens to the displacement as t becomes large and comment on the model with
reference to this behaviour. (2 marks)
Mixed exercise 9
E 1 a Show that the transformation z = y−1 transforms the differential equation

dy
x ___
    + y = y  2 ln x (1)
dx
dz z
___ ln x
    − __  x  = −   ____
x  (2) (4 marks)
dx
b By solving differential equation (1), find the general solution to differential equation (2).
(6 marks)
187

Chapter 9
A 2 a Show that the substitution z = y2 transforms the differential equation

E dy
2 cos x  ___  − y sin x + y  −1 = 0 (1)
dx
dz
cos x ___
    − z sin x = − 1 (2) (4 marks)
dx
b Solve differential equation (2) to find z as a function of x. (6 marks)
c Hence write down the general solution to differential equation (1) in the form y2 = f(x). (1 mark)
y
E 3 a Show that the substitution z = __
  x  transforms the differential equation
dy
(x  2 − y  2)___
    − xy = 0 (1)
dx
dz z  3
x  ___  = ______
    (2) (4 marks)
dx 1 − z  2
b Solve equation (2) and hence obtain the general solution to equation (1). (6 marks)
y
E 4 a Show that the transformation z = __
dy
___ y(x + y)
    = _______
    (1)
dx x(y − x)
dz 2z
x  ___  = _____
    (2) (4 marks)
dx z − 1
b Solve equation (2) and hence obtain the general solution to equation (1). (6 marks)
y
E 5 a Show that the substitution z = __
dy
___ − 3xy
    = ________
  2   (1)
dx y  − 3x  2
into the equation
dy z  3
x  ___  = −  ______   (2) (4 marks)
dx z  − 3
2
b By solving equation (2), find the general solution to equation (1). (6 marks)
E 6 a Use the substitution u = x + y to show that the differential equation

dy
___
    = (x + y + 1)(x + y − 1)
dx
can be written as
du
___
    = u  2 (3 marks)
dx
b Hence find the general solution to the original differential equation. (4 marks)
188

A 7 a Show that the transformation u = y − x − 2 can be used to transform the differential equation
E dy
 ___  = (y − x − 2)  2 (1)
dx
du
___
    = u  2 − 1 (2) (3 marks)
dx
b Solve equation (2) and hence find the general solution to equation (1). (4 marks)
E/P 8 A particle is moving with velocity v at time t such that

dv __
t  ___  + v = 2t  3v  3, 0 , t , √ 3  (1)
dt
a Use the substitution u = v−2 to show that the differential equation can be transformed into
du 2u
 ___  −  ___
t = − 4t 
2 (5 marks)
dt
b Given that v = _  2 when t = 1, show that the solution to differential equation (1) can be written as
1
________
√  2
1
v = ________
t (c − 4t)
  
where c is a constant to be found. (8 marks)
E/P 9 a Find the general solution to the differential equation

d2y dy
x2  ____2  + 4x  ___  + 2y = ln x, x . 0
dx dx
using the substitution x = eu. (10 marks)
b Find the equation of the solution curve passing through the point (1, 1)
with gradient 1. (3 marks)
d2y dy
E/P 10 Solve the equation  ____2  + tan x  ___  + y cos2 x = cos2 x esin x, using the substitution z = sin x.
dx dx
dy
Find the solution for which y = 1 and ___     = 3 at x = 0. (13 marks)
dx
E/P 11 The displacement of a particle, x, at time t seconds is modelled by the differential equation
d  2x dx
t   2  ____2  − 2t  ___  + 2x = 4 ln t (1)
dt  dt
a Show that the substitution t = eu  transforms equation (1) into
d  2x dx
 ____2  − 3  ___  + 2x = 4u (2) (6 marks)
du  du
b By first solving equation (2), obtain the general solution to differential equation (1)
giving your answer in the form x = f(t). (7 marks)
c Describe the behaviour of the particle as t gets very large. (1 mark)
189

Chapter 9
A 12 A particle is subject to an external variable force such that the particle moves in the direction
E/P of the x-axis. The displacement, in cm, of the particle from a fixed point O at time t seconds is
modelled by the differential equation
  2x
d dx
2t  2  ____2  − 4t  ___  + (4 − 2t  2)x = t  4 (1)
dt  dt
a Show that the transformation x = tv transforms equation (1) into the differential equation
d  2v
2  ___2  − 2v = t (2) (6 marks)
dt 
b Hence find the general equation of the displacement of the particle from O after
t seconds. (7 marks)
E/P 13 The velocity of a skydiver, v m s–1, at a time t seconds after jumping out of a stationary
helicopter is modelled using the differential equation
dv
1000  ___  – 500v + tv2 = 0, 0 < t < 10 (1)
dt
a By means of the substitution u = v–1, show that differential equation (1) can be transformed
du
 ___  + 0.5u = 0.001t (2) (5 marks)
dt
b Find the general solution to differential equation (2), and hence find the general solution to
differential equation (1) in the form v = f(t). (6 marks)
c Given that the initial velocity of the skydiver is 2 m s–1, find a particular solution to
differential equation (1). (3 marks)
1
d By considering  __
v , or otherwise, describe the behavior of v for large values of t, and comment
on the validity of the model in these situations. (2 marks)
Challenge
By means of a suitable substitution, show that the general solution
to the differential equation
  2  = (    ) 
d  2y
____ dy 2
___
dx  dx
is given by y = A – ln(x + B), where A and B are arbitrary constants.

1 You can use a substitution to reduce a first-order differential equation into a form that you
know how to solve, either by separating the variables, or by using an integrating factor.
2 You can use a given substitution to reduce second-order differential equations into differential
equations of the form
d 2y dy
a  ____2  + b  ___  + cy = f(x)
dx  dx
190

E
Review exercise
sin(__
1    ) = __
x
  13 , 0 , __
12 x π
    , __
    b Hence find all the solutions to equation
2
2 2 2
(1) in the interval 0 < x < 2π. (3)
Show, without use of a calculator, that
← Section 5.3
cot x = −  ___
119
120  (3)
← Section 5.1
__ __ A 7 The displacement, s m, of a particle at
√
_______ π
6  + √ 2  __ time x seconds is given by
E 2 s in θ =    ,     , θ , π E/P
4 2
s = 2 sin 4x + 4 sin 2x + 1, 0 < x < 2π
a Show, without__use of a calculator, that
tan θ = −2 − √ 3 . (3) a Show that the velocity of the particle,
b Using the t-formulae, find sin 2θ and v m s−1 at time x seconds is given by
16 (
cos 2θ. (3) v = _______
    1 − 3t  2) where t = tan x. (6)
( 1 + t  2)  2
c Hence deduce the value of θ. (1)
b Hence find the least value of s in the
← Section 5.1
given interval, justifying that it is a
x minimum. (4)
E 3 a Use the substitution t = tan  __  to show
2 ← Section 5.4
1+t
_____
that sec x + tan x =    ,
1−t 8
π
__
E/P
x ≠ (2n + 1)     , n ∈ ℤ (3) y
2 70
b Hence show that 60
π x
sec x + tan x ≡ tan(__
4 2)
50
    + __
    (3) 40
← Section 5.2 30
20
10
E 4 Use the t-formulae to show that
2 cos  2(__
   ) − 1 ≡ cos θ.
θ O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
(3)
2 The diagram above shows the graph of
← Section 5.2
y = f(x) for the function
x
E 5 a Use the substitution t = tan  __  to show x x x
f(x) = 30 + 10 sin  __  + 11 sin  __  + 20 cos  __  ,
2 2 4 4
that the equation
3 cos x − 4 sin x = 4 (1) x ∈ [0, 100]
can be written as 7t  2 + 8t + 1 = 0. (3) a Show that
b Hence find all the solutions to equation (t + 1)(9t  3 − 49t  2 − 71t + 31)
_______________________
(1) in the interval 0 , x , 2π. (3) f ′(x) =          
4(1 + t  2)  2
← Section 5.3 x
where t = tan  __  (6)
x 8
E 6 a Use the substitution t = tan  __  to show b Hence find the smallest exact multiple
2
that the equation of π for which the graph has a
2 sin x + cos x = 1 (1) stationary point. (2)
can be written as t  2 − 2t = 0. (3)
191

Review exercise 2
A The function kf(x) is used to model an A 12 a Find the Taylor series of ln x

electric pump which extracts L litres of E
about x = 1. (3)
water at time x seconds from a flooded b Hence find the value of
mine shaft.
im (__________
x  − 3x + 2 )
2 ln x
lx→1   2   (4)
The maximum amount of water pumped ← Section 6.2
is 300 litres.
c Suggest a suitable value of k. (1) E 13 a Find the Taylor series expansion about
x = 0 for sinh x. (3)
d Describe the point in the pumping
cycle when x is equal to the value b Hence find the value of
found in part b and estimate the im  (x cosech(2x))
lx→0 (4)
amount of water being pumped at ← Section 6.2
this point. (2) d2y dy

E 14 (1 − x2) ____
  2  − x  ___ + 2y = 0
← Section 5.4 dx dx
dy
At x = 0, y = 2 and ___    = −1.
E 9 a Find the Taylor series of cos 2x in dx
π
ascending powers of (x − __
   ) up to a Find the value of ____
d3y
  3  at x = 0. (4)
4
π 5 dx
and including the term in ( x − __   )  . (4) b Express y as a series in ascending
4
b Use your answer to part a to obtain an powers of x, up to and including
estimate of cos 2, giving your answer to the term in x3. (4)
← Section 6.3
6 decimal places. (2)
dy
← Section 6.1 E 15 (1 + 2x) ___
   = x + 4y2
dx
E 10 a Find the Taylor series of ln (sin x) in a Show that
π d2y dy
ascending powers of ( x − __
   ) up to (1 + 2x)   2  = 1 + 2 (4y − 1)  ___  (1)
____
6 dx dx
π 3 (4)
and including the term in ( x − __    )  . (4)
6 b Differentiate equation (1) with respect
b Use your answer to part a to obtain to x to obtain an equation involving
an estimate of ln(sin 0.5), giving your d3y d2y ___ dy
answer to 6 decimal places. (2)  ____3 , ____
  2 ,    , x and y. (4)
dx dx dx
← Section 6.1
Given that y = _  2  at x = 0,
1
c find a series solution for y, in

E 11 Given that y = tan x,
ascending powers of x, up to and
dy ____
___ d2y d3y
____
a find    ,   2  and   3  (3) including the term in x3. (4)
dx dx dx
← Section 6.3
b Find the Taylor series of tan x in dy
π ___
ascending powers of ( x − __    ) up to
E/P 16    = y2 + xy + x, y = 1 at x = 0
dx
4
π 3 a Use the Taylor series method to find
and including the term in ( x − __    )  (4) y as a series in ascending powers of x,
4
c Hence show that up to and including the term in x3. (6)
3π π π2 _____ π3 b Use your series to find y at x = 0.1,
tan  ___  ≈ 1 + ___
    + ____
    +     (3)
10 10 200 3000 giving your answer to 2 decimal
← Section 6.1 places. (4)
← Section 6.3
192

Review exercise 2
A dy x + 3 A 22 Use L’Hospital’s rule to evaluate

17 y   ___ = _____
   
im (______
x  − 1 )
E/P dx y + 1 E ln x
lx→1   2   (4)
Given that y = 1.5 at x = 0,
← Section 7.2
a use the Taylor series method to find
the series solution for y, in ascending E/P 23 Show, using L’Hospital’s rule, that
powers of x, up to and including the im (x ln x) = 0.
lx→0 (4)
term in x3. (6) ← Section 7.2
b Use your result to part a to estimate,
to 3 decimal places, the value of y at E/P 24 Use L’Hospital’s rule to evaluate
im (______
2 sin x )
x = 0.1. (4) xe  x
lx→0     (4)
← Section 6.3
← Section 7.2
  2  + (___
   )  + y = 0
2
dy 2
dy
E/P 18 y ____
dx dx E/P 25 Show, using L’Hospital’s rule, that
d3y
a Find an expression for ____
im (_________ )= 1
  3  (4) e  x − cos x
dx lx→0   x  (4)
dy ← Section 7.2
Given that y = 1 and ___
   = 1 at x = 0,
dx
x
b find the series solution for y, in E 26 a Use the substitution t = tan  __  to show
ascending powers of x, up to and 2
that the integral
including the term in x3. (4)
c Comment on whether it would be        ∫ 1
______________
 
1 − sin x + cos x dx
sensible to use your series solution to can be written as
give estimates for y at x = 0.2 and
at x = 50. (2) ∫ 1
_____
     1 − t  dt
π
__
(4)
∫
  4 
← Section 6.3 1
______________
dy 2
dy b Hence evaluate     1   − sin x
  dx
+ cos x .
E/P 19  ____2  − 4 ___
   + 3y2 = 6, 0
(4)
dx dx
dy ← Section 7.3
with y = 1 and ___    = 0 at x = 0.
dx
x
a Use the Taylor series method to obtain E/P 27 Use the substitution t = tan  __  to show
2
y as a series of ascending powers of x, that
∫
__7π
up to and including the term in x4. (6)   6
1
_____________
__
  dx = _  5 ln(a + b√3 )
l
_π       
b Hence find the approximate value   2 3 sin x − 4 cos x
of y when x = 0.2. (3) where a and b are rational constants to be
← Section 6.3 found. (7)
← Section 7.3
E/P 20 Given that y = x3e3x, use Leibnitz’s
theorem to show that
E 28 y = f(x) satisfies the differential equation
d  ny
 ____n  = 3  n−3 e  3x( 27x  3 + 27nx  2 + 9n(n − 1)x dy
dx   ___  = x  3 − y  3
+ n(n − 1)(n − 2)) (4) dx
← Section 7.1 Given that f(1) = 2, use two iterations of
the approximation formula (___

   )  ≈ ______
E/P 21 Use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that dy y1 − y0
   
d  6y dy dx 0 h
y = ex sin x satisfies ____
  6  + 8  ___  − 8y = 0. to estimate the value of f(1.5). (5)
dx  dx
(4)
← Section 8.1
← Section 7.1
193

Review exercise 2
E/P 29 The differential equation a Verify that the approximation formula
(    )  ≈ ______
dy dy y  1 − y  0
 ___  = 2e  x − y  2 ___    with a step length of 0.2
dx dx 0 h
has a particular solution that passes gives y  1 = 1.108correct to three
through the point (ln2, 1). decimal places. (3)
Use of the approximation formula,
b Use the approximation formula
(___
   )  ≈ ______
dy y  1 − y  0
(    )  ≈ _______
   , gives y  1 = 1.6. dy y  1 − y  −1
dx 0 h ___    with a step length of
dx 0 2h
a Determine the value that was used for
0.2 to obtain an estimate of the value
the step length, h. (2)
of y when x = 1.6. Give your answer to
b Using this step length, calculate, three decimal places. (5)
correct to three decimal places, the
← Section 8.1
values of y  2 and y  3. (5)
← Section 8.1
E/P 33 The population of a bacteria, P, at time
E/P 30 The value, v thousand pounds, of a t days is modelled by the differential
financial derivative t days after it is equation
purchased is modelled by the differential dP
 ___  = P − 0.00002P  2 − 0.5 cos (0.8t)
equation dt
dv 2v − 3t Given that the initial starting population
 ___  =  _______   of this bacteria is 1000, use the
dt v  2t − t  3
approximation formula (    )  ≈ _______
If the derivative is worth £8000 three days dy y  1 − y  −1
___    
after it is purchased, use two iterations of dx 0 2h
the approximation formula (    )  ≈ ______

dy y1 − y0 with a step length of 1 to estimate, correct
___  
  to the nearest bacteria, the population
dx 0 h
to estimate, correct to the nearest pound, after three days. (6)
the value of the derivative five days after ← Section 8.1
it is purchased. (6)
d  2y 1
← Section 8.1 E  ____2  = x  4 + __
34   y 
dx 
E 31 Use the approximation formula Given that the gradient of the curve at
(___
   )  ≈  _______
dy y   1 − y  −1 the point (0, 1) is −2,
 to estimate the value at
dx 0 2h a use the approximation formula
x = 1.3 of the particular solution to the
(
   )  ≈  
dy
___ y  1 − y  0
______
differential equation   with h = 0.1 to find an
dx 0 h
dy
 ___  = 2 ln x − y estimate for the y-value of the
dx
particular solution when x = 0.1. (3)
which passes through the point (1, 2). Use
a step length of 0.1. (6) b use the approximation formula
( ____2 )  ≈   
← Section 8.1 d  2 y y  1 − 2y  0 + y  −1
____________
    with h = 0.1 to
d x  0 h  2
E 32 A particular solution to the differential find a further estimate, correct to
dy 4 decimal places, for the y-value when
equation  ___  = cos (x2y)passes through
dx x = 0.3. (5)
the point (1, 1). ← Section 8.2
194

Review exercise 2
d  2y A 38
f(x) = x cosh x
E  ____2  + sin x − 2 cos y = 2
35
dx  E/P a Use Simpson’s rule with 2 intervals to
dy
Given that at x = 1, y = 2 and ___     = 0.5, find an approximation for
dx
∫
2
use the approximations (    )  ≈ ______

dy y  1 − y  0     f(x) dx(4)
___     1
dx 0 h
b Use integration by parts to show that
and (____
  2 )  ≈   
d  2 y y  1 − 2y  0 + y  −1
∫    f(x) dx = −  _  e 
____________ 2
   with a step 3 −2
+ e  −1 + _  2  e  2(6)
1
d x  0 h  2 2
1
length of 0.2 to obtain, estimates for y
c Hence find, correct to 2 significant
at x = 1.2, x = 1.4 and x = 1.6. (6)
figures, the percentage error in using
← Section 8.2
Simpson’s rule to approximate
36  ____2  = 2xy + (    ) 
2
d  2y dy
∫
2
E/P ___     f(x) dx.(2)
dx  dx dy 1
When x = 2, y = 2 and ___     = 3 ← Section 8.3
dx
Use the approximations E 39 a By using the substitution y = _  2 (u − x),
1
(____
  2 )  ≈ ____________
d  2y y  1 − 2y  0 + y  −1 or otherwise, find the general solution
  
    and
dx  0 h  2 of the differential equation
(___    )  ≈ _______
dy y   1 − y  −1 dy
   , with h = 0.2 to estimate  ___ = x + 2y (4)
dx 0 2h dx
the value of y when x = 2.2. (6) Given that y = 2 at x = 0,
← Section 8.2 b express y in terms of x. (3)
← Section 9.1
A 37 y
E 40 a Use the substitution y = vx to
E/P
y = f(x)
transform the equation
dy _____________
(4x + y)(x + y)
 ___ =   
    , x . 0 (1)
dx x2
into the equation
dv
O 2 3 x x ___ = (2 + v)2 (2)(4)
dx
b Solve differential equation (2) to find
v in terms of x. (4)
c Hence show that
x
y = −2x − _______
    , where c is an
ln x + c
The diagram shows the graph of y = f(x)
___________ arbitrary constant, is the general
3
where f(x) = √sin x − tan x , solution to differential equation (1). (3)
π
0 < x < π, x ≠  __  ← Section 9.1
2
The shaded area is bounded by the curve,
E 41 a Show that the substitution y = vx
the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 3.
transforms the differential equation
a Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to dy 3x − 4y
estimate the shaded area. (5)  ___ = _______
    (1)
dx 4x + 3y
b Suggest how you could improve your into the differential equation
approximation using Simpson’s rule.(1) dv 3v2 + 8v − 3
← Section 8.3 x ___
   = −  __________  (2) (4)
dx 3v + 4
195

Review exercise 2
_1
A b Find the general solution of differential A 44 Given that x = t   2, x . 0, t . 0, and that y
   
equation (2). (4) E is a function of x,

c Given that y = 7 at x = 1, show that dy dy
a find ___   in terms of  ___ and t. (2)
the particular solution to differential dx dt
equation (1) can be written as d2y d2y dy
Assuming that ____   2  = 4t  ___2  + 2  ___ ,
(3y − x) (y + 3x) = 200 (3) dx dt dt
_1
← Section 9.1 b show that the substitution x = t    2 
transforms the differential equation
 ____2  + (6x − __  x )  ___ − 16x2y = 4x2 e2 x
E 42 a Use the substitution μ = y−2 to d2y 1 dy 2
transform the differential equation dx dx

(1)
dy
 ___ + 2xy = xe− x y3 into the differential equation
2
(1)
dx
d2y dy
into the differential equation  ___2  + 3  ___ − 4y = e2t (6)
(2)
dt dt
dμ
  ___ − 4xμ = −2xe− x c Hence find the general solution to
2
(2) (4)
dx
(1) giving y in terms of x. (6)
b Find the general solution to differential ← Section 9.2
equation (2). (4)
c Hence obtain the solution to differential E 45 Given that x = ln t, t . 0, and that y is a
equation (1) for which y = 1 at x = 0. (3) function of x,
← Section 9.1 dy dy
a find ___   in terms of  ___ and t (2)
dx dt
43 a Show that the transformation y = xv d2y d2y dy
E b show that   2  = t   2  + t  ___ 
____ 2 ___
(4)
transforms the equation dx dt dt
d2y dy c Show that the substitution x = ln t
x2  ____2  − 2x  ___ + (2 + 9x2) y = x5 (1) transforms the differential equation
dx dx
into the equation d2y dy
  2  − (1 − 6e x)  ___ + 10y e2x
____
d2v dx dx
 ____2  + 9v = x2 (2) = 5e sin 2e
2x x
(1)
dx
(6)
b Solve differential equation (2) to find
d2y dy
v as a function of x. (4)  ___2  + 6  ___ + 10y = 5 sin 2t (2) (6)
dt dt
c Hence state the general solution to d Hence find the general solution to (1),
differential equation (1). (2) giving your answer in the form
← Section 9.2 y = f(x). (6)
← Section 9.2
196

Review exercise 2
A 46 A scientist is modelling the amount of A b Find the general solution to differential

E/P a chemical in the human bloodstream. equation (1). (7)
The amount x of the chemical, measured dx
Given that at time t = 0, x = _  2  and ___
1
   = 0,
in mg l−1, at time t hours satisfies the dt
differential equation c find an expression for x in terms of t (3)
2x  ____2  − 6 (___
   )  = x2 − 3x4, x . 0
2
d2x dx d write down the maximum value of
dt dt x as t varies. (2)
1
a Show that the substitution y = __   2  ← Section 9.3
x
transforms this differential equation
into
d2y
 ___2  + y = 3 (1) (5)
dt
Challenge
x y
1 Use the substitutions t = tan  __  and s = tan  __ to prove that
2 2
tan x + tan y
 ___________  ≡ tan x tan y ← Section 5.2
cot x + cot y
2 y = x3excoshx
Use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that
  ny
d
____
  n  = e2x2   n−4(8x   2+ 6n(n − 1)x + n(n − 1)(n − 2))
  3+ 12nx
dx  
← Section 7.1
3 The function f(x) satisfies the differential equation f″(x) = (f′(x))3.

a Use the substitution u = f′(x) to show that
_______
f(x) = A − √B − 2x , where A and B are arbitrary constants.
b Given that f(0) = 0 and f(1) = 1, find the exact values of A and B.
← Section 9.2
197

Exam-style practice
Further Mathematics
AS Level
Further Pure 1
Time: 50 minutes
You must have: Mathematical Formulae and Statistical Tables, Calculator
1 Use algebra to find the set of values of x for which

1
_____ x
    , _____
    (6)
x+1 x+3
x
2 a Use the substitution t = tan  __ to show that the equation
2
2 sin x − 5 cos x = 2 (1)
can be written as 3t  2 + 4t − 7 = 0. (3)
b Hence find all the solutions to equation (1) in the interval 0 , x , 2π.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places where appropriate. (3)
3 The variable y satisfies the differential equation

d  y
____
2
dy
   2 = e  xy − ___
   
dx  dx
dy
When x = 0, y = 1 and ___
    = 2
dx
Use the approximations
(____
  2 )  ≈ ____________
d  2y y1  − 2y 0 + y −1
  
   
dx 
0 h  2
and (___
   )  ≈ _______
dy y1  − y −1
   
dx 0 2h
with h = 0.1 to estimate the value of y when x = 0.1. (6)
198198
M10_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PP1_198-199.indd 198 23/01/2018 08:30

Exam-style practice
4 y
C
P
R
O x
dy 2a
[You may quote without proof that for the general parabola y2 = 4ax, ___
    = ___
   ]
dx y
The diagram shows the graph of the parabola C with equation y2 = 40x.
The line x = k intersects the parabola at the points P and Q. ___
The tangent to the curve at P intersects the y-axis at (0, 2√10 ).
a Find the value of k. (4)
b Write down the x-coordinate of the point of intersection of the two tangents. (1)
The finite region R, shown shaded in the diagram, is bounded by the tangents to the curve at P
and Q and by the parabola C.
c Find, correct to three significant figures, the area of R. (7)
5 The diagram shows a model for a new kind of solid tetrahedral dice.
O
A C
Points A, B and C have position vectors 6i + 4j + 2k, −2i + 2j + 3kand −i + 4j − k respectively
and O is the origin.
⟶ ⟶
a Find OB 
  × OC 
  . (3)
b Find the area of the face OBC correct to three significant figures. (2)
The dice is to be 3D printed using a scale of 1 cm per unit and a plastic filament of density
1.35 g/cm3.
Given that the manufacturer has 1 kg of plastic filament,
c work out the number of dice that can be made. (4)
d Give a reason why your answer to part c might be an over-estimate. (1)
199

Exam-style practice
Further Mathematics
A Level
Further Pure 1
Time: 1 hour and 30 minutes
You must have: Mathematical Formulae and Statistical Tables, Calculator
1 A tetrahedron has vertices at A(−1, 3, 2), B(1, −4, 2), C(−1, −5, 6) and D(−7, −2, 2).
Find:
a The Cartesian equation of the plane ABC. (3)
b The volume of tetrahedron ABCD. (3)
The normal to the plane ABC through point D intersects the plane at point E.
c Find the angle DCE. Give your answer in radians correct to three significant figures.(5)
2 y
y = f(x)
O 0.5 1.5 x
1
The diagram shows the graph of y = f(x) where f(x) = _________
   
4 − 3 sin x
The finite region R is bounded by the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = 0.5 and x = 1.5.
a Use Simpson’s rule with 4 intervals to find an approximation for the area of R, giving
your answer to 5 decimal places.(5)
x
b Use the substitution t = tan  __ to find the value of the integral ∫
1.5
  f(x)dx to
2 0.5
5 decimal places (6)
c Hence find, correct to 2 decimal places, the percentage error in using the method in part a,
and suggest a way in which the approximation could be improved. (2)
200200

Exam-style practice
3 An extreme sports enthusiast jumps from the top of a cliff attached to a parachute. Her velocity,
y ms−1, is related to the distance jumped, x, where x is measured in hundreds of metres, from the top
of a cliff. She believes the differential equation used to model the relationship between x and y is
dy
xy  ___  + 3x  2 + y  2 = 0 (1)
dx
a Show that the substitution y = vxtransforms (1) into the differential equation
dv 3 + 2v  2
x  ___  + _______
  v  = 0 (2) (5)
dx
b By solving equation (2), find the particular solution to equation (1), given that her velocity
is 5 m s−1 when she is 100 metres from the top of the cliff. (8)
c Assuming that her velocity reaches zero as she lands, find, according to the model, the
height of the cliff. (2)
d By considering your solution to part b, comment on the suitability of this model for small
values of x. (1)
5x  4 − 3x  2 − 1
____________
4 a Explain why you cannot use L’Hospital’s rule to evaluate lim       
  
x→1 11 − 2x − 9x  3
  (1)
5x  − 3x  − 2
4
____________
2
b Use L’Hospital’s rule to find lim
     
   
x→1 11 − 2x − 9x  3
(3)
5 The line L has equation y = mx + c, where m and c are constants.

x  2 y 
2
The hyperbola H has equation __  2  − __   2  = 1, where a and b are constants.
a  b 
a Given that L is a tangent to H, show that a2m2 = b2 + c2. (5)
x  2 ___
___ y  2
The hyperbola H ′ has equation     −     = 1
26 25
b Find the equations of the tangents to H ′ which pass through the point (2, 3). (6)
d x  2 ( dx )
2
  y
d
____
2
dy
___
6     +       + 2y = 0
dy
Given that when x = 0, y = ___
    = 1, find a series solution for y in ascending powers of x,
dx
up to and including the term in x3. (9)
7 Find the set of values of x such that

x
_____
 
x+3 | |
  , 2 − x
expressing your answer in set notation. (7)
8 Given that
y = e  x sin x
use Leibnitz’s theorem to show that
d  6y dy
 ____6  + 8  ___  = 8y (4)
dx  dx
201

Answers
Answers
CHAPTER 1 Exercise 1B __
5√ 2 
Prior knowledge check 1 a 4.5 b  ____  c 16.5
___ 2
1 –1 2 a 2√ 13  b 8.5
__
x − 1 y_____− 4 x_____
+2 3  __3 √ 2 
2   _____
  =     =     (= λ) 2 __
2 3 5
4  __52 √ 3 
__
3 a 0.302 radians b (6, 1, −7) √ 2 
5 5 __
6 10 √ 2 
Exercise 1A __
7 3 √ 2 
1 a 5i b −3j __
√
3  2
___
c 3j d −3j − 3k 8    a
2
e −2i − 6k f 2i + 6k 9 a Area of parallelogram ABCD = 2 × area of triangle
5 9 ABC
( −7 ) (−3)
⟶ ⟶
g −16
    h   0  = 2 × __  12 |AB
  × AC
  |
⟶ ⟶
= | AB× AC   |
−9 2 ⟶ ⟶
(−11) (−3)
As  AB= (b − a) and AC   = (c − a)
i   −7 j  
−4
Area = |(b − a) × (c − a)|
b (b − a) × (c – a) – (b – a) × (d – a) = 0
2 a −6i + (3λ + 1)j − 2k b (7λ − 3)i + j + (1 − 2λ)k
⇒ (b – a) × c + (b – a) × (a – a) – (b – a) × d = 0
3 −  __13 i − __
 23 j + __
 23 k or  __13 i + __
 23 j − __
 23 k
__ ⇒ (b – a) × (c – d) = 0
4  __17 (−i + 4√ 2 j + 4k) ⟶ ⟶
 ABis parallel to DC   . ___
()
5  __
1
(6i + 6j + 7k) 5 √11 
11 10 a 5i − 5j + 15k b  ______
 
2
 __49  11 a − 15i + 17j + 20k
b 21.54 m2
6   __
  49  
c The area of fabric needed will be larger as there
−  __79  will need to be excess fabric to attach to the masts
__ and some slack in the sail to fill with air.
7 −i − 2√ 2 j + 4k 12 a (2, −5, 1) b £4481
__ __
√ 8 or 2√ 2 or 2.83 (to 3 s.f.)
8
1 Challenge
9 a −14 b −8i − 24j − 8k c  ____
___ (−i − 3j − k)
√
___
11  |p × (q + r)| = ABFE as BF = q + r
____
|p × q| = ABCD
√ 221  √
21 
10 a  _____   b 1 c  ____  |p × r| = CDEF
15 11
11 Any multiple of (i + j − k) |p × q| + |p × r| = ABFE + BCF − ADE
12 u = −1, v = 4 and w = 11 By definition, AD = q and DE = r
13 a a = 1 and b = −1 b −  _56 |p × q| + |p × r| = ABFE + __
 12 |q × r| − __
 12 |q × r| = |p × (q + r)|
14 λ =  _32 and μ = −  _32 Exercise 1C
15 Given that a + b + c = 0 * 1 a 21 b 21 c 21
Take the vector product of this with a. 2 0; a is parallel to the plane containing b and c
a × (a + b + c) = a × 0 3 17
a×a+a×b+a×c=0 4 18
But a × a = 0 and a × c = −c × a 5  __32
Therefore a × b − c × a = 0 6 a 3 b ± __13 (i + 2j − 2k) c  __73
So a × b = c × a 7 a The __ distance between any two vertices is 2.
b  __23 √ 2 
Take the vector product of * with b. ⟶
b × (a + b + c) = b × 0 8 a  AB= −2i − j + 3k
⟶
b×a+b×b+b×c=0  AC= i − 3j + 2k
⟶ ⟶
But b × b = 0 and b × a = −a × b  AB __× AC
  = 7i + 7j + 7k
Therefore −a × b + b × c = 0 7√ 3 
____
b    
So b × c = a × b 2
Therefore a × b = b × c = c × a c  __73
⟶ ⟶
Challenge 9 a  AB × BC   = 5i − j −7k
⟶ ⟶
a×b=c×a  BD ×__DC   = 2i − 8j + k
a×b−c×a=0 b i  __52 √ 3  ii  __
19
6

a×b+a×c =0 10 a i + 2j
⟶ __
a × (b + c) = 0 b  OP= 2√ 5  __
√
5 
As a ≠ 0 and b and c are non-parallel Area of OQR = ___    
a is parallel to b + c. 2
Volume of tetrahedron =  __53
202 Online Full worked solutions are available in SolutionBank.
Z01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_ANS_202-240.indd 202 24/01/2018 15:54

Answers
c a.(b × c) = 10 8 r = −j + 2k + t(i + j − k)
This is 6 × volume of tetrahedron so verified. 6 2 12
11 a 18i + 12j + 6k b 127 g 9 a  _____
____ , _____
  ____ , −  _____
____ 
√
184  √ 184  √ 184 
12 1400 cubic angstroms
x+3 y−2 z−7
13 a 12 :1 b Ratio will be unchanged as N moves. b  _____  =  _____  =  _____ 
 ____
6
____
____ 2
  √____ ____
  √−____
12

14  __
14
3
units3 √ 184  184  184 
1__ ___ 1 1__
Challenge 10 a 1, 0, 0 b 0, 1, 0 c 0, 0, 1 d  ___  ,   __ , ___
   
√
3  √ 3  √ 3 
a Let: a = a1i + a2 j + a3k 1 2 3 3 2 1
b = b1i + b2 j + b3k 11 a  _______ , ____
  ___ , ____   ___  b  ____
___ , ____
  ___ , ____
  ___ 
√
14  √ 14  √ 14  √ 14  √ 14  √ 14 
c = c1i + c2 j + c3k
c l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 =
a.(b × c) = a1(b2c3 − b3c2) + a2(b3c1 − b1c3) + a3(b1c2 − b2c1)
(√ 14  √ 14 ) ( √ 14  √ 14 ) ( √ 14  √ 14 ) 7
____1 3 2 2 3 1
a × b = (a2b3 − a3b2)i + (a3b1 − a1b3)j + (a1b2 − a2b1)k   ___   ×  ____ ___  + ____   ___   ×  ____
___  + ____
  ___   ×  ____
___  = __
  5
(a × b).c = (a2b3 − a3b2)c1 + (a3b1 − a1b3)c2 + (a1b2 − a2b1)c3
L1  . L2  1 × 3 +___ 2 × 2___+ 3 × 1 __5
= a2b3c1 − a3b2c1 + a3b1c2 − a1b3c2 + a1b2c3 − a2b1c3 cos θ =  _______  = ___________________   
       =   7
= a1(b2c3 − b3c2) + a2(b3c1 − b1c3) + a3(b1c2 − b2c1) |L1  ||L2  | √
14  × √ 14 
Therefore, a.(b × c) = (a × b).c 12 1.41
b d.(a × b + a × c) = d.(a × b) + d.(a × c) 13 Use of formula: cos 2x ≡ 2 cos2 x − 1
( |L|)
y 2
( |L|) ( |L|)
= (d × a).b + (d × a).c x 2 z 2
LHS = 2 ___       − 1 + 2 ___       − 1 + 2 ___
      − 1
= (d × a).(b + c)
= d.(a × (b + c)) x
  2 y
  2 z  2
= 2  ___  + 2  ___  + 2  __  − 3
c As d can be any vector, if d.(a × b + a × c) = d.(a × (b + c)), L L L
then it follows that a × b + a × c = a × (b + c) 2(x
  2
+ y
  2
+ z
  2
)

=   _____________
    − 3
Exercise 1D L
1 a r × (3i + j − 2k) = −4i + 10j − k L = x  2+ y  2+ z  2 ⇒ 2 − 3 = − 1 = RHS
() ()
b r × (i + j + 5k) = 3i − 13j + 2k 14 68.2°, 56.1°, 42.0°
c r × (−i − 2j + 3k) = −4i − 13j − 10k 1 1
x −  y − 1 _____
2 ______  __
1__ __
1__
2 a ______
  =     =  
z−2
  = λ 15 r ×   √2  = 0, r ×   √2   = 0
−  
3 1 −2
y _____  __
1__
 __
1__

______x − 
2 __ z+3
=     =     = λ
√
2  √ 2 
b  
1 1 5 1__
16 a  ___  in each direction
______x −  
4 ______y + 2 _____ z−1 √ 3 
c   =     =     = λ
y − 2 _____
(
x − 1 _____ z+1
( )) ( )
−1 −2 3
b _____
    =     =    
1 5 __ 1__
  √  __
1__
__
  √1__
3  √ 3  3 
3 a r− 3 × 1 =0 __ __
0 √__
6 − √ 2 
( (6)) ( )
5 −3
( ( )) ( )
__
17 a r − 0
  × √ 6 + 
√ 2  = 0 (or equivalent)
3 1
0
b r − 4 × −1 = 0
b If the wires intersect, then:
( )
12 −7
( ( )) ( )
__ __ __ __
0 √__
6 − √ 2  5 − 2( √ 6 − √ 2  )
( ) (1)
5
(6)
−2 5 __ __ __
c r− 2 × 5 =0   + λ √ 6 + 
0 √ 2  =
2   + μ 2
  − 2( √ 6  
+ √ 2  )
6 5 0 −5
( ( )) ( )
1 −3 k: 6 =__ 1 − __5μ ⇒ μ = − 1 __ __
d r − 1 × −1 = 0 i: λ(√ 6 
__ __
) = 5 + (−1)(5 − 2(√ 6 
− √ 2  __
− √ 2 
__
)) ⇒ λ =__2 __
1 5 j: 2(√ 6 + √ 2  ) = 2 + (−1)(2 − 2(√ 6 + √ 2  )) = 2(√ 6 + √ 2 )
y − 3 _____ Therefore the wires intersect.
x − 
1 ______ z−5
4 a  ______ =     =     = λ c The cable may not be completely horizontal (it may
5 1 −3
x −  y − 4
3 ______ ______ z − 12 ‘droop’).
b ______
  =     =     = λ
1 −1 −7 Challenge
__
x + 
2 ______y − 2 _____ z−6 √ 6
 
c ______  =     =     = λ or x + 2 = y − 2 a l = m =  ___ , n = __
 12
5 5 5 =z−6=μ 4
_____ x − 4 _____ y − 2 _____z+4 b l = cos θ sin φ, m = sin θ sin φ, n = cos φ
d     =     =     = λ
−3 −1 5
5 a (r − (i + j −2k)) × (2i − k) = 0 Exercise 1E
b (r − (i + 4j)) × (3i + j − 5k) = 0 1 a 3x + y − z = 2
c (r − (3i + 4j − 4k)) × (2i − 2j − 3k) = 0 b 7x − 2y + z = 5
c x + 2y − z = 3
6 a r × (2i + 5j + __
 32 k) = −9i − __
 32 j + 17k
d 2x − 6y − z = 2
b r = 3i − j +  __32 k + t(2i + 5j + __
 32 k) 2 a r.(2i − 9j + 4k) = −15
or r = 3i − j +  __32 k + s(4i + 10j + 3k) b r.(2i − j + k) = 2
7 p = 3 and q = 3 c r.(8i − 5j + k) = 22
203

Answers
3 a r = __
 52 i + __
 52 k + λ(3i + 2j + 5k) 2 a 13i + 4j − k b 288 cm2
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
b r = 3i − j + λ(2i + 4j + 3k) 3 Volume of parallelepiped =  EA.( EC
    )
× EF
⟶
c r = −3i −  __
13
3
j + λ(3i + 2j + 3k)  EA= −3i − j − 2k
⟶
4 a = 21.7° (3 s.f.)  EC= i + 2j − 4k
⟶
5 __
  13
11
 EF= −i − 4j −k
| |
6 a The line r = 2i + 3j + k + λ(−i + 2j + k) passes −3 −1 −2
through the point (2, 3, 1). Volume =      
1     2    − 4= 53
The point (2, 3, 1) also lies on the plane −1 −4 −1
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
r.(i + j + k) = 4 as 2 × 1 + 3 × 1 − 1 = 4. Volume of tetrahedron = __  16   EA.(   EC× EM
  )
So the line and plane have a point in common. ⟶
 EA= −3i − j − 2k
The line is in the direction −i + 2j + k. ⟶
 EC= i + 2j − 4k
This direction is parallel to the plane as it is ⟶ __2
perpendicular to the normal i + j − k,  EM=  3  i − __
  83  j − __   23  k
| |
as −1 × 1 + 2 × 1 + 1 × −1 = 0. −3 −1 −2
As the line also has a common point with the plane 1
Volume =  __16    
       2    − 4  = __   53 
9
it lies in the plane. −  __23  −  __83  −  __23 
b Line is parallel to the other line, which is in the plane.
__ 4 2x − 5y + 3z + 10 = 0
7√ 3 
____
   = 4.04 (3 s.f.) 5 a Equation of L1 is r = 3i − 3j − 2k + λ(j + 2k)
3
When s = 2: r = 3i − j + 2k, so P lies on L1.
7 a − 11x + 6y + z = 4 b  __
67
c 0.918
3 Equation of L2 is r = 8i + 3j + μ(5i + 4j − 2k)
()
8 a 4 b −7x + 5y − 3z − 4 = 0 c 2.31 (3 s.f.)
When t = −1: r = 3i − j + 2k, so P lies on L2.
−  __23 b −10i + 10j − 5k
9 a __
  13  
  b 19° c 1.67 c 2x − 2y + z = 10
d 15 __
 __23 6 a i−j−k b −2 c  __23  √  
3
−1 1
( 1 ) (0)
10 a 3.74 (3 s.f.) b 0.201   + t 2
c r = 0    7 a r =__2i − 3j + k + t(−4i + j − 2k)
− 42 b  __52 √ 5 or 5.59 (3 s.f.)
( 31 )
__
11 r. −
41  = 147 1
8 a  ____ ___ (3i + 5j + 4k) b 3x + 5y + 4z = 30 c 3√  
2
√
__ 50 
25 √
2  
12  _____  9 b  ___ or 0.707 (to 3 s.f.) c x+z=1
2268 2
10 a −15i − 20j + 10k or a multiple of (3i + 4j − 2k)
Challenge
b 3x + 4y −2z − 5 = 0 c 5
a x + y + z = 0 ⇒ z = −x − y
11 a −6i − 4j + 2k b r.(3i + 2j − k) = 0 c (−1, 1, −1)
Applying the transformation to a general point on the
12 a −i + 7j + 5k b −x + 7y + 5z = 0 c (1, −2, 3)
plane gives:
( )
13 a 73° (nearest degree)
2 −1 2 x 2x − y − 2x − 2y
(− 1 2 2 ) −x − y
( )
b r × (2i + j + 6k) = (−5i − 32j + 7k)
   
  
2   y  =    
    2    − 1  2x
   + 2y + x + y
14 a The normal to the plane Π is in the direction
− x + 2y − 2x − 2y (4i + j +2k) × (3i + 2j − k)
| |
− 3y
( )
i j k
= 3x
  + 3y       1    2= − 5i + 10j + 5k
4
− 3x 3 2 −1
−3y + 3x + 3y – 3x = 0 The line L is in the direction 2i + 3j − 4k
Therefore, the image also lies on the plane. As (−5i + 10j + 5k).(2i + 3j − 4k) = 0
Hence the plane is invariant under the linear the line L is perpendicular to the normal to the plane.
transformation. Thus L is parallel to the plane Π.
__
b To be invariant the point must map to itself.
( )
b 2 √ 6 = 4.90
2x − y − 2z
(z) ( ( )
x 2 −1 2 x 15 a r = i + 2j + k + λ(2i + j + 3k)
2) z
___
y
  =    
  
2 y
    2    − 1  2x
  =    
   + 2y − z √
35 
b (3, 3, 4) c 5i − j − 3k d  ____ ___  e (5, 4, 7)
−1 2 − x + 2y + 2z √
34 
x = y + 2z (1) 3
16 a x − y − 2z + 7= 0 b  _______
__ ___ = 0.567 (3s.f.)
x = __
 12 (z − y) (2) √
2  √ 14 
c (0, 5, 7) or (4, 1, −1)
x = 2y + z (3) 6 1 8
Equating (1) and (3) : y + 2z = 2y + z ⇒ y = z 17 a 6:1:−8 b  _____
____ , _____
  ____ , −  _____
____ 
√
101  √ 101  √ 101 
Substituting into (2) : x = 0 x+2 y − 1 z−5
c  _____  =  _____  =  _____ 
Substituting into (1): 0 = 3y ⇒ y = 0 and z = 0 ____ 6
  √____   ____ 1
  √____  −  ____
√
8
____ 
101  101  101 
Therefore, the only invariant point is the origin.
18 Use trigonometric identity sin2 θ ≡ 1 − cos2 θ
  2 = 3 − ( )= 2
Mixed exercise 1 x2 y2 z2   2+ y  2+ z  2
x
__ ⇒ 1 − ___
  2 + 1 − ___
  2 + 1 − ___ ___________
     
1 a 4i + 10j + 8k b 38 c 3√ 5
  d  __
19
  |a| |a| |a| L
3

Answers
19 If L1 and L2 are parallel then l1 = l2; m1 = m2 and 4 a xy = 2

l  1 m  1 ___ n
  1 b y
n1 = n2, therefore __
    = ___    =    = 1
l
  2 m  2 n  2
__ __
20 a (2, √ 2
 ,√ 2
 ) b 24.5 m
xy = 2
c Guide wires likely not to be perfectly straight.
21 d = −20
Challenge
Find the equation of the plane passing through O x
A(p, 0, 0), B(0, q, 0) and C(0, 0, r):
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
 AB= OB
  − OA
  = − pi + qj
⟶ ⟶ ⟶
 AC= OC
  − OA
  = − pi + rk
| |
i j k
⟶ ⟶
 AB× AC   p    
  = − q     0  = qri + prj + pqk
−p 0 r Exercise 2B
r.(qri + prj + pqk) = pi.(qri + prj + pqk) 1 a y2 = 20x b y2 = 32x c y2 = 4x
__
qrx + pry + pqz = pqr d y2 = 6x e y2 = 2√ x
3
Distance between plane and origin:
2 a (3, 0); x + 3 = 0 b (5, 0); x + 5 = 0
|pqr|
( )
__ __
d = __________________
   
   _________________ 
c  5 , 0 ; x + __
__   5  = 0 ( √3
d  , 0 ); x + √
 
3=0
√ (  
qr)  2 + ( pr)  2 + ( pq)  2  2 2
( ) ( )
__ __ __ __
(pqr)  2 √  √  √  √ 
  2 = _________________
d           2
e ___   2
 , 0 ; x + ___   = 0 f  5 2
____   5 2
 , 0 ; x + ____   = 0
(qr)  + ( pr)  2 + ( pq)  2
2 4 4 4__ 4 __
3 a (6, 0); y = 24x
2
b (3√ 2
 , 0); y = 12√ 2 x
2
1 ( qr)  + ( pr)  + ( pq)  ___
2 2 2
___ 1 1 1
    = _________________
  
       =     + ___     + __
   
d 
2
(pqr) 
2
p  2 q  2 r   2 Challenge
1 a x2 = 16y b (x – 3)2 = 6y – 9
CHAPTER 2 c y2 = 12x − 60
π
Prior knowledge check 2 This is a parabola of the form y2 = 4ax, rotated by __    
4
1 y anticlockwise about the origin. The distance between
the origin and (2, 2) is 2√ 2 . Use (   
sinθ cos θ )
__
cos θ − sin θ
y= 1   with
( )
x
___ 1 1__
  __  −  ___  
π √
2  √
2 
θ =    to obtain  
__   .
4 1__ ___ 1
O x  ___     __ 
√
2  √
2 
__
Let a = 2√ 2
( )
 . Calculate
___ 1 1__
  __  −  ___   __
( 2)
= ( 2
2t  + 4t)
√ 2  √
2  2√__  t
2 2 2t  2− 4t
    .
2 (1, 14) and (3, 10) 1 1 √
___   __  4  t
  __  ___ 2
dy
3  ___ = 4x + 6 ⇒ ___
dx
dy
      = 10
dx x=1 | √ 2  √ 2 
Substitute x = 2t  2− 4t and y = 2t  2+ 4t into the given
y − 0 = 10(x − 1) equation.
y = 10x − 10
Exercise 2C
Exercise 2A 1 (3, 3) and ( _ 34 , − _ 32   )
1 a y = 20x
2
b y = 2x __2
c y = 200x d 2
y = _ 45 x
2 __
2 16√2
 
e y2 = 10x f y2 = 4√3
 x g x2 = 8y h x2 = 12y
3 M(25, 5)
2 a xy = 1 b xy = 49 c xy = 45 d xy = __ 1
  25 
4 a (6, 0); x + 6 = 0
3 a xy = 9 y
b
b y
C
xy = 9
O x
O x
__ __
c 9 d 12√2
  e 18√2
 
205

Answers
5 a y2 = 5x b 5 Exercise 2E __ __
( −_ 54 , 3 )
c d 8x − 25y + 85 = 0 1 a x − 4y + 16 = 0 √2
b  x − 2y + 4√2  = 0
6 a (1, 0) b 4 c 4x − 3y − 4 = 0 c x + y − 10 = 0 d 16x + y − 16__ = 0
(  _14 , −1 )
d e _ 54  e x + 2y + 7 = 0 f 2x + y − 8√2
  = 0
2 a x + y − 15 = 0 b 2x − 8y − 45 = 0
7 a R(−3, 0), S(3, 0)
b P(9,__6√ ),
__
3 Q(−3, 6√3
__
 )
3 a x − 8y − 126 = 0 b ( 128, _ 14   )
__
3
4 a Gradient of PQ is  2 . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
c 54√ 3
either set__of coordinates.
8 a a = 1, b = −4 b y = x − 8 ___ c (10, 2) __ __ __
( 6√2
b  , 2 )or ( −6√2
4√   √2
 , −4    )
d y = −x + 12 e x = 14 ± 2√13 
5 a A(3, 9) and B(3, −9)
(  t  2  , –   t )
2t a ___ 2a
9 a ______
  2   b __ b y l1
t___− 1
10 40 √ 10 
__
64
11   3
A(3, 9)
12 a a = 4, b = −4 b y = x + 2 c __   16
3

13 a S(4, 0) b x=1 c y = −  __43 x + __
 16
3

___
224
d   3 O x
Exercise 2D B(3, –9)

1 a y
xy = 12 C
l2
c l  1 : 3x − 2y + 9 = 0
i ii l  2 : 3x + 2y + 9 = 0
__
c ( 3 )
O x 3 __ − √3
  __
6 a y = __
    b 8x − 2y − 15√3 = 0 ____
   , −8√ 
x 8
7 a t = __
  12  , P(1, 4) b (–15, 0)
c (–1, 0) d 28
b P(1, 12) and Q(4, 3)

___
c y = __ 13 x + __
 20
3
  Exercise 2F
√ 1
d x = −10 ± 234  1 a Gradient of tangent is __    . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
t
2 a P(−3, −3) and Q(3, 3) __
given coordinates.
b S(1, 9) and T(9, 1), so ST = 8√2
  b Gradient of tangent is −t. Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
c (5, 5) has y = x. given coordinates.
1
3  ____
1075
  2 a Gradient of tangent is −  __2 . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1)
12
__ with given coordinates. t 
9√  
5
4  ____  c b Gradient of tangent is t2. Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
4 given coordinates.
9
5 a Substitute x = 9t and y = __    into 4x −3y + 69 = 0 and 3 a 5
t
simplify. 1
b Gradient of tangent is __    . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
b t =  3  ⇒ (3, 27) and t = −  4  ⇒ ( −  __
__
1 __
9 81
4
  , −4) given coordinates.
t
___
6 a xy = 144 b 22√ 10  c y = 3x – 104 __25 3
c   2 t
1
7 a P(2, 4) and Q(8, 1) b 15 − 8 ln 4 4 a Gradient of tangent is __    . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
1 t
8 Gradient of PQ is −  ___ . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with given coordinates.
pq b (a, −2a) and (16a, 8a)
either set of coordinates. 1
5 a Gradient of tangent is −  __2 . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1)
9 Solve the equations simultaneously to find single t 
4
__
c   3  1 __ 2
with given coordinates.
solution, x = _____
__
  1  and y = (4 a)   3  c   3 . b (−4, 5)
c (8, 2) and ( − _85 , −10 )
__
(4a)   3 
( )
Challenge ___1 1__ d x + 4y − 16 = 0; 25x + 4y + 80 = 0
  __  −  ___  
Use (   
sin θ cos θ )
cos θ − sin θ π √
2  √
2  6 a (−at 2, 0)
    with θ = __
   to obtain     .
4 ___1 1 b (2a + at 2, 0)
  __  ___   __ 
( ) ( )
√
2  √ 2  c 2a2t(1 + t 2)
1 1__ ___ cp c 7 a Gradient of tangent is −t. Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
___
  __  −  ___   cp   __  − ____   __  given coordinates.
√
2  p √ 2 
  __  ( p )
√ 2  √ 2 
( p ) ___
c
__
Use general point cp,     :     __ c   = b (0, 0), (8, 8) and (8, −8)
1 1     cp c
  __  ___ ___
  __  + ____   __  c y = 0, 2x + y − 24 = 0 and 2x − y − 24 = 0
√ 2  √ 2  √
2  p √ 2 
8 a (0, at) b (a, 0)
c
 
2 2
p   c
  2
c
 
2 2
p   c
  2
So x  2 = _____
   − c  2 + ____   2 and y  2 = _____    + c  2 + ____   2  c Show that the gradient of SQ = −t, gradient of
2 2 p  2 2 p  __ 1
PQ =  __ 
So y  2− x  2= 2 c  2. So k  2= 2 c  2and therefore k = c√ 2  . t

Answers
__
1 2√ 6 
9 a Gradient of tangent is __    . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with b Find gradient of PS = ____
   and then use
t 5
given coordinates __
y − y1 = m(x − x1) with (x1, y1) = ( 18, 6√ 6 )
b −6 __
c (24, 24) and ( _ 32 , −6 ) c R(__

  12 , −√ 6 )
__
10 Normal at P: y = −px + 8p + 4p3. Normal at Q: 343√ 6 

d Area = _______    
y = −qx + 8q + 4q3. Equate ys and solve for x. 4
c
Substitute to find y. 6 Calculate xy, with x = ct and y =  ___  :
2t
dy 1 dy 1  1  c  2
xy = __
11 a Find ___     = −  ___2 and substitute ___    = −  ___2  and 2
dx p  dx p  7 a Let the coordinates of M be (x, y)
(x  1 , y  1)= ( 8p,  p ) into y − y1 = m(x − x1).
8
__ Area of triangle = q

__
  12 (2x × 2y) = q
Expand and simplify.
b p
  2 y + x = 16p and q  2y + x = 16q intersect at 2xy = q
q
R(_____
p + q p + q)
16pq _____ 16 1 xy =  __ 
    ,     . Gradient of OR = ___     2
pq
1 Therefore the locus is a rectangular hyperbola
Gradient of PQ = −  ___  __
√
pq q
__
b c =     
Perpendicular gradients multiply to −1: 2
1 1
 ___  × −  ___ = −1 ⇒ p  2 q  2= 1 Challenge
pq pq
dy 1 Each crease line is formed of all the points that are
1
12 a  ___  = __    and use y − 2at = __    (x − a t  2). equidistant from (a, 0) and a particular point (−a, y1) on
dx t t
x + a = 0, so is the perpendicular bisector of these two
b Substitute y = 0 into ty = x + at2 y  1 2a
1 2t points and has equation y −  ___  = ___    x. Consider the point
c Gradient of PT = __    . Gradient of PS = ______   2   2 y 1
t t  − 1 (x1, y1) on the crease line.
1 ______ 2t Considering the distances from (x1, y1) to each of (a, 0) and
__
    ×   2  = −1 ⇒ t  = −1. But t ≠ −1, so lines can
2 2
t t  − 1 (−a, y1), (x1 + a)2 = (x1 − a)2 + y12 ⇒ y12 = 4ax1
never be perpendicular. So all such points (x1, y1) form a parabola with equation
1
13 a Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with m  T = __     and y2 = 4ax.
p
(x1, y1) = (p , 2p). 2 Solve this equation simultaneously with the equation of the
crease line to see that the crease line meets the parabola at
2p3
b ____
    only one point, and hence is tangent.
3
Mixed exercise 2
Exercise 2G 1 a (3, 0) ( _ 43 , 4 )
b c 6
1 (x – 7)2 + y2 = (x + 7)2
2 a  _32 
x2 – 14x + 49 + y2 = x2 + 14x + 49
y2 = 28x b (6, 0)
a=7 c Gradient of line through S and P is −  __43 
__ __
2 (x – 2√__
5 2 + y2 = (x + 2√ 5
 )  )2 __ Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with coordinates of either S
or P.
x2 – 4√ x
5
__
+ 20 + y2
= x2
+ 4√5
 x + 20
y2 = 8√__ x
5 d 30
a = 2√ 5
  3 a y2 = 48x __ b x + 12 __
=0
3 a (y – 2)2 + x2 = (y + 2)2
( 16, 16√3
c    ) d 96√3  
y2 – 4y + 4 + x2 = y2 + 4y + 4 4 a (1, 4) and (64, 32)
b Gradient of normal is t. Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
y = __ 18 x2
given coordinates.
k = __
 18 c x + 2y − 9 = 0 and 4x + y − 288 = 0
b (0, 2); y + 2 = 0 d Coordinates are (81, −36) so are in the form (4t2, 8t)
c y where t = − __92 .
y = 18 x2
___
e 9 √ 97 
S(0, 2) 5 a Focus of C(a, 0), Q(−a, 0)
b (a, 2a) or (a, −2a)
O x 6 a Gradient of tangent is t2. Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) with
y = –2 c
coordinate (ct, __     ).
t
4 (x – a)2 + y2 = (x + a)2 b 4x − y = 45 ( −_ 34 , −48 )
c
x2 – 2ax + a2 + y2 = x2 + 2ax + a2 7 x + 4y − 12 = 0 and x + 4y + 12 = 0
( )
y2 = 4ax __
 2c  
8 a X (2ct, 0) and Y 0, ___ b 6√2
 
5 a (x – 3)2 + y2 = (x + 3)2 t
1
___
x2 – 6x + 9 + y2 = x2 + 6x + 9 9 a Gradient of tangent is −    . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1)
2t
y2 = 12x with coordinates for P.
k = 12 b 4ty = x + 16at2 c (8at2, 6at)
207

Answers
1
10 a Gradient of tangent is −  __2 . Use y − y1 = m(x − x1) b Use the double-angle formula for tan:
t 
with coordinates for P. 2 tan α 2t
tan 2α ≡ _________
  = ______
   
b Substitute (2a, 0) into equation for tangent to find t 1 − tan2 α 1 − t2
2t
in terms of a. Then use expression for t in general The gradient of the reflected ray is ______   2   using
point of H. t −1
(π − θ)= − tan θ.
tan
8a
c   c     c x2
2 2
___ d y = ___ e ___
    c Check the gradient of the reflected ray is also the
2a 4a 5
gradient of the line PS.
c  2 c  2
f Gradient of OQ is ____   2 . Gradient of XP is −  ___2  2at 2at 2t
4a  a  Gradient of PS = _______
  2   = ________
    = ______
   
Use the fact that the product of the gradients is −1 a t  − a a(t  2− 1) t  2− 1
to find the required expression
4a 
g  ___
CHAPTER 3
5
11 a P(3, −6) and Q(12, 12)
b Area = 30 1 __
  12 
a
dy dy 18 2 x = ±  _______
_____ 
12 a 2y  ___  = 36 ⇒ ___     = ___     √
1 + k  2 
dx dx y
( 18p )
18 3 y = − 3x + 10
Gradient of normal = − 1 ÷ ____     = − p
Equation of normal: Exercise 3A
y − 18p = − p(x − 9p  2) ⇒ y + px = 18p + 9p  3 1 i a y
b (9, −18), (0, 0) or (9, 18)
c (81, 54) 2
d 1458 x2 + 4y2
2 2
13 a Find m =  _____ and use y − 2ap = _____
p + q(
    x − ap  2) to
p+q
show (p + q)y – 2x = 2apq.
b Substitute S(a, 0) to obtain −2a = 2apq and –4 O 4 x
conclude that pq = −1.
c (apq, a(p + q))
d pq = −1 implies x = −a, which is the equation of the –2
directrix.
14 a Equation of tangent is x + t2y = 2ct. At A, y = 0,
so x = 2ct. So A(2ct, 0).
b x = 4 cos θ, y = 2 sin θ
   . So B(0,  ___ ).
2c 2c
At B, x = 0, so y = ___ ii a y
t t
( t  )
1
|PB|  2 = | AP|  2= c  2 t  2 + __   2  6
b Area =  2 (2ct)(    )= 2c  2, which is a constant.

__
1 2c
___
4x2 + y2 = 36
t
x
15 a Equation of tangent at P: y = __     + ap. Equation of
p
x
tangent at Q: y = __     + aq. Given the tangents are –3 O 3 x
q
1 1
perpendicular, __     × __    = −1, so pq = −1. Equate y
p q
terms and simplify to obtain x = apq. As pq = −1,
x = −a, which is the equation of the directrix. –6
b Midpoint = M(_________  , a(p + q))

a(p  2+ q  2)
 
2 b x = 3 cos θ, y = 6 sin θ
a (p
  2
+ q  2) iii a y
Substitute x =  _________   and y = a(p + q) into
2
5
y2 = 2a(x – a) and simplify using pq = −1. 3
x2 + 9y2 = 25
Challenge
a The gradient of the normal is –t. Since the ray is
parallel to the x-axis, the right-angled triangle shown –5 O 5 x
below gives tan α = t.
1
α – 53
t b x = 5 cos θ, y = __
 53  sin θ

Answers
( ) ( )
2 i a y Challenge
3 ___1 1__ a b
  __  −  ___   _______
  __   − _______
  __  
  (
b sin t )
√
2  √
2  a cos t √
2  cos t √
2  sin t
x = 2cosθ, y = 3sinθ     =   
___1 1 a b
  __  ___
  __  _______
  __   + _______
  __  
√
2  √ 2  √
2  cos t √ 2  sin t
Show ( x + y)  2= 2a  2 cos  2t
–2 O 2 x
Show ( x − y)  2= 2b  2 sin  2t
( x − y) 
( x + y)  2 _______ 2
Substitute into _______    +    = 1 and simplify.
2a  2
2b 
2
–3
Exercise 3B
x2 y
2
b  ___  +  ___ = 1 1 a y
4 9
ii a y
5
x2 – 4y2 = 16
x = 4cosθ, y = 5sinθ
–4 O 4 x
–4 O 4 x
y = 12 x y = – 12 x
–5
b y
x 2y 2
b  ___  + ___
   = 1
16 25
iii a y
4x2 – 25y2 = 100
5
–5 O 5 x
x = cosθ, y = 5sinθ
y = 25 x y = – 25 x
–1 O 1 x
c y
–5
y 2 x2 y2
b x2 + ___
    = 1 – =1
25 8 2
iv a y
–2 2 O 2 2 x
3
x = 4cosθ, y = 3sinθ
y = 12 x y = – 12 x
–4 O 4 x
2 i a y
–3
x2 y
2
b  ___  + ___
    = 1
16 9
3 a (b cos θ, a sin θ) x = 2secθ, y = 3tanθ
x2 y
2
b Ellipse __  2  +  ___2 = 1
b a –2 2 x
y x = 4 cos t O
c
y = sin t
π 3π
1     < t < ___
__     y = 32 x y = – 32 x
2 2
x2 y
2
–4 O x b  __  −  __ = 1
4 9
–1
209

Answers
ii a y 3 a The foci are on the x-axis, so a . b.

_
b i e =  __12 
ii a = 6, b = 3 √ 3
 
c y
x = ±4cosht, y = 3sinht 3 3
–4 4 x
O
–12 –6 O 6 12 x
y = 34 x y = – 34 x
x2 y
2 –3 3
b  ___  − __
   = 1
16 9
iii a y 4 a The foci are on the y-axis, so b . a.
_
b i e = __ ii a = 2√ 3
 12   , b = 4
c y
x = ±cosht, y = 2sinht
8
–1 1 x
O
y = 2x y = –2x
y 2
b x − __
2
   = 1
4
–2 3 O 2 3 x
iv a y
x = 5secθ, y = 7tanθ –4
–5 5 x
O –8
___
y = 75 x y = – 75 x 2√10 
5 a e = _____
    b e =  __34  c e = __
 35 
5
x2 y 2 6 a y
b  ___  − ___
   = 1
25 49
Challenge x2 – y2 = 1
( ) ( )
4 8
___1 1__ ct c
  __  −  ___   ___
  __  − ____
  __ 
1 (   t  )
√
2  2  ct
√ √
2  t√ 2  c  2t   2 c  2
    __c    = , so x  2 = _____
   − c  2 + ____
  2  and O x
___ 1 ___ct ____ c 2 2t  –2 3 –2 2 2 3
  __  ___
  __    __  +   __ 
√ 2  √ 2  √
2  t√ 2 
c  2t   2 c  2
y  2 = _____
   + c  2 + ____
  2 . Therefore y  2− x  2= 2c  2, x=
2 2t  x=– 2
3
2
3
__
so a  2= 2c  2 ⇒ a = ±c√ 2 , so y2 – x2 = a2
b y
Exercise 3C
1 a e = __
 23  x2 – y2 = 1
__
√ 16 9
 7
b e = ___
   
4
1__
c e =  ___   –5 –4 O 4 5 x
√
 2
2 a Foci = (±1, 0); directrices x = ±4
b Foci = (±3, 0); directrices x = ±  __
16
3
  x = – 16
5
x= 16
5
c Foci = (0, ±2); directrices y = ±  __92 

Answers
c y ⇒ c2 = a2 − a2e2 + a2e2 = a2
⇒ c=a
ae
x2 – y2 = 1 So cos θ = ___
   = e
a
4 5 If you use the result that SP + S′P = 2a then since
S′P = SP it is clear SP = a
ae
–3 –3 –2 O 2 3 x Hence cos θ = ___
   = e
a
12 y
E P
x = – 43 x= 4
3
( )
___
5 5
e = ____
7 a i   ___ ; foci are ±  ____ ___ × √
24 , 0 = (±5, 0) 30°
√
24  √
24 
S9 O S x
ii e = 5; foci are (±5 × 1, 0) = (±5, 0) (–ae, 0) (ae, 0)
 54 ; foci are ( __
iii e = __   45 × 4, 0)= (±5, 0)
iv e =  __53 ; foci are ( __
  35 × 3, 0)= (±5, 0)
b y
a2e2 y
2
e=5 PS is y where ____   2  + __   2 = 1

a b
y2 = b2(1______
− e2)
y = b√ 1 − e2 
SS′ = 2ae ______
1 y b√ 1 − e2 
tan 30° = ___   __  = ____
    = ________
   
√
3  2ae 2ae
O x
But b2 = a2(1 − e2) ______ ______
e= 5 a√ 1 − e2  √ 1 − e2 
1__ _______________
24 ⇒  ___   =   
   
e= 5
4 √
3  2ae
e= 5
2e
⇒  ___
3
__ = 1 − e2
√
3 
2__
⇒ e +     e − 1 = 0
2 ___
√
3 
8 Use the fact that (ae, 0) is on the chord.
1__
( ae)  2 y
_____   2 b  2 ⇒ e =  ___  , (e > 0)
  2  + ___   2 = 1 simplifies to y = ±  ___ . √
3 
a  b  a
2b  2
Therefore the length of the chord is ____    
a
Exercise 3D
x2 ____ y2 1 a Tangent: x cos θ + 2y sin θ = 2
9 a   5 __
4 ___
b     +    = 1
36 100 Normal: 2x sin θ – y cos θ = 3 sin θ cos θ
10 Let P have coordinates (x, y). __ b Tangent: 3x cos θ + 5y sin θ = 15
)2 + y2 = x2 + 6x√ 3 + 27 + (    )
__
x2 Normal: 5x sin θ__– 3y cos θ = 16 sin θ cos θ
PA2 = (x + 3√ 3 __ 9 – __
__ 4 2 a Tangent: 6y__+ √ 5  x = 9
=   4 (x + 4√ 3 )
3 2
__ __
__ √
3  Normal: 3√ 5  y = 18x − 16√ 5  
x + 4√ 3 > 0 ⇒ PA =    x + 6 ___ __
__2 b Tangent: 2√ 3 − x = 8 __
 y __
√
3 
Similarly, PB = 6 – ___    x Normal: y + 2√ 3  x = −3√  
3
2 dy b cos t
So PA + PB = 12. 3  ___  = −  ______ 
dx a sin t
11 y b cos t
So tangent is y − b sin t = −  ______ (x − a cos t)
a sin t
b P ⇒ bx cos t + ay sin t = ab(sin2t + cos2t) = ab
x2 + y2 = 1 __
a2 b2 4 a y = x + √ 5 meets the ellipse when
__ 2
x  2
 ___  + (x + √ 5  )  = 1
θ 4 __
⇒ 5x2 + 8√ 5 x + 16 = 0
S9 O S x __ 2
This has discriminant (8 √ 5 )  − 4 × 5 × 16 = 0.
So the line meets the ellipse at only one point,
therefore __
is
__
a tangent to the ellipse.
(−  __5  √ 5 , __ 5  √ 5
  )
4 1
b
Consider △POS 5 a 2y cos θ − 3x sin θ = −5 sin __
θ cos θ __
b
c b P is __ (3, 0), (−3, 0), (−  __32 , √   3 )or ( −  __32 , −√ 3   )
θ 6 c = ±2√ 2  
ae 7 m = ±2
(− __2 , 1) (0, __  14 ) d  __
3 45
c2 = b2 + a2e2, but b2 = a2(1 − e2) 8 a m=2 b c 16
 
211

Answers
(0, −   sinh t )

dy 3
______
5 a
   
___
dy ___ dθ 2 cos θ
9 a     =     = _______   = −  __23 cot θ (0, __   sinh t)
___   b  25
dx ___ dx − 3 sin θ 3
   
dθ c  __23  |(25 sinh2 t + 9) coth t|
__ __
(   5 )  ______

( −   5 )  __
_9 2 _8 2 6 P and Q are (4, 3√ 3 ) and (4, −3√ 3
 )
____
b     +     =   25 9
+ __
  16
25
= 1, so Q(__
  95 , −  __85 )lies on E. 7 c = ±6
9 4
8 m = ±  __
13
7
 
c  __12
9 m = ±4 and c = ±7
(√ √ 10 ) ( √ 10  √ 10 )

9 2 9 2
d tan θ =  __13 ; ____
  ___  ,  ____
___  and −  ____ _ , − ____
  _  10 a c=3
10 
(__
  25 3)
 , −  __
16
__ b 3
 
10 m = ±√ 2 , c = ±8
a sinh t
11 3x sin θ cos θ − 2y = 24 sin θ 11 a Find normal gradient = –  _______ and substitute into
b cosh t
3 cos θ y − y  1 = m(x − x 1)
12 a m   = _______
    , ( x  1, y 1 ) = (5 cos θ, 3 sin θ)
b (
(
a )
cosh t, 0)
− 5 sin θ   2+ b  2
a
_______
   
Substitute into y − y  1 = m(x − x  1 ) and simplify.
( )
(a2
+ b 2
) sinh t cosh t – a2 sinh t
b 3y sin θ cos θ − 9 cos θ = 5x sin  2 θ c a, ____________________________
         
b cosh t
c At (−4, 0), − 9 cos θ = − 20 sin  2 θ
5
Use sin  2 θ + cos  2 θ ≡ 1 to obtain 12 a Substitute m = ______     and
7 sin θ
20 cos  2 θ + 9 cos θ − 20 = 0 and therefore cos θ =  __45 
dy − 2 cos t (x1, y1) = (7 sec θ, 5 tan θ) into y − y  1 = m(x − x 1) .
13 a ___     = ________
   and substitute into y − y  1 = m(x − x  1 ) 5 7 sin θ
dx sin t b l1 has gradient ______    , so equation of l2 is y = –  ______
 
− 2 cos t 7 sin θ 5
using m = ________    and ( x  1, y  1) = (2 cos t, 4 sin t) So at Q, –   5 (sin2 θ)x = 5x – 35 cos θ
__
49
sin t
b Find l2  : 2y cost = x sint and equate/substitute l1  a nd l2  . 175 cos θ –245 sin θ cos θ
  
⇒ x = _____________
       
 , y = ______________
      
14 x-intercept is x =   ____a
 , y-intercept is y =  
b
____   25 + 49 sin2 θ 25 + 49 sin2 θ
cos t sin t dy x
a b 13  ___  = ___
   
Area = __  12  × ____
    × ____
   and simplify using dx 4y
cos t sin t
y − y  1 = m(x − x  1) ⇒ x x  1 − 4y y  1 = 16, x x  2 − 4y y  2 = 16
sin 2t ≡ 2 sin t cos t to obtain______ answer. y  2 − y  1 m
2 √ 36 − x  2  Equate and substitute (m, n) to obtain  _______  = ___    
15 Rearrange to obtain y =   __________  and then integrate x  2 − x  1 4n
3 This is the gradient of the line joining (x 1, y 1) and (x 2, y 2)
using the substitution 6 sin u = x. Simplify using m
sin  2 u + cos  2 u ≡ 1. Integrate between x = 3 and x = 6    (x − x  1) ⇒ mx − 4ny = 16
y − y  1 = ___
4n
and multiply the answer by 2 (for the area underneath 14 Substitute (6, 4) into the general equation of the
the x-axis. tangent to get 3 sec θ − 4 tan θ = 2 ⇒ 2 cos θ + 4 sin θ = 3
___
Challenge ⇒ √ 20 cos(θ + 1.107…) = 3

______
⇒ θ + 1.107… = …, 0.835…, 5.447…, 7.118…, …
 x  2  √
2
Rearrange to obtain y = b 1 − __
a  This gives two values of θ in the range [0, 2π), so there
x
Use the substitution sin u = __
    are two tangents to the hyperbola passing through (6, 4).
a _
Integrate between x = 0 and x = a and then multiply the 15 P = (2, 2√ 3  ) _
final answer by 4. dy 4x dy 4 √ 3 
 ___ = ___
  , so at P ___
  = _____
   
dx y dx 3
Exercise 3E √ 3
 
_
1 a Tangent: 8y = 3x − 4 b Tangent: 3y = 2x − 6 Line l has gradient −  ___ 

_ 4 _
Normal: 3y + 8x = 108 Normal: 2y + 3x = 48 _
√ 3
  √  
3
y – 2√ 3 = −  ___  (x − 2) ⇒y = −  ___  (x − 10)
c Tangent: 5y = 2x − 5 4 4
Normal: 2y + 5x = 56 Line l cuts the x-axis at _ x = 10 so the right-angled
2 a Tangent: 5y sinh t + 10 = 2x cosh t triangle has area = 8 √   3
2 _
Normal: 2y cosh t + 5x sinh t = 29 cosh t sinh t The remaining region has area = ∫  √ 4(x  2− 1)  dx.
b Tangent: y tan t + 3 = 3x sec t 1
Normal: 3y sec t + x tan t = 10 sec t tan t Substitute x = cosh u and dx = sinh u du so integral
dy becomes
b sec t
3   ___  = −  ______  arcosh 2 ___________ arcosh 2
dx a tan t 2  ∫ √ osh  u − 1  sinh u du = 2  ∫
c  
2
s inh  2 u du
b sec t
So tangent is y − b tan t = −  ______ (x − a sec t) 0 0
a tan t arcosh 2
⇒ bx sec t − ay tan t = ab(sec2t − tan2t) = ab   12   ∫
= __ ( e  u − e  −u)(e  u − e  −u) du
0
dy b cosh t a sinh t
4  ___  = _______  , so gradient of normal is −  _______ 
arcosh 2
    12   ∫
= __ ( e  2u − 2 + e  −2u) du
dx a sinh t b cosh t 0
So equation of normal is
  12 [ __12 (e  2u − e  −2u) − 2u]   
arcosh 2 _
a sinh t = __ = 2 √ 3 − arcosh 2
y − b sinh t = −  _______ (x − a cosh t) 0
b cosh t _
⇒ ax sinh t + by cosh t = (a2 + b2)sinh t cosh t So total area = 10 √ 3
 – arcosh 2

Answers
16 a The asymptotes of H are y = x and y = −x. 2x 2y ___ dy dy b   2x

    ×    = 0 ⇒   ___  = ____
3 a  ___2  − ___    
Let A = (a, a) and B = (b, −b), so the midpoint of a  b  2 dx dx a  2y
AB is ( _____
2 )
a+b a−b   2b tan t
a a
    ,  _____
 . So gradient of normal at P is −  ________   = −   __  sin t
2 b  2a sec t b
Now we compute a and b for the generic point P on H a
Equation of tangent is y − b tan t = −  __  sin t(x − a sec t)
P = (X, Y ). b
dy dy x ⇒ ax sin t + by = (a2 + b2) tan t
Differentiating H we get 2x − 2y  ___= 0 ⇒ ___
  = __
 
dx y
b y = 0 ⇒ x = ( _______
a )
sec t ⇒ A is (________ sec t, 0)
dx a2 + b2 a2 + b2
       
X a
Gradient of the tangent at P is __
 
(  b  )tan t ⇒ B is (0,   b  )
Y a2 + b2 a2 + b2
X x = 0 ⇒ y = _______ ________ tan t
So the tangent has equation y – Y = __
  ( x – X)
Y
(  2a  )
X a2 + b2 a2 + b2
At A: a – Y = __   ( a – X) ⇒ a = X + Y Midpoint of AB is ________ sec t,  ________ tan t
 
Y 2b
X a 2
+ b2
2ax
At B: b – Y = __  ( −b – X) ⇒ b = Y − X x =  ________
  sec t ⇒ sec t =  _______  
Y 2a a2 + b2
a+b a−b
So X =     and Y = _____
_____     a2 + b2 2by
2 2 y =  ________
  tan t ⇒ tan t =  _______  
_ _ 2b a2 + b2
b |OA|= √ 2
 |a| and |OB| = √ 2  |b|
Use sec2 t ≡ 1 + tan2 t:
So |OA| × |OB| = 2|ab| =2|X2 – Y2| = 2|1| = 2
4a2x2 = (a2 + b2)2 + 4b2y2
which is constant.
dy 3 cos t
4 a Find ___     = _______
    and substitute into
Exercise 3F dx − 5 sin t
5 sin θ
1 a (apq, a(p + q)) y − y  1 = m(x − x  1 ) using m = ______
    and
3 cos θ
b Chord PQ has gradient (x  1, y  1) = (5 cos θ, 3 sin θ)
__________
 
2a(p − q)
2ap − 2aq ______________ 2
     = _______
 =        b Find midpoint ( __
  58  cos θ, –  __38  sin θ)and use
ap2 − aq2 a(p − q)(p + q) (p + q) sin  2 θ + cos  2 θ ≡ 1
2
Equation of chord PQ is: y − 2ap = _____
    (x − ap2) 5 a Tangent at P is x + p2y = 2cp
p+q
Tangent at Q is x + q2y = 2cq
⇒ y(p + q) − 2ap2 − 2apq = 2x − 2ap2 Tangents intersect when (p2 − q2)y = 2c(p − q)
⇒ y(p + q) = 2x + 2apq
So R = (
p + q p + q)
2cpq _____ 2c
_____
   ,    
Chord passes through (a, 0) ⇒ 0 = 2a + 2apq
or pq = −1 c c
 __  −  __ 
Locus of R is x = −a q p
_______ 1
b Gradient of PQ is     = −  ___ 
cq − cp pq
c y=a
So equation of PQ is
2x 2y ___ dy dy b  2x
    ×    = 0 ⇒   ___  = ____
2 a  ___2  − ___     c 1
    = −  ___ (x − cp) ⇒ ypq + x = c(p + q)
y − __
a  b  2 dx dx a  2y p pq
b  2 a sec t ______ b c i y = −2x, x ≠ 0 ii y = 2c2, x < 0 iii x = 2c2
So gradient of tangent at P is  ________   =    
a  2b tan t a sin t 1
6 a  __
b t
Equation of tangent is y − b tan t = ______    (x− a sec t) 1
a sin t b y − 2at = __    (x − at2) ⇒ ty − 2at2 = x − at2
t
⇒ bx sec t − ay tan t = ab(sec2t − tan2t) = ab ⇒ x − ty + at2 = 0
ab at
b A is where y = 0 ⇒ x = ______     = a cos t, c T is (0, at). Perpendicular bisector of OT is y =  __ 
b sec t 2
Perpendicular bisector of OP is y − at = − __ (x −  ____ )
i.e. A(a cos t, 0). t at  2
ab 2 2
B is where x = 0 ⇒ y =  _______  = – b cot t, Centre of circle is where perpendicular bisectors
−a tan t
intersect:   __  − at = − __ (x −  ____ )
i.e. B(0, −b cot t). at t at  2
Midpoint of AB is ( __  cos t, −  __  cot t)

a b 2 2 2
Therefore centre of circle is ( ____      + a,   __ ).
at  2 at
2 2
a a 2 2
x =  __  cos t ⇒ sec t = ___
    at 2
d X = a +  ___  ⇒ at2 = 2(X − a)
2 2x 2
b b at
y = −  __  cot t ⇒ tan t = −  ___  Y =  ___  ⇒ 2at = 4Y
2 2y 2
So (4Y)2 = 4a × 2(X − a) or 2Y 2 = a(X − a)
Use sec2 t ≡ 1 + tan2 t
a2 b2 7 y =  __21 , x < 0
⇒ ____
  2 = 1 + ____   2 which gives locus.
x   2 ( 2y − 6) 
2
4x 4y
8 a ___
  2  +  ________  = 1
2  4 
2
b Simplifies to x  2 + ( y − 3)  2= 4 which is a circle of

centre (0, 3) and radius 2.
213

Answers
b A is ( _______   sec t, 0) and B is ( 0,  _______   tan t).

a  2 + b  2 a  2 + b  2
Challenge  
a b
A is (x1, y1) and B is (x2, y2).
So midpoint is (x, y) = ( _______   tan t).
a  2 + b  2 a  2 + b  2
  sec t,  _______
 and the midpoint is (x, y) = ( _______
2 )
y 2  − y 1 y 1  + y 2
x 1  + x 2 _______  
Then k = _______
     ,     . 2a 2b
x 2  − x 1 2
4a  2x
  2 4b  y
2
  2
2 2}
  2 x 21 + 
b   a  2y  21 = 
  a  2b   2 Using sec2t ≡ 1 + tan2t, __________
  2   = __________
  2   + 1
     ⇒ a  2(y
 22   − y 21)  = b  2(x
 22  − x 21)  (a
   + b  )  (a
2 2
   + b  2)  2
2 2 2 2
b  x   a  y
 2 +    a  b
 2 =   
So the locus of the midpoint is 4a2x2 = (a2 + b2)2 + 4b2y2.
⇒ a2(y1 + y2)(y2 − y1) = b2(x1 + x2)(x2 − x1)
c c
 __  − __
   
ka  2 ka  2 p q c (q − p) 1
⇒ −  ____   (y1 + y2) = (x1 + x2) ⇒ −  ____   y = x ⇒ ka2y + b2x = 0 4 a Gradient of chord = _______
    = ___________
     = −  ___ 
b 
2
b  2 cp − cq pq c ( p − q) pq
b y
Mixed exercise 3
  2 y 
x
2 P
1 a  ___  + ___
   = 1
16 81
b y Q
9 O x
R
E
xy = c2
1 1
Gradient of PQ = −  ___  and gradient of PR = −  ___ 
pq pr
So −1 = p2qr (1)
1
Gradient of tangent at P is −  ___2 and gradient of
1 p
–4 O 4 x chord RQ = −  ___ 
qr
So (−    ) −   2  = _____
qr ( p ) p2qr
1
___ 1
___ 1
   
But from (1), p2qr = −1

Therefore tangent at P is perpendicular to chord QR.
dy −ct −2 1
5 a y = ct −1, x = ct ⇒ ___
    = _____
    = −  __2 
dx c t
–9
c 1
Equation of tangent is: y − __     = −  __2  (x − ct)
t t
⇒ yt2 − ct = −x + ct or t2y + x = 2ct
c 4x sin θ − 9y cos θ = − 65 cos θ sin θ
(−  3  , −12)and (12,   3 )
b __
4 __ 4
x  2 y 
2
2 a  ___  −  ___ = 1 6 a Let P have coordinates (x, y).
4 25
PA2 = (x + 4)2 + y2 = x2 + 8x + 16 + ( 9 −  __
9
x  2)
b y 25
= ( __
  45  x + 5) 
2
  45 x + 5 > 0 ⇒ PA = __
__  45 x + 5
Similarly, PB = 5 −  __45 x, so PA + PB = 10.
H b y
180° – α
P
ϕ θ
–2 O 2 x A α B
–4 O X 4 x
Normal at P is 5x sin t − 3y cos t = 16 cos t sin t

X is when y = 0, i.e. x = __
  16
5
  cos t
PB2 = (5 cos t − 4)2 + (3 sin t)2 = (4 cos t − 5)2
y= 5 x y=–5 x ⇒ PB = 5 − 4 cos t and PA = 10 − PB = 5 + 4 cos t
2 2
AX = 4 + __
 16
5
  cos t, BX = 4 − __
 16
5
  cos t
c 2y sinh t + 10 = 5x cosh t Consider sine rule on △ PAX:
x y2 2 sin α(4 + __
 16  cos t)
sin (180° − α) AX _________________
3 a ___
  2  − _____
  2 2 = 1 sin ϕ = _______________
  
    =   
    
5
   45  sin α
= __
a am AP 5 + 4 cos t

Answers
Consider sine rule on △ PBX: 10 y

sin α(4 − __
 16
sin α BX _________________
5
  cos t) P
sin θ = ________
    =          45  sin α
= __
PB 5 − 4 cos t xy = c2
So sin ϕ = sin θ and, since both angles are acute, θ = ϕ
Therefore normal bisects APB. O x
dy −ct2 Q
1
7 a y = ct−1, x = ct ⇒ ___
    = ____
   = −  __2 
dx c t
c 1
Equation of tangent is: y − __     = −  __2  (x − ct)
t t c c
yt2 − ct = −x + ct or t2y + x = 2ct  __  − __
   
p q
_______ c(q − p) 1
Chord PQ has gradient     = __________
    = −  ___ 
b y cp − cq pqc(p − q) pq
If gradient = 1, then pq = −1.
Tangent at P is p2y + x = 2cp
Tangent at Q is q2y + x = 2cq
2c
Intersection: (p2 − q2)y = 2c(p − q) ⇒ y = _____    
P p+q
2cp 2
2cpq
⇒ x = 2cp −   _____   =   _____  
O x p+q p+q
So R is (
p + q p + q)
2cpq 2c
 _____ , _____    
But pq = –1 so R is ( x = _____
p + q)
−2c 2c
   , y = _____
   
p+q
1 The locus of R is the line y = −x
Gradient of tangent is −  __2 
t dy 4 cos θ _______ 2 cos θ
Gradient of OP is t 2 11 a Find  ___  = _______     =     and substitute into
dx − 6 sin θ − 3 sin θ
Equation of OP is y = t2x 2 cos θ
y − y  1 = m(x − x  1) using m = _______     and
Equation of tangent is t2y = 2ct − x − 3 sin θ
(x  1, y  1) = (6 cos θ, 4 sin θ)
Solving, t4x = 2ct − x
b Find midpoint ( _____
cos θ sin θ )
3 ____ 2
2ct 2ct3    ,     and use sin 2 θ + cos  2 θ ≡ 1
⇒ x = ______
    , y =  ______4 
1 + t4 1+t 5 cos θ
12 a m =  _________  , (x1, y1) = (13 cos θ, 5 sin θ)
4c2t2 + 4c2t6 ______4c2t2 − 13 sin θ
x2 + y2 = ____________
      =    
}
(1 + t )
4 2
1 + t4 Substitute into y − y  1 = m(x − x  1) and simplify.
b 5y sin θ cos θ − 25 cos θ = 13x sin  2 θ
16c4t4
⇒ (x2 + y2)2 = ________
    c (−ae, 0) = (−12, 0) as a = 13, b = 5 and e = __  12  
(1 + t4)2 13
⇒ (x2 + y2)2 = 4c2xy Given line passes through this point,
4c t 2 4
− 25 cos θ = − 156 sin  2 θ
xy = ________
   
(1 + t4)2 Use sin  2 θ + cos  2 θ ≡ 1 to obtain
2ap 2 2 156 cos  2 θ + 25 cos θ − 156 = 0 and therefore
8 a OP has gradient ____
  2  =  __  and OQ has gradient __    
ap  p q
cos θ = __ 12
 13  = e
2 2
Since OP and OQ are perpendicular, __     × __
   = − 1, sin θ
p q 13 a Find normal gradient = −  ____  and substitute into
so pq = −4. 2
y − y  1 = m(x − x  1)
b y + xq = aq3 + 2aq
b A(20 sec θ, 0), B(1, 10 tan θ) and midpoint of
c Normal at P is y + xp = ap3 + 2ap AB is (10 sec θ, 5 tan θ)
Solve equations simultaneously to get x  2 ___ y  2
Use tan  2 θ + 1 ≡ sec  2 θ to obtain ____     −    = 1
x = a(q2 + p2 + qp + 2), y = apq(q + p) 100 25
dy b cos t
pq = – 4 ⇒ R is (ap2 + aq2 – 2, – 4pq(p + q)) 14 a   ___  = _______   
dx − a sin t
d x = a((p + q)2 − 2pq − 2) = a((p + q)2 + 6) a sin t
So gradient of normal at (a cos t, b sin t) is  ______ 
y b cos t
y = 4a(p + q) ⇒ p + q =  ___  a sin t
4a Equation of normal is y − b sin t =  ______  (x − a cos t)
x = a(_____  + 6)
y 2 b cos t
⇒   ⇒ ax sin t − by cos t = (a2 − b2)cos t sin t
16a2
b y = 0 ⇒ x = ( _______
a )
cos t ⇒ M is ( ________ cos t, 0)
y 2 a2 − b2 a2 − b2
       
⇒ x − 6a = ____
    ⇒ y 2 = 16ax − 96a2 a
16a
( b  )sin t ⇒ N is ( 0, −   b  )
a −b
2 2
a − b2
2
x2 y
2 x = 0 ⇒ y = −  _______ ________ sin t
9 y = mx + c and ___
  2  + __  2 = 1
a b
(  2a  )
a 2
− b2
a 2
− b2
⇒ b2x2 + a2(mx + c)2 = a2b2 Midpoint of MN is ________ cos t, −  ________   sin t
2b
⇒ x2(b2 + a2m2) + 2a2mcx + a2(c2 − b2) = 0 a −b
2 2
2ax
________
x =     cos t ⇒ cos t =   2 _______ 2
For a tangent the discriminant is 0: 2a a −b
4a4m2c2 = 4(b_________
2
+ a2m2)a2(c2 − b2) a2 − b2 2by
________
y = −     sin t ⇒ sin t =  _______  
⇒ c = ±√ a2m2 + b2  _________ 2b a2 − b2
So the lines y = mx ± √ a2m2 + b2 are tangents. sin2 t + cos2 t ≡ 1 ⇒ 4b2y2 + 4a2x2 = (a2 − b2)2
215

Answers
__ __
15 a = 5, b = 3 ⇒ e = __  45 , so foci are (±4, 0). 3 − 5 , x , − 4 and −___ 1 − √ 7  , x , − 1 + √ 7  ___
Let P have coordinates (x, y). 5 − √
29  5 + √ 29 
4 {x : − __  12  , x , ________
    } ∪ {x : 3 , x , ________
    }
PS2 = (x + 4)2 + y2 = x2 + 8x + 16 + ( 9 −  __ 9
25
x  2) 2 2
= ( __
  45  x + 5)  5 a The student did not square the denominators before
2
cross-multiplying. Multiplying by negative values

  45 x + 5 > 0 ⇒ PS = __
__  45 x + 5 does not preserve the inequality.
Similarly, PS′ = 5 −  __45 x, so PS + PS′ = 10. b −  __34  , x , − 1 or 0 , x , 4
a
16 x-intercept is x =  _____ , height is b sin t. 6 {x : − 2 , x , − 1} ∪ {x : − __
 12  , x , 0}
cos t
a
Area = __
 12  × ____
    × b sin t which simplifies to __
 12  ab tan t.
cos t Challenge
17 Area bounded by x-axis, x = 3 and ellipse is x , ln  __12  or x . ln 1
b _______ __
 94 √ 3 
  12 ∫  √ 36 – x2  dx = 3π – __
__
3
Area of triangle formed by x = 3, the tangent and the Exercise 4B
x-axis is __ 1 a y
3√ 3  27 √__
 __12 × 9 × ____
    = __
  4 3  y = x2 – 5x + 6
2 __ __ __
Shaded area = __  27
4
√ 3 – (3π – __
 94 √ 3 ) = 9√ 3 – 3π
18  ___
108
6
5 _ _
19 a P(3, 2√  )
2 and Q = (3, −2√ 2
 )
b The area of R is 2( __12 )(__
  83 )( 2√ 2
_
  ) − I
3 _
where I = ∫  √ x  2 − 1  dx
1
Substitute x = cosh u and dx = sinh u du so integral
becomes
arcosh 3 ___________ arcosh 3
  ∫ √ osh  u − 1  sinh u du =   ∫
c  
2
s inh  2 u du x
0 0 O 2 3
arcosh 3
  14   ∫
= __ ( e  − e  ) (e  − e  ) du
u −u u −u
b y
0
arcosh 3
  14   ∫
= __ ( e  2u − 2 + e  −2u) du
0
  14 [ __12 (e  2u − e  −2u) − 2u]   

arcosh 3 _
= __ = 3√ 2  − __
  12 arcosh 3 y = x3 + 2x2 – 3x
_ 0
Area of R = 2(_____
    − I )= arcosh 3 − __
8 √ 2
  _
 23 √ 2
 
3
Challenge
QS = ePS ⇔ QS  2= e  2PS  2
QS  2= a  2 e  4 cos  2 θ − 2a  2 e  3 cos θ + a  2 e  2
PS  2= a  2 cos  2 θ − 2a  2 e cos θ + a  2 e  2+ b  2 sin  2 θ
Use rearrangements of b  2= a  2(1 − e  2)to simplify. –3 O 1 x
CHAPTER 4
__ __ c y
1 a x , −  __13  or x . 1 b − 2 − √ 6  , x , − 2 + √ 6 
2 a x . 2 or x , −  __43  b  __23  , x , __
  52 
Exercise 4A
1 a −1 , x , 6 b x< __
−3 or x > 2 __
c −1 , x , 1 d − √ 3  , x , −1 or 1 , x , √ 3 
e 0 < x , 1 or x > __   32  f x , −1 or 0 , x , 2
y= 1
g x , −2 or −1 , x , 1 or x . 2 1 x+1
h −1 , x , 0 or 0 , x , 2
i x , 4 or x . __   14
3
  –1 O x
j −2 , x , 5 or x . __   17
2
 
2 a {x : x .  _13  } ∪ {x : − 5 , x , 0}
b {x : x , 0} ∪ {x : 2 , x , 5}
c {x : x , − 2} ∪ {x : 0 , x , 1}
d {x : x , − 3} ∪ {x : − 1 , x , 1}
e {x : −  __13  , x , 0} ∪ {x : 0 , x , __   12  }
f {x : −1 , x , −   3  } ∪ {x : x .   2  }
__
1 __
1

Answers
d y c y
y = 2x – 1
O 1 x O
y= 4x
1 – 2x 2 1 2 x
3 –1 2
y=
–2 x–2 – 32
2 a y
d y
4
y = x2 – 2x + 1
4
y= x
1
4x – 2 4
1
y = 4 – 4x2 1 O 2
4 x
3
–1 O 1 x
y = 4 – 3x
b y
(7,  __4 )
1
3 a
y=x
b (4, 2) and (−1, −3)
c (−2, 0), (0, −4), (4, 12)
1 4 a y
–1 O 1 x
–1
y=x–1
y= 1
x
O 1 x
y= 4
x–1
–4
b (3, 2) and (−1, −2)

c −1 , x , 1 or x . 3
217

Answers
5 a y b (−1, −1) and (2,  _12  )

c −2 , x , −1 or 0 , x , 2
Challenge
y = 32
x a y
2 (x – 2)2 + (y – 4)2 = 10
3
O 3 x
4
y= 2
3–x
O
–1 2 5 x
b (−3,  _13  ) and (  _23  ,  _43  ) c −3 , x , _
  32  or x . 3
6 a y
b (−1, 3), (1, 1), (3, 7), (5, 5),
c y
4x (x – 2)2 + (y – 4)2 = 10
y=
(x – 1)2 4
O
12 x y = 4x – 5 5
x–2 2O
y= 3x –3 –1 2 5 x
2–x
d − 1 , x , 1 and 3 , x , 5
b (0, 0), (  _53  , 15) and (−1, −1)

Exercise 4C
c x < −1 or 0 < x , 1 or 1 , x < _   53 or 2 , x
y 1 a x , __
  67 
7 a ___ ___
b  __12  (−√ 13 − 1) , t , __
  12  (√ 13 − 1)
__ __
y=x–2 c −7 , x , −2 − √ 7 or −2 + √ 7
  , x , 3
d x > 1 or x < − 2
–2 O 2 3 x e x . 1 or x , − 3
–2 f x . 1 or x , −  __13 
y= 6(2 – x)
(x + 2)(x – 3) 2 a y
b (0, −2), (1, −1) and (2, 0)

c x , −2 or 0 < x < 1 or 2 < x , 3
8 a y
y= x
x+2 y= 1
x
y = |3x – 2|
1
4
–2 O x
2
x
y = 2x + 4 –2 O 2
3
b {x : −  __25  < x < 6}

Answers
3 a y y
y = |x2 – 4|
y= 4
x2 – 1
O
–2 –1 1 3 x –5 –1 O 3 x
–15 y = f(x)
–4
__ __ __ __ __ __
b − √  
5 < x , − 1 or 1 , x < √ 5
  c x = –5, 1 − √ 5   < x < 1 + √ 5
  < x < 1 − √ 3 , 1 + √ 3  
4 {x : − 1 , x ,  __13  }
__ __ __
Mixed exercise 4
  } ∪ {x : −√ 2
5 {x : x , −1 − √ 3   , x , √ 3 − 1} 1 0 < x < 2 or x > 4
__ __
6 a y 2 − 2 , x , 1 − √ 6
  or x . 1 + √ 6
 
3 0 , x , 2 or x . _
  27 
4 {x : 0 , x ,  _32  } ∪ {x : 3 , x , 4}
4a 5 {x : x , − 1} ∪ {x : 1 , x , 11}
6 a y
y = 2x + 4
x–2
1 2
y=
x–a –1 O
2 x
y = 4|x – a| –2
O a x
y = 2x + 2
__ __
b 1 − √ 5
  , x , 2 or x . 1 + √ 5
 
7 a y
b x , a or x . a + __
 12  y = 2x2 – 4
x –2
7 −2 , x , 0 or x . 2
8 a The student hasn’t checked which critical values 2
actually correspond to intersections of the graphs.
O 2 x
b 1,x,5
Challenge
a f(−1) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 − 13(−1) − 15 = −1 + 3 + 13 − 15 = 0 y = 2 – 4x
So by the factor theorem (x + 1) is a factor.
__ __
b f(x) = (x + 1)(x + 5)(x − 3) b − √ 2   or x . _
  , x , − 1 or 0 , x , √ 2   32 
219

Answers
__ __
8 a y 15 a x = −1 − √ 7 , 0, 1, −1 + √ 7
 
b y
2
y= x–2
1
3
3x – 1 1 y = |2x2 + x – 6|
–2 O 1
2 x
3
6
y= 2
x+2
2
–2 O 3 x
2
___ ___
y = 6 – 3x
b − 2 , x , 3 − √ 11  and __
  13  , x , 3 + √ 11 
9 a y
__ __
c x , − 1 − √ 7 or 0 , x , 1 or x . − 1 + √ 7
 
y = 2x – 1 16 a y
x+4
y= x+1 y = |2x – 1|
x–2
2
1 4
–4 2 x y= |x2 – 4|
O
1
–2 O 1
2 x
2
__ __
b x = −1 − √ 6 
, − 1, − 1 + √ 6
__
 , 3 __
c x , −1 − 6 , or −1 , x , −1 + √ 6
√   or x . 3
__ __
b x , − 4, 5 − 3√  
3 , x , 2, 5 + 3√ 3
  , x 17 a The student has correctly found critical values,
10 1 , x , 5 but not checked which correspond to points of
intersection.
11 − 3 , x , 3 __
b {x : x , −3 + √ 6 } ∪ {x : x . 1}
12 x , _
  27 
__ __
13 x , √ 3 − 1 or x . √ 3 + 1 Challenge
14 a y Solving x  2− 5x + 2 = x − 3 and x  2−__5x + 2 = 3__− x we find
that the critical values are x = 2 − √ 5 , 1, 2 + √ 5 , 5
Sketching the graphs we have
y y = |x – 3|
3 y = |x2 – 5x + 2|
y = |2x – 3| 3
2
O 1 3 x
5 2
–1
O 2– 51 2+ 5 5 x
y = 5x – 1 __ __
{x : x , 2 − √ 5 } ∪ {x : 1 , x , 2 + √ 5 } ∪ {x : x . 5}
b x._
  47 
Review exercise 1
__
√2
1 2 
−3
(2 + k)
2 a   3k
___
3√ 35 
b  _____  , which occurs when k = −0.2
5

Answers
⟶ ⟶
3 AB
  × AC
  = (b − a) × (c − a) c −2
=b×c−b×a−a×c+a×a d (r − ( __83 j − __
  10
3
k
)) × (−9i + 10j – 11k) = 0
=a×b+b×c+c×a 13 a (−5 − 4c)i + (−6 − 5c)j + k
B ⟶ ⟶
b Equating coefficients of i and j of RP
  × RQ
  ,
−5 − 4c = 3 ⇒ c = −2, and then d = −6 + 10 = 4.
c r.(3i + 4j + k) = 7
c a d −5i − 3j + 8k
14 a −15i − 10j − 10k b r.(3i + 2j + 2k) = 7
c (r − (3i − j)) × (−2i + j + 2k) = 0
(  9  , −  9  ,   9 )
d __
13 __
2 __ 14
A C
b
⟶ ⟶| 15 a 3i − 6j + 6k
Area = __  12 |AB
 12 AC × AB sin A = __   × AC
  b (0, 0, 0), (2, 0, −1) and (4, 3, 1) all satisfy
=  __12 |a × b + b × c + c × a|, as required. x − 2y + 2z = 0, so x − 2y + 2z = 0 is the equation of
the plane through O, A and B.
4 a 5i − 3j − 4k b 100 c 50 c 14
−30 3 −2 d r = 4i + 3j + k + t( j + k)
( 45 ) (2) (3)
5 a −15
  b r=1   + λ −1
  e 4i + j − k ___
√
17 
16 a 2i − 3j − 2k b  ____  
5 3 −2 2
(−1) (2) (3)

  + λ −1
c   2  = 1   , i.e. B is the point with λ = −1. c r.(2i − 3j − 2k) = −7 d 2x − 3y − 2z = −7
7
____
e   ___   f 3.2° (1 d.p.)
d 35 √
17 
−6 1 −3
(−4) (3) ( 1 )
6 a 2 17 a r = 2  + t 5 
  b  __
11
6
 
−6
(−4)
b A vector equation of Π is r. 2 = −14 −3
(1)
(  35  ,  35  ,  35 )
c r. 5 
  = −1 d __ 68 __ 15 __ 94
So −6x + 2y −4z = −14 ⇒ 3x − y + 2z = 7

e DE 2 = ( 1 − __
35 )
  + ( 2 − __
35 )
  + ( 3 − __
35 )
2 2 2
c (−1, 8, 9)  68  15  94   = ___
  121
⟶ ⟶ 35
d t − a = 3(b − a), so AT   and AB   are in the same ___
11√ 35 
direction and have A as a common endpoint. Thus ⇒ DE = _______
   
A, B and T lie on the same straight line. 35
(  35 , −  35 ,  35 )
f ___
101 __40 __ 83
7 a Equating the x- and y-components, and solving
the resulting simultaneous equations gives t = u = __  14 .
18 a Equating the x- and y-components of r for l1 and l2
Substituting these values into the z-components
and solving the resulting simultaneous equations
gives  __ 11
  for l and − __43  for m, which are not equal, so
4 gives s = 2 and t = 5. Substituting these into the
the lines do not intersect. z-components gives 2 for both l1 and l2, so l1 and l2
b (1 − 2t1 − 2u1)i + (−t1 + u1)j + (−4 + t1 + u1)k intersect.
c u1 = __  35  , t1 = __  35  (−2i + j + 3k).(−i + j − k) = 2 + 1 − 3 = 0, so l1 ⊥ l2.
−3 −2 2 x + 3 _____ y + 2 _____z−2 b r = −5i + 4j + 2k + μ(9i + (λ − 4)j − 5k)
8 a  ____
___  ,  ____ ___  ,  _______  b  _____   =     =    
√ 17  √ 17  √ 17  −3 −2 2 5λ + 11
c  ___________________
  
  ___ ______________ 
9 a i + 4j + 2k b r.(i + 4j + 2k) = 7 c 2 42  √ λ  
√ 2
− 8λ + 122 
10 a −i + 8j − 4k b 3i + j − k d −  __
11
5
 
|
i j k
|
___
√10 
c n1 × n2 = −1
     8    −4 |8 −4
  =
1 −1 | | −1 −4
i −
3 −1 | | −1 8
  j +
3 1 |
  k
19 a
c 2i + j + 3k
b r.(i − 2j − 2k) = −6
3 1 −1
= −4i − 13j − 25k = −1(4i + 13j + 25k) 20 (−8, 2)
d r = i + j + k + t(4i + 13j + 25k) 21 a y
11 a a(4i + j + 2k).(i − 5j + 3k) = a(4 × 1 + 1 × (−5) + 2 × 3)
= 5a C
⟶
b  BA= a(4i + j + 2k) − a(2i + 11j − 4k)
= 2a(i − 5j + 3k)
⟶
 BAis parallel to i − 5j + 3k, which is perpendicular
⟶
to Π. Hence BA
  is perpendicular to Π. O x
c 22.3° (1 d.p.)
12 a 6i + j − 4k
b The vector equation for Π1 is
r.(6i + j − 4k) = (i + 6j − k).(6i + j − 4k) = 16
So (xi + yj + zk).(6i + j − 4k) = 16
⇒ 6x + y − 4z = 16 √2
__
b 60 
221

Answers
dy c  2 dy 1
22 a = 2, b = 9 35 a  ___ = −  ___2 . x = ct ⇒ ___   = −  __2 
dx x  dx t 
Equation of perpendicular bisector of PQ is
y = −2x + 14 So gradient of normal is t2 and equation of normal is
___ ___ c c
15 √ 29  ___ 15 √ 29  y − __   = t2(x − ct) ⇒ y = t2x + __   − ct3
x-coordinates of M and N are ___
    + ____
    ,     − ____
    t t
( t )
2 2 2 2 c
λ =  __
15
, μ = __
 12 b −  __3 , −ct3
2
2( )
23 a (4, 0) b 4x − 3y − 16 = 0 c (1, −4) c 1 1
c (X, Y) =     t − __
__   3  ,  __ − t  3
24  ___
350
t  t
3
_1 _
1
t  ( t − _
 13 )
25 (2, 8), (−4, −4) X t −  t  3  1 t −  t  3  1
So __
    =   ______  = −  __2    ______  = −  __2 
26 (−8, 2) Y _   1 − t  3 t 
t t 
27 a P(2, 5) and Q(10, 1) b 24 – 10 ln 5
dy c  2 dy 1
28 a t =  __12  , (6, 24) b y = 2x + 12 36 a  ___ = −  ___ . x = cp ⇒ ___
  = −  ___ 
dx x  2 dx p  2
c y = −4x + 48 So equation of tangent is
29 The equation of the tangent is yt = x + at2, so T has c 1
y −  __ = − ___2 (x − cp) ⇒ p2y = −x + 2cp (1)
coordinates (−at2, 0). p p 
The equation of the normal is y = −tx + at3 + 2at, so N b The tangent at Q is q2y = −x + 2cq (2)
has coordinates (at2 + 2a, 0). _____ Subtracting (2) from (1) gives
PT 2 = (2at2)2 + (2at)2 = 4a2t2(1 + t2) ⇒ PT = 2at √ 1 + t2  2c
_____
(p2 − q2)y = 2c(p − q) ⇒ y = _____  
PN 2 = (2a)2 + ______ (2at)2 = (2a)2(1 + t2) ⇒ PN = 2a√ 1 + t2  p+q
PT 2at √ 1 + t2  c 1
⇒ ___
  = __________
  ______  = t
PN 2a √ 1 + t2  dy c  2 dy 1
37 a  ___ = −  ___2 . x = cp ⇒ ___   = −  ___2 
dy 9 dy 1 dx x  dx p 
30 a  ___  = −  __2  , x = 3t ⇒ ___     = −  __2  So equation of tangent is
dx x dx t
c 1
So the tangent to H at ( 3t, __   ) has equation
3 y −  __ = − ___2 (x − cp) ⇒ p2y + x = 2cp
p p 
t
(  3  , 3c)
c ______ c
3 1 b (2cp, 0) c  __√ 1 + p4  d __
y − __
  = −  __2 (x − 3t), or x + t2y = 6t. p
t t
38 Midpoint of OP has general point ( __
2 2t )
ct c
b At A, x = 6t ⇒ OA = 6t.     , ___
 
6 6 c
__
2
At B, t2y = 6t ⇒ y = __   ⇒ OB = __   xy =   , which is a hyperbola
t t 4
1 6 39 Distance from P to line = x +__________ 5
Area of triangle OAB =    × 6t × __ __   = 18
2 t Distance from P to (5, 0) is √ (   x − 5)  2+ y  2 
dy c  2 dy 1 So (x + 5)2 = (x − 5)2 + y2 ⇒ locus of P has equation
31 a   = −   2 . x = ct ⇒   = −   2 
___ ___ ___ __
dx x  dx t  y2 = 20x, i.e. a = 5.
So gradient of normal is t2 and equation of normal is 40 a y
c
  = t2(x − ct) ⇒ y = t3x − ty − c(t4 − 1) = 0
y − __ x 2 + y2 = 1
t 3
c
b y = x ⇒ t3x − tx − c(t4 − 1) = 0 ⇒ x = ct + __   16 9
t
So G has coordinates ( ct + __   ).
c c
  , ct + __
t t
PG2 = ( ct + __   − ct)  + ( ct + __   ) 
c 2
c c 2
  − __ –4 O 4 x
t t t
( t  )
1
= c  2 t  2 + __   2 
32 a (8, 0) b x = −8 –3
c Line through PQ and Q has gradient ___  −30  = −  __34 ,
40
so equation of this line is y − 8 = −  __43 (x − 2).

__
When y = 0, this gives x = 8, so the line goes √ __
7 
through S(8,0). b  ___  (±√ 7 , 0)
c
4__
dy 16
d     = ___
___     √
5 
___
__
dx y 41 a     √ 5 
b 4
2
Tangent to C at P is y − 8 = __  16  (x − 2), or y = 2x + 4,
8 c y
and tangent at Q is y + 32 = ___
 −16
32
 (x − 32),
or y = −  __21  x − 16. Thus D is such that 2x + 4 = −  __21  x − 16 H
2
E
⇒ x = __ −8, and hence lies on the directrix.
dy √ a dy 1
  __ . x = at2 ⇒ ___
33 a  ___ = ___   = __
 
dx √ x dx t
–4 O 4 x
So gradient of normal is −t and equation of normal is
y − 2at = −t(x − at2) ⇒ y + tx = 2at + at3
(a(  t )  , −2a(  t ))

2
t2 + 2
______ t2 + 2
______ –2
b
34 a 8 b y = 2x + 4 c 4

Answers
( b cosec θ )
__
  2− b  2
a
42 a (±√ 5 , 0) d H has coordinates 0, − ________     .
9
b The directrices are x = ±  ____ __ 
√
5  a  − b  2 __
2 b
Let the line through P parallel to the x-axis intersect A1 = Area of △OMG = __  12 × _______
   ×     sin θ
a sec θ 2
the directrices at N and N9. b
9 18     (a  2− b  2) sin θ cos θ
= ___
Then NN9 = 2 × ____   __  = ____   __  4a
√
5  √ 5     2− b  2 _______
a   2− b  2
a
A2 = Area of △OGH = __   12 × ________
    ×    
SP = ePN and S9P = ePN9, so b cosec θ a sec θ
SP __ + S9P = ePN + ePN9 = e(PN + PN9) = eN9N a  2− b  2)  2
(_________
=     sin θ cos θ
√
5  ___ 18 2ab
___
=     ×   __  = 6
3 √
5  So A1 : A2 = b : 2(a2 − b2) 2
43 a  __12 b y = −  __12 x + 2 c 2 47 Area of triangle to left of P is

__ __
2a a __
  12 × 4 × 2√ 3  = 4√ 3 
44 a x2 + 4y2 = a2 b x = ±  ___ __  c b =  __ 
√
3  2
Area to right of P is
( √ 2  2 √ 2 ) ( 2)
a a a
d P is ___   __ ,  ____
__  and Q is 0,     .
__ _________
√
∫  16 – (  __ )   dx = ____
__
8
x 2 16π
    – 4√ 3 
 ___
a__
  −   _
a
  __ 4 2 3
2 √ 2  2 1 − √ 2 
Gradient of PQ is _______   __   = _______
    __
16π __
16π
  √a__  2 So total area is 4 3  + ____ √     – 4√ 3  = ____
    and a = __
  16
3

2  3 3
So equation __ of line containing chord PQ is x 
2 y
  2

1 − √ 2  a __ 48 a Substitute y = mx + c into ___   2  + ___
   = 1:
y =     x +  __  ⇒ (√ 2 − 1)x + 2y − a = 0
_______ a  b  2
__ 2 2 ___ mx + c) 
x  2 (_________ 2
√ __   2  +    = 1
 
5 9 a  b  2
45 a  ___  b (±√ 5 , 0), x = ±  ___ __ 
3 √
5  ⇒ (a2m2 + b2)x2 + 2a2mcx + a2(c2 − b2) = 0
2 cos θ
c Gradient of ellipse at P is   _______  , so equation of As the line is a tangent, need to have “b2 − 4ac = 0”.
− 3 sin θ
2 cos θ 4a4m2c2 − 4a2(a2m2 + b2)(c2 − b2) = 0
tangent is y − 2 sin θ = −  ______ (x − 3 cos θ), ⇒ 4(a2m2b2 − b2c2 + b4) = 0 ⇒ c2 = a2m2 + b2
3 sin θ
x cos θ ______ y sin θ
which can be rearranged to ______     +    = 1. b y = −3x + 13 and y = −  __37 x + __  37
7

3 2
3 sin θ x
  ___
___
2 y  2
d Equation of perpendicular line is y = ______    x. 49 a Substitute y = mx+ c into   2  +   2 = 1:
2 cos θ a  b 
So foot of perpendicular, (x, y), satisfies x  2 (mx + c)  2
 ___2  +   _________  = 1
2x cos θ + 3y sin θ = 6 a  b 
2
2y cos θ − 3x sin θ = 0 ⇒ (a2m2 + b2)x2 + 2a2mcx + a2(c2 − b2) = 0

Solve these simultaneously to find b As the line is a tangent, need to have “b2 − 4ac = 0”.
3x 2y 4a4m2c2 − 4(a2m2 + b2)(c2 − b2) = 0
cos θ =  _______  and sin θ =  _______  
x  2+ y  2 x  2+ y  2 ⇒ 4(a2m2b2 − b2c2 + b4) = 0 ⇒ c2 = a2m2 + b2
( x  2+ y  2) ( x  2+ y  2)

3x 2 2y 2 b2 + a2m2
Therefore  _______     +   _______     = 1 c  _________
2m
b2 + a2m2
Rearranging, this gives that the locus of the foot of d T =  _________ =  __12 b2m−1 + __  12 a2m
the perpendicular as (x2 + y2)2 = 9x2 + 4y2. 2m
dT
dx dy dy b cos θ For a minimum,  ____ = −  __12 b2m−2 + __  12 a2 = 0
46 a  ___= −a sin θ,  ___ = b cos θ ⇒  ___ = −  ______ dm
dθ dθ dx a sin θ
a sin θ b2 b2
The gradient of the normal is ______    ___2  = a2 ⇒ m2 = ___   2 
b cos θ m a
b
So the equation of the normal is As L has a positive gradient, m =  __
a
a sin θ
y − b sin θ =  ______ (x − a cos θ) At m = __
b d2T ___
  , ____
 
b2 a3
  =     = ___   . 0 and so this gives a
b cos θ a dm2 m3 b
⇒ ax sec θ − by cosec θ = a2 − b2
minimum value of
a  2− b  2
b2 + a2(__   )  
2
b y = 0 ⇒ ax sec θ = a2 − b2 ⇒ x =   _______ cos θ b
a a 2b2
So G has coordinates (   _______ cos θ, 0) T =  ___________   =  _____  = ab
a  2− b  2   
2(  ) 2(__
  )
a b
__ b
Midpoint has coordinates a a
a
e −  ___ __ 
a  2− b  2
( )
a cos θ +  _______ cos θ √
2 
____________________ a b sin θ + 0
       ,  _________   50 a Tangent at P: x cosh t − y sinh t = 1
2 2
= (  ________ cos θ,  __  sin θ)
2 a   2
− b
  2
b Normal at P: x sinh t + y cosh t = 2 sinh t cosh t
2a 2 b Substitute y = 0 into the equation of the normal:
2a  2− b  2 2ax x sinh t = 2 sinh t cosh t ⇒ x = 2 cosh t, so G is
c x = _________    cos θ ⇒ cos θ = _________   2   (2 cosh t, 0).
2a 2a  − b  2
2y Q has x = cosh t, and the asymptote in the first
b
y = __     sin θ ⇒ sin θ =  ___  quadrant is y = x, so Q is (cosh t, cosh t).
2 b
0 − cosh t
So using cos2θ + sin2θ ≡ 1, M has locus Gradient of GQ is  _______________   
   = − 1
4y  2 2 cosh t − cosh t
4a  2x
__________   2
    + ____
  2 = 1, which is an ellipse. So GQ is perpendicular to the asymptote y = x.
(2a  − b  )  b 
2 2 2
223

Answers
c Substitute y = 0 into the equation of the tangent: 54 Let the equation of the tangent be y = mx + c.
( cosh t )
x cosh t = 1 ⇒ x = ______
 
1 1
, so T =  ______ , 0 x2 − 4(mx + c)2 = 4 ⇒ (4m2 − 1)x2 + 8mcx + 4(c2 + 1) = 0
cosh t As the line is a tangent, this equation will have
Substitute x = 0 into the equation of the normal: repeated roots, so ‘b2 − 4ac = 0’:
y cosh t = 2 sinh t cosh t ⇒ y = 2 sinh t, so R is 16(4m2 − 1)(c2 + 1) = 0 ⇒ 16c2 − 64m2 + 16 = 0
64m2c2 −______
(0, 2 sinh t).
1 ⇒ c = ±√ 4 m   2− 1 , so the equations of the tangents are
TG = 2 cosh t −  ______
______
√
y = mx ± 4 m  2− 1 , where |m| . __  21 
cosh t
( cosh t )
2
1 55 a ay sin t + bx cos t = ab
TR2 = OR2 + OT 2 = (2 sinh t)2 +  ______  
b ax sin t − by cos t = (a2 − b2)sin t cos t
( )
2
1 1
(  2a cos t,  2 sin t )
= 4(cosh2t − 1) + _______
  = 2 cosh t − ______
    a2 − b2
_______ b
______
cosh  t
2
cosh t c
= TG2
a  2− b  2 2ax
So TR = TG and R lies on the circle with centre T d x = _______
    cos t ⇒ cos t = _______
  2   and
and radius TG. 2a a  − b  2
b b
51 Let the point P have coordinates (a cosh t, b sinh t) y =  ______  ⇒ sin t = ___    
2 sin t 2y
dx dy dy b cosh t
___
  = a sinh t, ___   = b cosh t ⇒ ___   = _______
  So using cos2t + sin2t ≡ 1, M has locus
dt dt dx a sinh t
(   a  2− b  2 )  + (   2y )  = 1

2
b cosh t 2ax
_______ b
___
2
Equation of tangent is y − b sinh t = _______   (x − a cosh t)
a sinh t
⇒ ay sinh t = bx cosh t − ab(cosh2 t − sinh2 t) 56 a Tangent: bx − ay sin θ = ab cos θ
= bx cosh t − ab Normal: ax sin θ + by = (a2 + b2) tan θ
a
For T, y = 0, so bx cosh t = ab ⇒ x = ______   b Find the coordinates of P and Q by substituting
cosh t
The coordinates of N are (a cosh t, 0) x = 0 into the equations of the two lines.
a − ay sin θ = ab cos θ ⇒ y = −b cot θ
OT × ON = ______   × a cosh t = a2
cosh t a  2+ b  2
dx dy by = (a2 + b2)tan θ ⇒ y =  _______ tan θ
52 a  ___ = a sec t tan t, ___   = b sec2 b
( )
dt dt a  2+ b  2
dy ___________ So P is (0, −b cot θ) and Q is 0,   _______ tan θ .
___ b sec2 t b b
  =      = ______  
dx a sec t tan t a sin t The focus S with x . 0 is (ae, 0).
a sin t
The gradient of the normal is −  ______ − b cot θ − 0 ___ b
b PS has gradient m = ___________
  
    =     cot θ
The equation of the normal is 0 − ae ae
a sin t a  + b 
2 2
y − b tan t = −  ______(x − a sec t) _______
    tan θ − 0
b b a  + b  2 2
⇒ ax sin t + by = (a2 + b2) tan t QS has gradient m9 = _______________

 
        = −  _______   tanθ
abe 0 − ae
π 2π ___ 4π 5π
b  __ , ___
   ,    , ___      2+ b  2
a
3 3 3 3 mm9 = −  _______  = −1, since b2
= a (e
2 2
− 1), so PS and
a  2 e  2
x2 y
2
53 a  ___2  − ___   2 = 1, b2 = a2(e2 − 1) QS are perpendicular. Thus PSQ is a right-angled
a a
triangle, and PQ is the diameter of a circle, C,
b2 = a2 ⇒ a2 = a2(e2 − 1) __ through S. By symmetry, C also passes through the
⇒ 1 = e2 − 1 ⇒__e2 = 2 ⇒ e = √ 2  other focus, (−ae, 0).
__
a√ 2 
b (a√ 2 , 0), x = ____     57 x , −4, −1 , x , 2
2 _
c P is on the line with gradient −1 through (a √2
 , 0), 58 {x : x , 0} ∪ {x : 2 , x , 4}
_ _
y = −x + a 2 , which intersects y = x at P(   ,    

2 )
√
_
a√ 2
____ a√  
  ____ 2 59 {x : −3 , x , 0} ∪ {x : x . 4}
.
2_
√
60 {x : −  __12 , x , 0} ∪ {x : x . 3}
Q is on the line with gradient 1 through (a 2  ,
_
0), _
61 {x : x , −4k} ∪ {x : −2k , x , 0} ∪ {x : x . 2k}
 ,which intersects y = −x at Q( ____
2 )
_
a√ 2  ____ a√ 2
 
y = x − a√ 2  , −     . y
_ 2 62 a y= 2– x x= 1
a√ 2
 
P and Q both have x =  ____  , so lie on directrix L.
2
__
d SP has equation x + y = a√ 2
 
__
So R is where __
x2 − __ (a√ 2   − x)2 = a2
√
3  
2 √
2 
⇒ x = _____
    a, y =  ____  a 2
4 4 2
dy x dy y=–
x2 − y2 = a2 ⇒ ___   = __   , so at R, ___
  = 3. x–1
dx y dx
Therefore __
the tangent __ is O 2 x
y −     a = 3(x −     a)
√
2 
____ 3 √ 2
_____  
4 __ 4
⇒ y = __ 3x − 2a√   2 __
a √  
2 a √ 2
 
  ⇒ y = −  _____
x =  _____  , which is the y-coordinate of
2 2
Q, so the tangent passes through Q.

Answers
b (0, 2) and (3, −1) c x , 0, 1 , x , 3 68 a y

63 a y y = | 2x – 1| y=x
2x
y= 1
(x + 1)2
–1 O 2 x
4x O x
y= 1
2–x 2
(  3 ,  3 )and (1, 1) c {x : x .  __13 } ∪ { x : x . 1}

b __
1 __ 1
69 {x : −5 , x ,  __13 }
70 −  __1 a < x < −  __1 a
3 7
71 a y y = |x2 – 6x + 8|
b (0, 0) and ( −  __52 , −  __
9)
20
2y = 3x – 9
c {x : x < − __52 }

∪ {x : x . 2} ∪ {x : x = 0}
64 a y
y = | 3x – 2|
O 2 3 4 x
5
y = | x – 5| The curve meets the x-axis at (2, 0) and (4, 0).
The line meets the x-axis at (3, 0).
(  2 ,  4 ), (5, 3)
b __
7 __ 3
2 x , __
  72 , x . 5
72 a y
O 2 5 x
3
y = |(x – 2)(x – 4)|
b (−  __32 , __ 2 ) (4 4 )
 13 , __
  7 , __
 13 8
c x , −  __32 , x . __
  74
6
65 a y
O 2 3 4 x
2
y = | x + 2| y = 6 – 2x
__ __ __ __
b 2 − √ 2 and 4 − √ 2   c 2 − √ 2  , x , 4 − √ 2 
–2 O x 73 a x = −  __52 , x = −  __74 or x = 1
b {x : x , −  __52 } ∪ {x : −  __74 , x , 1}
b x.2 Challenge
sin 135° cos 135° (  t )

ct
1 Use (  ) __
66 a y cos 135° −sin 135°
c  
Find x2 and__ y2 and show y2 − x2 = 2c2

y = | x – 2a|
Then k = √ 2 c
2a π 5π
    , x , π
2 0 , x ,  __ , ___
6 6
3 a l2 L1
O 2a x l1
α
β β
α
L2
b x , __
  13 a
__
67 {x : x , 6 − 2√ 3 } ∪ { x : 4 , x , 6}
225

Answers
l  1
( n  1 )
a sin t(a cos t − ae) − b  2 sin t cos t
b L1 has direction vector v1 =   m  1  and L2 has = ______________________________
   
       
b cos t(a cos t − ae) + ab sin  2 t
l  2 (a  2− b  2)sin t cos t − a  2e sin t
( n  2 )
= _________________________
      
   
direction vector v2 =   m  2  . Then v1 and v2 form the ab(cos  2 t + sin  2 t) − abe cos t
a  2e
  2 sin t cos t − a  2e sin t
rhombus with diagonal v1 + v2. = ______________________
   
      
ab − abe cos t
B
v2 a  2e sin t(e cos t − 1) ________
− ae sin t
= __________________
  
       =    
C ab(1 − e cos t) b
v1
v1 + v2 − ae sin t
Similarly, tan β = ________   
α b
α v1 So tan α = tan β, and hence α = β as required.
A
2β
v2
D CHAPTER 5
l  1 + l  2
( n  1 + n  2 )

v1 + v2 =   m  1 + m  2  bisects angle BAD so is parallel sin  2 θ 1
1 cos2 θ + sin2 θ ≡ 1 ⇒ 1 + ______
  2   = ______
   
cos  θ cos  2 θ
to l1. Hence l1 has direction ratios ⇒ 1 + tan  2 θ ≡ sec  2 θ
l1 + l2 : m1 + m2 : n1 + n2. The other diagonal of the
2 sin 3θ = sin 2θ cos θ + sin θ cos 2θ
rhombus is given by
= 2 sin θ cos2 θ + (1 – 2 sin2 θ) sin θ = 3 sin θ – 4 sin3θ
l  1 − l  2
( n  1 − n  2 )

3 cos 2θ = 1 – 2 sin2 θ = sin θ
v1 – v2 =   m  1 − m  2  and bisects angle ADC so it is 0 = 2 sin2 θ + sin θ – 1 = (2 sin θ – 1)(sin θ + 1)
π 5π 3π
Hence sin θ = –1, __ 12 which has solutions θ = __     ,  ___  ,  ___ 
parallel to l2. Hence l2 has direction ratios 6 6 2
l1 – l2 : m1 – m2 : n1 – n2 respectively. Exercise 5A
In general, |v1 + v2| and |v1 – v2| are not equal to 1, 2
1 a  ____ ___  b __
  12
13
c __ 5
  13 d __
  12
5

so these values are not direction cosines. √
13 
4 a 2 a __  45 b −  __35 c −  __43  d −  __
29
12
 
3 a  __
24
25
  b −  __
7
25
  c −  __
25
7
  d −  __
7
17
 
4 a −  ___
119
169
  b  _____
14 400
14 161
c −  _____
169
14 280
d −  _______
3 427 320
1 699 439

m2 5 a  ___
336
  b  ______
354 144
c  ______
164 833
d  ______
164 833

527 390 625 390 625 354 144
θ
__ __
m1 4 − 2√3   4 + 2√3  
β α 6 a cos2 θ ≡ 1 – sin2 θ = 1 − ________     = ________
   
__ 8 8 __
y = m1x + c1 1 √
3 + 1 sin θ √ __ 3 − 1
So cos θ = _______   __ , hence tan θ =  _____   = _______    
2 √ 2  __
cos θ √ 3 + 1
y = m2x + c2 √
3  π
b sin 2θ =  __12 , cos 2θ = ___     c θ =  ___ 
Using the identity for tan(A ± B): 2 __
12 __
tan β − tan α m  2 − m  1 2 + √ 2  _______
2 − √ 2 
  
     = __________
tan θ = tan (β − α) = _____________     7 a sin2 x ≡ 1 – cos2 x = 1 − _______     =    
1 + tan β tan α 1 + m  1 m  2 _______ __ 4 4 _________
√ 2 − √ 2  
________ sin x
_____ √ 2 − √ 2  
________
as required. so sin x =    , hence tan x =     = −   _________  
2 cos x √ 2 + √ 2  
b y
Normal 7π
b –1 c x = ___   
8
5π 1 ______ 2t
P(a cos t, b sin t) 8 a sin  ___  = __   2 =    2 ⇒ 1 + t  2= 4t ⇒ t  2− 4t + 1 = 0
6 __1 + t 
β 5π √ 3  1 − t  2 __ __
b cos  ___  = −  ___  =   ______2  ⇒ – √ 3 – √ 3  t  2= 2 − 2 t  2
α 6 2__ 1 + t 
2 + √ 3  
⇒ t  2 = _______
  __ 
2 – √
3
 
__
c 2 + √ 3 
s(–ae, 0) O s'(ae, 0) x 9 By considering angles and using Pythagoras’ theorem,
dy − b cos t we can calculate
a sin t
At P,  ___  = _______
   , so gradient of normal is ______
   
dx a sin t b cos t θ
b sin t 2t
Gradient of PS′ is __________      and gradient of 2
1 + t2
a cos t − ae θ
2 θ
b sin t
PS is ___________
 
     1 + t2 1 – t2
a cos t + ae
θ 2t
So using the result from part a, Hence tan  __  = _____________
      = t
a sin t ___________ b sin t 2 1 + t  2+ 1 − t  2
______
    −     
b cos t a cos t − ae Also, by considering the smaller triangle we see
tan α =     _______________________
     
(  b cos t )(  a
   )
a sin t ___________b sin t 2t 1 − t  2 2t
1 + ______ sin θ = ______
   , cos θ = ______
   and tan θ = ______
   
cos t − ae 1 + t  2 1 + t  2 1 − t  2

Answers
4 t  2 2t(1 + t  2 )

Exercise 5B 10 tan  2 θ + tan θ sec θ + 1 ≡ ________
    + _________
   + 1
4 t  + 1 − 2 t  + t  _______
2 2 4 ( 1 + t  ) 
2 2 (1 − t  2 )  2 (1 − t  2 )  2
1 a sin  2 θ + cos  2 θ ≡ ________________
         ≡     ≡ 1 1 + 2t + 2 t  + 2 t  + t  4
2 3
(1 + t  2) 2 (1 + t  2) 2 ≡ _____________________
         
t an  2 θ 4 t  2 4 t  2 (1 − t  2 )  2
b  _________   ≡ ______________
      ≡ ________     ≡ sin  2 θ (1 + t  )  + 2t(1 + t  2 )
2 2
tan  2 θ + 1 4 t  2+ (1 − t  2 )  2 (1 + t  2 )  2 ≡  ___________________
       
(1 − t  2 )  2
cosecθ _____cot θ ________ (1 − t  2 )  2 ____
(1 + t  2 )  2 ________ 4 t  2 1 + sin θ
c _______
   −     ≡     −     ≡   2  ≡ 1 ≡  ________  
sin θ tan θ 4 t  2 4 t  2 4 t  cos  2 θ
1 − t  2 1 + t  2
d cot 2θ + tan θ ≡ ______
    + t ≡  ______
  ≡ cosec 2θ 1 − t 
______
 
2
 
2t 2t
cos 2x 1 + t  1 − t 
2 2
11 LHS ≡ __________
  ≡ __________
    ≡ __________
 
2t 1 − t  2
1 − sin 2x 2t
  1 + t  − 2t
2
2 a tan θ + cot θ ≡ ______
    + ______
    1 − ______
 
1 − t  2 2t 1 + t  2
(1 + t  ) 
2 2
(1 − t) (1+ t) 1+t
≡ _________
    ≡ sec θ cosec θ ≡  ____________
    ≡ _____
    
2t(1 − t  2 ) (1 − t) (1 − t) 1 − t
1 + cos θ _____________
1 + t  2+ 1 − t  2 __ 1 1 1 1
 
b  _________ ≡        ≡     _____
  + 1 __  + 1 __   (1 + t)
sin θ 2t t cot x + 1 _________ tan x t t 1+t
RHS ≡  
________   ≡     ≡ ______
    ≡  
________   ≡ _____
 
2t sin θ cot x − 1 _____ 1 __ 1
  − 1 __
1 1−t
≡ _______________
       ≡ _________
      − 1
tan x t t
  (1 − t)
1 + t  2− (1 − t  2 ) 1 − cos θ
1 − sin θ __________ 1−t
1 − 2t + t  2 _____ cos 2x cot x + 1
c ________
   
≡     ≡     Hence __________
  ≡ ________
   
cos θ 1 − t  2 1+t 1 − sin 2x cot x − 1
1 − t  2 cos θ
≡  _______2  ≡ ________
   
(1 + t)  1 + sin θ Challenge
d tan θ sin θ + cos θ ≡ ______

4 t  2 ______ 1 − t  2 sin  θ + cos  θ
3 3 8t  + ( 1 − t  ) 
3 2 3
1 − 3t  + 8t  + 3t  − t 
2 3 4 6
    +       
     ≡ __________________
_____________     ≡ ______________________
        
    
1 − t  4 1 + t  2 sin θ + cos θ (1 + t  2) 2(2t + 1 − t  2) (1 + t  2) 2(2t + 1 − t  2)
(1 + t  2 )  2 ______
1 + t  2 ( 1 + t  2) 2− 2t(1 – t  2) _____________________
1 − 2t + 2t  2+ 2t  3+ t  4
≡ ________
    ≡     ≡ sec θ 1 − sin θ cos θ ≡ __________________
         ≡          
1 − t  4 1 − t  2 ( 1 + t  2)  2 ( 1 + t  2)  2
2t 2t ________(1 − t  2 )  2 and 1 − 3 t  2+ 8 t  3+ 3 t  4− t  6
3 sin θ + sin θ cot  2 θ ≡ ______
    + ______
       
1 + t  1 + t  4 t  2
2 2
≡ (2t + 1 − t  2)(1 − 2t + 2 t  2+ 2 t  3+ t  4)
4 t  2+ (1 − t  2 )  2 ______
1 + t  2
≡ _____________
         ≡     ≡ cosec θ
2t(1 + t  2 ) 2t Exercise 5C
cos θ cos θ 1 − t  1 − t  2 2
1 a 1.57, 2.50 b 1.97, 4.71 c 2.21, 3.79
4  ________  − ________
    ≡ __________
    − __________
   
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ 1 + t  2− 2t 1 + t  2+ 2t d 0.93, 3.54 e 1.05, 5.24
__
1 + t 1 − t ______ 4t 2 a sin 2θ − 2 cos 2θ = 1 − √ 3  cos__2θ
≡  _____  − _____
    ≡     ≡ 2 tan θ
1 − t 1 + t 1 − t  2 2t 2(1 − t  2 ) √
3  (1 − t  2 )
⇒  ______2  − ________    = 1 −  __________  
(1 − t  2 )  2
cosec x cos x _____________ 1 __+ t  1 + t  __
2
1 + t  2
  
    ≡   
5  ____________       
tan x + cot x 4 t  2+ (1 − t  2 )  2 ⇒ (√ 3 − 1) t  2− 2t − (√ 3 – 3) = 0
(1 − t  2 )  2
__
π π 5π ___ 4π
≡  ________   ≡ cos  2 x b t = 1, √ 3 . So θ = __     ,  __ , ___
   ,    
(1 + t  2 )  2 4 3 4 3
8(1 − t  2 ) ______ 18t
cos θ 1 + sin θ __________
1 − t  2 1 + t  2+ 2t 3 a 16 cot x − 9 tan x = ________     −    = 0
6  ________  + ________
   
≡     + __________
    t 1 − t  2
1 + sin θ cos θ 1 + t  2+ 2t 1 − t  2 ⇒ 8(1 − t  2 )  2− 18t  2= 8 − 34t  2+ 8t  4= 0
1 − t 1 + t ________ 2(1 + t  2 ) ⇒ 4t  4− 17t  2+ 4 = 0
≡  _____  + _____
    ≡    
1+t 1−t 1 − t  2 b t = ±  __12 , ±2, so x ≈ 0.93, 2.21, 4.07, 5.36 (2 d.p.)
≡ 2 sec θ 4 a 10 sin θ cos θ − 3 cos θ = −3
1 + t  2 ______2t 1+t 20t(1 − t  2 ) ________ 3(1 − t  2 )
7 sec θ + tan θ ≡ ______
    +     ≡ _____
    ⇒  __________   −    = −3
1 − t  2 1 − t  2 1 − t (1 + t  ) 
2 2
1 + t  2
1 − t  2 cos θ ⇒ 20t(1 − t  2 ) − 3(1 − t  4 ) = −3(1 + t  2 )  2
≡ __________
    ≡ ________
   
1 + t  2− 2t 1 − sin θ ⇒ 3t  4− 10t  3+ 3t  2+ 10t = 0
⇒ t(3t3 – 10t2 + 3t + 10) = 0
1 + t  2+ 2t − 1 + t  2
1 + sin 2x − cos 2x __________________
8 _________________
  
    ≡   
    When t = 2, 3t3 – 10t2 + 3t + 10 = 0 so (t – 2) is a factor.
sin 2x + cos 2x − 1 2t + 1 − t  2− 1 − t  2
⇒ t(t – 2)(3t2 ___ – 4t – 5) = 0
1 + t 1 + tan x
≡  _____  ≡ _________
    2 ± √ 19 
1 − t 1 − tan x b t = 0, 2,   ________   so θ ≈ 0, 2.21, 2.26, 4.95 (2 d.p.)
3
cos θ 1 − t  2 2t 5 a 3 sin 2θ + cos 2θ + 3 tan 2θ = 1
9  _________  − tan θ ≡ __________
    − ______
    6t 1 − t  2 ______ 6t
1 − sin θ 1 + t  2− 2t 1 − t  2 ⇒ ______
    + ______
    +    = 1
1 + t  2 1 + t  2 1 − t  2
1+t 2t 1 + t  2 ⇒ 6t(1 − t  ) + (1 − t  )  + 6t(1 + t  2 ) = 1 − t  4
≡  _____  − ______    ≡ ______
    ≡ sec θ 2 2 2
1 − t 1 − t  2 1 − t  2
⇒ t  4− t  2+ 6t = 0
b t = 0, − 2 so θ = 0, 2.03, 3.14, 5.18 (2 d.p.)
227

Answers
__
1 − t  2
6 a tan θ + cos 2θ = 1 ⇒ t + ______    = 1 ⇒ t  3− 2 t  2 + t = 0 6 a t = √ 2 – 1 _______ __ _______
__
1 + t  2 π √ 2 − √ 2   π √ 2 + √ 2  
________
π __
π 5π b sec  __ = √ 4 − 2 √ 2  , sin  __  = ________    , cos  __  = ________    
b t = 0, 1 so θ = 0,  __  , π,  ___ , 2π 8 8 2 8 2
4 4
1 + sin x − cos x __________________ 1 + t  2+ 2t − 1 + t  2 _____ 1+t
7 a 2 sin 2θ − cos 4θ − 4 tan θ = −1 7 _______________
  
    ≡        ≡    
(1 − t  2 )  2 ________ sin x + cos x − 1 2t + 1 − t  2− 1 − t  2 1 − t
4t 4 t  2
⇒ ______
    − ________
    +    − 4t = −1 1 + sin x __________ 1 + t  2+ 2t _____ 1+t
1 + t  2 (1 + t  2 )  2 (1 + t  2 )  2 and  ________   ≡     ≡    
cos x 1 − t  2 1−t
⇒ 4t(1 + t  ) − (1 − t  )  + 4t  − 4t (1 + t  2)  2 = − (1 + t  2)  2
2 2 2 2
4 t  2( (1 + t  2) 2 − ( 1 − t  2) 2)
⇒ t  5+ t  3− 2 t  2= 0 8 tan  2 θ − sin  2 θ ≡ ____________________         
π 5π (1 − t  2) 2 (1 + t  2) 2
b t = 0, 1 so θ = 0,  __  , π,  ___ , 2π
4 4 4 t  4 t  2 2
≡ ______________
  
       ≡ tan  2 θ sin  2 θ
8 θ = 4.07, 4.71 (3 s.f.) (1 − t  2) 2 (1 + t  2) 2
4 t  2
Challenge 9 sin θ cos θ tan θ ≡ _______    
(1 + t  2) 2
5 sin 2θ + 12 cos θ = −12 ( 1 − t  2) 2 _______ 4t  2
20t(1 − t  2 ) __________
12(1 − t  2 ) 1 − cos  2 θ ≡ 1 − _______     ≡    
⇒ __________
    +    = −12 (1 + t  2) 2 (1 + t  2) 2
(1 + t  ) 
2 2
1 + t  2
1 + sin θ ________ 1 − sin θ _______ ( 1 + t)  _______ 2 ( 1 − t)  ________
2
8t + 8t  3
⇒ (t – 2)(5t2 + 4t + 3) = 0 10 ________
    −     ≡     −     ≡    
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ (1 − t)  2 (1 + t)  2 ( 1 − t  2)  2
⇒ t = 2 so θ = 2.21 is a solution.
8t + 8t  3
Check values of θ for which tan (__

   )is not defined:
θ 4 tan θ sec θ ≡  ________  
2 (1 − t  2) 2
5 × sin 2π + 12 cos π = – 12, so θ = π is a solution. 1 + tan  2 x _____________ ( 1 − t  2) 2+ 4t  2 _____________ ( 1 + t  2) 2
11  _________   ≡       ≡      
1 − tan  2 x (1 − t  2) 2− 4t  2 (1 − t  2) 2− 4t  2
Exercise 5D 1 ( 1 + t  2) 2
ds 1     ≡ _____________
 _____________      
1 a ___
    = − cos x + 12 sin x = ______     (5t2 + 24t − 5) cos  2 x − sin  2 x (1 − t  2) 2− 4 t  2
dx 1 + t2
1 1 1 + t  2 1 + t  2
b x = 0.395 (3 s.f.) 12  ________  − ________     ≡ __________     − __________
   
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ 1 + t  − 2t 1 + t  2+ 2t 2
ds
2 a ___     = 2 cos x + 2 sin 2x = 2 cos x + 4 sin x cos x (1 + t  2)4t
dx ≡ _________    ≡ 2 tan θ sec θ
2(1 – t2)(1 + t2) _________ 8t (1 – t2) (1 − t  2) 2
= ______________
  
       +    
(1 + t2)2 (1 + t2)2 cos θ 2t 1 − t  2 1 + t  2
13 tan θ + ________     ≡ ______     + __________
    ≡ ______     ≡ sec θ
2 1 + sin θ 1 − t  2 1 + t  2+ 2t 1 − t  2
= ________     (1 – t2)(t2 + 4t + 1)
( 1 + t  2  ) ( 2t(1 − t  2) )
(1 + t2)2 2t + 1 − t  2 _____________ 4t  + ( 1 − t  2) 2
2
14 (sin θ + cos θ)( tan θ + cot θ)=  __________         
π 3π ___ 7π 11π
b x = __    , ___    ,    , ____   
2 2 6 6 1 + 2t + 2t  3− t  4
= _______________
  
      
dh
___ 2t(1 − t  2)
3 a v(x) =     (x) = 6 cos 2x + 8 sin 2x
dx 1 + t  2 1 + t  2 _______________ 1 + 2t + 2t  3− t  4
sec θ + cosec θ =  ______2  + ______     =         
6(1 − t  2 ) ______ 16t 2 1 − t  2t 2t(1 − t  2)
= ________     +     = −  ______2  (3 t  2− 8t − 3)
1 + t  2 1 + t  2 1 + t  15 a 3 cos x − sin x = −1
( 1 + t  )   1 + t  2  = −1 ⇒ t  + t − 2 = 0

b Time between oscillations is π. 1 − t  2 2t
⇒ 3  ______2  − ______ 2
c x = arctan(–  __13 )≈ 2.82 (3 s.f.)
dy 1 x 2 2x 1 x b θ = 1.57, 4.07 (2 d.p.)
4 a ___
    = __   cos  __  + __   cos  ___  − __   10 sin  __ 
dx 10 5 5 5 5 16 a sin θ + cos θ = −  __15 
3t  4− 2t  3− 24t  2− 2t + 5 _______________________ (3t  2− 8t – 5)(t  2+ 2t − 1)
=  _______________________
         =    
       2t 1 − t  2
10(1 + t  2)  2 10(1 + t  2)  2 ⇒ ______
    + ______
    = −  __15 ⇒ 2 t  2− 5t − 3 = 0
1 + t  1 + t  2
2
b i Comparing y-values on each graph k ≈ __ 1
 10 would
b θ = 2.50, 5.36 (2 d.p.)
be sensible
ii The model is suitable for predicting times since 17 a 6 tan θ + 12 sin θ + cos θ = 1
both graphs have two distinct sets of peaks and 12t 24t 1 − t  2
⇒ ______
    + ______
    + ______
   = 1 ⇒ t  4– 6 t  3− t  2+ 18t = 0
similar periodicity. 1 − t  2 1 + t  2 1 + t  2
Not suitable for predicting intensity since the ⇒ t(t – 2)(t2 – 4t – 9) = 0
peak height is constant for the model, but varies
b θ = 0, 2.21, 2.79, 4.26, 6.28
in the observed data.
c 98 milliseconds 18 a 5 cot x + 4 cosec x = __
 94 
4 + 4 t  2 __9
5 − 5 t  2 _______
Mixed exercise 5 ⇒ _______
    +     =  4  ⇒ 2t  2+ 9t − 18 = 0
__ 2t 2t
1 a   3
5
b  __4 
5
c 3 d  __
25
 
12
b x = 1.97, 3.47
2 a  __
40
9
  b __
  41
9
c  __
40
41
  d  __45 
dp
3 a  __35  b −  __54  c  __
9
  d –  __ 15
4
    = 10(4 cos 5x − 8 sin 5x − 4 cos 10x − __
19 a ___ 3
  sin 10x)
 16
16 dx
4 a  __34  b  __ 25
  c  __
25
  __
25
d   12 
12 9 10(4 − 4t4 − 16t − 16t3 − 4(1 − 6t2 + t4) − __  64
3
(t − t3))
( 2) 2 (1
1 + t    _______ _______ – t )
2 2
4t  2 =  _______________________________________________
           
5 a sec  θ − 1 ≡  
2 _______   −     ≡     ≡ tan  2 θ (1 + t )
2 2
(1 − t  2) 2 (1 – t2)2 (1 – t  2) 2
__ __
√
3 − 1 √ −80t(3t3 − 2t2 − 9t + 14) ______________________
−80t(t + 2)(3t2 − 8t + 7)
b _______
  __   c sin 2θ = __  12 , cos 2θ = ___
 
3
    d ____
 
13π
  = _______________________
          =           
√ 2 12 3(1 + t2)2 3(1 + t2)2
3 + 1

Answers
x  3 x   5 x  7

b The maxima and minima do not change, whereas b sin x = x − ___
    + ___     − ___    + ...
we might expect blood pressure to vary with each 3! 5! 7!
x  2 ___
___ x  3 ___
x  4
heartbeat. c ln (1 + x) = x −     +     −    + ...
2 3 4
Also this model has a fixed period, whereas heart
rates are not constant, and will vary with, for Exercise 6A
example, physical activity. This model doesn’t 1 a 1 + __
 12  (x − 1) − __
 18  (x − 1)2 + __ 1
  16   (x − 1)3 − ___5
 128  (x − 1)4 + …
capture changing heart rates. b 1.095 (3 d.p.)
c At a pressure low-point (local minimum) we have x − e _______ (x − e)2
dp 2 a 1 +  _____   −    + …
___ e 2e2 __
    = 0. From part a, this happens when t = 0, −2. π π 2 __ π 3
( 3 )  +   3 (x −  3 )  + …
__
( 3)
dx √ 3  + 4 x −     + 4√ 3  x −   __
b __ 40 __
We can see from the figure that the solution t = 0
corresponds to the maximum at x = 0. cos 1
c cos 1 − sin 1 (x − 1) −   _____   (x − 1)2
x 2
Thus at the first minimum we have t = tan  __ = −2,
2 sin 1 cos 1
and hence x = 2 arctan(−2) + 2π ≈ 4.07 +   _____   (x − 1)3 +   _____   (x − 1)4 + …
6 __ 24
√
2 
Challenge
__ 3 a i  ___  (1 − x −   __12 x2 +   __16 x3 +   __
1 4
x − …)
2t   12 8 2 24
 14 then tan θ = _____
a Writing t = __     = ___
    = __   15 , ii ln5 +   __5 x −   __
1 1
x2 +   ___ 1
x3 − ____ 1
 2500 x4 + …
1–t 2 __ 15
  16 50 375
__ __
iii  __12 (−√3     x4 + …)

__ __ 15 __ √
3  1 √
 
3
2t   12 8 1 – t2 ___   16    + x + ___
    x2 − ___
    x3 − ___
sin θ = ______
    = ___
    = __   17 , cos θ = ______
    +     = __   15
17
  2! 3! 4!
1+t 2
 __
17 1+t 2 __
   17
16 16 b 1.649 (4 s.f.)
b
4 b e−1(−1 + __
 12 (x + 1)2 + __  18 (x + 1)4 + …)
 13 (x + 1)3 + __
17
8 5 a (x − 1) + __
 52 (x − 1)2 + __
 11
6
(x − 1)3 + __
 14 (x − 1)4 + …
b 0.4059 (4 d.p.)
15 6 − __34 + __
  25 x − __
 75 x2 + …
θ 2t __
16 64
c If t = tan  __ is rational, then so are sin θ = ______
    and √ 3  π __
π 2 2 π 3
2 1 + t  2 7  ___ + 1(x − __    )− √ 3 (x − __    )  − __
  3 (x − __    ) 
1 − t 
2 2 __ 6 6 6
cos θ = ______
   . So we can construct the triangle √
3  π 4
1 + t  2 +  ___ (x − __
   )  + …
3 6
1 + t2
2t
dy
dx 3 |
8 a  ___  = −  __ 1
16

θ
d2y
  ____2  = ___
dx 3 128 |
  3
1– t2 1
b y = ________
  _______  = __   12 − __ 1
  16 (x − 3) + ___ 3
 256 (x − 3)2 + …
where all sides are of rational length. Write the length √ (1 + x) 
of each side as a fraction in lowest possible terms, then 9  __
13
5
+ __
  12
5
(x – ln 5) + __
 13
10
(x – ln 5)2 + __
  25 (x – ln 5)3
scale the triangle by the lowest common multiple of each +  ___
13
(x – ln 5)4 + …
of the denominators. The resulting triangle is similar, so 120
in particular is right-angled with angle θ, but each side is 10 a Let f(x) = sinh (ax), then f ′(x) = a cosh (ax) so
integer length and the sides have no common multiples. f(x) = f(ln 2) + f ′(ln 2)(x − ln 2) + ...
d Using the above construction, every rational value of a(2  a + 2  −a)
= ... +  __________   (x − ln 2) + ...
θ 2
tan  __ between 0 and 1 gives rise to a primitive
2 a( 2   a + 2  −a)
 = 4 + _  4  = __
1 17
If a = 2 then  __________   4 
Pythagorean triple. Note that the same triple is 2
generated by triangles with acute angles θ and 90 – θ, b f ′′(x) = 4 sinh (2x),f ′′′(x) = 8 cosh (2x)
π
so we get a unique triple for every 0 < θ < __    . Hence f(x) =  __
15 __
17 __
15
8  +   4 (x − ln 2) +  4  (x − ln 2)  +
2
4
π __
17
But there are infinitely many values of 0 < θ < __     such   6  (x − ln 2)  3
θ 4 1 1 2
that t = tan  __ is rational. 11 f(x) = ln x, f ′(x) = __   , f ′′(x) = − ___   2  , f ′′′(x) = ___   3 
2 x x x
(k − 1) ! (k − 1) !
CHAPTER 6 f  k (x) = (−1)  k−1  ________   ⇒ f  k (2) = (−1)  k−1  ________  
x  k 2  k
Prior knowledge check Substituting into the Taylor series expansion gives
1
1 a −3x  2 sin(1 + x3) b  _________________
    ∞ (n − 1) !
(1 + x  2) arctan (x) f(x) = ln 2 + ∑ _   1   (−1)  n−1  ________   (x − 2)  n
n! 2  n
− (sin x + cos x) n=1
c   ______________
        ∞ ( x − 2)  n
e  x sin  2 x = ln 2 + ∑  (−1)  n−1  ________  
n 2  n
2 Auxilliary equation λ  2+ 2λ + 2 = 0 has solution n=1
λ = −1 ± i, so general solution is Challenge

y(x) = Ae  −x sin x + Be  −x cos x a ln (cos 2x) = − 2 (x − π)  2 − _
4
  3  (x − π)  4− ...
x  2 x  3
3 a e   x= 1 + x + ___    + ___
   + ... b – 0.1433 (4 d.p.)
2! 3!
229

Answers
Exercise 6B Substituting x0 = 0, y0 = 1 into ① gives ___

dy
      + 2(1) = 0,
dx 0 |
1 a _ b _
|
7 3
  5    2  c −2 d 2 dy
so ___
      = −2
b −  _2  c _ d _
1 1 1
2 a 4   3    4  dx 0
3 a −1
4 a 1
b 4
b 2 c _
2
  3  d _
5
  6 
Substituting x0 = 0, y0 = 1, ___
dy
|
      = −2 into ② gives
dx 0
dx | |
x  3 ___
___ x  5 x
  2
x
  3

2
____ dy dy 2
5 a sin x = x −     +     − ..., e  −x= 1 − x + ___

    − ___   + ...       + 1 + 6(1)(−2) = 0, so ____
      = 11
_1 3! 5! 2! 3! 2
dx2
b −   2  0 0
6 a ln x = (x − 1) − __
__
 12 (x − 1)  2 + __
  13 (x − 1)  3− ...
√ x  = 1 +  2 (x − 1) −  8 (x − 1)  2 + __
__
1 __
1 1
  16 (x − 1)  3+ ...
Substituting x0 = 0, y0 = 1, ___
dy
      = −2, ____
dx 0
d2y
dx 0|
  2    = 11 |
into ③ gives
b 2
7 a sinh x = x + ___
______
x  3 x  5
    + ___
3! 5!
   + ... b _
2
  3 
d3y
dx 0 |
 ____3    + (1)(−2) + 6(1)(11) + 12(1)(−2)2,
(x − 2)  2+ ... b __

1
√ 1 + 4x  = 3 + __  23 (x − 2) − __
|
2
8 a  27   36  d 3y
so  ____2    = −112
Challenge dx 0
______
√ 1 + 5y  = 1 + __ 52 y − __
a  25 y  2 + ___
  125 y  3− ... b  _2 
5 Substituting these values into the Taylor series, gives
8 16
11 (−112) 3
y = 1 + (−2)x +  ___  x2 + _______    x + ...
Exercise 6C 2! 3!
x x3 x4 __
11 2 __
56 3
y = 1 − 2x +  2 x −  3 x + ...
    + x2 + __
1 y = 1 + __     +  __ + …
2 3 6
x3 Ignoring terms in x4 and higher powers,
2 y = x −  __ + …
6 y ≈ 1 − 2x + __
 11
2
x2 − __
 56
3
x3.
x3
3 y = 2 − x + x2 − __     …
6 11 a Repeated differentiation gives:
4 y = 1 + 2x − __  12 x2 − __  23 x3 + __
 18 x4 + …
d  3 y dy   2 y
d dy dy d  2 y
5 y = 1 − (x − 1) + __
 52 (x − 1)2 − __
 53 (x − 1)3 + …  ____3  = 4  ___+ 4x  ____2  − 2  ___ = 2  ___+ 4x  ____2 
d x  dx d x  dx dx d x 
6 y = 1 + x − x2 + __
 12 x4 + …
dy   y
d
____
4 d  y
2 d  y
2 d  y
3 d  y d  y
2 3
7 a Differentiating (1 + 2x)  ___  = x + 2y2 with respect to x     = 2  ____  + 4  ____ + 4x  ____  = 6  ____ + 4x  ____ 
dx d x  4 d x  2 d x  2 d x  3 d x  2 d x  3
d2y dy dy d  5 y d  3 y d  3 y d  4 y d  4 y
d  3 y
(1 + 2x)  ____2  + 2  ___  = 1 + 4y  ___  ①  ____5  = 6  ____3  + 4  ____3 + 4x  ____4 = 4x  ____4  + 10  ____3 
dx dx dx d x  d x  d x  d x  d x  d x 
Differentiating ① gives p = 4 and q = 10
(1 + 2x)  ____3  + 2  ____2  + 2  ____2  = 4y  ____2  + 4( ___ ) 
d3y d 2y d2y d2y dy 2
dx dx dx dx dx b y = 2 + 2(x – 1) + 2(x – 1)2 + __
 10
3
(x – 1)3 + __
 13
3
(x – 1)4
+  __
77
⇒ (1 + 2x)  ____3 + 4(1 − y)  ____2  = 4(___

   ) 
d3y d2y dy 2 15
(x – 1)5 + …
②
dx dx dx
b y = 1 + 2x + __ 52 x2 + __
 83 x3 ... Mixed exercise 6
π π
1 Let f(x) = ( x −  __ )c ot x and a = __
__
__ __
π 3√ 2  π 2     ⇒ f(a) = 0
8 y = √ 2 + √ 2 (x − __   ) + ____    (x − __    )  + ... 4 4
4 2 4 f ′(x) = ( x −  _
π
 )(− cosec  2 x) + cot x ⇒ f ′(a) = 1
dy 4
9 a i Differentiating  ___  − x2 − y2 = 0 with respect to x,
dx f ′′(x) = (x −  _
π
 )2 cot x cosec  2 x + (−2 cosec  2 x) ⇒ f ′′(a) = − 4
4
d2y dy
f ′′′(x) = ( x −  _
4)
π (
gives  ____2 − 2y  ___  − 2x = 0 ①   − 2 cosec  4 x − 4 cot  2 x cosec  2 x)
dx dx
+ 6 cot x cosec  2 x ⇒ f ′′′(a) = 12
ii Differentiating ① gives
Substituting into the Taylor series expansion gives
  3 − 2y  ____2  − 2(___    )  − 2 = 0
2
d3y d2y dy
____ π π 2 12 π 3
( 4) 2! ( 4) 3! ( 4)
−4
dx dx dx f(x) = 0 + 1 x −  __  + ___
    x −  __    + ___
    x −  __    + . . .
So  ____3 − 2y  ____2  − 2( ___ )  = 2

d3y d2y dy 2 π π 2 π 3
( 4) ( 4) ( 4)
② = x −  __  − 2 x −  __    + 2 x −  __    + . . . as required
dx dx dx
b  ____4  − 2y  ____3 − 6(___    )  ____2 = 0

d4y d3y dy d2y  12 , f ″(0) = __
2 a f ′(0) = __  14
dx dx dx dx e (e − 1)
x x
1(1 − 1)
b f ′′′(x) =  _________   ⇒ f ′′′(0) =  ________3  = 0
c y = 1 + x + x2 + __  43 x3 + __  76 x4 + ... (ex+ 1)3 (1 + 1)
dy x x2
10 Differentiating cos x  ___  + y sin x + 2y3 = 0, ① with c ln2 +  __  + __    + …

dx 2 8
respect to x, gives x < 0
d2y dy dy dy 3 a 1 − 8x2 + __
 32 x4 − ___
 256 x6 + …
cos x  ____2 − sin x  ___  + y cos x + sin x  ___  + 6y2  ___  = 0, ② 3 45
dx dx dx dx cosx= e(ecosx−1)
4 e
( − 2 + . . .) 
2
= e(1 +  −      +     + …   +       + …)

Differentiating again x2
_
( 2 24 )
d3y d2y dy d2y x
2 ___
___ x
4 ____________
cos x  ____3  − sin x  ____2  − y sin x + cos x  ___  + 6y2  ____2  + 2
dx dx dx dx
= e(1 −      +      +     + …)≈ e(1 −  ___   +  ___ )
x x  4 ___
___  2 ___ x  4 x  2 x  4
12y(   )  = 0,
2
dy
___ ③ 2 24 8 2 6
dx

Answers
5 a y = 2x + __  32 x2 + __  12 x3 + … b 0.2155 b Differentiating with respect to x gives

6 −3x2 − 2x3 − … d 4y d 2y dy d3y d2y d2y
 ____4 + 2x  ____2  + 2  ___  + x2  ____3 + 2x  ____2  + ____   2 = 0 ①
7 y = 2 + 4x + x2 − __  23 x3 + … dx dx dx dx dx dx
| |
x 3
dy dy
b  _3 
2 2
8 a y = x + __    + … ___
Substituting x = 0,       = 1,   2    = −2 ____
6 dx 0 dx 0
9 If f(x) = cosh (x) then f  (n)(x) = sinh (x) if n is odd, and
f  (n)(x) = cosh (x) if n is even. and ____ | d3y
  3    = −1 into ① gives,
dx 0
Also, sinh (ln 2) = __  34 , cosh (ln 2) = __   45 . d4y d4y
Hence a general expression for the nth term is at x = 0,  ____4 + 2(1) + (−2) = 0, so ____   4 = 0
dx dx
5 1
a  ____  (x − ln 2)  n when n is even 17 a f ′(x) = (1 + x)2 _____   + 2(1 + x)ln(1 + x)
4n ! 1+x
3 = (1 + x)(1 + 2ln(1 + x))
b  ____  (x – ln 2)n when n is odd
f ″(x) = (1 + x)(_____
1 + x)
4n ! 2
  + (1 + 2ln(1 + x))
10 2
11 2 = 3 + 2ln(1 + x)
dx ( )
d d x2 x 3 x 4 xr xr + 1 2
12 a  ___ (ex) =  ___  1 + x +  ___  +  ___  +  ___ + ... +  __  + _______    + ... f ′″(x) =  _____
dx 2! 3! 4! r! (r + 1)! 1+x
(r + 1)x b x + __  32 x2 + __
r
2x ____
___ 3x
= 1 +     +     +     + ... +  
2
4x 3
____ ________   + ...  31 x3 + …
2! 3! 4! (r + 1)! x 2
x3 x 4
x 2
x 3
xr 18 a x − __     +  __  −  ___ + … b 0.116 (3 d.p.)
= 1 + x +  ___  + ___     + ... + __     + ... 2 6 12
2! 3! r! 19 a f(x) = e tan x
1
= e  x + __  x3 + ...

3
__
x
= e × e    3
x
=e x
(As only terms up to x3 are required, only first
dx ( )
d d x3 x5 x2r + 1
b  ___  (sin x) = ___     x − ___     + ___    − ... + (−1)r ________ + ... two terms of tan x are needed.)
dx 3! 5! (2r + 1)!
= (1 + x + ___    + ...)(1 + __    + ...)
x2 x3 x3
3x2 ____
____ 5x4 (2r + 1)x2r
r__________
    + ___
= 1 −     +    − ... + (−1)    + ... 2! 3! 3
3! 5! (2r + 1)! no other terms required.
x2 x4 ___ x6 x2r
= 1 − ___     + ___     −    + ... + (−1)r _____ + ... = cos x = ( 1 + __    + ...)
x3 x2 x3
2! 4! 6! (2r)!     + x +  ___  + ___
3 2! 3!
dx (
d d x2 x4 ___ x6 x2r x 2
x 3
c  ___ (cos x) = ___     1− ___     + ___     −    + ... + (−1)r_____     + = 1 + x + __     +  __ + ...
dx 2! 4! 6! (2r)! 2 2
)
x 2r + 2 x2 x3
(−1)r + 1 ________ + ... b 1 − x +  __  −  __ + …
(2r + 2)! 2 2
c −2
2x 4x ____ 3
6x 5
2rx2r − 1 _1
= −  ___  + ____     −    + ... + (−1)r  _______   + 20   3 
2! 4!
  3  = −  __ ( ___ (3  ____2 + 1))
6! (2r)! d3y 1 dy d y
2
(2r + 2)x 2r + 1 21 a ____

(−1)r + 1  ____________     + ... dx y dx dx
(2r + 2)! 5x3
x x
3 5
x2r + 1 b y = 1 + x − x2 + ____    + …
= −x +  ___  − ___    + ... + (−1)r + 1 ________    + ... 6
3! 5! (2r + 1)! c The approximation is best for small values of x
( )
x 3
x 5
x2r + 1
(close to 0). x = 0.2, therefore, would be acceptable,
= – x − ___     + ___    − ... + (−1)r ________ + ...
3! 5! (2r + 1)! but not x = 50.
= −sin x 22 a f(x) = ln cos x f(0) = 0
−sin x
13 y = 2(x − 1) + __  12 (x − 1)2 − __  12 (x − 1)3 + ... f ′(x) =  ______ = −tan x f ′(0) = 0
cos x
14 a You can write cos x = 1 − (__     −  ___ + ...); it is not
x2 x4 f ″(x) = −sec x 2
f ″(0) = −1
2 24 f ″′(x) = −2 sec2 x tan x f ″′(0) = 0
necessary to have higher powers
f ″″(x) = −2 sec4 x − 4 sec2x tan2x f ″″(0) = −2
1 1
sec x =  _____  = ________________       Substituting into Maclaurin:
cos x
1 − (   −   x + ...)
x2 ___ 4
__ x2 x4 x2 x4
2 24 ln cos x = (−1)  __  + (−2)  ___ + ... = −  __  −  ___ − ...
2! 4! 2 12
=( 1 − ( __     −  ___ + ...))  
−1
x2 x4
b Using 1 + cos x ≡ 2 cos2(__    ),
x
2 24 2
( 2 )
Using the binomial expansion but only requring
ln(1 + cos x) = ln 2 cos2(__    ) = ln 2 + 2 ln cos(__   )
x x
powers up to x4 2
sec x = 1 + (−1)(− ( __     −  ___ )) + ________
(   2 )  −   12 (  2 )  − ...)
x2 x4 (−1)(−2)
so ln(1 + cos x) = ln 2 + 2 − __21 (__
    x 2 __ 1 __ x 4
2 24 2!
( (2
    −  ___ ))  + ...
2
x2
x 4
x2 x4
− __ = ln 2 − __
    −  ___ − ...
24 4 96
c  _2 
1
= 1 + ( __     −  ___ ) + __
x2 x4 x4
   + higher powers of x
2 24 4 23 a Let y = 3x, then ln y = ln 3x = x ln 3 ⇒ y = ex ln 3
x2 5 4 so 3x = ex ln 3
= 1 +  __  +  __ x + ...
2 24 x2(ln 3)2 ________
x3(ln 3)3
x3 __ 1 + x ln 3 + ________
    +    + …
__ 2 5
b x +     +   15 x + ... c _
1
  2  2 6
3 b 1.73 (3 s.f.)
15 a 1 + x − 4x −  3 x + ... b −  _4 
2 __
13 3 7
24 a f(x) = cosec x
x3
__
16 a y = 2 + x − x −    + ...
2
f ′(x) = −cosec x cot x
6
231

Answers
f ″(x) = −cosec x (−cosec2x) + cot x (cosec x cotx)

i Exercise 7A
= cosec x (cosec2x + cot2x) dy d  2y d  3y
= cosec x (cosec2x + (cosec2x − 1)) 1 a i  ___  = 5e5x, ____   2 = 25e5x, ____   3 = 125e5x
dx dx  dx 
= cosec x (2 cosec2x − 1) d  ny
ii f ″′(x) = cosec x (−4 cosec2x cot x) − ii  ____n = 5ne5x
dx 
cosec x cot x (2 cosec2x − 1) dy d  2y   3y
d
= −cosec x cot x (6 cosec2x − 1) b i     = −e–x, ____ ___   2 = e–x, ____   3 = −e–x
__ __ dx dx  dx 
__ __
π 3√ 2  π 2 11√ 2  π 3
b √ 2 − √ 2 (x − __
   ) + ____
    (x − __    )  − _____
    (x − __
   )  + … d  ny
4 2 4 6 4 ii  ____n = (−1)ne–x
dx 
− π sin( __
2)
πx
  dy   2y
d
25 a f ′(x) = ____________
  
      c i  ___  = mxm − 1, ____   2  = m(m − 1)xm − 2,
1 + 2 cos(  2 )
πx
__ dx dx 
d  3y
  2 cos( __
2)
π  2 sin  2(  __
2)
πx πx
π     ____
  3  = m(m − 1)(m − 2)xm − 3
f ′′(x) = −  _______________
    − _______________
       2 
   dx 
2(1 + 2 cos(  2 )) 1 + 2 cos(   )  
πx πx
( 2 )
__ __ d  ny m!
ii   n  = _________
____     x  m−n, provided m > n
b f(1) = 0, f ′(1) = − π and f ′′(1) = − π  2, so dx  (m − n)!
π  2 dy   2y
d d  3y
f(x) = − π(x − 1) − ___
    (x − 1)  2+ ... d i  ___  = (1 − x)e−x, ____   2 = (x − 2)e−x, ____   3 = (3 − x)e−x
2 dx dx  dx 
c ln (2 − x) = − (x − 1) −  __12 (x − 1)  2 − __
  13 (x − 1)  3− ... ____ d  ny
ii   n = (−1) (x − n)e n −x
  πx ))
ln (1 + 2 cos(___ dx 
2 π
im   ________________
Hence lx→1      ln (2 − x) =  __  2 a 96x2 − 12x + 10
3 3
( x  )
2 cos x 1
b  ______   − sin x ln x + ___   2 
Challenge x
d 1 c e3x(5 cos 2x − 12 sin 2x)
a Base case: n = 1 we have  ___  ln x = __    
dx x
12 x  2 ________ 4 x  3
Suppose that ____
d 
n
  n  ln x = (−1)  n+1  ________
(n − 1) !
 , then d 6x ln(2x + 1) + _______     −    
x  n 2x + 1 ( 2x + 1)  2
dx 
d  n+1
_____ d (n − 1) ! n! e 12(5x − 2x + 1) 2
  n+1  ln x = ___     (−1)  n+1  ________   = (−1)  n+2  ____  
( ( 2x)    2 ) (√ 2x  ( 2x)   2 )
___
dx  dx x  n x  n+1 1 9 1
f 9 3 √ 2x  − _____   __3  cosh 3x + 3 ____   ___  + _____
  __5  sinh 3x
∞ ( x − a)  n
b ln x = ln a +  ∑ (−1)  n+1  _______  
n=1 na  n g 16(x2 − x + 3)cosh 2x + 32(2x − 1)sinh 2x
(x − a)  n
h −4 cos x sinh x
c We have a  n = (−1)  n+1  _______   so
na  n 8 − (ln x)  2
3 a  _________  
| | |
a
  n+1 (x − a)  na 
|
n+1 n
x − a _____ n
| | 4x   2  (ln x)  3
_
____
   = _________________     =  _____
3
          hence
a  n (x − a)  n (n + 1) a  n+1 a n+1
11x  3− 6x  3 ln x + 54x  2+ 81x + 54
b  ________________________________
         
 n→∞ | | |
lim ____
a  n+1
   = _____
a  n
 
x−a
|
a
  |
, and _____ 
x−a
| a
  , 1 is satisfied if
2e  e  + 4e  + 1)
x( 2x
x  3 (x + 3)  4
x
0 , x , 2a. c –  _________________
       
( e  x− 1)  4
d At x = 2a the series takes the form 30 sin x ________ 24 cos x ______ 9 sin x _______ 2 cos x _____ sin x
∞ (−1)  n+1 ∞ d  ________   −     −     +     +   2 
ln a +  ∑ _______     = ln a +  ∑ (−1)  n+1 b  n x  6 x  5 x  4 x  3 4x 
n=1 n n=1 dy
1 ___
4     = (cos x − sin x)e x
where b  n = __    . We can easily verify the three conditions dx
n
of the alternating series test By Leibnitz’s theorem:
__ 1 d  6y
    > 0 for all n ____
  6  = ex(cos x − 6 sin x − 15 cos x + 20 sin x + 15 cos x
n
dx 
__ 1 1 − 6 sin x − cos x) = 8ex sin x
    > _____
   for all n
n n+1 d
____   6y dy
1   6  + 8  ___  − 8y = 8ex sin x + 8ex (cos x − sin x) − 8ex cos x
 lim  __  = 0
n→∞ n
dx  dx
=0
Hence the alternating series test implies that the series
converges at x = 2a, so we have convergence for any 5 Let u = 2x3 and v = e2x
0 , x < 2a. ___ du d2u   d3u  dku
 
  = 6x  2, ____   2 = 12x, ____   3 = 12, ____   k = 0 for k . 3
____dkv 
CHAPTER 7   k  = 2  k e  2x
dx 
Prior knowledge check dny 
  n = (  )  u  ____n + (  )   ___  ______
dx  0 dx  1 dx dx  n−1 (2) dx  2dx  n−2
____ n dnv  n du dn−1v  n d2u   dn−2v 
1__   +      ____   ______  
1 a 3e3x cos x − e3x sin x b  ____   (ln x + 2)
2 √ x 
+ (  )   ____3   ______
x
__ n d3u   dn−3v 
2 Let t = tan   , then  
2 3 dx  dx  n−3
(1 − t  2) 2 _________
1 + t  2 _________ 4 t  2 n(n − 1)
cosec x − cot x cos x =  ______   −     =     = 2x  3(2   ne   2x) + n(6x  2)(2  n−1e   2x) +  ________   (12x)(2  n−2e
  2x)
2t 2t(1 + t  2) 2t(1 + t  2) 2
2t n(n − 1)(n − 2)
=  ______2  = sin x +  ______________
     (12)(2  n−3e   2x)
1+t 6
3 3t2 + 2t – 1 = 0   2x (8x  3 + 12nx  2 + 6n(n − 1)x + n(n − 1)(n − 2))
= 2  n−2e

Answers
dy 1 1!
6 a Base case: if n = 1 then ___     = −  ___2  = (− 1)  1  ___2  Exercise 7B
dx x  x 
Inductive step: Suppose that the claim is true for n. 1 a  __25 b 4 c 0
    (
dx dxn ) dx ( xn+1 )
dn+1y d ____ dny d n! 1
Then _____   n+1  = ___     = ___
    (−1)n  ____   π d  __  e 0 f  __45
dx
2 a 0 b no limit c 0
n!(n + 1)
= −(−1)n_________
    3 a 1 b 1
1
c  __ 
xn+2 e
(n + 1)! 2x  2 + x − 1 2x  2 + x − 1
= (−1)n+1_______   n+2  4 a _____________
    
     = ______________
  
      
x 3x  2− 2x − 1 (3x + 1)(x − 1)
b From part a, 2x  2 + x − 1 C
B
If _____________
  
       ≡ A + _______     + _____
    , then
  n−1 ( __ )= (−1)n−1  _______
____ dn dn−1 1 (n − 1)!
  n  (ln x) = _____   if n > 1. 3x  2− 2x − 1 3x + 1 x − 1
dx dx x xn
2x  2 + x − 1 ≡ A(3x  2− 2x − 1) + B(x − 1) + C(3x + 1)
Hence by Leibnitz’s theorem
x = 1 : 2 = A(0) + B(0) + C(4) ⇒ C = __
 12
  n  (x3 ln x) =  ∑  (  )
n n
____ dn dk dn–k
   ____k  (x3)  _____  (ln x)
dx k=0 k dx dxn–k x = −  __13 : −  __
10
9
= −  __43 B ⇒ B = __
 56
= (−1)n−1  _______
(n − 1)!
 + 3n(−1)n−2  _______
(n − 2)!
  x = 0 : − 1 = − A − B + C ⇒ −1 = − A − __   12 ⇒ A = __
 56 + __  23
xn−3 xn−3 __
  56 __
  12
2x  2 + x − 1
n(n − 1) (n − 3)! So  _____________
  
     ≡ __
  2
+ _______
    + _____
   
+ ________
    6(−1)n−3_______   n−3  3x  2− 2x − 1 3 3x + 1 x − 1
2 x __
2
b   3
n(n − 1)(n − 2) (n − 4)!
x→∞(
3x  2− 2x − 1 ) x→∞( 6x − 2 ) x→∞( 6 ) 3
______________
+       6(−1)n−4  _______   2x  2 + x − 1 4x + 1
6 xn−3 c lim   _____________
    = lim   _______
        = lim   __
  4 = __
  2
(−1) (n − 4)!
n
= ____________
  
    (−(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3) + 3n(n − 2)(n − 3)
5 a l im (___________
    ) = __
xn−3 x  2− 5x + 6
  04 . The limit is not in an
x→3 4x
−3n(n − 1)(n − 3) + n(n − 1)(n − 2))
indeterminate form, so L’Hospital’s rule cannot be
6(−1)n(n − 4)! applied.
= _____________
  
   
xn−3 b 0
dm
7 For m even we have ____   m  (sinh kx) = km sinh kx, and for 6 a The limit of the numerator is 1 and hence the limit
dx of the fraction is not an indeterminate form.
dm
m odd we have  ____   (sinh kx) = km cosh kx b  __14
dxm
Let f(x) = x and g(x) = sinh kx. Then f (m)(x) = 0 for all
2 7 1 8 __ __
1 9 __ 3 __
0
im √ x  − √ k  = 0 and lx→k
3
m > 3. So by Leibnitz’s theorem 10 l x→k im  √x  − √k  = 0 so we can apply
n(n – 1)
(fg)(n)(x) = f(x)g(n)(x) + nf ′(x)g(n−1)(x) + ________
    f ′′(x)g(n−2)(x) L’Hospital’s rule. Differentiating we have
2 __
    (√x  − √k ) = ____
d __ __
1 d 3 __ 3 1
And so if n is even we can write this as     (√ x − √ k  ) = ____
___   __  and ___   __2 
(fg)(n)(x) = kn−2 sinh kx(k2x2 + n(n − 1)) + 2nkn−1x cosh kx
dx 2√__
x  dx
__
3x   3
__ 6
√ x  − √ k  3x   3 3√k 
__
2
whereas if n is odd we can write this as Hence lx→k im   ________

__ 3 __  = lim    ______1  = ____
   
3
√x  − √k 
x→k
2x   2 2
(fg)(n)(x) = kn−2 cosh kx(k2x2 + n(n − 1)) + 2nkn−1x sinh kx
11 1
Challenge d d
12  ___  (sin (x + h) − sin (x)) = cos (x + h) and ___     (h) = 1
a When n = 1, dh dh
hence by L’Hospital’s rule
F9(x) = ∑ ( )
1
1  f  (k) (x) g  (1−k) (x)
sin(x + h) − sin x
k=0 1
im   ________________
lh→0      im  cos(x + h) = cos x
= lh→0
= f  (0) (x) g  (1) (x)
+ f  (1) (x) g  (0) (x) h
= f(x) g9(x) + f9(x) g(x) 13 a Total after 5 years = 1000 × 1.055 ≈ 1276.28
b By part a, Leibniz’s theorem holds for n = 1. b Nominal interest is 10%, so __  10
12
% is paid each
Suppose that the theorem is correct for some n. Then month. Hence total after 12 months increases by a
factor ( 1 + ___ 12 )
12
 0.1
  ∑ ( )
d n n  f  (k) (x) (n−k)   ≈ 1.1047, implying an effective rate
F  (n+1) (x) = ___ g  (x)
dx k=0 k of 10.47%.
r n
c An(r) = A(1 + __    ) 
= ∑ ( )
n
n (k+1)
  ( f  (x) g  (n−k) (x) + f  (k) (x) g  (n+1−k) (x)) n
k=0 k __r
d Write An(r) = Ae  nln(1+ n). By L’Hospital’s rule,
= ∑( 
k − 1)
n+1
n ln(1 + __  nr  )
f  (k) (x) g  (n+1−k) (x) r r
lim n ln(1 + __
 n→∞    )= n→∞  lim  _______    lim  _______
= n→∞   = r so
k=1 n __
  1  (1 + __
 r  )
n
+ ∑ ( )
n
n
n (k)
  f  (x) g  (n+1−k) (x)  limA
A∞(r) = n→∞ n(r) = Aer
k=0 k
= f(x) g  (n+1) (x) + f  (n+1) (x) g(x) Exercise 7C
| | | |
__
x x 
2  + tan  __
√ 1 + tan  __
+ ∑ ((  )
k )

+ ( )
n
n n 1__ 2 2
k−1
  f  (k) (x) g  (n+1−k) (x) 1 a  ____   log __________
  __ x
  + c b ln_________
  x 
  + c
k=1 √
2 2  √ __
2  − tan   1 − tan  __
2 2
= ∑(
k )
n+1
n + 1 (k)
f  (x) g  (n+1−k) (x) x 
ln|tan  __ x 
2|
tan  2  __
2 4
c  ________
  −  ______ d  _________
k=0
  + c x
  + c
So the theorem holds for all n by induction. 2 4 1 − tan  __
2
233

Answers
    + x)+ 2nx sin(________

= x  2 sin(___   + x)
nπ (n − 1)π
2 a 1.2465 (4 d.p.) b 0.2218 (4 d.p.)  
2 2
c 0.4636 (4 d.p.) d −0.0693 (4 d.p.)
+ n(n − 1) sin(________   + x)
(n − 2)π
∫__________   dx = ∫________
2  
3 a      1   1   × _______
    dt 2
  1 + t
2
12 − 13 sin x 12 − ___ 2bt
= sin( ___  + x)(x  2 + n − n  2) − 2nx cos( ___  + x)
  nπ nπ
= ∫____________
1 + t2
     1   dt 2 2
bt − 13t + 6
2 π
6 a  __23 b  __13 c 3 d − __ 
b 0.0245 (4 d.p.) 9
7 −  __12
4 Evaluating the integral using the Weierstrass 1
substitution: 8  _____  
  2π n2n−1
∫ ∫
__
1
1
__________ 2
     dx =   _________________
    2  dt 9 1 __
| |
__
| |
a + cos 2x 0 (a + 1) + (a − 1)t √ 3  + tan  __2x  tan  2  _2x  − tan  _2x − 1
0
_____ _____ √
3  __________
___ ln________________
    _____  arctan (_______
  _____ )
2 _______ √
a − 1  √
a − 1  10 a     ln   __   + c b          +c
= _____
  2 √ 3  − tan  __x  2
tan  2  _2x − 1
a − 1 √ a + 1  √
a + 1 
| |
__
tan  _2x + √ 2 − 1
( √ 3 )   3√ 3  
__
2 1 1 π__ √ 2  ln _____________
c       + c
Substituting a = 2:  __  × ___   __  arctan  ___ __  = ____ __
1 √ 3  tan  _x − √ 2 − 1
2
t 11 a  __12 ln  __53 b 0.2887 (4 s.f.)

5 Using the substitution x = tan  __ 
2
dx
t t
sec  2  __  1 + tan  2  __ 
2 2
t
1 + tan  2  __ 
2
12 a ∫ 1
 ______________
    dx =
4 cos x − 3 sin x ∫ ________________
      × ______1
4(1 − t ) ______
________
2
6t
 
1+t
2
  dt 2
 ___ = ______
    = __________
    ⇒ dx =  __________   dt     −    
dt 2 2 2 1+t 2
1+t 2
π
Transforming the limits: x = 0 ⇒ t = 0, x = 1 ⇒ t = __
   
2
= ∫ 2
 ___________
    dt =
4 − 4t2 − 6t ∫ −1
 ___________
    dt
2t2 + 3t − 2
( 1 + x  )
1 − x  2 1 − x  2
cos t = ______
    ⇒ t = arccos  ______2  b −0.3429 (4 s.f.)
1 + x  2 1 + t 
_____ 2
1 1 −    
∫
  π 
∫
__
1 − cosec x 2t
∫ ∫
2
___________ _________ 2
( + x  2)
1
1 − x  2   2π
__
13          dx =       × ______
    dt
arccos ______ t sin x 2t
_____
    1 + tan  2  __    π 
__   1  
___     1 + t  2
1 + t 
__
1 t 2 3 2
√ 3 
 ________________
        dx =   __________ __________
  ×     dt
t 2
∫   dt = [ ln t + ___
    −   __ ]   
1
1 + x 
2
0 1 + tan  2  __  4t − 2 − 2t2 1 t
1
=   ___________
0
2    
  2π __ 4t2 __ 2t 2 ___   1
∫
__   1
  π
__
=       dt = [ ___

   ]    = ___
__ __
t t  2 2 π  2 π
√ √ 3 
  2
3 
(√ 3 )
__ √
3  ____
   − 0 = ___
    1
___
= − ln   __  −     +   __  ___ 1
2 4 0 16 16
0 2 2 √ 3 
__
1
Mixed exercise 7 = ln √ 3  − ___   __ 
√
3 
1 a 60x3 − 24x2 + 36x − 44
Challenge
b 8e  4x (sec  2 2x(tan 2x + 2) + 2 tan 2x)
7
__ 3
__ 1
__ 3
__
We check the base case, n = 1. By L’Hospital’s rule
− 96x   2 − 88x   2  __________
9x  −  2  3x  −  2  x 1
c  _____________
        +     −   _____   arctan 2x lim  __x  = n→∞
 n→∞  lim  __x  = 0
(1 + 4x  2)  3 2(1 + 4x  2) 8 e e
2 2 tan x sec  x 2
Now we suppose that the claim holds for some n. Then by
3 a By Leibnitz’s theorem L’Hospital’s rule once again we have
(f(gh))′′(x) = f ′′(x)(gh)(x) + 2f ′(x)(gh)′(x) + f(x)(gh)′′(x) xn+1 (n + 1)xn xn
lim  ____
 n→∞   =  n→∞ lim  _______   lim  __x  = 0
= (n + 1)  n→∞
= f ′′(x)g(x)h(x) + 2f ′(x)(g′(x)h(x) + g(x)h′(x)) ex ex e
+ f(x)(g′′(x)h(x) + 2g′(x)h′(x) + g(x)h′′(x))
b 2ex(2 cos 2x cos 3x − 3 sin 2x sin 3x − 6 sin 2x cos 3x − CHAPTER 8
6 sin 3x cos 2x)
______
4   3 (  )= √ 3x + 2  (5 tan x sec  3 x + tan  3 x sec x)
√
3x + 2 
d  3 ________
____
______
1 P(x 0 − h, x 02  − 2hx 0 + h  2 + bx 0 − bh) and
 
d x  cos x Q(x 0 + h, x 02  + 2hx 0 + h  2 + bx 0 + bh)
9( sec  3 x + tan  2 x sec x) ____________ 27 tan x sec x __________ 81 sec x Gradient
+ _____________________
   
     ______  −           +    
2 √ 3x + 2 
__
3 __
5
4 (3x + 2)   2 8 (3x + 2)   2 (x 02  + 2hx 0 + h  2 + bx 0 + bh)− (x 02  − 2hx 0 + h  2 + bx 0 − bh)
= _____________________________________________________
      
        
5 a First check the base case n = 1. We have (x 0 + h)− (x 0 − h)
dy π
(2 )
 ___  = cos x = sin  __  + x 4hx 0 + 2bh
dx = ___________
     = 2x  0 + b
2h
Now suppose the claim holds for some n, then
2 y = 2e  x(1 − e  −x (sin x + cos x))
dx  n+1 dx ( dx  ) dx

d  n+1y ___ d d  y
n
(2 )
______ d nπ
    =     ____
  n  = ___
    sin ___
    + x 3 2317
= cos(    + x)= sin(    + x)

nπ
___ (n + 1)π
________ Exercise 8A
2 2 1 87.3 (3 s.f.)
So the claim holds for all n by induction. 2 2.24 (3 s.f.)
b Applying Leibnitz’s theorem we get 3 a 0.21 (2 d.p.) b 2.854, 3.363 (3 d.p.)
 ____n = ∑ (  )   ____k  (x  2)  _____

d  ny n
n d  k d  n−k 4 £8400
  (sin x)
dx  k=0 k dx  dx  n−k 5 0.885 (3 s.f.)

Answers
Exercise 8B Mixed exercise 8

1 a 3 b 3.195 (3 d.p.) 1 2124.098 (3 d.p.)
2 4.464 (3 d.p.) 2 a 0.05 b 4.581, 25.775
3 a (___
  )
dy 3 £9000
  = sin 2 = 0.909297... 4 7.52 (3 s.f.)
dx 0
5 a (___
   )  = − 4, ______
dv v  1 − 2
y  1 − 2    = −4 ⇒ v  1 = 1.6
______
   = 0.909297... ⇒ y  1= 2.1819 (5 s.f.) dt 0 0.1
0.2
b 1.56 c v = 5t − __
 52 + __
  92 e  −2t d −  __32 + __
  92 e  −0.4, 2.87%
b 1.999 (4 s.f.)
6 2.1, 1.979, 1.681
4 810
7 a −  __
16
b 3.191 (4 s.f.)
5 10.8 (3 s.f.) 9
8 a 2.830 (4 s.f.) b Use more intervals.
6 a (___
  )
dy
  = 1  2− 1 + 1 − 2 = −1 9 a 0.706 68 (5 d.p.) b 0.706 59 (5 d.p.) c 0.013%
dx 0
Challenge
y  1 − 1
______
   = − 1 … ⇒ y  1 = 0.9 a Assume parabola is y = ax2 + bx + c, and let x0 = −h, x1 = 0
0.1
and x2 = h, so y0 = ah2 − bh + c, y1 = c and y2 = ah2 + bh + c.
b 0.862 (3 d.p.) Then the area under the curve is given by
c y =  __12 e  2−2x + __
∫   (ax2 + bx + c) dx = [ a  ___  + b  ___  + cx]  =
  12 x  2+ 1 − x (o.e.) x
  3 x  2
h
2a h  3
   _____
h
 + 2ch
d 0.85516…, % error = 0.80% (2 s.f.) −h 3 2 −h 3
Challenge = __
  13 h(2ah2 + 6h) = __
 13 h(y0 + 4y1 + y2)
dy b Divide [x0, xn] into an even number n of subintervals of
−5;  ___is undefined at x = 1, general solution curve has x  n − x  0
dx equal length h, then h =  _______
n
vertical asymptote. There are a total of n + 1 points with the x-coordinates
x 0, x  0 + h, x  0 + 2h, …, x  0 + nh = x  n, and the
Exercise 8C corresponding y-coordinates are y 0, y 1, y 2, …, y  n.
1 a 4.1, 4.252, 4.45852 b 1.4, 1.936, 2.700324 h h
c 1.1, 1.2441, 1.437463 d 2.1, 2.195304, 2.286855 Area under curve ≈ __    ( y0 + 4y1 + y2) + __    ( y2 + 4y3 + y4) + …
3 3
2 a 2.0625 b 3.114647 c 1.14 d 1.66 h
+  __ ( yn−2 + 4yn−1 + yn)
3 a 0.9 b 0.8052, 0.7212 3
h
4 1.12, 1.326844, 1.584322 = __
   ( y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + … + 4yn−1 + y)
3
5 a 2 b 0.31 h
=  __ ( y0 + 4(y1 + y3 + …) + 2(y2 + y4 + …) + yn)
6 −3.02455 3
CHAPTER 9
Exercise 8D
1 0.7206 (4 s.f.) __
  23 x  3 + c
2 14.41 (4 s.f.) 1 a y = Ax  2+ 1 b y = _______     c y = Ae  3x + Be  x
x
3 a 1.202 (4 s.f.) dy d y 2 −x
2
b Increase the number of intervals. 2 a y = __  29 e  −x, ___

    = −  __92 e  −x,  ____2  = __   9 e 
dx dx
4 a Simpson’s rule can only be used with an even dy
2
____ dy
number of intervals.   2  − 4  ___  + 4y = __  29 e  −x + __   89 e  −x + __   89 e  −x = __
  29 e
  −x
dx dx
b 0.9223 (4 s.f.) b y = e  −2x (Ax + B) + 2e  −x
5 a 0.4471 (4 s.f.) b 0.44648 c 0.14%
6 a 19.84 (4 s.f.) Exercise 9A
1 a y2 = 2x2(ln x + c) b y3 = 3x3(ln x + c)
sinh x dx = [x cosh x]  30  − ∫     cosh x dx
3 3
b ∫     x –x
1 1
c y = _______
    d y3 = x3(Ax − 1)
= [ x cosh x − sinh x]  31  ln x + c
dy – __3 dz
− (
2 )
= ( __________ )
– __1
e  3 + 3e  −3 ________
3 e  3 − e  −3 e  1 + e  −1 ________
  1 − e  −1
e 2 a Given z = y–2, y = z   2 and ___     = –  __12 z     2 ___
   
    −     ________
    −     dx dx
2 2 2 dy
So     + ( 2 tan x) y = –(2 sec x) y
___ __
1 3
= e  3 + 2e  −3 − e  −1 dx
c 0.0115% – __3 dz – __1 – __3
⇒ –  __12 z     2  ___   + ( __12 tan x) z   2 = –2 sec x z    2
7 a x = 0 ⇒ t = 0, x = 2 ⇒ t = 1 dx
dz
Area = π∫     ((t − t2)2 (1 + 2t)) dt
1 ∴ ___
    – z tan x = 4 sec x
0 dx______
√
cos x
= π∫     (t  2− 3 t  4+ 2 t  5) dt b y = ______
1
   
0 4x + c
dx dz
b 0.2127 (4 s.f.) 3 a Given that z = x   2, x = z2 and ___     = 2z ___ 
__
1
π dt dt
c Exact area = ___
   , so percentage error
15 dx
( )
So the equation  ___  + t2x = t2x   2 becomes
__
1
π dt
0.2127 − ___
   
15
_____________ dz
___
=     π   × 100% = 1.56 …% , 1.6% 2z    + t2z2 = t2z
___
    dt
15 dz 1 2
Divide through by 2z:  ___  + __   t z = __  12 t2
d Use more intervals. – __ 1
t
3 dt 2
b x = (1 + ce   6 )2
235

Answers
dy dz
4 a Let z = y –1, then y = z –1 and ___     = –z –2___     The differential equation becomes
dx dx
( x   dx2 + 4x  dx  + 2y) + ( 2x   dx  + 4xy)+ 2x y = e
dy 1 (x + 1) 23 d2y
2____ ___dy dy
2___
So  ___  – __
   y = _______
2 –x
   y becomes
dx x x
dz 1 –1 _______ (x + 1)3 –2 Using results (1) and (2),
–z –2___
    – __
   z =    z
dx x x d2z dz
(x + 1)3 ____
  2  + 2 ___  + 2z = e–x
dz 1
Multiply through by –z2: ___     + __
   z = –  _______   dx dx
dx x x
4x b z = e−x(A cos x + B sin x + 1)
b y =  ___________
   
4c – (x + 1)4 e–x
______
c y =  ___   (A cos x + B sin x + 1)
x2
√
dz x+c
5 a (1 + x2)  ___  + 2xz = 1 b y = ______     4 a z = sin x ⇒  ___  = cos x
dz
dx 1 + x2
______ dx
√
c y = ______
 
x+4
1 + x2
   So
dy dy
___
    = ___
dx dz
    × cos x
dy dy dz 1 dz d y d2y
2
dy
6  ___  =  ___  ×   ___  =  ___________
     ×  
___
  and  ____2  = ____   2  cos2x – ___     sin x
dx dz dx − (n − 1) y  −n dx dx dz dz
So differential equation becomes The equation becomes
y
  n dz d2y dy dy
−   _____   ×   ___  + Py = Q y  n cos3 x  ____2 – cos x sin x  ___  + cos x sin x  ___  –
n − 1 dx dz dz dz
dz
⇒   ___  − (n − 1)Py  −(n − 1)= − Q(n − 1) 2y cos3 x = 2 cos5 x
dx
dz Dividing by cos3 x gives
and then  ___  − (n − 1)Pz = − Q(n − 1) d2y
dx ____
  2 – 2y = 2 cos2 x = 2(1 – z2)
du 1 dz
7 a Differential equation becomes ___     =  _____  √
__ __
dx 1 + u b y = Ae 2 sin x+ Be– 2  sin x+ sin2 x
√
b This solves to give u + __ 1

 2 u2 = x + c. dx du d  2 x du d  2 u
5 a x = ut, ___     = u + t  ___ ,  ____2  = 2  ___  + t  ____  
2(y + 2x) + (y + 2x)2 −2x = k (k = 2c) dt dt d t  dt d t  2
⇒ 4x2 + 4xy + y2 + 2y + 2x = k So differential equation becomes
( dt dt  2)
  − 2t(u + t  ___ )= − 2(1 − 2t  2)ut
du d  2u du
Challenge t  2 2  ___  + t  ____
dt
1 dy 1 dv
( )
Substitute y = __    , ___
    = −  ___2   ___    2u
d
v dx v  dx which rearranges to give t  3 ____   2 − 4u = 0
dt 
Differential equation becomes d  2u
⇒ ____   2 − 4u = 0
x  2(−  ___2   ___ )− __
1 dv x 1 dt 
    =  ___2 
c x = t(____   −2  e−2t)
3 5
v  dx v v  b x = t(Ae  2t + Be  −2t )   2  e2t + ____
4e 4e
dv 1
⇒ x     + v = −  __ 
___
Challenge
dx x
Integrate both sides to get xv = − ln x + C y = A ln x + B + 3x  2
1 −x
Substitute v = __     to get y = _______     Exercise 9C
y ln x + C
dx du
1 a ___
    = ___    t + u
Exercise 9B dt dt
So t(ut)(___    t + u)− u2t2 = 3t4
A B 1 du
1 a y = __
  4  + __   b y = (A + B ln x) × __   2  dt
x x x
du
A B A which rearranges to u ___  = 3t.
c y =  __2  + __   3  d y = __   7  + Bx4 dt
x x x
b Solve the differential equation in u and t to get
B 1
e y = Ax7 + __   2  f y =  __ (A cos ln x + B sin ln x) __  12 u2 = __
x
x x  32 t2 + c, and then use u = __     = 3 to find c = 3.
dy t _________
z dz
    ⇒ xy = z and x ___  + y = ___
2 a y = __     So u2 = 3t2 + 6 ⇒ x2 = 3t4 + 6t2 ⇒ x = √ 3 t  4+ 6 t  2 
x dx dx _______
The particular solution is x = t√ 3 t  2 + 6 .
d2y dy ___ dy d2z
Also x ____2  + ___     +     = ____
    c The function increases without limit so the
dx dx dx dx2 displacement gets very large.
d 2
y dy
So the equation x ____2 + (2 – 4x) ___  – 4y = 0 dv dz
2 a  ___  =  ___ t + z
dx dx dt dt
becomes  ____2 – 4( ___  – y) – 4y = 0 So 3z2t3( ___ t + z) = z3t3 + t3, which rearranges to
d2z dz dz
dx dx dt
dz
d2z dz 3z2t ___ = 1 − 2z3
which rearranges to give ____   2  – 4 ___  = 0 dt
dx dx
b Differential equation in z and t solves to give
A B 4x
b z = A + Be4x c y = __     + __
    e  A
x x |1 − 2z3| = __   2 
z t 
3 a y =   2  ⇒ x y = z
__ 2
x If v = 2 for t = 1, then z = 2, and A = |−15| × 1 = 15.
dy dz Then t2(2z3 − 1) = 15 ⇒ 2v3 − t3________ = 15t.
So x2___     + 2xy = ___     (1)
dx dx t________
√
3   3+ 15t
dy 2
dy dy The particular solution is v =     
d2z 2
and x2 ____2 + 2x ___  + 2x ___  + 2y = ____   2  (2) c 2.668; 0.632
dx dx dx dx

Answers
v ds 1 dv v d  2 s __ 1 d  2 v 2 dv 2v y dy dz

3 a s = __    ,  ___  =  __   ___  −  __2 , ____     =      ____  −  __   ___  +  ___   4 a z = __     ⇒ y = xz and ___     = z + x  ___ 
t dt t dt t  d t  2 t d t  2 t  2dt t  3 x dx dx
So equation becomes dy y(x + y) dz xz(x + xz)
So  ___  = ________     becomes z + x  ___  = __________    
(  t    dt  2  −   t  2   dt  +  t  3 )+ (2 − t)(  t    dt  −  t  2 ) −
1 ____d  2v __ 2 ___ dv ___ 2v 1 ___ dv __ v dx x(y – x) dx x(xz – x)
t __ __
dz z(1 + z)
v ⇒ z + x  ___  = ________    
(1 + 2t) __  = e  2t dx (z – 1)
t
Rearranging terms gives dz z(1 + z) 2z
So x  ___  = ________     – z = _____    
t ) dt ( t  2 )
  2 + (−  __  + _____
d  2v
____ 2 2 − t ___ dv 2v (2 − t)v _________ (1 + 2t)v dx z–1 z–1
        +  ___  − ________     −     y
dt  t t  2 t b  ___  – __  1 ln y = __  12 ln x + c, where c is a constant.
= e  2t 2x 2
d  2v dv y dy dz
which simplifies to  ____2  −  ___  − 2v = e  2t. 5 a Given that z = __    , y = zx and ___     = z + x  ___ 
dt  dt x dx dx
b Auxiliary equation has roots 2 and −1, so the dy –3xy
The equation ___     = ________     becomes
complementary function is v = Ae2t + Be−t. To find dx y2 – 3x2
the particular integral, try v = λte2t. dz –3x2z
dv d  2v z + x  ___  = _________    
Then  ___  = λe2t + 2λte2t and ____   2 = 4λe2t + 4λte2t dx z2x2 – 3x2
dt dt  dz –3z –z 3
d  2v dv So x  ___  = ______     – z = ______   2  
So ____   2  −  ___  − 2v = 4λe2t + 4λte2t − (λe2t + 2λte2t) dx z2 – 3 z –3
dt  dt
− 2λte2t = 3λe2t 3x 2
b ln y +  ____2  = c, where c is a constant.
Letting λ =  3 gives a particular integral of v = __
__
1
 13 te2t. 2y
du dy
Therefore the general solution is 6 a Let u = x + y, then ___     = 1 +  ___  and so
dx dx
v = Ae2t + Be−t + __  13 te2t dy
Ae  + Be  __1 2t
2t −t ___
    = (x + y + 1)(x + y – 1) becomes
c s = ___________    +  3 e  ; t ≠ 0 dx
t
dx du ____ d  2x du d  2u du
___
4 a     = u + t    ,   2  = 2  ___  + t  ____
___ ___       – 1 = (u + 1)(u – 1) = u2 – 1
dt dt dt  dt dt  2 dx
du
So differential equation becomes ⇒  ___  = u2
( dt dt  2)
  − 2(u + t  ___ )+ ( ______
t )
du d  2u du 2 + t  2 dx
t 2  ___  + t  ____     ut = t  4 –1
dt b y = _____     – x, where c is a constant
x+c
which rearranges to the required equation. du dy
b x = t(A cos t + B sin t + t  2− 2) 7 a Given that u = y – x – 2, ___     =  ___  – 1
dx dx
c As t gets large, x gets large; the spring will reach its dy du
elastic limit and/or break. So ___     = ( y – x – 2)2 becomes ___     + 1 = u2
dx dx
du
Mixed exercise 9 ⇒  ___  = u2 – 1
dy dx
dz 1 + Ae2x
1 a Given that z = y –1, then y = z –1 so ___     = –z –2  ___  b y = x + 2 +  ________  , where A is a positive constant.
dx dx 1 – Ae2x
dy
The equation x  ___  + y = y2 ln x becomes −__1 dv −__3 du
dx 8 a v = u   2, ___     = −  __12 u   2  ___ 
dz dt dt
–xz –2  ___  + z –1 = z –2 ln x −__3 du −__1 −__3
dx Equation becomes −  __12 u   2  ___  × t + u   2 = 2t  3u    2 which
dz z ln x dt
Dividing through by –xz –2 gives ___     – __     = –  ____
  du 2u
dx x x rearranges to ___     −  ___ = − 4t  2.
1 dt t
b y =  ____________
   , where c is a constant.
b Using integrating factor e  −2∫    t dt= e  −2lnt= t  −2, get
__
1
1 + cx + ln x
dy 1 – __ 12___ dz d
2 a Given that z = y2, y= z   2 and ___     = __     (u t  −2)= − 4 ⇒ u t  −2= − 4t + c, and u = −4t3 + ct2.
___
__
1
  z    ,
dx 2 dx dt
the differential equation becomes Then the general solution for the original equation
– __1 dz – __1
cos x z   2  ___  – z   2 sin x + z   2= 0 1
__
1
dx is v = __________  _________ 
– __1 dz √ t  2 (c − 4t) 
Divide through by z   2: cos x  ___  – z sin x = –1 1
dx Given that v =  __12 when t = 1, ______   _____  = __   1 , so c = 8 and
b z = c sec x – x sec x c − 4  2
√
c y2 = c sec x – x sec x, where c is a constant 1
the particular solution is v = __________ _________ 
   
y dy √ t  2 (8 − 4t) 
dz 9
3 a Given that z = __    , y = zx so ___
    = z + x  ___  A B __1
9 a y =  __  + __     +   ln x – __  34  b y = __
4
    – ____
    + __   1 ln x – __  34
x dx dx x x2 2 x 4x2 2
dy
The equation (x2 – y2)  ___  – xy = 0 becomes 10 y =  __2 cos (sin x) + __
1
 2 sin (sin x) + __
5 1
 2 esinx
dx
(x2 – z2x2)(z + x  ___ )– xzx = 0
dz du 1 d   2u 1
11 a t = eu, u = ln t, ___     =  __ , ____     = −  __2 
dx dt t dt  2 t 
dz dx dx ___ du d  2x d   2x __ 1 dx __ 1
⇒ (1 – z2)z + (1 – z2)x  ___  – z = 0  ___  = ___     ×    ,  ____  = ____     ×     − ___     ×    
dx dt du dt dt  2 du  2 t  2 du t  2
dz z So equation becomes
⇒ x  ___  = ______
    – z
(  du  2  ×   t  2  −   du  ×  t  2 )− 2t(  du  ×  dt )+ 2x = 4 ln (e  )
dx 1 – z2   2x __
d 1 ___ dx __ 1 dx ___ du
dz z3 t  2 ____ ___ u
⇒ x  ___  = ______
   
dx 1 – z2 d  x
2
dx
which rearranges to  ____2  − 3  ___  + 2x = 4u
b 2y2 (ln y + c) + x2 = 0, where c is a constant du  du
237

Answers
(  1 + t  2 )+ (   1 + t  2 )− 1 = 0

2t 1 − t  2
b x = At  2 + Bt + 2 ln t + 3 6 a 2 ______ ______
c As t gets very large, the distance of the particle
  4t + 1 − t  2− 1 − t  2
  
from its original position becomes very large. ⇒  __________________
       = 0 ⇒ t  2− 2t = 0
1 + t  2
dx dv d  2x dv d  2v
12 a ___
    = v + t  ___ ,  ____2  = 2  ___  + t  ____2  b 0, 2π, 2.21 (2 d.p.)
dt dt dt  dt dt 
Equation becomes ds
7 a v =  ___  = 2 cos 4x × 4 + 4 cos 2x × 2 = 8(cos 4x + cos 2x)
( dt dt  )
2t  2 2  ___  + t  ____2  − 4t(v + t  ___ )+ (4 − 2t  2)tv = t  4
dv d  2v dv dx
dt 2t 1 − t  2
t = tan x ⇒ sin 2x = ______
   , cos 2x = ______
   
d  2v 1 + t 
2
1 + t  2
which rearranges to 2  ____2 − 2v = t
dt  cos 4x = cos  2 2x − sin  2 2x
b x = Ate  t + Bte  −t − __   12 t  2
⇒ v = 8(  ______2    − ______
( 1 + t  ) (  1 + t  2 )  + (   1 + t  2 ))
2 2
1 − t  2 2t 1 − t  2
______
dv 1 du
13 a u = v  −1 ⇒ ___
    = −  ___   ___ 
du u2 dt
16 (
dv =  _______   1 − 3 t  2)
1000  ___ − 500v + tv  2= 0 becomes (1 + t  2) 2
dt 5π
b Least value of s occurs at x =  ___ and is −4.196 m.
du 6
− 1000 u  −2  ___ − 500 u  −1 + tu  −2= 0
du
dt It is a minimum because ___
ds
|
      = 0 and ____
dx __   5π
d 2s
|
  2    . 0.
dx __   5π
⇒ ___
   + 0.5u − 0.001t = 0 6 6
dt x x 2t x 1 − t  2
8 a t = tan  __ , so sin  __  = ______     and cos  __  = ______    
du 8 4 1 + t  2
4 1 + t  2
⇒    + 0.5u = 0.001t
___
dt x 11 x x
f ′(x) = 5 cos  __  + __   cos  __  − 5 sin  __ 
500e  0.5t 500e  0.5t 2 4 4 4
b v = ______________
  
      c v = ________________
   
    
= 5 cos  2( __ ) − 5 sin  2( __ ) + __
x x x x
e  (t − 2) + A
0.5t
e  (t − 2) + 252
0.5t   11
4
cos  __  − 5 sin  __ 
4 4 4 4
(  1 + t  2 )  − 5 (  1 + t  2 )  +   4 (  1 + t  2 )− 5(  1 + t  2 )
d v → 0 as t → ∞ so not valid for large values of t. 1 − t  2
2
2t
2
1 − t  2 2t
= 5 ______ ______ __
11 ______ ______
Challenge (9t  4− 40t  3− 120t  2− 40t + 31)

= _____________________________
   
      
dy du 4(1 + t  2)  2
Let u = ___    , so equation becomes ___     = u2
dx dx (t + 1)(9t  3− 49t  2− 71t + 31)
= ___________________________
∫ ∫
1 1    
      
⇒   2  du = dx ⇒ –     = x + B
___ __ 4(1 + t  2) 2
u u
b 6π
dy 1
⇒     = –  
___ _____   ⇒ y = A – ln(x + b) c Accept values in the range [4.8, 5].
dx x+B
d It is the second-lowest trough on the left. Accept
Review exercise 2
________
values in the range [91.2, 95].
x
√
1 cos  __ = 1 − ( __ 13 ) (
π
4) (
π 3
4) 15 (
π5
4)
2
  12     = __ 5
  13 9 a −2 x −   __  +   __43 x −   __    −   __
4
x −   __    + …
2
sin   _
x
 
x 1 − t  2 b −0.416 147 (6 d.p.)
= −  ___
2 119
t = tan  __  = _____
    = __   12 ÷ __   12 ⇒ cot x = ______
  5 = __     120 
2 cos  _2x  13 13 5 2t __
__
π π 2 4√ 3  π3
( 6) ( 6) 3 ( 6)
__ __ __ 10 a −ln 2 + √ 3  x −   __  − 2 x −   __    +   ____
  x − __
      + …
 , cos  2 θ = 1 − (
4 )
2 + √ 3  2 + √ 3  2 − √ 3 
2 a sin  2 θ = _______
  _______
    = _______
   
4 4 b −0.735 166 (6 d.p.)
_______
√
______ __
√
sin  2 θ 2 + √ 3  __
⇒ tan θ = − ______
     = − _______
  __  = −2 − √
3  dy
11 a   ___   = sec2 x
cos  2 θ 2 − √ 3  dx
__
b t = tan θ = −2 − √ 3  __ y
d____
2
2t 1 − t  2 √ 3    2  = 2 sec2 x tan x

⇒ sin 2θ =  ______2  = −  __12 and cos 2θ = ______   2 = −  ___  dx
1 + t  1 + t  2 d 3y
7π
c θ =  ___    ____3  = 4 sec2 x tan2 x + 2 sec4 x
12 dx
π π2 π3
( 4) ( 4) ( 4)
1 + t  2
3 a sec x + tan x =  ______2  + ______
 
2t ( 1 + t)  2
  = ___________
      = _____  
1+t
  b 1 + 2 x − __     + 2 x − __       +   __83 x − __       + …
1 − t  1 − t  2 (1 + t)(1 − t) 1 − t
3π π π
1 + tan  __2x  c Let x = ___     ⇒ x – __     = ___    
π __
(  4  +   2 ) =    
__ x _____________ 1+t 10 4 20
b tan      = _____
    = sec x + tan x π π 2 8 ___ π 3
1 − ( 1 × tan  __x ) 1 − t
( 20 ) ( 20 ) 3 ( 20 )
3π
2 tan  ___ = 1 + 2  ___  + 2  ___  + __        
10
π π2 π3
( √ 1 + t  2  )
θ
2
1 2 − (1 + t  2) ______
1 − t  2 = 1 + ___     + ____    + _____
   
4 2 cos  2  __ − 1 = 2 _______
  ______    − 1 = __________
   =    = cos θ 10 200 3000
2 1 + t  2 1 + t  2
12 a (x − 1) − __ 1
    (x − 1)  2 + __ 1
    (x − 1)  3 + . . . b −2
(  1 + t  2 )− 4(  1 + t  2 )− 4 = 0
1 − t  2 2t 2 3
5 a 3 ______ ______
 1  x  3 + ___
13 a sinh x = x + __   1   x  x+ . . . b  _12 
6 120
dy 3
3 − 3t  2− 8t − 4 − 4t  2 14 a  ____3 = 1 b 2 − x − 2x2 + __
 16 x3 + …
⇒  ____________________
       = 0 ⇒ 7t2 + 8t + 1 = 0 dx
1 + t  2
15 a Differentiate the equation with respect to x:
b x = 4.71, 6.00 (2 d.p.)

Answers
dy d2y dy x 2
2  ___  + (1 + 2x)  ____2 = 1 + 8y  ___  27 t = tan  __  ⇒ dx = ______
    dt
dx dx dx 2 1 + t  2
d2y dy dy dy 1
______________ 1 1 + t  2
(1 + 2x)  ____2 = 1 + 8y  ___  − 2  ___  = 1 + 2(4y − 1)  ___        = ________________
      = _____________
     
( 1 + t  ) ( 1 + t  )
dx dx dx dx 3 sin x − 4 cos x 3 ____  2t
2 − 4  
____
1 − t  2
2
(
22t − 1)(t + 2)
∫ 3 sin x − 4 cos x ∫ 2(2t − 1)(t + 2)

b 2  ____2 + (1 + 2x)  ____3  = 8 (___

  )
d2y d3y dy 2 d2y

1
______________ 1 + t  2 2
  + 2(4y − 1)  ____2  …         dx  =    _____________
    × ______     dt
dx dx dx dx 1 + t  2
∫

c  __12 __
 32 x2 __
 43 x3 2 1
+x+ + +… =    ________  − _______
    dt
5(2t − 1) 5(t + 2)
16 a 1 + x + 2x2 + 2x3 + … b 1.12 (2 d.p.)  __
∫
7π

6
1
______________
17 a 1.5 + 0.8 x − 0.208 x2 + 0.131 982 x3 + … ⇒        dx
  π
__ 3 sin x − 4 cos x
b 1.578 (3 d.p.) 2
[ ] __ π   5 ln 6 + 5 3
__
7π
  6  __
x x
18 a −  __  ___ (3  ____2 + 1)
1 dy d y
2
b 1 + x − x + __
 56 x3 + …2 | 2 | |
=  _5  ln2 tan  __ − 1 − lntan  __ + 2     = __
1
|
2
1
( √   )
y dx dx 2
a = 6, b = 5
c The series expansion up to and including the term in
28 0.734 (3 s.f.)
x3 can be used to estimate y if x is small. So it would
be sensible to use it at x = 0.2 but not at x = 50. 29 a 0.2 b 2.065, 2.406
19 a 1 +  _32 x2 + 2x3 +  _54 x4 + … 30 £8063
b 1.08 (2 d.p.)
31 1.537 (3 d.p.)
20 Let u = x and v = e 3 3x
32 a y1 = 1 + 0.2 cos(1) = 1.108 (3 d.p.) b 0.964 (3 d.p.)
___ du d2u  d3u
  dku  
  = 3x  2, ____   2 = 6x, ____   3 = 6, ____    = 0 for k . 3 33 10 660
dx dx  dx  dx  k
34 a 0.8 b 0.4413 (3 d.p.)
dv d2v  dkv 
___
  = 3e  3x, ____  2  = 9e  3x ⇒ ____     = 3  ke   3x 35 2.1, 2.202 (3 d.p.), 2.298 (3 d.p.)
dx dx  dx  k
36 2.94
dx  1 dx dx  n−1 (2) dx  2dx  n−2 (3) dx  3dx  n−3
 ____n  = u ____n + ( )   ___
d y 
n
dnv  n du _____ dn−1v  n d2u   _____dn−2v  n d3u   _____dn−3v 
     +    ____        +    ____
        37 a 1.09 (3 s.f.) b Increase the number of intervals.
dx 
n(n − 1) 38 a 3.8637 (4 d.p.)
= x  3(3
  ne   3x) + ________
  3x) + n(3x  2)(3  n−1e    (6x)(3  n−2e
  3x) du
2 b u = x ⇒ ___   = 1 and v′ = cosh x ⇒ v = sinh x
n(n − 1)(n − 2) dx
+  ______________
    (6)(3  n−3e   3x) LHS = x sinh x − cosh x = [x sinh x − cosh x]  21 
6
= −  __23 e  −2 + e  −1 + __   12 e  2= RHS
= 3  n−3e   3x(27x  3+ 27nx  2+ 9n(n − 1)x + n(n − 1)(n − 2))
c 0.11%
21 Let u = ex and v = sin x
Ce2x − 2x − 1 9e2x − 2x − 1
____ dku   39 a y =  _____________
     b y =  _____________
    
    = e  x 4 4
dx  k dy dv
___ dv d2v  d  3v d  4v 40 a y = vx,  ___  = x  ___  + v
  = cos x, ____   2 = − sin x,  ____3 = − cos x, ____
  4 = sin x, dx dx
dv (4x + vx)(x + vx)
d  5v
____
  5 = cos x, ____
d  6v
  6 = − sin x x  ___  + v = ________________
  
    = 4 + 5v + v2
dx x2
dx  dx 
dy dv
___   = e  x(sin x + cos x) ⇒ x  ___  = 4 + 4v + v2 = (2 + v)2
dx dx
1
d6  y b v = −2 − _______  
 ____6  = e  x(sin x + 6 cos x − 15 sin x − 20 cos x + 15 sin x ln x + c
dx  dy
+ 6 cos x − sin x) dv
41 a y = vx, ___     = x  ___  + v
= − 8e  xcos x dx dx
d 6  y dy dv 3x − 4vx _______ 3 − 4v
____
  6  + 8 ___+ 8y = − 8e  x(cos x) + 8e  x(sin x + cos x) x  ___  + v = _________     =    
dx dx 4x + 3vx 4 + 3v
dx 
− 8e  x(sin x) = 0 dv 3 − 4v 3v2 + 8v − 3
x  ___  = _______
    − v = −  ____________    
22 __
  12 dx 4 + 3v 3v + 4
C
ln x
_
1
  x  b 3v2 + 8v − 3 = __   2 
23 lim
x→0 _
   ____ im   ___  = lx→0
  = lx→0 im  (−x) = 0 x
1
  x  __
  −1   y 3y2 8y C
24  __12
x  2
c y = xv ⇒ v =     ⇒ ____ __   2  + ___     − 3 = __   2 
x x x x
25 lim
e  x− cos x
   _________   = lx→0
e  x+ sin x
im   _________  = 1 ⇒ 3y2 + 8yx − 3x2 = C
x 1 y = 7 at x = 1 ⇒ C = 200
x→0
x 2
26 a t = tan  __  ⇒ dx = ______     dt, Factorising the LHS, (3y − x)( y + 3x) = 200
2 1 + t  2
dμ dy dy y  3dμ
_______________ 1 1 1 + t  2 42 a  ___  = −2y  −3  ___  ⇒ ___     = −  ___   ___ 
      = ______________    2   = _______     dx dx dx 2 dx
1 − sin x + cos x 1 − ____  1 2t + ____
  1 − t 
(1 − t)
2
+ t  2 1 + t  2 dμ
∫ ∫ So −   2     + 2xμ = xe 
__
1 ___ 2
−x 
1 1 + t  2 2
⇒    _______________
    dx =    _______  × ______
    dt dx
1 − sin x + cos x 2(1 − t) 1 + t  2 dμ
∫ ⇒     − 4xμ = −2xe  −x 
___ 2
1
=    _____  dt dx
1−t 1
b μ =  _13 e−x + C e2x c   __2  = _  13 e−x + _  32 e2x
π 2 2 2 2
∫
__
  4
1
_______________ y
b       dx = 0.535 (3 d.p.)
0
1 − sin x + cos x
239

Answers
dy dv d y
2
dv d2v
43 a  ___  = v + x  ___ , ____
    = 2  ___  + x  ____2  4t − 5(1 − t2) = 2(1 + t2) ⇒ 4t − 5 + 5t2 = 2(1 + t2)
dx dx dx2 dx dx
⇒ 3t2 + 4t – 7 = 0
( dx dx )
So x2 x  ____2  + 2  ___  − 2x(v + x  ___ ) + (2 + 9x2)vx = x5
d 2v dv dv π
b x = 3.95, __
   
dx 2
3 1.195
d 2v d 2v
⇒ x3  ____2 + 9x3v = x5 ⇒ ____   2 + 9v = x2 4 a k=4 b x = −4 c 33.7
dx dx
b v = A cos 3x + B sin 3x + __  19 x2 − __ 2
 81 5 a −14i − 5j − 6k b 8.02
c 38 dice d Plastic wastage
c y = Ax cos 3x + Bx sin 3x + __
 19 x3 − __2
 81 x
1 dy
44 a 2t  2   ___
_
Exam-style practice: A level
dt
1 a 7x + 2y + 4z = 7 b  ___
104
c 0.930 radians
dt ( t  2)
d2y dy 1 1 dy
b 4t   2  + 2  ___  + 6t  2 − __
  __1  2t  2  ___  − 16ty = 4te2t
____ __
1 __ 3
dt dt 2 a 0.687 78 b 0.687 95 c 0.02% error

d2y dy dy dy 3x __ y
⇒ 4t  ____2 + 12t  ___  − 16ty = 4te2t 3 a xy  ___  + 3x2 + y2 ⇒ ___
    + ___
    +     (1)
dt dt dx dx y x
c y = Ae x + Be−4x + __
2
  16 e2x

2 2
dy dv
y = vx ⇒  ___ = v + x ___    (2)
d2
y dy dx dx
⇒  ____2  + 3  ___  − 4y = e2t dv 3
dt dt Substituting (2) into (1) gives: v + x ___     + __
    + v = 0
dx v
dy
___
45 a t   dv 3 dv 3 + 2v 2
dt     + 2v = 0 ⇒ x  ___  + _______
⇒ x  ___  + __     = 0
dx v dx v
    ×     (___
dx dt dx )
    = t  ___  (t  ___ )
d 2
y dt ___ d dy d dy b 3x4 + 2x2y2 = 53
b  ____2  = ___
dx dt dt c x = 2.050 = 205 metres
= t (___
    + t  ____2 ) = t2  ____2  + t  ___ 
dy d2y d2y dy d Velocity of jumper tends to infinity as distance
dt dt dt dt from top of the cliff tends to 0. Hence the model is
(t   dt2  + t   dt ) − (1 − 6t)t   dt  + 10yt = 5t sin 2t

d 2
2 ____
y dy
___ dy
___ unsuitable for very small values of x.
c 2 2
4 a L’Hospital’s rule is only applicable for the limits of
d2y dy ±∞
⇒  ____2  + 6  ___  + 10y = 5 sin 2t     or __
functions which tend to ____  00 
±∞
dt dt __
1
The function given tends to  0 , hence L’Hospital’s
d y = e−3e (A cos(ex) + B sin(ex)) + __   16 sin(2 ex) − __
 13 cos(2 ex)
x
rule is cannot be used.
  2 = 6x−4 (___    )  − 2x−3  ____2 

dy dx d y
2
dx
2
d2x b −  __
14

46 a  ___  = −2x−3  ___ , ____ 29
dt dt dt dt dt
x2 y
2
Divide the differential equation by −x4: 5 a  ___2  − __

  2 = 1
a b
−2x−3  ____2 + 6x−4 (___    )  = −x−2 + 3
d2y dx
2
x2 (mx + c)2
Substitute in y = mx + c:  ___2  – _________
   = 1
dt dt a b2
d2y d2y ⇒ b2x2 − a2(mx+c)2 = a2b2
⇒  ____2  = −y + 3 ⇒ ____   2  + y = 3 ⇒ b2x2 − a2(m2x2 + 2mc + c2) = a2b2
dt dt ⇒ (b2 − a2m2)x2 − 2mca2x − a2(c2 + b2) = 0
1 1__
b y = A cos t + B sin t + 3   _________  d  ___
c x = __________  
√ cos t + 3  √ 2  This is in the form of a quadratic equation.
For y = mx + c to be a tangent, discriminant = 0:
Challenge
( − t  2)
+ (  ____
1 − s  2)
____
  1 2t 2s
4m2c2a4 = −4a2(b2 − a2m2)(c2 + b2)
tan x + tan y ______________ 4st
1   ____________
    ≡    
     ≡  _____________
    ⇒ m2c2a2 = −b4 − b2c2 + a2m2c2 + a2m2b2
( + (  
) )
cot x + cot y   ____
1 − t  2 ____
1 − s  2
(1 − s  )( 1 − t  )
2 2
⇒ b2 + c2 = a2m2
2t 2s
b y = x + 1, y = –  __ + __
(  1 − t  2 )(  1 − s  2 ) ≡ tan x tan y
17
2t 2s x   67
≡ ______ ______ 11 11
3x2 2x2
6 y = 1 + x − ____
    +  ____ 
  x cosh x) =  ∑  (  )   ____k  (x  3)_____
n n 2 3
  n
d   k
d d  n−k
2  ____n  (x  3e   n−k  (e  x cosh x) __ __ __
dx  k=0 k d x  dx  {x : x − √
7 6  , x , √ 7 − 1} ∪ { x : x , 1 − √ 7
  }
=   ∑  (  )   ____k  (x  3) 2  n−k−1 e  2x
3 n   k
d 8 For y = ex sin x, let u = ex.
k=0 k d x  dku
Hence ____  k  = ex for all values of k
= e  2  (6(  )  + 12x(  )  + 12 x  2(  )  + 8 x  3 )
n n n
2x n−4
dx
3 2 1
dv d2v
= 2  n−4 e  2x (8x  3+ 12nx  2+ 6n(n − 1)x + n(n − 1)(n − 2)) Let v = sinx, hence  ___  = cos x, ____   2  = −sin x,
dx dx
du 1 d3v d4v d5v d6v
a  ___  = u3 ⇒ ___   2  = B – 2x ⇒ u = (B − 2x)  − 2 
_1
3 ____
  3  = −cos x, ____
  4  = sin x, ____
  5  = cos x, ____
  6 = −sin x
dx u dx dx dx dx
Then integrate both sides with respect to x.
Apply Leibnitz’s theorem:
b A = __  32 , B = __  94 e xsin x + 6ex cos x – 15ex sin x − 20ex cos x + 15ex sin x
d6y
Exam-style practice: AS level + 6ex cos x – ex sin x = −8ex cos x = ____   6 
__ __ dx
1 x . √ 3 , − √ 3  , x , −1, x , −3 dy
8  ___  = 8ex(cos x + sin x)
x 2t 1 − t2 dx
2 a If t = tan  __ , then sin x = ______
    and cos x = ______
   
2 1+t 2
1 + t2 d 6y dy
Hence  ____6  + 8  ___  = −8ex cos x + 8ex cos x + 8ex sin x
2t 1 − t2 dx dx
Hence, 2 sin x − 5 cos x = 2  ______2  − 5  ______2 = 2 = 8ex sin x = 8y
1+t 1+t

Index
Index
alternating series test 147 normals 74–6 Maclaurin series 132, 136–7, 139
angles, between vectors 5 parametric equations 63–4 major axis 69
areas 7–9 tangents 74–6 midpoint method 166–7
asymptotes envelopes 56 modelling
horizontal 97 Euler’s method 164–7, 169–71 with differential equations 185–6
hyperbolas 65 with trigonometry 124–5
rectangular hyperbolas 42–3, 65 first-order differential modulus inequalities 99–101
vertical 97 equations 162–7, 180–1
focal chords 38 normals
calculus, methods in 149–60 foci 35–7, 67–72 ellipses 74–6
key points, 160 focus–directrix properties 35, 67 hyperbolas 79–81
Cartesian equations parabolas 45–7, 49–52, 84–5
curves 33–4 gradients rectangular hyperbolas 45–6, 50,
ellipses 63–4 parabolas 45–7 84
hyperbolas 65–7 rectangular hyperbolas 45–6 nth derivatives 150–1
parabolas 35, 54–5, 84 graphs, inequalities 96–7 numerical methods 161–78
rectangular hyperbolas 43, 84 first-order differential
chain rule 79–80, 84, 151, 154, 183 hyperbolas 42, 65–7 equations 162–7
chords 38–9 asymptotes 65 key points 178
circles 35, 68 branches 42 second-order differential
compass point diagrams 162 Cartesian equations 65–7 equations 169–71
conic sections eccentricity 68, 71–2 Simpson’s rule 173–4
definition 35 general points 66
see also ellipses; hyperbolas; key points 90–1 parabolas 35–9, 45–56
parabolas normals 79–81 Cartesian equations 35, 54–5, 84
continuous compounding 156 parametric equations 66–7 eccentricity 68
critical values 93–5, 96, 99–101 rectangular see rectangular general points 35, 55, 84
cross products see vector products hyperbolas gradients 45–7
tangents 79–81 key points 61
differential equations normals 45–7, 49–52, 84–5
first-order 162–7, 180–1 implicit differentiation 45, 74 parametric equations 35, 55, 84
modelling with 185–6 indeterminate forms 136, 152–5 tangents 45–7, 49–51, 84
reducible 179–90 inequalities 92–104 parallelepipeds 11–13
second-order 169–71, 183–4 algebraic methods 93–5 parallelograms 7–9
series solutions 139–42 critical values 93–5, 96, 99–101 parameters 33
substitution methods 180–5 graphical solutions 96–7 parametric differentiation 45, 74
differentiation key points 104 parametric equations
implicit 45, 74 modulus 99–101 curves 33–4
parametric 45, 74 non-strict 94–5 ellipses 63–4
product of two functions 150–1 initial conditions 162, 169, 170 hyperbolas 66–7
direction cosines 17–18 integration parabolas 35, 55, 84
direction ratios 17–18 approximate value of definite rectangular hyperbolas 43, 84
directrices 35–7, 67–72 integral 173–4 partial fractions 157
distributive property 3 Weierstrass substitution for planes 20–2
dot products 2 156–7 product rule 150–1, 180, 183
double-angle formulae 117 interest rates 156 Pythagorean triples 129
iterative methods 163–4, 169–71
eccentricity 67–72 ratio test 147
ellipses 68–70 Leibnitz’s theorem 150–1 rational fractions 157
hyperbolas 68, 71–2 L’Hospital’s rule 152–5 rectangular hyperbolas 42–3, 45–6,
parabolas 68 limits 50, 55
ellipses 63–5, 67–70 algebra of 136 asymptotes 42–3, 65
Cartesian equations 63–4 finding 135–8 Cartesian equations 43, 84
eccentricity 68–70 indeterminate forms 152–5 general points 43, 55, 84
general points 63 lines see straight lines gradients 45–6
key points 90–1 loci 54–5, 83–5 key points 61
241
Z02_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_IND_241-242.indd 241 23/01/2018 08:32

Index
normals 45–6, 50, 84 t-formulae 116–30, 156–7 trigonometric functions, in

parametric equations 43, 84 key points 130 modelling 124–5
tangents 45–6, 50, 84 in modelling with trigonometric identities 117–18
reducible differential equations 179– trigonometry 124–5 proving 120–1
90 in proving trigonometric
key points 190 identities 120–1 unit vectors 2
right-hand rule 2 in solving trigonometric
equations 122–3 vector products 2–9
scalar products 2 tangent fields 162 areas 7–9
scalar triple products 11–14 tangents vectors 1–31
second-order differential ellipses 74–6 angles between 5
equations 169–71, 183–4 hyperbolas 79–81 areas 7–9
series, convergence 147 parabolas 45–7, 49–51, 84 key points 30–1
series solutions, of differential rectangular hyperbolas 45–6, 50, plane equations 20–2
equations 139–42 84 scalar triple products 11–14
Simpson’s rule 173–4 Taylor series 131–48 shortest distance between
spherical polar coordinates 20 finding limits 135–8 lines 22–3
straight lines key points 148 straight line equations 16–18
eccentricity 68 series solutions of differential vertex, parabola 35
intersections with planes 21–2 equations 139–42
shortest distance between 22–3 tetrahedrons 13–14 Weierstrass substitution 156–7
vector equations 16–18 triangles, areas 7–9
substitution methods, differential trigonometric equations,
equations 180–5 solving 122–3
242
Z02_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_IND_241-242.indd 242 23/01/2018 08:32

11 - 19 PROGRESSION
Pearson’s market-leading books are the most trusted resources for Edexcel AS and A level Further
Mathematics.
Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics Further Pure Mathematics 1

This book covers all the content needed for the optional Edexcel AS and A level Further Pure
Mathematics 1 exams.
• Fully updated to match the 2017 specifications, with more of a focus on problem-solving and modelling.
• FREE additional online content to support your independent learning, including full worked solutions
for every question in the book (SolutionBank) and GeoGebra interactives.
• Includes access to an online digital edition (valid for 3 years once activated).
• Includes worked examples with guidance, lots of exam-style questions, practice papers, and plenty of
mixed and review exercises.
Pearson Edexcel AS and A level Mathematics books

Year 1/AS Year 2
line digital
on
ed
n
ludes a
it
ion
inc
Pearson Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics books
Compulsory Options
For more information visit: www.pearsonschools.co.uk/edalevelmaths2017
www.pearsonschools.co.uk
myorders@pearson.com
FP1
1

Edexcel AS and A Level Further Mathematics Further Pure Mathematics 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Edexcel AS and A Level Further Mathematics Further Pure Mathematics 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

11 - 19 PROGRESSION

Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics

Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics Further Pure Mathematics 1

Pearson Edexcel AS and A level Mathematics books

Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics

Further Pure Mathematics 1

For more information visit: www.pearsonschools.co.uk/edalevelmaths2017

Edexcel AS and A level Further Mathematics

Further Pure Mathematics 1

F01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PRE_i-vi.indd 1 22/01/2018 18:15

A note from the publisher

F01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PRE_i-vi.indd 2 22/01/2018 18:15

Contents ● = A level only

Overarching themes iv 5.3 Solving trigonometric equations 122

2 Conic sections 132 ● 7 Methods in calculus149

Review exercise 1105 ● Exam-style practice: A level200

5 The t-formulae116 Answers202

F01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PRE_i-vi.indd 3 22/01/2018 18:15

• Hundreds of problem-solving questions, fully integrated specify the problem

into the main exercises

Finding your way around the book Access an online

Each chapter starts with

The Prior knowledge check

F01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PRE_i-vi.indd 4 22/01/2018 18:15

Problem-solving boxes Each section begins Step-by-step Each chapter

AS and A level practice papers

F01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PRE_i-vi.indd 5 22/01/2018 18:15

Extra online content

SolutionBank provides a full worked solution for

every question in the book. x2 − x1 d As the points move closer to A, the

Online Full worked solutions are

c Gradient of tangent at x = 1.5 is 9.61 − 9 0.61

2 a Substituting x = 0.6 into =

Download all the solutions as a PDF or

quickly find the solution you need online

© Pearson Education Ltd 2017. Copying permitted for purchasing

Access all the extra online content for free at:

F01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_PRE_i-vi.indd 6 22/01/2018 18:15

Prior knowledge check

2 A straight line has vector equation

Write down the Cartesian equation of the

3 A line has vector equation

M01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_1_001-031.indd 1 22/01/2018 18:17

1.1 Vector product

If the turn is in the opposite sense, b a

M01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_1_001-031.indd 2 22/01/2018 18:17

Find the values of:

a i×i=0 sin θ = 0, as the angle between i and itself is zero.

The angle between j and k is 90° and, as j and k

c i × k = −k × i = −1 × 1 × sin 90°j = −j Use the right-hand rule. If i is your k

M01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_1_001-031.indd 3 22/01/2018 18:17

Given that a = 2i − 3j and b = 4i + j − k, find a × b:

a (2i − 3j) × (4i + j − k)

M01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_1_001-031.indd 4 22/01/2018 18:17

3 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both 2i − j and to 4i + j + 3k.

5 Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to both i − j and 3i + 4j − 6k.

M01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_1_001-031.indd 5 22/01/2018 18:17

8 Find the magnitude of (i + j − k) × (i − j + k).

9 Given that a = −i + 2j − 5k and b = 5i − 2j + k, find:

constants. Find the values of u, v and w.

P 15 If three vectors a, b and c satisfy a + b + c = 0, show that

M01_EDFP1_SB_ASAL_83350_CH_1_001-031.indd 6 22/01/2018 18:17

1.2 Finding areas

Contents ● = A level only

Overarching themes iv 5.3 Solving trigonometric equations 122

2 Conic sections 132 ● 7 Methods in calculus149

Review exercise 1105 ● Exam-style practice: A level200

5 The t-formulae116 Answers202

Area of triangle ABC =  __

Find the area of the parallelogram ABCD, where the D C

Area of triangle OAB =  __

Find the volume of the parallelepiped shown in the A

■ If three sides of a parallelepiped are given by vectors a, b and c

■ If three sides of a tetrahedron are given by vectors a, b and c as shown in

3 , 0) and D( 1,    ,    

x  2 + y  2 + z  2 ___ |a|  2 x

a Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane Π. (3 marks)