Title of Paper: Charles Town Maroons Healing Practices and Plant Use

Date: April 23, 2023

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 Perceptions of health, illnesses and treatments are culturally determined and differ

based on a people's history, geography, and beliefs. This is the case for the Jamaican maroons

and their ethnomedicine. The Jamaican Maroons with their African and indigenous ancestry

have been a formidable example of resistance and pride in the region since the British

colonial reign to the present. Maroon communities across the island of Jamaica have retained

and applied the culture and practices of their ancestors in their healing methods through their

use of plant-based and spiritual remedies for illnesses. This paper will serve to analyse and

interpret data on Maroon ethnomedicine garnered from research done at Charles Town, a

maroon village in Portland, Jamaica. The theoretical framework employed will be outlined

then a literature review will shed light on the existing writings on maroon ethnomedicine and

how it compares to the Brazilian Candomblé religion in terms of treatment practices.

Furthermore, the methods of data collection utilised will also be highlighted with the

emphasis being placed on my role in the observation and data-gathering process. The results

yielded from data collection will also be described to give an understanding of the plants and

their uses in the maroon context as well as shed light on different methods of treatment

employed in their culture. The discussion of the data will take in the internal and external

explanations of maroon ethnomedicine with the factors impacting diagnosis and the different

forms of treatment being stressed.

Jamaican maroon ethnomedicine and its comparisons with the Candomblé religion

will be discussed in the context of critical medical anthropology theory. This framework is

relevant as it explores the political, economic, and social factors that shape the production

and distribution of medical knowledge and practices. In the context of the Charles Town

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Maroons and Candomblé, this framework can be used to analyse how Caribbean and Latin

America's colonial and post-colonial history has influenced their health and healing practices.

It will also examine how social and economic remnants of colonialism impact the importance

given to Maroon and Candomblé ethnomedicine in the context of the dominance of

biomedicine.

The existing literature on Maroon and Candomblé ethnomedicine highlights their

common African origin and the importance of spiritual and plant-based healing, often related

to the illness being treated. The key findings emerging from the readings are that both

Maroon and Candomblé ethnomedicine is derived from or influenced heavily by African

healing practices. Summer Ragosta in her research of several maroon villages in Jamaica

posits that West African Akan culture is evident in the selection, traditional use, and

medicinal preparation of the flora by Maroons in Jamaica. She asserts that this retention of

healing practices was made possible through traditional knowledge and oral histories

(Ragosta, 2011). Similarly, it is put forward that Candomblé, a Brazilian religion of African

origin draw on traditional African knowledge of herbal medicine and spirituality. Candomblé

beliefs about illnesses, health and treatment are rooted in their respect for ancestral

knowledge as seen in the preservation of Ioruba, African region, and the practice of the

integration of plants in everyday remedies (Braga et al, 2017).

Spiritual and plant-based remedies are essential aspects of Maroon and Candomblé

ethnomedicine and are often used together to treat different illnesses. Maroon pharmacopoeia

takes in all parts of available flora prepared in numerous ways such as infusions of leaves for

tea, decoctions from plant roots and tinctures which may incorporate white rum (Brandon,

2014). Furthermore, there is the presence of spiritual healers or science men who use occult

sciences in their treatment, particularly of spiritual problems. These healers usually

incorporate herbal medicine in their spiritual healing such as bush baths (Picking &

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Vandebroek, 2019). Similarly, in the Candomblé religion plant use is not only medicinal in a

physical sense but also spiritual. It is a foundation of the Candomblé religion that the use of

plants in their rituals is the essence of their healing (Pagnocca & Hanazaki, 2020). The study

undertaken by Pagnocca and Hanazaki recorded over ninety plants which had indications for

illness ranging from respiratory ad digestive to endocrinal and psychological. Ethnobotany

and spiritual practices in healing are inextricably linked as plant-based baths and purgatives

are used to flush energies to bring about harmony which is said to impact physical well-

being. The literature clearly outlines how plant use is used in conjunction with spiritual

practices to treat illnesses in Maroon and Candomblé ethnomedicine. This paper will argue

that the treatment practices of the Charles Town Maroons are similar to those of the Brazilian

religion Candomblé in their origin and emphasis on spiritual and natural plant-based

remedies.

The method of data collection used in this study of Charles Town Maroons’

ethnomedicine was an unstructured interview. Questions stemming from students’ prior

research were directed to Colonel Douglas the leader of Charles Town. Colonel Douglas was

the sole respondent and qualitative data was yielded from her responses. The Colonel was

chosen to impart data on maroon ethnomedicine as she is knowledgeable about the treatment

practices of her people and was competent in giving explanations of their cultural perceptions

of illnesses and healing. Further data on maroon ethnomedicine was garnered from studies

and scholarly articles written on the topic to assess the different facets of healing employed

by maroons.

This ethnographic report looks at Maroon ethnomedicine and as a non-maroon

researcher, I must acknowledge my positionality and how it may have influenced my research

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process and findings. I kept an open mind going into this research as my rationale was to

deepen my understanding of illnesses and treatment from the maroon perspective.

Throughout the research, I recognized the many similarities between maroon health practices

and those employed in my household. This however had no impact on my ability to collect

data as the goal was to provide an objective account of the findings as told by the Colonel.

The results yielded from the visit to Charles Town and the interview and plant tour

given by Colonel Douglas were related to the use of plants in treating common illnesses. It

was highlighted that there are over 365 known herbs with various uses and this knowledge of

herb preparation had been transmitted orally. According to Colonel Douglas, the origin of this

knowledge is derived from the maroons’ African and Indigenous ancestry, which provided an

understanding of the healing properties of plants. Furthermore, Maroon’s mountainous

dwelling and isolation from mainstream healing forms during British colonialism deepened

their reliance on plant-based healing.

Plant use was found to be paramount to healing, wellness and good health in Charles

Town. A total of twelve herbs were displayed during our visit and information on their names,

preparation uses and classification for some was provided. Most plants displayed were

referred to by more than one name, with one name related to the use of the plant or another

evident characteristic. For example, lemongrass was also called fever grass as it treats fevers

and guinea hen was referred to as stinking bush due to its high odour.

Plant preparation was also highlighted as important for the illness being treated. Most

plants used in teas would have been decocted (Dog Blood boiled until dark red) or infused

(Lemongrass) depending on the plant’s strength. Plants are also rubbed and then applied

topically for skin blemishes (cerasee), made into a bed to lower body temperature (fever

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grass), or fried and hung around a baby’s neck to clear congestion (garlic). Furthermore,

plants are combined to create healing specific to an illness such as cerasee, dog blood and

rice bitters boiled together for postpartum cleansing and menstrual cramps. Overall, maroons

in Charles Town employ the use of plants in the treatment of illnesses and diseases including

respiratory issues (asthma, allergies, congestion), headaches and pains, diabetes, and

cleansing of the colon, kidneys, and liver. This highlights the understanding that most

illnesses treated with plants are considered naturalistic and physical manifestations of ill

health.

Spiritual means of healing are also important in maroon ethnomedicine. Colonel

Douglas shared the view that not all illnesses are spiritually derived, but all illnesses can be

cured spiritually. The Colonel further notes that plants however are the first resort when

contended with illnesses. Spiritual means are employed when the nature of an illness or the

required treatment is not apparent. It was noted however that the practice of Kromanti and the

drum-playing ritual is used to communicate with the ancestors who offer guidance regarding

diagnosis and appropriate, effective treatment. Furthermore, the healer consulted can tell if

the healing required is herbal or spiritual or both, which could be a bush bath. Other spiritual

healing practices include meditation with herbs geared towards mental illness. Other forms of

healing took in beading and canvas therapy to treat Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.

The results garnered from the Charles Town visit gave an understanding of the

importance and wide use of plants in treating illnesses. The results also shed light on how

Candomblé healing practices parallel those of maroons in the importance and prevalence of

herbal treatment in the healing process.

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 Maroon and Candomblé’s healing practices are based on a combination of African and

indigenous Caribbean and Latin American traditions and often involve the use of herbs,

plants, and other natural remedies. Based on the interview with Colonel Douglas plant use in

Charles Town holds significant importance in their healing practices and cultural heritage.

The Colonel described how maroon’s healing practices are also closely tied to the

community's history of resistance against colonial oppression. The emic perspective sheds

light on how maroons deeply respect their healing practices and see them as vital to their

wellness and heritage. From an outsider’s perspective, maroon healing practices are often

misunderstood especially if the outsider is not knowledgeable about the maroon culture and

history. Outsiders often view spiritual means of healing as primitive and even superstitious

and are often referred to as obeah. Furthermore, the efficacy of maroon healing practices is

often questioned especially in the context of biomedicine’s dominance. The same is true for

Candomblé healing practices which are treasured and recognized as essential components of

the faith from an insider’s perspective. Candomblé healing techniques are considered a way

to re-establish balance and harmony both within the individual and the community. From an

outsider’s perspective, however, these practices are viewed as exotic or mystical, while others

may view them as alternative or complementary medicine. Both Candomblé and maroon

healing practices are revered by those who practise them but may be viewed with scepticism

by outsiders.

There is a form of medical pluralism in Candomblé and Jamaican Maroon healing

practices. There is an acknowledgement and utilization of both Western biomedicine and

traditional practices as Candomblé healers may collaborate with Western medical

practitioners in the treatment of patients, with each practitioner focusing on their area of

expertise. In the case of Charles Town maroons, the Colonel referred to plant-based remedies

as her first resort as opposed to biomedical remedies which she described as less effective and

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causing side effects. The literature however puts forward that adult maroons use both

traditional and biomedical medications when confronted with illnesses though their first

contact for medical advice would be a mature woman (Brandon, 2004).

Religion plays a significant role in Candomblé healing practices while in the case of

Charles Town Maroons, there is not an established religion, but rituals and spiritual practices

employed in their treatments. In Candomblé, healing practices are closely intertwined with

religious rituals and ceremonies. Candomblé healers, known as "pai de santo" or "mae de

santo," are not only skilled in the use of natural remedies but are also trained in religious

rituals and ceremonies (Pagnocca & Hanazaki, 2020). In Charles Town, the Colonel

highlights the significance of drumming as a ritual in understanding illnesses and determining

the required treatment through guidance from ancestors. Religious and spiritual practices can

be instrumental in diagnosing and determining appropriate healing. As it relates to the link

between aetiology and treatment both cultures have the view that ailments and diseases are

impacted by spiritual causes in addition to their bodily manifestations. As a result, the

diagnosis and treatment of disorders are frequently based on a holistic view of health that

considers the person's physical, mental, and spiritual well-being. For example, bush baths and

canvas therapy are incorporated into maroon healing with a focus on mental health. In

Candomblé practice harmony and balance of energy are given significance in treatment

practices.

It can be concluded that the maroon approach to health and illness has its roots in their

African and Indigenous heritage. Maroons and those who practise Candomble religion, as

explored above, focus their healing practices on treating physical symptoms while addressing

the spiritual and emotional aspects of illness. The most important aspect of their healing is the

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use of their local flora as natural remedies. I have learnt from my visit to Charles Town that

the importance of heritage and cultural continuity in the transmission of knowledge cannot be

ignored. The colonel made mentioned how her knowledge of herbs and their healing practices

was taught to her by her grandfather and his parent before him. The maroons of Charles Town

and other maroon villages have maintained their ethnomedicine despite the political and

social hardships their culture and people have been subjected to. Maroon’s retention of their

traditional knowledge of aetiology and relevant treatment is admirable in a world where

biomedicine is dominant and traditional knowledge systems are misunderstood and often

treated with scepticism. Maroon ethnomedicine emphasizes the importance of a

comprehensive approach to healing, one guided by natural plants used for good health, illness

prevention and effective treatment of common illnesses and diseases. My visit to Charles

Town gave me valuable insight into the physical, cultural, and spiritual dimensions of healing

and the importance of traditional knowledge systems.

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References

Braga, A.P., de Sousa, F.I., da Silva Junior, G.B. et al. Perception of Candomblé Practitioners

About Herbal Medicine and Health Promotion in Ceará, Brazil. J Relig Health 57,

1258–1275 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-017-0441-x

Brandon, G. (2004). Jamaican maroons. In C. R. Ember, & M. Ember (Eds.), Encyclopedia of

medical anthropology: health and illness in the world's cultures. Springer

Science+Business Media

Pagnocca, T.S., Zank, S. & Hanazaki, N. “The plants have axé”: investigating the use of

plants in Afro-Brazilian religions of Santa Catarina Island. J Ethnobiology

Ethnomedicine 16, 20 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-020-00372-6

Picking, David & Delgoda, Rupika & Vandebroek, Ina. (2019). Traditional knowledge

systems and the role of traditional medicine in Jamaica. CAB Reviews Perspectives in

Agriculture Veterinary Science Nutrition and Natural Resources. 14.

10.1079/PAVSNNR201914045.

Ragosta, S. A. (2011). Historical Influences on the Development of Indigenous Jamaican

Maroon Ethnomedicine: Comparisons with West African and Arawak

Ethnopharmacopoei (dissertation).

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