ARCH 421 : ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 8-DESIGN OF COMPLEX STRUCTURES

(MODULE 1)

WEEK 2 : 1. The Advent of the Skyscrapers

1.1 Introduction to Skyscrapers
2. Intelligent Buildings
2.1 Introduction to Intelligent Buildings
2.2 Green Building Rating Systems
2.2.1 USGBC and LEED
2.2.2 PHILGBC and BERDE
2.2.3 BREEAM
2.2.4 CASBEE
2.2.5 Greenstar

1. The Advent of the Skyscrapers

Learning Content

The first skyscrapers are tall commercial buildings with iron or steel frameworks. It came about in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first skyscraper is generally considered to be the Home
Insurance Building in Chicago, though it was only 10 stories high. Later, taller and taller buildings were
made possible through a series of architectural and engineering innovations, including the invention of
the first process to mass-produce steel. Today, the tallest skyscrapers in the world are more than 100
stories and even exceed heights of 2,000 feet.

1.1 Introduction to Skyscrapers

A skyscraper is a tall continuously habitable building having multiple floors. Modern sources currently
define skyscrapers as being at least 100 meters (330 feet) or 150 meters (490 feet) in height, though
there is no universally accepted definition. Skyscrapers are very tall high-rise buildings. Historically, the
term first referred to buildings with between 10 and 20 stories when these types of buildings began to
be constructed in the 1880s. Skyscrapers may host offices, hotels, residential spaces, and retail
spaces.
One common feature of skyscrapers is having a steel frame that supports curtain walls. These curtain
walls either bear on the framework below or are suspended from the framework above, rather than
resting on load-bearing walls of conventional construction. Some early skyscrapers have a steel frame
that enables the construction of load-bearing walls taller than of those made of reinforced concrete.
Modern skyscrapers' walls are not load-bearing, and most skyscrapers are characterized by large
surface areas of windows made possible by steel frames and curtain walls. However, skyscrapers can
have curtain walls that mimic conventional walls with a small surface area of windows. Modern
skyscrapers often have a tubular structure, and are designed to act like a hollow cylinder to resist wind,
seismic, and other lateral loads. To appear more slender, allow less wind exposure and transmit more
daylight to the ground, many skyscrapers have a design with setbacks, which in some cases is also
structurally required.
As of February 2022, fourteen cities in the world have more than 100 skyscrapers that are 150 m (492
feet) or taller:
 ● Hong Kong with 518 skyscrapers;

● Shenzhen, China with 343 skyscrapers;

● New York City, US with 300 skyscrapers;

● Dubai, UAE with 237 skyscrapers;

● Mumbai, India with 208 skyscrapers;

● Shanghai, China with 180 skyscrapers;

● Tokyo, Japan with 165 skyscrapers;

● Guangzhou, China with 152 skyscrapers;

● Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia with 148 skyscrapers;

● Chongqing, China, and Chicago, US, both with 135 skyscrapers;

● Wuhan, China with 109 skyscrapers;

● Bangkok, Thailand, and Jakarta, Indonesia, both with 108 skyscrapers.

2. Intelligent Buildings
Learning Content

The concept of intelligent buildings was introduced in the United States in the early 1980s. With this
approach, buildings employ high-technology electronics extensively to achieve desired results, which
basically consist of integrating four primary groups (energy efficiency, life safety, telecommunications,
and workplace automation) into a single computerized system. There are various definitions of
intelligent buildings and sustainability; the one proposed by the Intelligent Building Institute is as
follows:

2.1 Introduction to Intelligent Buildings

An intelligent building is one that provides a productive and cost-effective environment through
optimization of its four basic elements—structure, systems, services, and management—and the
interrelationships between them. Intelligent buildings help business owners, property managers and
occupants to realize their goals in the areas of cost, comfort, convenience, safety, long-term flexibility
and marketability.

Regarding sustainability, the ASHRAE GreenGuide defines it as “Providing for the needs of the present
without detracting from the ability to fulfill the needs of the future.” Thomas Hartman, professional
engineer and building automation expert, believes there are three cardinal elements of an intelligent
building (Hartman, 2007):

1. The occupants: An intelligent building is one that provides easy access, keeps people comfortable,
environmentally satisfied, secure, and provides services to keep the occupants productive for their
purpose in the building.
2. Structure and systems: An intelligent building is one that at a bare minimum significantly reduces
environmental disruption, degradation, or depletion associated with the building while ensuring a long-
term useful functional capacity for the building.

3. Advanced technologies: An intelligent building is one that because of its climate and/or use is
challenged to meet elements 1 and 2, and succeeds in meeting those challenges through the use of
appropriate advanced technologies.

2.2 Green Building Rating Systems

Green Building Rating Systems (GBRSs) are typically third-party, voluntary, and market driven
standards that measure buildings’ sustainability level by multi-criteria assessment, and encourage the
adoption of environmentally, socially and economically sustainable practices in design, construction
and operation of buildings (or neighborhoods). GBRSs aim at guiding and assessing the project
throughout all its life cycle, thus limiting the negative impact on the environment, as well as on the
building occupants’ health and well-being, and even reducing operational costs. Hundreds of GBRSs
are now available worldwide, varying in approaches, application processes, and evaluation metrics.
BREEAM, CASBEE, Green Star and LEED are among the most applied worldwide. Despite some
differences, they all adhere to the same general evaluation structure: project performances are
measured using a set of relevant indicators, grouped per topics such as water management, energy
use, materials, site qualities. Each assessed requirement is assigned a score/judgment, the total of
which determines the level of sustainability achieved. In addition to regular updates, a current trend is
to improve the effectiveness of protocols, making them more comprehensive and accurate, while
keeping them easy to use.
In a nutshell, GBRSs can be defined as third-party, voluntary, and market driven standards that
measure buildings’ sustainability by multi-criteria assessment, and encourage the adoption of
environmentally, socially and economically sustainable practices in design, construction and operation
of buildings (or neighborhoods).
2.2.1 USGBC and LEED

The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), co-founded by Mike Italiano, David Gottfried and Rick
Fedrizzi in 1993, is a private 501(c)3, membership-based non-profit organization that promotes
sustainability in building design, construction, and operation. USGBC is best known for its development
of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green building rating systems and its
annual Greenbuild International Conference and Expo, the world's largest conference and expo
dedicated to green building. USGBC was one of eight national councils that helped found the World
Green Building Council (WorldGBC).
The five critical areas of focus, as laid out by the USGBC, are “sustainable site development, water
savings, energy efficiency, materials selection, and indoor environmental quality.”

Sustainable site development involves, whenever possible, the reuse of existing buildings and the
preservation of the surrounding environment. The incorporation of earth shelters, roof gardens, and
extensive planting throughout and around buildings is encouraged. Water is conserved by a variety of
means including the cleaning and recycling of gray (previously used) water and the installation of
building-by-building catchments for rainwater. Water usage and supplies are monitored. Energy
efficiency can be increased in a variety of ways, for example, by orienting buildings to take full
advantage of seasonal changes in the sun’s position and by the use of diversified and regionally
appropriate energy sources, which may—depending on geographic location—include solar, wind,
geothermal, biomass, water, or natural gas. The most desirable materials are those that are recycled or
renewable and those that require the least energy to manufacture. They ideally are locally sourced and
free from harmful chemicals.

The goal of LEED is to create better buildings that:

● Reduce contribution to global climate change

● Enhance individual human health
● Protect and restore water resources
● Protect and enhance biodiversity and ecosystem services
● Promote sustainable and regenerative material cycles
● Enhance community quality of life

LEED certified buildings save money, improve efficiency, lower carbon emissions and create healthier
places for people. They are a critical part of addressing climate change and meeting ESG goals,
enhancing resilience, and supporting more equitable communities.

To achieve LEED certification, a project earns points by adhering to prerequisites and credits that
address carbon, energy, water, waste, transportation, materials, health and indoor environmental
quality. Projects go through a verification and review process by GBCI and are awarded points that
correspond to a level of LEED certification: Certified (40-49 points), Silver (50-59 points), Gold (60-79
points) and Platinum (80+ points).
 Children’s Healthcare of Atlanta Center for Advanced Pediatrics | LEED Gold |

2.2.2 PHILGBC and BERDE

The Philippine Green Building Council (PHILGBC) is a national non-stock, non-profit organization that
promotes the sharing of knowledge on green practices to the property industry to ensure a sustainable
environment. It was organized to serve as a single voice in the promotion of holistic and market-based
green building practices, to facilitate the sharing of green building information and practices in the
building industry, and to serve as a non-partisan venue for the development of the BERDE Green
Building Rating System.

The Building for Ecologically Responsive Design Excellence (BERDE) Program was developed by
PHILGBC as an appropriate response to the Philippine building industry’s need to proactively address
the negative impacts of climate change in the property sector.

The BERDE Green Building Rating System is developed under the BERDE Program. It is a tool to
measure, verify and monitor performance of buildings above and beyond existing mandatory building
and environmental regulations and standards. The rating tool is consensus driven and is achieved
through a multi-stakeholder consultation and collaboration process. BERDE Assessment and
Certification is credible, unbiased, balanced and impartial and is achieved through a third party
certification process conforming with international standards.
 The Net Metropolis in Bonifacio Global City.
Miami-based architect Chad Oppenheim
planned the 1.2-hectare Net Metropolis at the
corner of 5th Avenue and 26th Street.

BERDE has four major rating schemes—new construction, retrofits and renovations, operations, and
existing buildings. The number of points a project earns in each of the categories (i.e. water, land use
ecology, etc.) determines its level of accreditation; the highest is five stars while the lowest is one star.
Project teams submit documentation to prove compliance with the requirements of each category.
Rating systems provide developers with a quantifiable basis for claiming to be green. It’s a mechanism
to prevent greenwashing, where companies advertise unverifiable environmental benefits of their
buildings for branding and marketing purposes.
Net Lima and Net Park feature a façade
consisting of aluminum sunshade envelope and
a full glass curtain wall composed of double
glazed low-e glass.

The Net Metropolis in Bonifacio Global City

(BGC) is easily the most exciting commercial
office building complex developed by The Net
Group (TNG) not only because it is new and
innovative, but also because it is the first
building certified under the Philippines’ new
green building rating tool, BERDE. While many
have heard of LEED—indeed, a handful of
buildings around the block are LEED certified—
few people know of its local counterpart.

TNG executive vice president Ramon Rufino, a green building advocate, is among the founders of
PhilGBC he said that “Every country’s experience and conditions are different including climate,
technology level and laws”. “LEED is a US-centric rating tool though they have been rewriting the latest
versions to make it more global, but BERDE is built to consensus.” PhilGBC conducted public and
multi-sector consultations to get feedback from real estate stakeholders. One of the issues raised was
that some documentation requirements of foreign rating systems that should come from local planning
authorities are not being issued by the Philippine government. BERDE requires the submission of
environmental clearances and building permits prescribed by the national and local governments. This
serves as a cross-check of the building’s compliance with existing legislation and national policies
regarding environmental practices in the country.
BERDE is also the first rating system in the world to account for heritage conservation, a welcome
check and incentive in a country with a built heritage constantly threatened by developments. Thus far,
only BERDE rewards retrofit and reuse of historic buildings. This parameter does not apply to Net
Metropolis, but culturally-sensitive developments in historic districts like Binondo and Escolta stand to
earn a lot of green points.

While the parameters of green rating systems around the world are similar, the weights differ based on
the priorities of each country. According to Rufino, the main advantage of BERDE is that it is aligned
with the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for emerging economies, which
underscores water conservation and access to clean water as a major problem in the Philippines. Aside
from waterless urinals and faucets with sensors, Net Lima uses condensate drain collection to augment
the water supply used for irrigation and general maintenance. Condensate water from the building’s
variable refrigerant flow (VRF) air-conditioning system are collected and stored in a glass-reinforced
plastic (GRP) tank with built-in leak detection system. For the Net Park, TNG is installing a rain water
collection system aside from the condensate water collection system. The goal is to collect enough
water for landscaping and cleaning without having to get from the tap.

2.2.3 BREEAM
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment One of the most common and internationally
Environmental Assessment Method) is a recognised certification schemes for
voluntary green building sustainability rating sustainability in buildings, BREEAM’s rating
system established in the UK for assessing the system involves a wide range of assessment
environmental performance of buildings. It criteria to appraise the performance of a
assesses the performances of buildings over a building. BREEAM’s assessment criteria
wide range of environmental issues to produce include the following:
a rating of either PASS, GOOD, VERY GOOD,
Energy and water use
EXCELLENT or OUTSTANDING.
Internal environment (health and well-being)
TÜV SÜD ensures that your business complies Pollution
with the various BREEAM assessment criteria, Transport
thereby making your portfolio more attractive Materials
with the inclusion of BREEAM certified Waste
Ecology
buildings.
Management processes

2.2.4 CASBEE
 Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and
Comprehensive Assessment System for Built Tourism (MLIT).
Environment Efficiency (CASBEE) is a method
for evaluating and rating the environmental
performance of buildings and the built
environment. CASBEE was developed by a
research committee established in 2001
through the collaboration of academia, industry
and national and local governments, which
established the Japan Sustainable Building
Consortium (JSBC) under the auspice of the

2.2.5 GREEN STAR

Green Star rating provides independent
verification that a building or community project
is sustainable. Undertaking voluntary Green
Star certification demonstrates leadership,
innovation, environmental stewardship and
social responsibility.

WEEK 3 : 3. Fundamentals of Tall Building Design

3.1 The Lateral Stability System for Tall Buildings
3.2 Core System for Tall Buildings

3. Fundamentals of Tall Building Design

Learning Content
The key feature of the tall building from a structural engineer's point of view is its lateral stability
structural system. The development of structural system for tall buildings can be divided into certain
stages in the history. They are developed from rigid frame, bracing system, shear wall system to tube,
core-outrigger, and diagrid structures.
3.1 The Lateral Stability System for Tall Buildings
For tall buildings, purely rely on the core wall system to resist lateral loading is not sufficient, which will
result in a very thick wall thickness. A building is designed to act like a hollow cylinder, cantilevered
perpendicular to the ground in order to resist lateral loads. There are different types of tube structures,
such as framed tubes, braced tubes, tube-in-tube and bundle tube. However, in the current design
practice, few tall buildings only use one single structural system. For example, the structural system of
Shanghai Tower is in the combination of mega frame, core wall system and outriggers. Some
conventional combinations such as braced core, core and perimeter tube, braced core and outriggers,
braced core and outriggers with ring truss, etc. can be found in the current design projects.
The floor system also plays an important role in resisting the lateral loadings. In additional to supporting
the gravity load, the floor system is also working as a floor diaphragm which is designed to transmit the
lateral load from cladding to the lateral load-resisting systems at each level.
Loads on Tall Buildings
 Dead Loads
 Live Loads
 Snow Load's
 Wind Loads - Effects of wind depend on density and flow of air, angle of incidence, shape and
stiffness of the structure, and roughness of surface. Its load value also depends on roof
geometry, wind exposure, location, and its importance.
 Earthquake Loading

3.1.1 Floor System

In tall building design, similar floor structures to those in low-rise buildings are used. However, there are
certain aspects and properties that need to be considered in design floor system for a tall building.
Firstly, the weight of the floor need to be minimized, due to its height, the lighter weight will result a
more economical foundation. Secondly, it needs to consider the fire resistance, especially for
composite floor system; thirdly, the floor should also resist the load during the construction.
 Concrete Floor System

Concrete floor system refers to a system with concrete slabs sitting on the concrete beams. One-way or
two-way slabs are used. The span of the slabs is normally between 3 and 8 m.
 Flat Slab

Flat slab is another commonly used concrete floor system, where the slabs are made to directly sit on
the column without using the beams. Flat slabs are popular for its fast track construction, allow easy
service distribution underneath the slabs and are very economical for a span of 5–10 m.
 Posttensioned Slab System

Posttensioned floor slabs are predominantly used in the multistory buildings, especially tall building
construction across the world. This is because the slab sections can be about 30% thinner which
enables the total weight carried by the foundations to be reduced. There are two methods of applying
prestress to a concrete member.
•Posttensioning, the concrete is placed around ducts containing unstressed tendons. Once the concrete
has gained sufficient strength the tendons are stressed against the concrete and locked off by special
anchor grips, known as split wedges.
•Pretensioning, the concrete is placed around previously stressed tendons. As the concrete hardens, it
grips the stressed tendons and when it obtained sufficient strength, the tendons are released, thus
transferring the forces on to the concrete.
Posttensioned slabs are more widely used in the tall building design due to its fast construction
procedures. It can be used to span distances of up to 25 m between columns which reduces the
number of columns. It also gives the minimum structural thickness of the slab, therefore saves the total
weight of the building, and significantly reduce the overall building height, however, providing the same
number of stories. Therefore, it is widely used in tall buildings (such as the Shard).
Composite Floor System
Composite floor system is using the steel beams to be connected with the concrete floor slabs. It
utilizes the advantage of both steel and concrete. Therefore, it is more cost-effective form of
construction.
 Solid R.C. or Profiled Metal Deck Floors

In composite floor system, the most common types of floor slabs used are solid R.C. or profiled metal
deck floors with shear connectors to connect them to the steel beams.
 Precast Slab

Composite beams incorporating precast hollow core floor slabs is another composite floor system for
buildings. The use of precast hollowcore slabs in steel composite construction was first developed in
the 1990s. This type of floor system offer advantages where the use of a steel decking or solid slab
system may be unsuitable. Precast concrete slabs or precast hollow-core concrete are also used with
shear connectors to work together with steel beams.
 Slim Floor Construction

Slim floor use a special girder with a lower flange which is wider than the upper flange. This
arrangement makes it possible to fit the floor slabs directly onto the lower flange plate of the beam. This
product is developed around 1990s. In 1992, full-scale tests of slimfloor beam were carried out in my
current department at the City, University of London. Compared to the other composite floor system, it
has the following advantages:
a) Floor thickness reduction
b) Incorporating under-floor technical equipment
c) Built-in fire resistance
d) Creating vertical movement space
e) Lighter structures

3.1.2 Columns
Inclined Columns
Inclined column is used when there is a change
in the plan layout is required, this is mainly due
to the requirement of the architect. Example of
inclined columns in tall buildings is shown in
the left.

Walking Column
Inclined columns or fin walls are sometimes
used to offset column loads. In this particular
case, the structure must be designed for the
horizontal push-and-pull loads generated by
the transfer. Walking column are often used
one above the other to gradually transfer loads
through multiple stories. One of the famous
examples is Manchester Hilton Tower designed
by company WSP Group. At level 23, the
building cantilevers are projecting out to
roughly 4 m, as shown in the figure.The
cantilever stories are supported on two-story
walking column working together with 2-m-long
concrete cantilever beams projecting from the
core
3.1.3 Earthquake Design
Base Isolation

Base isolation is one of the passive structural reduction: (A) no base isolation and (B) using
vibration control technologies, which consist of base isolation as seen on image on the right.
layers of steel and rubber inside the isolation to
dissipate the energy. They are widely used for
high-rise buildings by decoupling them from
their substructure. Base isolation in response

Shock Absorber

Shock absorber is the method and concept that uses combination of steel and rubber or hydraulics
dampers. It minimizes by protecting the amount of energy that building absorbs from an earthquake.
Damping Systems

The response of a tall building under the earthquake is also affected by its structural damping, it comes
from the material of structural member of the buildings (either steel or concrete), it can also come from
the friction at joints or movement of the secondary members. For tall buildings, if the structural damping
alone is not sufficient to limit the response of the building additional complex damping systems are
required. There are three major damping devices that can be used in tall building: Tuned mass damper
(TMD), viscoelastic damper, and tuned liquid damper (TLD). TMD is one of the most popular damping
devices. The vibration energy is absorbed through the motion of an auxiliary or secondary mass
connected to the main system by viscous dampers. Two types of TMD are used in construction:
Translation TMD or Pendulum TMD.
3.1.4 Fundamental of Wind Loading
In tall buildings design, wind action needs to be
considered at an early stage so that the size
and structural form can be optimized to reduce
wind load effects. The aspect ratio of the
structure is a key factor when considering the
wind loads effect. In addition, the effects of
wind during construction stage should also be
considered at the design stage.
Measures to Reduce the Wind Response
Aerodynamics Optimization
It is widely known that the response of the tall buildings under wind loading is greatly determined by
building shapes. Aerodynamics optimization on the shape of supertall buildings in the design stage is
an effective way to reduce the wind response. The fluid-based aerodynamic modification method can
be used to optimize the shape of the tall buildings.
Research shows that tapering and stepping softened corners, tapering and setbacks, varying cross-
sectional shape, adding spoilers and porosity, or openings in the building elevation of the tall buildings
can reduce across-wind responses. One of the examples is in the design of Shanghai Tower, through
aerodynamic optimization on the building shap, the wind load can be effectively reduced. There are
several methods in optimizing the plan layout, such as corner recession, corner cut, corner slot etc. in
addition to that, optimization can be made in changing the elevation shape, such as curvilinear form,
setback etc.
Different methods of aerodynamics optimization. (Based on references, M. Alaghmandan, P. Bahrami,
M. Elnimeiri, The future trend of architectural form and structural system in high-rise buildings, Arch.
Res. 4(3) (2014) 55–62. [15], J. Xie, Aerodynamic optimization of super-tall buildings and its
effectiveness assessment, J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 130 (2014) 88–98.)
Damping Systems
The response of a tall building under the wind loading is also affected by its structural damping, it
comes from the material of structural member of the buildings (either steel or concrete), it can also
come from the friction at joints or movement of the secondary members. For tall buildings, the structural
damping alone is not sufficient to limit the response of the building to satisfy the serviceability design
requirements, similar to earthquake design, additional complex damping systems are required to
control oscillation due to wind loading. There are three major damping devices that can be used in tall
building: TMDs, viscoelastic damper, and TLD.
3.2 Core System for Tall Buildings
For supertall buildings, core is a key element in those lateral stability systems. Although structural
systems such as diagrid system and mega-frame can work alone without any assistance of the core for
certain height of tall buildings, it is very rare that core is not used in any of these systems when the
height increases to above 200 m. When the height increases to above 400 m, hybrid systems with core
wall (especially concrete core) as one of the key stability systems is dominant in the design of serval
supertall buildings such as Jeddah Tower (1000mtall), Burj Khalifa (828-m tall), Shanghai Tower (632-
m tall), China Zun Tower (528-m tall), and Guangzhou International Financial Center (432-m tall). For
buildings with height between 200 and 500 m, purely relying on core wall to resist the lateral load is
also very rare, some supplementary systems such as outriggers, belt truss, or buttress wall are
needed.
3.2.1 Wall and Core System
Shear walls are widely used for both tall buildings and low-rise buildings. They are important structural
members used in the lateral resisting system. They work as a deep vertical cantilevered beam
supported at the ground. They also carry vertical load together with columns. Some structures may
require coupled shear walls, where girders and the floor system join the two or more walls together as a
coupled system to provide more stiffness.
In tall buildings, shear walls are generally located at the center of the building, normally in the form of
core wall system to accommodate the vertical translation system such as lifts for the tall building. It is a
very common form of lateral load support system in tall buildings.
Type of Cores
There are two major types of cores: concrete core and steel framed cores. Concrete walls are used
widely in the tall building design; on certain occasions, steel core can be found in buildings built before
9/11, they being much lighter, can save the cost of the foundation.
Concrete Core

Reinforced concrete cores are a more standard option for tall buildings in general, as seen from the
history, concrete structure is dominant in the market because they provide more stiffness than steel
cores, and it is relatively cheaper to use a concrete core in certain countries such as China. In certain
countries such as China, the steel production was not sufficient in the past; therefore, most of the tall
buildings were built in concrete. In addition, some codes require that the core of the building be
constructed using reinforced concrete in case of fire and for emergency safety.
Steel-Framed Cores

Steel core was quite common for tall building design before 9/11 attack. The twin towers in World Trade
Center is one of the examples. It used the steel core at the center of the building. The main reason for
using steel core is that it provides a lightweight structure solution. However, the investigation of NIST
NCSTAR “Final Report of the National Construction Safety Team on the Collapses of the World Trade
Center Towers,” shows that fire was the major cause of the collapse of the World Trade Center as
majority of its structural members were steel. So for supertall buildings designed after 9/11, steel core is
rarely used. When designing the steel-framed cores, one need to check the lateral loads, fire
protection, constructability, and erection sequencing, different fire protection strategies can be
considered, such as intumescent paint, board, spray, etc.
The Importance of Core Design
As a result of 9/11 attack, more and more design engineers began to focus on how to design a tall
building to be able to resist a similar attack. Therefore, a concrete core became one of the major
choices for consideration. Core is also part of evacuation route when hazards happen, therefore,
concrete core would also be a good option.
3.2.2 Introduction of Outrigger, Belt Truss, and Buttress Core System
The core is a very important component to stabilize the tall buildings. However, when the height of tall
building increases, it will be very uneconomical to rely purely on the core wall system to resist lateral
loading, as this will result in massive core walls or much thicker walls. One of the measures to
complement the core wall system is to use stiff horizontal members (such as outriggers, belt truss,
buttress wall) to connect the main core to the exterior columns. The efficiency of the building structure
may be improved by about 30% through the use of the horizontal belt trusses that tie the frame to the
core. If we look at the latest built tall buildings such as Shanghai Tower in Shanghai, Burj Khalifa in
Dubai, and the Shard in London, ancillary systems such as outriggers, belt truss, or buttress wall were
used to further brace the core walls.
Outrigger Structures
Outriggers are one of the most widely used systems for relative regular floor plan. It is constructed
using steel trusses, girders, concrete walls, or deep beams to connect the core and the columns at the
perimeter. The outrigger trusses are normally one-story high, some even occupy several storys. The
cores are normally located at the center of the building, whereas the outriggers extend out to the outer
columns.
One of the famous examples of this system is Shard, London Bridge Tower. It has core wall at the
center and outrigger truss at high levels, inside the plant room, to connect the central core and outer
raking columns.
Belt Truss and Ring Truss System
The figure shows a tall building under
construction, which uses the so-called belt
truss system as one of its lateral stability
system. Belt truss system is another effective
structural system to control the excessive drift
due to lateral load.

Buttressed Core System

Buttressed core system is an evolution of the buttress structure which has been used in most of the
ancient structures such as churches and bridges. They provide support to act against the lateral
(sideways) forces arising from the structures. The term counterfort is synonymous with buttress,
however, if used in dams, retaining walls, and other structures holding back earth. A classic example is
the Notre Dame de Paris Church. Buttressed core structural stability system is developed based on the
concept of the buttress structural system. It was first developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP
(SOM) for project Burj Khalifa, the system is a tripod-shaped structure in which a strong central core is
connected to three building wings. It is an inherently stable system.

WEEK 4 : 3.3 Tube System in Tall Buildings

3.2 Structural Systems in Tall Buildings

3.3 Tube System in Tall Buildings

In the tall building design, the tube system is one of the common lateral stability systems. It is designed
to act as a vertical cantilevered hollow shell cylinder. This allows to create an indefinite stiff “shell”
around the building exterior. This system was introduced by Fazlur Rahman Khan from the firm
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) in 1970s. It was an innovative lateral stability system for designing a
taller, more efficient building at that time. It has dramatic difference compared to the traditional
structural system for multistory buildings, such as portal frame system, core wall strengthened by
outrigger, etc. Tube structures are categorized into several different types: tube-in-tube, framed tubes,
braced tube, bundle tube, hybrids tube system, etc.
 Tube-in-Tube System
This structure system is a coupled structural structure. The Petronas towers is one of the
system by outer tube around the exterior and typical tube-in-tube structures.
the inner core (can be a concrete core wall or a
steel-framed tube) is called a tube-in-tube
 Framed Tubes
Framed tube system is one of the most widely
used tube systems. Compared to tube-in-tube
system, it featured a much stiffer exterior tube
in this type of system. The stiff tube was
achieved through closely spaced columns
connected by deep spandrel beams which are
firmly joined together to make the stiff exterior
shell. Depending on the structure, the spacing
of the column is quite close, generally 1.5–4.5
m spacing. The Twin Towers in New York were
one of the first structures to use a framed tube
design.
 Braced Tubes Structure (Trussed Tube Structure)
The braced tube (also known as trussed tube) John Hancock Center in Chicago is one of the
is similar to the tube-in-tube structure but with famous examples.
comparatively fewer exterior columns. In most
of the cases, steel bracings are used to
compensate for the fewer columns by tying
them together. By this arrangement, the overall
cost of the building dropped dramatically. The
advantage of braced tube is that the diagonal
brace can take the lateral load in axial action,
thus reducing the shear lag. However, there
are also some disadvantages such as the large
brace blocked some windows. In addition,
braced tubes are only used for structures with
less than 60 stories, due to the fact that the
external shell is not as stiff as the framed tube.
 Bundled Tube
When the height of the building increases, one tube is not sufficient to resist the huge lateral load that
occurs from either earthquake or wind. Bundle tube is a structural system which consists of several
tubes tied together to resist lateral forces. Such buildings have interior columns along the perimeters of
the tubes when they fall within the building envelope. One of the famous examples is the Willis Towers.
 Hybrid Tube System
Hybrids Tube system is used where a building is supertall or subjected to extreme loading such as
typhoon, that tube system itself cannot provide adequate strength or stiffness.
3.2 Structural System in Tall Buildings
 Bracing Systems
For aesthetic purposes, braced frames are usually positioned in the cavity of the walls and in the lift-
shaft core area. Bracing is also one of the major structural systems for providing stiffness and strength
to resist lateral load. It is a highly efficient and economical method for resisting lateral forces. This is
because the diagonal members work primarily in axial stress, resulting in minimum member sizes in the
structural system.
Concentric Bracing
Concentric bracing is oriented in such a way
that all members (beams, columns, and
bracing) meet at a common point. They provide
the lateral resistance mainly through the axial
force in the braces. The two major categories
of concentric bracing are diagonal bracing and
K-bracing. In addition, there is another type of
bracing which is called cross bracing (X-
bracing).
Eccentric Bracing
The braces are offset from the columns or they
do not intersect at the floor beams. Therefore, it
results in an eccentrically connected bracing.

 3D Space Truss System

It is widely known that the 3D space truss uses triangular shafts. It is built of composite
system is widely used for long-span roof; this metal tray and reinforced concrete floor
system has been further evolved by Leslie system.
Robertson, who further developed this system
into tall buildings. One of the famous examples
is the Bank of China Tower Hong Kong by the
famous Chinese-American architect I.M. Pei.
The structural engineer is Leslie Robertson, the
first composite space frame high-rise building.
While its distinctive look makes it one of Hong
Kong's most controversial landmarks today, it
earned the nickname “One Knife” due to its
peculiar sharp shape.It uses a 3D space truss
system. The building is in composite steel and
reinforced concrete. It is noticed that the
building's superstructure comprises four
interlocking triangular shafts, terminating at
various heights. This is similar to the bundle
tube system used in Wills Tower. The only
difference is that one uses tube, whereas the
other one
 Diagrid Structures

The term “diagrid” is a combination of words “diagonal” and “grid.” To a certain extent, a diagrid system
is also part of the bracing system, which originated from the conventional bracing system. It consists of
huge diagonal bracings sitting on the exterior of the building, which is normally exposed to the public;
therefore, it also becomes one of the aesthetical components for architects to use. It is originally
explored by the Russian Engineer Vladimir Shukhov. Norman Foster referred to his idea and applied in
the Swiss Re Tower .
The most famous project using diagrid structure is Swiss Re Tower, known as 30 St Mary Ax or the
Gherkin (a), Hearst Tower (b), Guangzhou International Finance Centre (c) and the CCTV Building (d).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

WEEK 5 : 4. Intelligent Energy Management Systems

4.1 Building Automation and Intelligent Buildings
4.2 Mechanical Systems

4. Intelligent Energy Management Systems

Learning Content
Many in the engineering field today understand an intelligent building to be one that incorporates
computer programs to coordinate many building subsystems to regulate interior temperatures, HVAC,
and power.
4.1 Building Automation and Intelligent Buildings

The goal is usually to reduce the operating cost of the building while maintaining the desired
environment for occupants. Often people fail to realize that this is really about the use of advanced
technologies to dramatically improve the comfort, environment, and performance of a building’s
occupants while minimizing the external environmental impact of its structure and systems. The key
phrase here is “comfort of its occupants,” which is what it is all about. In the final analysis, intelligent
buildings help property owners and developers as well as tenants to achieve their objectives in the
areas of comfort, cost, safety, long-term flexibility, marketability, and increased productivity. An
intelligent building is one that can merge building management requirements with IT systems to achieve
optimized system performance as well as simplified general facility operations as shown in the
illustration.
4.2 Mechanical Systems

The introduction of new technologies and developments in computers and electronics equipment have
made it possible to create HVAC systems that are smarter, smaller, and more efficient. These
advancements have reshaped how the systems are installed, how they are maintained, and how they
operate. Among the more important developments in HVAC equipment design in recent years is VAV,
which basically involves a technique for controlling the capacity
of an HVAC system. This means that with these systems, persons who have conditioned air circulating
in, on, or around them can control the temperature are designed to provide air at comfortable
temperature and humidity levels and to be free of harmful concentrations of air pollutants. Moreover,
the technological advances and continuous development of air-conditioning systems have brought
about fundamental changes in the way we design projects
because they have allowed investors to build larger, higher, and more efficient buildings than previously
possible.

4.2.1 HVAC Systems

Types of HVAC Systems

There are basically two approaches to conditioning a room or building. The first is using a radiant
system; the second is using a forced-air system. Radiant systems usually involve running hot or chilled
water through pipes that loop around the structure and radiate into the conditioned space via a floor
surface or radiator pipe. Forced-air systems use a fan to push air through a duct system, where it is
conditioned by a coil on a furnace or air handler before being returned to the space. While there are a
wide variety of HVAC systems in use today, no system is right for every application. In order to service
specific needs, there are a number of different HVAC systems available (e.g., single zone/multiple
zone, constant volume/variable air volume). The most common classification of HVAC systems is by
the carrying media used to heat or cool a building. The two main transfer mediums for this purpose are
air and water, which take them to emitters. On smaller projects, electricity is often used for heating,
although some systems now use a combination of transfer media.

● Heating Systems
Electric Heating- Electric heating is a process in which electrical energy is converted to heat.
Common applications include space heating, water heating, and industrial processes. An
electric heater is a device that transforms electrical energy into heat. Electric heaters contain
electric resistors, which act as heating elements. Example is Electric Baseboard Heating.
● Ventilation
It shouldn’t surprise anyone that proper ventilation is a prerequisite to healthy indoor living. It
can be accomplished passively through natural ventilation, or actively by forced ventilation
through mechanical distribution systems powered by fans.
● Air Conditioning Systems
It shouldn’t surprise anyone that proper ventilation is a prerequisite to healthy indoor living. It
can be accomplished passively through natural ventilation, or actively by forced ventilation
through mechanical distribution systems powered by fans.

4.2.2 Design Considerations

General Considerations

The mechanical systems of a facility should be designed to accommodate the facility’s program.
However, a number of issues surrounding the mechanical design should be balanced with the
program’s needs. These issues include such things as functionality, cost, aesthetics, and energy
consumption. Thus, the selection of mechanical systems and the subsequent design of those systems
is an optimization process in which the effectiveness of the mechanical systems is judged by the
system’s ability to balance the various issues.

Building Functions

The mechanical systems should “fit” the building’s functional use patterns, or architectural program, as
it is often referred to during the architectural design phase of the building. Systems, or parts thereof,
should operate only as needed. When a space is unoccupied, the system should maintain the optimal
conditions required to protect the equipment or materials located therein and permit optimum energy
expenditure in returning the space to occupancy conditions.

Budget Considerations

Unfortunately, budget restrictions often dictate the selection and design of mechanical systems. Those
decisions often are short-term and primarily cost-oriented, to the detriment of future operational and
maintenance costs. Early budget planning must incorporate planning for appropriate mechanical
systems; therefore, an understanding of the numerous options that may be available and appropriate is
vital.

System Zoning
Zoning of building mechanical systems can be defined as providing for specific areas or zones that will
have individual control of the space environment. This control can be accomplished by having a
separate system for each zone, or a large system capable of providing specific areas with separate
control. A building can have several separate systems that are able to provide additional zoning to
specific areas within the gross area served by each separate system. This is probably the most
common arrangement. Basic minimum zoning is mandatory, but excessive zoning is costly to build and
can add unnecessary maintenance expense. Here again, a balance must be achieved.

Basic Zones

The basic building zones are determined by the impact of weather on the building. The primary factor,
of course, is the solar effect on each exposure as the sun’s rays hit different parts of the building
throughout day and change elevation throughout the seasons. In some parts of the United States, the
peak cooling demand for southern exposures may occur in the fall, while northern exposures may
require heating at the same time. Appropriate design can accommodate off-season cooling. The interior
zones are not affected by the weather except for the roof, and therefore the interior zones can also be
separate.

Functional Zones

Most building functions require system zoning beyond that dictated by the weather. These zones are
created to serve such diverse areas as offices, classrooms, auditoriums, common areas, and computer
rooms. If individual spaces have the same exterior exposure or interior zone function, they can be
combined into a larger functional zone..

Time Zones

The best building mechanical system arrangement, within reasonable limits, is to have separate
systems for separate building functions. A common building type on a campus is one that contains
offices, classrooms, auditoriums, and, occasionally, food service. These functions can have different
hours of operation, including nighttime, weekends, and vacation periods. If separate systems are
provided for each of these functions, then only those that are required should operate, and the others
should be shut down.

Architectural Considerations

One of the least understood and most often neglected aspects of building design is the need for
adequate space for installation, maintenance, and future modifications of the mechanical systems.
Restricted mechanical space results in extra costs to the architect, engineer, and contractor during the
construction process, and to the occupants during the life of the building. This situation is most often
created by efforts to provide maximum usable space and by aesthetic considerations.

Aesthetics
Mechanical systems have an impact on the architecture of the building. Placement of air intake and
exhaust grilles, fume hood exhaust stacks, and mechanical room access will all affect a facility.
Functional layout will play a role by placing mechanical systems in certain places and relationships with
facility spaces. Specialty systems such as boilers, chillers, refrigeration systems, cooling towers,
greenhouses, and incinerators will have an impact.

Heating-Cooling Source

The source of the heating and cooling media can be within the building or supplied by a central plant.
Occasionally, the choice of mechanical system will dictate the source. The following systems generally
dictate that the source be at the building:

Evaporative cooling

Packaged heat pumps — water, air, or earth source

Packaged unitary equipment, such as rooftop and through-wall types
Others can generally operate from any source.

Noise and Vibration

Noise criteria levels that are typically chosen for spaces may not meet specific facilities needs.
Selection and sizing of components play a critical role in the resulting sound levels. It is difficult and
expensive to address noise problems once they are built into the system. Fan types and sizes, ducts,
and diffuser sizes play a critical role in noise and vibration levels. You may want to consider increased
fan size at slower speeds, noise diffusers, lined ducts, noise-attenuating duct components, and air
diffusers of a different design.
END OF MODULE 1