Ch$pter 6: Sens$tion $nd Perception

– Prosop&gnosi& —> f$ce blindness

– not being $ble to recognize f$ces
– IN OUR EVERYDAY experiences, our sens&tion &nd perception blend into
one continuous process
– st$rt with sensory receptors (BOTTOM) —> `higher levels of processing
(UP)
– This st$rt of sensory $n$lysis is known $s bottom up processing
(entry level) (THE SENSES BOTTOM TO BRAIN)
– but our minds INTERPRET wh$t our senses DETECT too
– Construct perceptions dr$wing on both sens$tions coming bottom up to the
br&in $nd on our experiences / expect$tions c$lled top - down processing
(BRAIN UP TOP)
– As br$in deciphers, bottom up processing en&bles our sensory
systems to detect the lines, $ngles, $nd colors th$t form the
surroundings (vision)
Thresholds
– Psychophysics: the study of rel$tionship between the physic&l
ch&r&cteristics of stimuli (intensity) to our psychologic&l experience to
them
– our ABSOLUTE THRESHOLDS $re the minimum &mount of stimul&tion
necess&ry to detect $ p$rticul$r light, sound, pressure, t$ste, or order 50%
of the time
– could be tested by such $s $ he$ring test exposing your e$rs to v$rying
sound levels (frequencies $s you get older)
– th$t 50-50 recognition point —> defines YOUR $bsolute threshold
– v$ry with $ge ($s you get older)
– Sign&l Detection Theory - detecting $ we$k stimulus $lso depends on our
psychologic$l st$te such $s our experiences, expect$tions, motiv$tion, $nd
$lertness
– (me$sures $s “hits” to “f$lse $l$rms”)
– they seek to underst$nd why some people respond differently to the s$me
stimuli
– peopleʼs $bility to c$tch $ f&int sign&l diminishes $bout $fter 30
minutes…****
– depends on the t$sk, on the time of he d$y, $nd even if they exercise
– c$n h$ve life or de$th consequences —> noticing r$d$r blimps /
people sc$nning b$gg$ge @ $irports so they put thre$tening objects
once in $ while to motiv$te them
– Sublimin&l Stimul&tion - BELOW oneʼs $bsolute thresholdʼs for conscious
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$w$reness
– Entrepreneurs hope to penetr&te our unconsciousness by offering
recordings th&t spe&k to our br&ins directly
– m$sking unhe$rd mess$ges by pe$ceful sounds
– These $re cl$imed to influence our beh$vior?
– yes they c$n be detected unconsciously some of the time bec$use
$bsolute is only 50% of the time
– An invisibly im$ge or word c$n briefly PRIME you response to $ l$ter
question
– Prime: the unconsciousness $ctiv$tion of cert$in $ssoci$tions,
predisposing oneʼs perceptions / memories / response
– Feeling wh$t we do not know or c$nnot describe (f$ces during kittens
$nd de$d bodies fl$shes)
– Much of our inform'tion processing occur 'utom'tic'lly, out of sight,
off the r'd'r of our conscious mind
– Difference Thresholds - the minimum difference between two stimuli
required in order to detect & difference 50% of the time (just notice7ble
difference or jnd)
– Weberʼs L&w: for their difference to be perceptible, the two stimuli must
differ by $ const$nt proportion not $ const$nt $mount
– depends on the stimuli
– Sensory Ad$pt$tion - our diminishing sensitivity to $n unch$nging stimulus
– getting used to $ b$d odor when going to someoneʼs house (SMELL) NOT
VISION
– $fter const$nt exposure to $ stimulus, our nerve cells fire less frequently
– However, eyes $re &lw&ys moving, flitting from one spot to $nother —> eyesʼ
receptors continu&lly ch&nges (VISION CONTINUALLY CHANGES)
– it &llows us to only focus on inform'tive ch&nges in our environment
without being distr$cted by b$ckground
VISION:
– our $bility to convert one sort of energy to $nother
– eyes receive light energy —> tr$nsform into neur$l mess$ges ——> br$in
processes into wh$t we consciously see
– Two Ch$r$cteristics of light:
– Lightʼs w&velength —> dist$nce from one pe$k to $nother determining
its hue or color
– Short W$velength —> High frequency —> Bluish Colors
– Long W$velength —> Low Frequency—> Reddish Colors
– Intensity —-> the &mount of energy in the w$ves influences
BRIGHTNESS ($mplitude determines this)
– High $mplitude —> Bright color
– Sm$ll $mplitude —> dull color
THE EYE: (pupil + eye ASK)
 – Lights enters through corne& which protects the eyes + bends light
(squinting) to provide focus (OUTER LAYER DAWG)
– Then to pupil which is $n $djust$ble opening in the center of the eye
– Surrounded by the iris, which controls the size of the pupil opening
– Behind the pupil is $ lens —> focuses incoming light r&ys into $n im$ge on
the retin$, multil$yered tissue on the eyeb$llʼs sensitive surf$ce
– lens focuses the r$ys by ch&nging its curv&ture c&lled &ccommod&tion
– The Retin$
– light energy p$rticles m$ke their w$y to the rods + cones (retin$l receptor
cells)
– Rods: detect bl$ck, white, $nd gr$y (120 million)(twilight / night
conditions)
– Cones: concentr$ted ne$r the center of the retin$ $nd function in the
d$ylight (lit conditions) (6 million)
– Optic Nerve: the nerve th$t c$rries neur&l impulses from the eye to the
br&in (m&de of g&nglion cells)
– WHERE IT LEAVES THE EYE IS WHERE THE BLIND SPOT IS SINCE
NO RECEPTOR CELLS R THERE
– Cones cluster in $nd $round the fove&, retin$lʼs $re$ of centr$l focus
– direct connection —> precise inform$tion
– $llow you to perceive color
– Rods sh$re bipol&r cells th$t sh$re combined mess$ges
– D&rk The&ter —> Pupils Dil&te &nd &llow more light in of the screen
– Nocturn$l Anim$ls would only be rods
Visu$l Inform$tion Processing
– Retin$ʼs neur$l l$yers $lso help encode $nd $n$lyze the sensory info
– Rel$y info to $ corresponding loc$tion in the visu$l cortex p$rt of the
occipit$l lobe vi$ THALAMUS
– Fe&ture detectors —> nerve cells in the br$in th$t respond to specific
fe$tures of the stimulus such $s sh$pe $ngle or movement
– neurons in the visu$l cortex receive info FROM INDIVIDUAL GANGLION
CELLS IN THE RETINA
– Fe$ture Detectors —>supercell clusters to respond to more complex
p$tterns
– our br$in eng$ges in p&r&llel processing inste$d of step by step processing
– processing of m$ny $spects of $ problem simult&neously
– recognizing $ f$ce
– people who h$ve h$d $ stroke or surgery d$m$ge to their br$inʼs visu$l cortex
h$ve experienced blindsight
– $ loc$lized $re$ of blindness
Color Vision
– An objectʼs color is reflected in our eyes $s long / short w$velengths
reflecting th$t color (tom$to —> reflecting red) (long w$velengths since
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red***)
– Young Helmholtz trichrom&tic theory - the eye h$s three corresponding
types of color receptors (red / green / blue) (RGB) which is cones since
color
– stimul&te combin&tions of these cones $nd we see other colors such $s
red + blue = purple
– COLOR DEFICIENT VISION IS LACKING OF RED OR GREEN FUNCTIONING
CONES
– impossible to distinguish between red $nd green
– Heringʼs opponents processing theory - $n$lyze colors in terms of
three sets of opponents colors
– red - green
– yellow - blue
– white - bl$ck
– EXPLAINS AFTERIMAGES (FLAG OF YELLOW AND GREEN) —>
BRITAIN SINCE BLUE AND RED
– VISION IS HUMANʼS MAJOR
SENSE*************************************************************************
******************
HEARING
– our &udition is highly $d$ptive
– we he$r sounds best @ frequencies in & r&nge corresponding with &
hum&n voice
– sensitive to f&int sounds ($ncestors p$ssed down $s hunters for
surviv$l)
– &ttuned to v&ri&tions of sounds (t$lking to someone on the phone)
– with low b$se sounds, we c$n $lso feel the vibr$tion so we he$r by both the
&ir &nd the vibr&tion (bone conduction)
– vibr$ting $ir into neur$l impulses
– the $mplitude of the w$velengths determine the volume
– the length —> frequency determines the pitch
– Long w$ves —> low frequency —> low pitch
– Short w$ves —> High frequency —> high pitch
– sounds r me$sured in decibels
THE EAR (sound w$ves into neur$l mess$ges)
– visible outer e&r ch$nnels the sound w$ves to the $uditory c$n$l of the
e&rdrum
– e&rdrum —> $ tight membr$ne th$t vibr$tes with the w$ves
– The middle e&r tr$nsmits these vibr$tions to the cochle& through $ piston
m$de up of 3 tiny bones
– $ sm$ll tube in the inner e&r
– this c$uses the membr$ne of the cochle$ to vibr$te, jostling the fluid th$t fills
the tube
 – c$uses the b&sil&r membr&ne, bending the h$ir cells lining the surf$ce
– the h$ir cell movement triggers impulses in the $dj$cent nerve cells whoʼs
$xons = &uditory nerve
– this sends mess$ges to the &uditory cortex
– D$m$ge to the he$r cells $ccounts for he$ring loss
– The br$in interpretʼs loudness from THE NUMBER of $ctiv$ted h$ir cells
– Loud sounds r the s&me for norm$l people $nd people with he$ring loss
– ITS THE SOFTER SOUNDS THAT R HARDER TO HEAR
– THEREFORE THOSE R AMPLIFIED IN HEARING AIDS, NOT EVERY
SOUND
– SOUND COMPRESSED
– Herm&nn von Helmholtzʼs pl&ce theory ——> pitch we he&r with the pl&ce
b&sed on where the cochle&ʼs membr&ne is stimul&ted (HIGH PITCHES)
– br$in determines & soundʼs pitch by recognizing the specific pl&ce
th$t is gener$ting the neur$l sign$l
– High frequencies —> ne$r the beginning
– low frequencies —> ne$r the end
– Frequency Theory: the br$in re$ds pitch by monitoring the frequency of
neur$l impulses tr$veling the $uditory nerve (LOW PITCHES)
– the sound w$ve h$s $ frequency of 100 w$ves per second —> then 100
pulses per second tr$vel up the $uditory nerve
– but wh$t $bout 1000 w$ves since it c$nt fire more th$n th$t but we
c$n he$r it? - PROBLEM
– by firing in r$pid succession they $chieve $ combines frequency
$bove 1000 tho!!!!!! - SOLUTION?
– ONE OF our e$rs receive the sign$l f$ster depending on the where the sound
is coming from
– left or right, so the right will he$r it just $ bit f$ster like 0.000027 seconds
f$ster $nd our system c$n detect th$t
– how we know where the sound is coming from!!!!!
– problems with conducting sound w&ves to the cochle& c$uses conduction
he&ring loss
– d$m$ge to h$ir cells of the cochle$ c$n c$use sensorineur&l he&ring loss
(nerve de$fness)
– only w$y to restore he$ring with nerve de$fness is $ sort of bionic e$r —>
cochle$r impl$nt
– tr$nsl$tes sounds to electric sign$ls which $re wired into its nerves
which le$d to the br$in to be tr$nsl$ted into sounds
– Controversi$l due to ppl liking the de$f culture (not $llowing their children
to choose which one they w$nt) (he$ring or de$f community)
TOUCH (Prim$ry sense)
– Import&nt sensors in your joints, tendons, bones, $nd e$rs $s well $s your
skin sensors en$ble your kinesthesis —>sense of position &nd movements
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of your body p&rts

– the vestibul&r sense - moniters your he$dʼs position $nd movement
– sense of equilibrium is in your inner e$r (WHERE THE COCHLEA W THE
FLUID IS!!!)
– the semicircul&r c&n&ls &nd vestibul&r s&cs connects the c$n$ls
with the cochle$ holding fluid th$t moves when your he$d rot$tes /
tilts
– p$in is w$y for your body to tell you th$t something h$s gone wrong
– people who c$nʼt feel it (r$re) c$n die before e$rly $dulthood
– Nociceptors —> sensory receipts th$t detect h$rmful temper$tures,
pressure, or chemic$ls
– The G&te - Control Theory —> spin&l cord cont&ins
– sm&ll nerve fibers —> conduct p&in sign&ls
– l&rger nerve fibers —> conduct sensory sign&ls
– $lso h$s $ g$te where when tissue is injured, the sm$ll fibers OPEN the
g&te so you feel p&in
– however the spin$l cord c$n $lso CLOSE the g$te
Biologic&l Influences on P$in:
– $ctivity of spin$l cordʼs l$rge / sm$ll fibers
– genetic difference in endorphins production
– f$ster so feel less p$in
– the br$inʼs interpret$tion in CNS $ctivity
– feeling p$in in missing limbs
Psychologic&l Influences On P$in:
– $ttention to p$in
– distr$ction such $s those focused on winning pl$y through the p$in
– le$rning b$sed on experiences
– expect$tions
– would you r$ther? g$me
Soci&l-cultur$l influences:
– presence of others
– emp$thy for otherʼs p$in
– cultur$l expect$tions
Controlling P$in
– distr&cting p&tients is $ good w$y to incre$se p$in toler$nce
– donʼt look $t the needle (Nurses when giving shots)
T$ste: (chemic$l sense)
– reproduce themselves every week or two
– t$ste sensitivity decre$ses $s you grow older
– expect&tions &ffect the br&inʼs response
– re$l price of wine is $10 but you s$y $90 $nd so it triggers more $ctivity in
the br$in
– The Surviv$l Functions of B$sic T$stes
 – Sweet —> Energy Source / S&lty —> Sodium for psychologic&l
processes / Sour —> Potenti&lly Toxic Acid (PH SCALE*)
– Bitter —> Potenti&l Poison / Um&mi (like me&t) —> proteins to grow /
rep&ir tissue
– smell c$n $lso ch$nge our perception of t$ste (str&wberry odor —>
indic&ted sweetness of & drink)
– Sensory Inter&ction —> one sense m$y influence the other
– McGurk Effect st$tes th$t seeing g7 while he$ring b7 m$y produce d7
– SENSES INTERACT THEY R NOT TO COMPLETELY DIFFERENT
CHANNELS******
Smell: (chemic$l sense)
– olf&ctory receptor cells $t the top of the nostrils $lert the br$in through $xon
fibers
– some odors trigger & combin&tion of receptors in p$ttern interpreted by
the olf&ctory cortex
– $ctiv$te neur$l p$tterns which $llows us to distinguish between
smells
– smell pe$ks @childhood
– $ll hum$ns h$ve their own individu$l chemic$l sign$ture
– $ttr$ctiveness of smells depends on le&rned &ssoci&tions
– Wintergreen in the US is c$ndy while in Gre$t Brit$in its medicine
Perceptu$l Org$niz$tion:
– when people were given sens$tions they tend to org$nize them into $ gest&lt
which me$ns form them into & whole
– we const$ntly filtered out out our perceptions so th$t they m$ke sense to us
– so they m$ke sense to us, to underst$nd the world $round us
– the figure ground rel&tionship org$nizes our stimuli &g&inst the ground
– this keep reversing which indic$tes th$t m&ny perceptions r possible
from the s&me stimuli
– Gest&lt Principles:
– Proximity —> grouping ne$rby figures together
– Simil&rity —> grouping simil$r figures together
– Continuity —> perceiving continuous p$tterns r$ther th$n split ones
– Connectedness —> perceiving uniform + linked figures $s one
– Closure —> filling in g$ps to perceive whole objects
– Depth perception - seeing objects in three dimensions lets us estim$te the
dist$nce they $re from us
– visu$l cliff $llows us to test whether b$bies or $nim$ls h$ve the $bility to
recognize depth
– inf$nts h$ve the $bility $long with new born $nim$ls
– Binocul$r cues —>depth cues (bi so two eyes which is linked to retin$l
disp$rity)
– retin&l disp&rity —> t$kes the object from both eyes $nd comp$res the
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dist$nce from e$ch other (need two eyes to do) (shows how import$nt it
is)
– the gre$ter the dist$nce —> the closer the dist$nce
– Monocul$r cues —> $v$il$ble to e$ch eye individu$lly
– Interposition —> blocking $nother object, its closer
– Rel&tive size —> if two objects $re simil$r in size, sm$ller one is f$rther
– Rel&tive height —> higher in our field of vision $s f$rther
– Line&r Perspective —> P$r$llel lines converging with dist$nce
– Light &nd Sh&dow —> ne$rby objects reflect more light onto our eyes
– sh$ding in dr$wing
– Rel&tive Motion —> When moving in $ c$r, the st$ble objects tend to
move with you $nd the ones in front move b$ckw$rds
Motion Perception
– br$in perceives movement in $ r$pid series of slightly v$rying im$ges
(stroboscopic movement)
– film $nim$tion post it shit
– lights cre$te $nother movement illusion using the phi phenomenon
– when two $dj$cent lights blink on $nd off in quick succession, we think
theres $ light moving b$ck $nd forth between them
– moving $rrows on the ro$d
Our br'in cre'tes our perceptions, it is not merely 7 projection of the world
onto our br7in
– Perceptu&l Const&ncy - perceiving objects $s unch$nging even $s
illumin$tion + retin$l im$ges ch$nge
– with sh&pe const&ncy, we perceive the form of f$mili$r objects, such $s $
door
– even $s they seem to ch$nge with POV
– size const&ncy perceives objects $s h$ving $ const&nt size even when our
dist$nce from them v$ries
– est$blishes link between dist$nce + size
– Moon Illusion —> cues to objectsʼ dist$nces m$ke the Horizon Moon
$ppe$r f$rther $w$y $nd l$rger th$n the Moon high in the sky
– the sky one is much f$rther $w$y $nd it shrinks
– it t$kes $w$y those dist$nce cues
– white p$per reflects 90% on light
– bl$ck p$per is only 10%
– outside it m$y reflect 100 times more light, but it still looks bl$ck
– lightness const&ncy —> const$nt lightness even while its
illumin$tion v$ries (TYPE OF PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY)
– perceived lightness depends on rel'tive illumin'nce - the $mount of
light $n object reflects rel$tive to its surroundings (we comp$re it to
those $round us)
– $ c$ndle is bright in the d$rk, but nothing when in sunlight
 – color const$ncy —> COLOR DEPENDS ON THE CONTEXT
– APPLE IN FRUIT BOWL WILL RETAIN ITS COLOR REGARDLESS OF
LIGHT / WAVELENGTH SHIFTS
– BUT ONLY LOOKING PART OF THE APPLE MIGHT BE LIKE LIGHT RED
OR LIGHT GREEN BECAUSE URE COMPARING IT TO THE REST
HENCE CONTEXT
– perceiving f$mili$r objects $s h$ving consistent color even if
ch$nging illumin$tion ch$nges other f$ctors
Perceptu$l Interpret$tion:
– perceptu&l &d&pt&tion —>to ch$nge visu$l input m$kes the world feel
norm&l &g&in
– &djust to &n &rtifici&lly displ&ced / inverted visu&l field
– inverted gl$sses, new gl$sses
– our experiences / $ssumptions / expect$tions —> perceptu$l set —> influence
top down processing
– influence wh$t we he$r
– “ge$r up” inste$d of “cheer up” to depressed co pilot getting re$dy to
cheer up
– context $lso m$tters
– listening to s$d music $nd he$r “mourning” inste$d of “morning”
– emotion $nd motiv$tion
– w$lking destin$tions look f$rther to someone tired
– steeper hill to those we$ring $ he$vy b$ckp$ck
– hum&n f&ctor psychologists —> test their their designs &nd instruction
on re&l people
– m$ke re$l life $ppli$nces e$sier to use
– stove tops $nd where the knobs $re
– $pple is $n ex$mple of how e$sy they m$de $ phone to use
– how to best tr$in mech$nics for $irpl$nes?
– $ssistive listening technologies in v$rious the$ters / $uditoriums
– designers &nd engineers consider hum&n &bilities &nd beh&viors when
designing things to fit people
– do user testing before productions / distribution &nd being mindful of
the curse of knowledge
Extr$sensory Perception:
– Perception without sensory input
– P$r$psychology - the study of p$r$norm$l phenomen$ including
psychokinesis / ESP
– 4 TYPES:
– Telep&thy —> $bility to perceive mess$ges from someone else
– Cl&irvoy&nce —> perceiving remote event (LOCATION WISE)
– Precognition —> Perceiving future events
– Psychokinesis —> moving $n object with the mind