Heaven’s Light Is Our Guide

RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

Course No.: ME 2204

Course Title: Engineering Mechanics -2 Sessional
EXPERIMENT NO.: 02
Name of The Experiment: Study of Belt Friction and
Determination of Co-efficient of Friction by Using Belt Friction
Apparatus.

Date of The Experiment: 02/02/21

Submission Date: 02/08/21
Submitted By: Submitted To:
Name: Md.Ruman Hossain Shorifa Khatun
Roll No.: 1802007 Lecturer
Section: A Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Department: ME Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
Name of The Experiment:
Study of Belt Friction and
Determination of Co-efficient of Friction By Using Belt
Friction Apparatus.

Introduction:
Belt friction refers to a type of friction force acting between
a surface layer and a belt.The frictional force on the belt
depends on the quantity of enclosed surface. It increases
with increase in wrap and reduces when the wrap is loose.
Belt friction can be modeled by the belt friction equation.In
practice ,the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope
calculated by the belt friction equation can be compared to
the maximum tension that the belt can support.

Objectives:
1. To study about different types of friction for different belt
material cross-section.
2. To determine and compare co-efficient of friction for
flat,round and V- belt.

Theory:
The friction force develop between the belt and pulley or
drum results in a change in the belt tension as the belt
passes over the pulley or drum.
 Fig. 1 Ratio of driving tensions for flat belt

We have to determine the relation existing between the

values T1 and T2 of the tension in the two parts of the belt
when the belt is just about to slide toward the right.
Let us detach from the belt a small element PP’ subtending
an angle ∆Ɵ . Denoting by T the tension at P and by T+∆T the
tension at P’,we draw the free-body diagram of the element
of the belt fig.1 . Besides the two forces of tension ,the
forces acting on the free body are the normal component
∆N of the reaction of the drum and the friction force
∆F.Since motion is assumed to be impending ,we have
∆F = µs∆N .It should be noted that if ∆Ɵ is made to approach
zero, the magnitudes ∆N and ∆F and the difference ∆T
between the tension at P and the tension at P’, however will
remain unchanged .This observation helps in understanding
our choice of rotations.Choosing the coordinate axes shown
in fig.we write the equations of equilibrium for the element
PP’,
 +
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0
∆Ɵ ∆Ɵ
(T+∆T)cos - Tcos - µs∆N = 0
2 2

+ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
∆Ɵ ∆Ɵ
∆N – (T+∆T)sin - Tsin =0
2 2

From the above equation we get,

∆Ɵ ∆Ɵ
∆ T cos - µs(2T+∆T) sin =0
2 2

Dividing the equations by ∆Ɵ,we get

∆Ɵ
∆𝑇 ∆Ɵ sin
cos - µs (T+∆T/2) ∆Ɵ
2
=0
∆Ɵ 2
2

𝑑𝑇
Now, - µsT = 0
𝑑Ɵ
𝑑𝑇
= µs 𝑑Ɵ
𝑇

Both member of the last equation will now be integrated

from P1 to P2.At P1 we have Ɵ = 0 and T=T1 ,at P2 we have Ɵ =
𝛽 and T=T2 .Integrating between these limits ,we write,

𝑇2 𝑑𝑇 𝛽
∫𝑇1 = ∫0 µs 𝑑Ɵ
𝑇

ln 𝑇2 - ln 𝑇1= µs 𝛽
Or noting that left-hand member is equal to the natural
logarithm of the quotient of T2 and T1,
 𝑇2
ln = µs 𝛽
𝑇1

This relation can also be written in the form ,

𝑇2
= 𝑒 µs 𝛽
𝑇1
This is the final equation of belt friction.

Apparatus:
1. A pulley mounted upon ball bearing.
2. Flat belt ,round belt and V-belt.
3. Weight.

Working Procedure:
1. At first angle and belt set up was put.
2. Then a constant weight was taken for motion impending.
3. This above process was repeated for V-belt ,round belt
and flat belt.
4. Data was calculated with the given equation

Data Table:

Pre load F1 = Lap angle ,α = 45°

10N
 Type of belt

Flat round V-belt

Measured 1.5 2.1 5

force F
(N)
Friction 0.207 0.300 0.338
Coefficient, µ

Pre load F1 = Lap angle ,α = 60°

15N
Type of belt

Flat round V-belt

Measured 2.7 3.7 7

force F
(N)
Friction 0.1895 0.270 0.300
Coefficient, µ
 Pre load F1 = Lap angle ,α = 90°
20N
Type of belt
Flat round V-belt
Measured force 4.8 5.7 11.5
F
(N)
Friction 0.175 0.214 0.385
Coefficient, µ

Equation:
1 𝐹1
µ= ln( ) ; [for flat and round belt]
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹

1 𝐹1 Ɵ
µ= ln( ) × sin ; [ for V-belt]
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 2

Calculation:

When α = 45°
1 𝐹1 1 10
For flat belt, µ = ln( )=µ= ln( ) = 0.207
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 0.785 10−1.5

1 𝐹1 1 10
For round belt, µ = ln( )=µ= ln( ) = 0.300
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 0.785 10−2.1
 1 𝐹1 Ɵ
For V- belt, µ = ln( ) × sin
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 2
1 10 45
µ= ln( ) × sin = 0.338
0.785 10−2.1 2

Similary, For α = 60°

1 𝐹1 1 15
For flat belt, µ = ln( )=µ= ln( ) = 0.1895
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 1.047 15−2.7

1 𝐹1 1 15
For round belt, µ = ln( )=µ= ln( ) = 0.270
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 1.047 15−3.7

1 𝐹1 Ɵ
For V- belt, µ = ln( ) × sin
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 2
1 15 60
µ= ln( ) × sin = 0.300
1.047 15−7 2

When α = 90°

1 𝐹1 1 20
For flat belt, µ = ln( )=µ= ln( ) = 0.175
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 1.571 20−4.8

1 𝐹1 1 20
For round belt, µ = ln( )=µ= ln( ) = 0.214
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 1.571 20−5.7

1 𝐹1 Ɵ
For V- belt, µ = ln( ) × sin
𝛼 𝐹1−𝐹 2
1 20 90
µ= ln( ) × sin = 0.385
1.571 20−11.5 2
Result:
The friction co-efficient for,
0.207+0.1895+0.175
Flat belt = = 0.1905
3
0.300+0.270+0.214
Round belt = = 0.261
3
0.338+0.300+0.385
V-belt = = 0.341
3

Discussion:
The experiment has been done successfully . From the
experiment we have known different types of belt friction
like flat ,round and V-belt. Differences between different
type of belt and their co-efficient was known . Experimental
data was taken very carefully .Though there was some error
during detecting initial impending . If some error avoid to
measure carefully ,then the result will be more accurate for
the experiment. Experiment error can be minimized by
taking care .

Conclusion:
This experiment bears a huge importance in engineering
section. As a engineer we have to know the use of different
types of belt friction in many purposes . An understanding
of belt friction is essential for sailing crews and mountain
climbers. Their professions require being able to
understand the amount of weight a rope with a certain
tension capacity can hold versus the amount of wraps
around a pulley. Too many revolutions around a pulley
make it inefficient to retract or release rope, and too few
may cause the rope to slip. Misjudging the ability of a rope
and capstan system to maintain the proper frictional forces
may lead to failure and injury.
 Heaven’s Light Is Our Guide

RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

Course No.: ME 2204

Course Title: Engineering Mechanics -2 Sessional
EXPERIMENT NO.: 04
Name of The Experiment: Determination of center of
gravity and radius of gyration.

Date of The Experiment: 22/06/21

Submission Date: 02/08/21
Submitted By: Submitted To:
Name: Md.Ruman Hossain Shorifa Khatun
Roll No.: 1802007 Lecturer
Section: A Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Department: ME Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT:
Determination of center of gravity and radius of gyration.

Introduction:

A pendulum is an object hung from a fixed point that swings

back and forth under the action of gravity. When a
pendulum is displaced from equilibrium position ,it is
subject to a restoring force due to gravity that will accelerate
it back toward the equilibrium position .When released ,the
restoring force acting on the pendulum’s mass causes it to
oscillate about the equilibrium position ,swing back and
forth .The time it takes a pendulum to swing back to its
original position is called the period of the pendulum. The
period of the pendulum depends on the force of gravity, as
well as the length of the pendulum. Centre of gravity is a
theoretical point in the body where the total weight of the
body is thought to be concentrated. It is important to know
the center of gravity because it predicts the behavior of a
moving body when acted on by gravity and it is also useful
in designing static structures such as buildings and bridges.
Radius of gyration is a length that represents the distance in
a rotating system between the point about which it is
rotating and the point to or from which
a transfer of energy has the maximum effect.

Objectives:
1.To about study of center of gravity and radius of gyration.
2.To determine the center of gravity for the wooden
pendulum.
3.To determine the total radius of gyration for the
pendulum.

Theory:
A compound pendulum at it’s simplest form ,consists of a
rigid body suspended vertically at a point which allows it to
oscillate in simple amplitude under the action of gravity ,A
bar is suspended at point O and is free to oscillate.

θ
O h
θ G

mgcosθ
mgsinθ
mg
O is the point of suspension .
G is the center of gravity.
m is the mass of the body.
θ is the angular displacement.
α is the angular displacement.
ȴ is the mass moment of inertia of the body.
When the body is given a small displacement θ,the restoring
moment about O to bring the body back to it’s equilibrium
position is given:
Restoring moment ,Mr =mghsinθ
Disturbing moment ,Md =ȴα
Since θ is small, sinθ=θ ,therefore;
mghθ=ȴα
so,α=mghθ/ȴ

Period,T=2π√(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡/𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)

=2π√𝜃/𝛼
=2π√ȴ/𝑚𝑔ℎ
Frequency of motion, n=1/T
𝑚𝑔ℎ
=1/(2π√( )
ȴ

From parallel axis theorem,

ȴ=Ig+mh²
Ig=mk²
Where, k is the radius of gyration
So, Radius of gyration k²=(T/2π)²gh-h²

Apparatus:
1.Wooden pendulum
2.Stop watch
3.Tri-squre
4.In key

Working Procedure:
1.The steel rod pendulum was removed from the cradle.
2.On the wooden pendulum ,adjustable mass was set to 0.3
from the pivot.
3.The edge of the wooden pendulum was gently rested on
the knife edge at the top of the cradle.
4.It was moved along until a position(h) of equal balance
was found. That position was recorded.
5.The wooden pendulum was hanged from the cradle.
6.It was pushed to one side by roughly 50mm and was
released to allow it to swing freely through a small angle.
7.A stop watch was used to measure how many seconds it
took to complete 20 complete swings.
8.The experiment were repeated for other distances(y).
Data table:
Data table for center of gravity and radius of gyration :
Distance Distance Time for Measured ( 𝑇 )2 Radius of
2𝜋
from from 20 period, T gyration2,
pivot to pivot to 0scillations (seconds) 𝑇
K2 =(2𝜋)2
mass , y center of gh (seconds) *gh – h2
(m) gravity, h
(m)
0.3 0.291 2.855 25.25 1.263 0.040 0.030
0.4 0.316 3.099 24.97 1.249 0.039 0.021
0.5 0.340 3.335 26.56 1.328 0.045 0.034
0.6 0.363 3.561 27.97 1.399 0.050 0.046

Calculation:
K0.32=.040*2.855 – 0.2912 =0.030 m2
K0.42=0.039*3.099 – 0.3162 = 0.021 m2
K0.52=0.045*3.335 – 0.3402 = 0.034 m2
K0.62=0.050*3.561 – 0.3632 = 0.046 m2
Radius of gyration,
K0.3=√0.030 = 0.173 m
K0.4=√0.021 = 0.144 m
K0.5=√0.034 = 0.184 m
K0.6=√0.046 = 0.214 m

Results:
For y = 0.3, radius of gyration, K0.3 = 0.173 m
For y = 0.4, radius of gyration, K0.3 = 0.144 m
For y = 0.5, radius of gyration, K0.3 = 0.184 m
For y = 0.6, radius of gyration, K0.3 = 0.214 m
For y = 0.3, Distance from pivot to center of gravity, h0.3=
0.291 m
For y = 0.4, Distance from pivot to center of gravity, h0.4=
0.316 m
For y = 0.5, Distance from pivot to center of gravity, h0.5 =
0.340 m
For y = 0.6, Distance from pivot to center of gravity, h0.6=
0.363 m

Discussion:
The experiment has been performed to determine the
centre of gravity for wooden pendulum. It has been seen
that, as the mass was placed further from the pivot the
center of gravity and radius of gyration also increased. It can
also be noticed that the period also increased with the
increase of distance of the mass from the pivot as period is
proportional to the square root of the effective length.
There were some differences between experimental data
and the theoretical data. Those differences occur due to
experimental error during the experiment.
Conclusion:
This experiment has a huge impact in everyday life .The
centre of mass will tell the general motion of a body. If a
force applies to the entire body, like gravity, the force can be
simplified to one acting at the centre of mass, and the
trajectory of the object can be described by the motion of
that centre . The radius of gyration is used to compare how
various structural shapes will behave under compression
along an axis. It is used to predict buckling in a compression
beam or member
 Heaven’s Light Is Our Guide

RAJSHAHI UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &

TECHNOLOGY

Course No.: ME 2204

Course Title: Engineering Mechanics -2 Sessional
EXPERIMENT NO.: 05
Name of The Experiment: : Study of various mechanisms
and experiment by using Quick Return and Slider Crank
mechanism.
Date of The Experiment: 29/06/21
Submission Date: 02/08/21
Submitted By: Submitted To:
Name: Md .Ruman Hossain Shorifa Khatun
Roll No.: 1802007 Lecturer
Section: A Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Department: ME Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT: Study of various mechanisms
and experiment by using Quick Return and Slider Crank
mechanism.

Objective:
i. To observe the forward and backward stroke of a
slider crank.
ii. To observe the quick return mechanism.

SLIDER CRANK MECHANISUM:

Slider-crank mechanism is a particular bar linkage
configuration that exhibits both linear and rotational motion
simultaneously. This mechanism is frequently utilized to
investigate machine kinematics and resulting dynamic
forces. The position, velocity, acceleration and shaking
forces generated by a slider-crank mechanism during
operation can be determined analytically. The mechanism is
capable of operating in balanced and unbalanced
configurations so that the magnitude of shaking forces can
be compared. Let, us consider the motion of a crank and a
connecting rod of a reciprocating stream engine as shown in
Fig:01. Let OC be the crank and PC be the connecting rod.
Let the crank rotates with angular velocities of 𝜔 rad/s and
the crank turns through an angle 𝜃 from the inner dead
center (briefly written as I.D.C.). Let x be the displacement of
a reciprocating body P from I.D.C. after time t seconds
during which the crank has turned through an angle 𝜃.
 Fig o1: Motion of a crank and connecting rod of a
reciprocating steam engine

Let,
l= Length of the connecting rod between the
centers.
r = Radius of crank or crank pin circle.
∅ =Inclination of connecting rod to the line of
stroke PO.
n= Ratio of length of connecting rod to the
𝑙
radius of crank = .
𝑟

Velocity of the piston:

From the geometry of Fig. 01,
x= P’P= OP’ – OP = (P’C’ +C’O) – (PQ+QO)
= (l + r) – (l cos ∅ + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ) …
( ∴ 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑙 cos ∅,
And QO = rcos 𝜃 )
 = r (l - cos 𝜃 ) + l (l - cos 𝜃 )
𝑙
= r [(l - cos 𝜃 ) + (1 - cos ∅ )]
𝑟

= r [(l - cos 𝜃 ) + n (1 - cos ∅ )]

…(i)

From triangles CPQ and CQO,

𝑙 sin 𝜃
CQ = l sin ∅ = r sin 𝜃 or =
𝑟 sin ∅
sin 𝜃 𝜃
n= or sin ∅ = sin
sin ∅ 𝑛
…(ii)

We know that,
1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 1
Cos ∅ = ( 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∅) = (1 -
2 2 )2
𝑛2

Expanding the above expression by binomial theorem, we

got
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
cos ∅ = 1 − × +⋯
2 𝑛2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
(1 - cos ∅) =
2𝑛2
…(iii)

Substituting the value of (1- cos ∅ ) in equation (i), we have

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
x = r [(1 - cos ∅) + 𝑛 × ] = r [(1 - cos ∅) + ]
2𝑛2 2𝑛
…(iv)
Differentiating equation (iv) with respect to 𝜃,
𝑑𝑥 1
= 𝑟 [sin 𝜃 + × 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 ]
𝑑𝜃 2𝑛
sin 2𝜃
=r (sin 𝜃 + )
2𝑛
. . .(v)
By putting this value in the equation (iv), we got the
following values of theoretical displacement.

Data table for the slider crank mechanism:

Here,
Radius of crank, r = 25mm
Length of the connecting rod, l = 95mm
And n = l/r = 3.8mm

Angle Practical Theoretical

Position(degree) Displacement(mm) Displacement(mm)
X=r[(1-cosθ) +
sin2 𝜃
]
2𝑛
30 5 4.17
60 16 14.97
90 30 28.29
120 40 39.96
150 49 47.47
180 50 50
210 48 47.47
240 43 39.96
270 33 28.29
 300 17 14.96
330 5 4.17
360 0 0

Slider position Vs crank angle for slider crank

mechanisum

60
50
Displacement

40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Angular position

Practical Displacement(mm) Theoretical Displacement(mm)

Figure: Graph of slider position Vs crank angle for slider crank mechanism.

Quick return mechanism:

A quick return mechanism is an system to produce a
reciprocating effect such that time taken by system in return
stroke is less time taken by it in the forward stroke.
In quick return mechanism, a circular motion is converted
into reciprocating motion just like crank and lever
mechanism but it has return stroke time is different from
forward stroke time.
This mechanism is used in many machines. Some of them
are shaper machines, slotter machines, screw press,
mechanical actuator etc.
With the help of quick return mechanism, the time needed
to cutting is minimized . It is driven by a circular
motion source (typically a motion of some sort) and uses a
system of links with three turning pairs and a sliding pair. A
quick-return mechanism is a subclass of a slider-crank
linkage, with an offset crank.
During the forward motion of the tool cutting is performed
while during the return stroke the tool simply slides. Hence,
it is necessary to reduce the idle time of the machine to
make the return stroke faster.

Data table for the quick return mechanism:

Forward Stroke Backward/Return Stroke

Angle Angle
Position(degree Displacement(m Position(degree Displacement(m
) m) ) m)

20 4 240 80
40 9 260 70
60 17 280 54
80 26 300 33
100 37 320 15
120 48 340 4
140 57 360 0
160 67
180 74
200 80
220 82
 Displacement Vs Angular position
90
80
70
60
Displacement

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Angular position

Figure: Graph of the slider position Vs crank angle for Quick return mechanism.

Calculation:

For Ɵ= 30° ,theoretical displacement of slider crank

mechanism,
(𝑠𝑖𝑛30°)^2
X30 = 25×[(1-cos 30°)+ ] = 4.17 mm
2×3.8

For For Ɵ= 60°

(𝑠𝑖𝑛60°)^2
X60 = 25×[(1-cos 60°)+ ] = 14.97 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 90°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛90°)^2
X90 = 25×[(1-cos 90°)+ ] = 28.29 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 120°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛120°)^2
X120 = 25×[(1-cos 120°)+ ] = 39.96 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 150°
 (𝑠𝑖𝑛150°)^2
X150 = 25×[(1-cos 150°)+ ] = 47.47 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 180°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛180°)^2
X180 = 25×[(1-cos 180°)+ ] = 50 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 210°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛210°)^2
X210 = 25×[(1-cos 210°)+ ] = 47.47 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 240°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛240°)^2
X240 = 25×[(1-cos 240°)+ ] = 39.96 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 270°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛270°)^2
X270 = 25×[(1-cos 270°)+ ] = 28.29 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 300°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛300°)^2
X300 = 25×[(1-cos 300°)+ ] = 14.96 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 330°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛330°)^2
X330 = 25×[(1-cos 330°)+ ] = 4.17 mm
2×3.8

For Ɵ= 360°
(𝑠𝑖𝑛360°)^2
X360 = 25×[(1-cos 360°)+ ] = 0 mm
2×3.8

Result:
The theoretical graph of the slider crank mechanism varies a
little from the practical ones obtained in the experiment .For
quick return mechanism ,the time required to both forward
and backward stroke was observed and the time required or
angle travelled for forward stroke was significantly greater
than the return stroke.

DISCUSSION:
The experiment data was taken for drawing a graph with
displacement and angular position of the crank mechanism.
Then data put into the graph and compared with theoretical
and practical values .The two graph are so much close with
each other .The quick return mechanism consist of a
forward stroke and backward stroke .The observation of
data indicate the forward stroke angle displacement is
greater than the backward stroke.

CONCLUTION:
In engineering field specially automobile sector this
experiment has huge applications.A slider–crank
mechanism is widely used in gasoline/diesel engines and
quick-returnmachinery. Research works in analysis of the
slider– crank mechanism has been investigated to date due
to them significant advantages such as low cost, reduced
number of parts, reduced weight and others
The quick return mechanism is a time saver. Shapers only
cut on the forward stroke and the speed of the cut is limited
by the type of metal being cut and cutter choices. On the
return stroke, no cutting is done, so returning as slow as the
forward stroke is time wasted and slows down the job. A
quick return mechanism speeds up the return stroke,
making the job go quicker, increasing profits and freeing up
the machine sooner for the next job.