Fundamentals of Database Management

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Fundamentals of Database Management
What is data base management systems?
Data base management system is essentially a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to
access this data. This collection of data is called the database. The primary objective of a DBMS is to
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provide a convenient environment to retrieve and store database information. Database system support Employment Opportunities
single user and multi-user environment. While on one hand DBMS permits only one person to access the Study Abroad
database at given time, on the other DBMS allows many users simultaneous access to the database.
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A DBMS makes it possible for end users to create, read, update and delete data in a database. The
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DBMS essentially serves as an interface between the database and end users or application programs,
ensuring that data is consistently organized and remains easily accessible. Fellowships
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The DBMS manages three important things: the data, the database engine that allows data to be Placement Guide
accessed, locked and modified -- and the database schema, which defines the database’s logical
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structure. These three foundational elements help provide concurrency, security, data integrity and
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uniform administration procedures. Typical database administration tasks supported by the DBMS
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include change management, performance monitoring/tuning and backup and recovery. Many database
management systems are also responsible for automated rollbacks, restarts and recovery as well as the Job Guidance
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The DBMS is perhaps most useful for providing a centralized view of data that can be accessed by
multiple users, from multiple locations, in a controlled manner. A DBMS can limit what data the end user Related Topics
sees, as well as how that end user can view the data, providing many views of a single database History of Data Base Systems
schema. End users and software programs are free from having to understand where the data is Data Modeling
physically located or on what type of storage media it resides because the DBMS handles all requests.
Introduction to the Relational Model
Database Languages
The DBMS can offer both logical and physical data independence. That means it can protect users and
applications from needing to know where data is stored or having to be concerned about changes to the Transaction Management
physical structure of data (storage and hardware). As long as programs use the Application- Introduction to Database Management
Systems
Programming Interface (API) for the database that is provided by the DBMS, developers won't have to
modify programs just because changes have been made to the database.
With relational DBMSs (RDBMSs), this API is SQL, a standard programming language for defining,
protecting and accessing data in a RDBMS.
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A database system consists of two parts namely, database management system and database
applications. Database management system is the program that organizes and maintains the
information whereas the database application is the program that let us view, retrieve update
information stored in the DBMS.

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Database models are broadly classified into two categories. They are
Network Model and Hierarchical Model
Relational Model
Object based logical Model
Record based logical model
Access techniques of a DBMS:
The object based logical model can be defined as a collection of ideal tool for describing data, data
relationship and data constrains. The record based model describes the data structures access
techniques of a DBMS. There are four types of record-based logical models. They are
File Management System (FMS)
Hierarchical database management systems (HDBMS)
Network Database Management Systems (NDBMS)
Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)
Advantages of DBMS
The database management system has promising potential advantages, which are explained below:
1. Controlling Redundancy: In file system, each application has its own private files, which cannot be
shared between multiple applications. This can often lead to considerable redundancy in the stored
data, which results in wastage of storage space. By having centralized database most of this can
be avoided. It is not possible that all redundancy should be eliminated. Sometimes there are sound
business and technical reasons for• maintaining multiple copies of the same data. In a database
system, however this redundancy can be controlled.
For example: In case of college database, there may be the number of applications like General
Office, Library, Account Office, Hostel etc. Each of these applications may maintain the following
information into own private file applications:
It is clear from the above file systems, that there is some common data of the student which has to
be mentioned in each application, like Rollno, Name, Class, Phone_No~ Address etc. This will cause
the problem of redundancy which results in wastage of storage space and difficult to maintain, but
in case of centralized database, data can be shared by number of applications and the whole
college can maintain its computerized data with the following database:
It is clear in the above database that Rollno, Name, Class, Father_Name, Address,
Phone_No, Date_of_birth which are stored repeatedly in file system in each application, need not be
stored repeatedly in case of database, because every other application can access this information
by joining of relations on the basis of common column i.e. Rollno. Suppose any user of Library
system need the Name, Address of any particular student and by joining of Library and General
Office relations on the basis of column Rollno he/she can easily retrieve this information.
Thus, we can say that centralized system of DBMS reduces the redundancy of data to great extent
but cannot eliminate the redundancy because RollNo is still repeated in all the relations.
2. Integrity can be enforced: Integrity of data means that data in database is always accurate, such
that incorrect information cannot be stored in database. In order to maintain the integrity of data,
some integrity constraints are enforced on the database. A DBMS should provide capabilities for
defining and enforcing the constraints.
For Example: Let us consider the case of college database and suppose that college having only
BTech, MTech, MSc, BCA, BBA and BCOM classes. But if a \.,ser enters the class MCA, then this
incorrect information must not be stored in database and must be prompted that this is an invalid
data entry. In order to enforce this, the integrity constraint must be applied to the class attribute of
the student entity. But, in case of file system tins constraint must be enforced on all the application
separately (because all applications have a class field).
In case of DBMS, this integrity constraint is applied only once on the class field of the General
Office (because class field appears only once in the whole database), and all other applications will
get the class information about the student from the General Office table so the integrity constraint
is applied to the whole database. So, we can conclude that integrity constraint can be easily
enforced in centralized DBMS system as compared to file system.
3. Inconsistency can be avoided: When the same data is duplicated and changes are made at one
site, which is not propagated to the other site, it gives rise to inconsistency and the two entries
regarding the same data will not agree. At such times the data is said to be inconsistent. So, if the
redundancy is removed chances of having inconsistent data is also removed.
Let us again, consider the college system and suppose that in case of General_Office file
it is indicated that Roll_Number 5 lives in Amritsar but in library file it is indicated that
Roll_Number 5 lives in Jalandhar. Then, this is a state at which tIle two entries of the same object
do not agree with each other (that is one is updated and other is not). At such time the database is
said to be inconsistent.
An inconsistent database is capable of supplying incorrect or conflicting information. So there
should be no inconsistency in database. It can be clearly shown that inconsistency can be avoided
in centralized system very well as compared to file system ..
Let us consider again, the example of college system and suppose that RollNo 5 is .shifted from
Amritsar to Jalandhar, then address information of Roll Number 5 must be updated, whenever Roll
number and address occurs in the system. In case of file system, the information must be updated
separately in each application, but if we make updation only at three places and forget to make
updation at fourth application, then the whole system show the inconsistent results about Roll
Number 5.
In case of DBMS, Roll number and address occurs together only single time in General_Office table.
So, it needs single updation and then another application retrieve the address information from
General_Office which is updated so, all application will get the current and latest information by
providing single update operation and this single update operation is propagated to the whole
database or all other application automatically, this property is called as Propagation of Update.
We can say the redundancy of data greatly affect the consistency of data. If redundancy is less, it is
easy to implement consistency of data. Thus, DBMS system can avoid inconsistency to great
extent.
4. Data can be shared: As explained earlier, the data about Name, Class, Father __name etc. of
General_Office is shared by multiple applications in centralized DBMS as compared to file system
so now applications can be developed to operate against the same stored data. The applications
may be developed without having to create any new stored files.
5. Standards can be enforced: Since DBMS is a central system, so standard can be enforced easily
may be at Company level, Department level, National level or International level. The standardized
data is very helpful during migration or interchanging of data. The file system is an independent
system so standard cannot be easily enforced on multiple independent applications.
6. Restricting unauthorized access: When multiple users share a database, it is likely that some users
will not be authorized to access all information in the database. For example, account office data is
often considered confidential, and hence only authorized persons are allowed to access such data.
In addition, some users may be permitted only to retrieve data, whereas other are allowed both to
retrieve and to update. Hence, the type of access operation retrieval or update must also be
controlled. Typically, users or user groups are given account numbers protected by passwords,
which they can use to gain access to the database. A DBMS should provide a security and
authorization subsystem, which the DBA uses to create accounts and to specify account
restrictions. The DBMS should then enforce these restrictions automatically.
7. Solving Enterprise Requirement than Individual Requirement: Since many types of users with
varying level of technical knowledge use a database, a DBMS should provide a variety of user
interface. The overall requirements of the enterprise are more important than the individual user
requirements. So, the DBA can structure the database system to provide an overall service that is
"best for the enterprise".
For example: A representation can be chosen for the data in storage that gives fast access for the
most important application at the cost of poor performance in some other application. But, the file
system favors the individual requirements than the enterprise requirements
8. Providing Backup and Recovery: A DBMS must provide facilities for recovering from hardware or
software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem of the DBMS is responsible for recovery. For
example, if the computer system fails in the middle of a complex update program, the recovery
subsystem is responsible for making sure that the .database is restored to the state it was in
before the program started executing.
9. Cost of developing and maintaining system is lower: It is much easier to respond to unanticipated
requests when data is centralized in a database than when it is stored in a conventional file
system. Although the initial cost of setting up of a database can be large, but the cost of
developing and maintaining application programs to be far lower than for similar service using
conventional systems. The productivity of programmers can be higher in using non-procedural
languages that have been developed with DBMS than using procedural languages.
10. Data Model can be developed: The centralized system is able to represent the complex data and
interfile relationships, which results better data modeling properties. The data madding properties
of relational model is based on Entity and their Relationship, which is discussed in detail in chapter
4 of the book.
Concurrency Control: DBMS systems provide mechanisms to provide concurrent access of data to
multiple users.
Disadvantages of DBMS
The disadvantages of the database approach are summarized as follows:
1. Complexity: The provision of the functionality that is expected of a good DBMS makes the DBMS an
extremely complex piece of software. Database designers, developers, database administrators
and end-users must understand this functionality to take full advantage of it. Failure to understand
the system can lead to bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for an
organization.
2. Size: The complexity and breadth of functionality makes the DBMS an extremely large piece of
software, occupying many megabytes of disk space and requiring substantial amounts of memory
to run efficiently.
3. Performance: Typically, a File Based system is written for a specific application, such as invoicing.
As result, performance is generally very good. However, the DBMS is written to be more general, to
cater for many applications rather than just one. The effect is that some applications may not run
as fast as they used to.
4. Higher impact of a failure: The centralization of resources increases the vulnerability of the system.
Since all users and applications rely on the ~vailabi1ity of the DBMS, the failure of any component
can bring operations to a halt.
5. Cost of DBMS: The cost of DBMS varies significantly, depending on the environment and
functionality provided. There is also the recurrent annual maintenance cost.
6. Additional Hardware costs: The disk storage requirements for the DBMS and the database may
necessitate the purchase of additional storage space. Furthermore, to achieve the required
performance it may be necessary to purchase a larger machine, perhaps even a machine dedicated
to running the DBMS. The procurement of additional hardware results in further expenditure.
7. Cost of Conversion: In some situations, the cost oftlle DBMS and extra hardware may be
insignificant compared with the cost of converting existing applications to run on the new DBMS
and hardware. This cost also includes the cost of training staff to use these new systems and
possibly the employment of specialist staff to help with conversion and running of the system. This
cost is one of the main reasons why some organizations feel tied to their current systems and
cannot switch to modern database technology.
Database Management System Vs File Management System
A Database Management System (DMS) is a combination of computer software, hardware, and
information designed to electronically manipulate data via computer processing. Two types of database
management systems are DBMS’s and FMS’s. In simple terms, a File Management System (FMS) is a
Database Management System that allows access to single files or tables at a time. FMS’s
accommodate flat files that have no relation to other files. The FMS was the predecessor for the
Database Management System (DBMS), which allows access to multiple files or tables at a time (see
Figure 1 below)
File Management Systems
Advantages Disadvantages
Simpler to use Typically does not support multi-user access
Less expensive· Limited to smaller databases
Fits the needs of many small businesses and Limited functionality (i.e. no support for
home users complicated transactions, recovery, etc.)
Popular FMS’s are packaged along with the
operating systems of personal computers (i.e. Decentralization of data
Microsoft Cardfile and Microsoft Works)
Good for database solutions for hand held devices

Redundancy and Integrity issues
such as Palm Pilot
Typically, File Management Systems provide the following advantages and disadvantages:
The goals of a File Management System can be summarized as follows (Calleri, 2001):
Data Management. An FMS should provide data management services to the application.
Generality with respect to storage devices. The FMS data abstractions and access methods should
remain unchanged irrespective of the devices involved in data storage.
Validity. An FMS should guarantee that at any given moment the stored data reflect the operations
performed on them.
Protection. Illegal or potentially dangerous operations on the data should be controlled by the FMS.
Concurrency. In multiprogramming systems, concurrent access to the data should be allowed with
minimal differences.
Performance. Compromise data access speed and data transfer rate with functionality.
From the point of view of an end user (or application) an FMS typically provides the following
functionalities (Calleri, 2001):
File creation, modification and deletion.
Ownership of files and access control on the basis of ownership permissions.
Facilities to structure data within files (predefined record formats, etc).
Facilities for maintaining data redundancies against technical failure (back-ups, disk mirroring,
etc.).
Logical identification and structuring of the data, via file names and hierarchical directory
structures.
Database Management Systems
Database Management Systems provide the following advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages Disadvantages
Greater flexibility Difficult to learn
Packaged separately from the operating system
Good for larger databases (i.e. Oracle, Microsoft Access, Lotus/IBM
Approach, Borland Paradox, Claris FileMaker Pro)
Greater processing power Slower processing speeds
Fits the needs of many medium to large-sized

Requires skilled administrators
organizations
Storage for all relevant data Expensive
Provides user views relevant to tasks performed
Ensures data integrity by managing transactions
(ACID test = atomicity, consistency, isolation,
durability)
Supports simultaneous access
Enforces design criteria in relation to data format
and structure
Provides backup and recovery controls
Advanced security
The goals of a Database Management System can be summarized as follows (Connelly, Begg, and
Strachan, 1999, pps. 54 – 60):
Data storage, retrieval, and update (while hiding the internal physical implementation details)
A user-accessible catalog
Transaction support
Concurrency control services (multi-user update functionality)
Recovery services (damaged database must be returned to a consistent state)
Authorization services (security)
Support for data communication Integrity services (i.e. constraints)
Services to promote data independence
Utility services (i.e. importing, monitoring, performance, record deletion, etc.)
The components to facilitate the goals of a DBMS may include the following:
Query processor
Data Manipulation Language preprocessor
Database manager (software components to include authorization control, command processor,
integrity checker, query optimizer, transaction manager, scheduler, recovery manager, and buffer
manager)
Data Definition Language compiler
File manager
View of Data:
Data are actually stored as bits, or numbers and strings, but it is difficult to work with data at this level.
It is necessary to view data at different levels of abstraction.
Schema: Description of data at some level. Each level has its own schema. We will be concerned with
three forms of schemas:
Physical
Conceptual
External
Physical Data Level
The physical schema describes details of how data is stored: files, indices, etc. on the random access
disk system. It also typically describes the record layout of files and type of files (hash, b-tree, flat).
Early applications worked at this level - explicitly dealt with details. E.g., minimizing physical distances
between related data and organizing the data structures within the file (blocked records, linked lists of
blocks, etc.)
Problem:
Routines are hardcoded to deal with physical representation.
Changes to data structures are difficult to make.
Application code becomes complex since it must deal with details.
Rapid implementation of new features very difficult.
Conceptual Data Level
Also referred to as the Logical level
Hides details of the physical level.
In the relational model, the conceptual schema presents data as a set of tables.
The DBMS maps data access between the conceptual to physical schemas automatically.
Physical schema can be changed without changing application:
DBMS must change mapping from conceptual to physical.
Referred to as physical data independence.
External Data Level
In the relational model, the external schema also presents data as a set of relations. An external schema
specifies a view of the data in terms of the conceptual level. It is tailored to the needs of a particular
category of users. Portions of stored data should not be seen by some users and begins to implement a
level of security and simplifies the view for these users
Examples:
Students should not see faculty salaries.
Faculty should not see billing or payment data. Information that can be derived from stored data
might be viewed as if it were stored.
GPA not stored, calculated when needed.
Applications are written in terms of an external schema. The external view is computed when accessed.
It is not stored. Different external schemas can be provided to different categories of users. Translation
from external level to conceptual level is done automatically by DBMS at run time. The conceptual
schema can be changed without changing application:
Mapping from external to conceptual must be changed.
Referred to as conceptual data independence.
Instance and schema in DBMS
Definition of schema: Design of a database is called the schema. Schema is of three types: Physical
schema, logical schema and view schema.
The design of a database at physical level is called physical schema, how the data stored in blocks
of storage is described at this level.
Design of database at logical level is called logical schema, programmers and database
administrators work at this level, at this level data can be described as certain types of data records
gets stored in data structures, however the internal details such as implementation of data
structure is hidden at this level (available at physical level).
Design of database at view level is called view schema. This generally describes end user
interaction with database systems. To learn more about these schemas, refer 3 level data
abstraction architecture.
Definition of instance:
The data stored in database at a particular moment of time is called instance of database.
Database schema defines the variable declarations in tables that belong to a particular database;
the value of these variables at a moment of time is called the instance of that database.
Independent from the database model it is important to differentiate between the description of the
database and the database itself. The description of the database is called database scheme or
also metadata. The database scheme is defined during the database design process and changes
very rarely afterwards.
The actual content of the database, the data, changes often over the years. A database state at a
specific time defined through the currently existing content and relationship and their attributes is
called a database instance.
The following illustration shows that a database scheme could be looked at like a template or
building plan for one or several database instances.
Analogy Database Schemes and Building Plans
When designing a database it is differentiated between two levels of abstraction and their
respective data schemes, the conceptual and the logical data scheme.
Conceptual Data Scheme: A conceptual data scheme is a system independent data description. That
means that it is independent from the database or computer systems used. (Translated) (ZEHNDER
1998)
Logical Data Scheme:
A logical data scheme describes the data in a data definition language DDL of a specific database
management system.
A logical data scheme describes the data in a data definition language DDL of a specific database
management system.
The conceptual data scheme orients itself exclusively by the database application and therefore by
the real world. It does not consider any data technical infrastructure like DBMS or computer
systems, which are eventually employed.
Entity relationship diagrams and relations are tools for the development of a conceptual scheme.
When designing a database the conceptual data scheme is derived from the logical data scheme
(see unit Relational Database Design). This derivation results in a logical data scheme for one
specific application and one specific DBMS. A DB-Development System converts then the logical
scheme directly into instructions for the DBMS.
Schematic Represenation of the Different Schemes
Data Models:
Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are
fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is
connected to each other and how they are processed and stored inside the system.
The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the data used are to be kept in the
same plane. Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence they were prone to introduce lots of
duplication and update anomalies.
Entity-Relationship Model
Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships
among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model creates
entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
ER Model is based on -
Entities and their attributes.
Relationships among entities.
Entity Concept
Entity - An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties called attributes. Every
attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For example, in a school database, a student
is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes like name, age, class, etc.
Relationship - The logical association among entities is called relationship. Relationships are
mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of association
between two entities. Mapping cardinalities are-
one to one
one to many
many to one
many to many
Entity Relational Components:
1. Rectangle: Entity Sets
2. Ellipse : Attributes
3. Diamond : Relationship sets
4. Double Eclipse : Multivalved Attributes
5. Dashed Ellipse : Derived Attributes
6. Double Rectangle : Weak entity sets
7. Lines : Connectors
Relational Model
The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is more scientific a model than others.
This model is based on first-order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary relation.
The main highlights of this model are -
Data is stored in tables called relations.
Relations can be normalized.
In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.
Each row in a relation contains a unique value.
Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.
Example:
Published on 11/13/2015 4:33:00 PM
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12/25/2018 Fundamentals of Database Management

Common Subjects ECE CSE & IT EEE Mechanical Civil Engineering

Fundamentals of Database Management

What is data base management systems?

logging and auditing of activity. Career Guidance

protecting and accessing data in a RDBMS.

Looking for relief from Upto 85% off On

information stored in the DBMS.

Network Model and Hierarchical Model

Object based logical Model

Record based logical model

Access techniques of a DBMS:

File Management System (FMS)

Hierarchical database management systems (HDBMS)

Network Database Management Systems (NDBMS)

Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)

system, however this redundancy can be controlled.

information into own private file applications:

defining and enforcing the constraints.

separately (because all applications have a class field).

enforced in centralized DBMS system as compared to file system.

redundancy is removed chances of having inconsistent data is also removed.

An inconsistent database is capable of supplying incorrect or conflicting information. So there

in centralized system very well as compared to file system ..

General_Office is shared by multiple applications in centralized DBMS as compared to file system

may be developed without having to create any new stored files.

system so standard cannot be easily enforced on multiple independent applications.

restrictions. The DBMS should then enforce these restrictions automatically.

"best for the enterprise".

system favors the individual requirements than the enterprise requirements

before the program started executing.

conventional systems. The productivity of programmers can be higher in using non-procedural

The disadvantages of the database approach are summarized as follows:

extremely complex piece of software. Database designers, developers, database administrators

as fast as they used to.

can bring operations to a halt.

functionality provided. There is also the recurrent annual maintenance cost.

cannot switch to modern database technology.

Database Management System Vs File Management System

A Database Management System (DMS) is a combination of computer software, hardware, and

File Management Systems

Simpler to use Typically does not support multi-user access

Less expensive· Limited to smaller databases

home users complicated transactions, recovery, etc.)

Popular FMS’s are packaged along with the

operating systems of personal computers (i.e. Decentralization of data

Microsoft Cardfile and Microsoft Works)

Good for database solutions for hand held devices

remain unchanged irrespective of the devices involved in data storage.

functionalities (Calleri, 2001):

File creation, modification and deletion.

Ownership of files and access control on the basis of ownership permissions.

Facilities to structure data within files (predefined record formats, etc).

Database Management Systems

Database Management Systems provide the following advantages and disadvantages:

Greater flexibility Difficult to learn

Packaged separately from the operating system

Good for larger databases (i.e. Oracle, Microsoft Access, Lotus/IBM

Approach, Borland Paradox, Claris FileMaker Pro)

Greater processing power Slower processing speeds

Fits the needs of many medium to large-sized

Storage for all relevant data Expensive

Provides user views relevant to tasks performed

Ensures data integrity by managing transactions