Operating Systems
4.1
Scheduling
Scheduling is to dispatch processes in main
memory to CPU processing using scheduling
criteria.
Objectives of Scheduling
1. Fairness
2. Throughput Maximization
3. Predictability
4. Scheduling Overhead Minimization
5. Graceful Degradation Under Heavy
Load Conditions
6. Pre-emptability
CPU Burst & I/O Burst cycles
CPU burst and I/O burst are two states of
process execution
CPU burst: The amount of time a process uses
the CPU to execute code. This is the running
state of the process.
I/O burst: The amount of time a process waits
for input-output before needing CPU time. This
is the waiting state of the process.
Unit 04
Pre-emptive Scheduling
Preemptive scheduling is a multitasking
strategy that allows tasks to be preempted.
Preemption is the act of interrupting a task that
is currently running on the CPU. The
interrupted task is usually resumed at a later
time.
Non-Pre-emptive Scheduling
Non-preemptive scheduling is a type of
scheduling algorithm where a process runs
until it finishes or goes to the wait state. In this
scheduling, once the resources (CPU cycles) are
allocated to a process, the process holds the
CPU until it gets terminated or reaches a
waiting state.
Scheduling Criteria
4.2
Scheduling algorithms
FCFS
Processes selected in the order in which they
entered the ready queue.
Not pre-emptive.
Process which voluntarily relinquishes control
of CPU is added to end of ready queue.
Turnaround times cannot be guaranteed, so
not good for interactive environments.
Resource utilisation can be poor and unevenly
distributed.
SJF
Selects shortest job in the ready queue.
 Operating Systems
Non-preemptive.
OS needs to know estimated execution times of
processes.
Unfair on long jobs.
SRTN
Modification of SJN to allow preemption by
shorter jobs entering the ready queue.
Long jobs have to wait even longer.
SRTN has to calculate how much Ɵme is
needed to complete the current job, and then
decide whether to switch processes if the new
process is only a bit shorter than the current
one.
SRTN (and SJN) try to maximise throughput.
Priority Based Scheduling
Priority scheduling is a process scheduling
algorithm that assigns priority to each process.
The scheduler selects tasks to work on based
on their priority.
Processes with higher priority are executed
first, followed by processes with lower priority.
Processes with equal priorities are executed
on a first-come-first-served (FCFS) or round
robin basis.
Round Robin
Tyipcally used in time-sharing or interactive
environments, where good terminal response
time is important.
Each runnable process in the system is given an
equal time-slice (quantum) of the CPU's time.
When quantum expires, process is interrupted.
Queue ordered according to order in which
processes were created.
A Hardware Clock is used to generate
interrupts. Quantum size changes dynamically.
Unit 04
Round-Robin favours processes which
complete within their time-slice.
Quantum size is important, because too large a
quantum will means that processes can
complete, but all other processes will have long
to wait.
If there are too many ready processes, then
quantum size could be too small for any
process to do a significant amount of work
before it is interrupted (sudden load
degradation).
Multilevel Queue
Multilevel queue scheduling is a type of CPU
scheduling in which the processes in the ready
state are divided into different groups, each
group having its own scheduling needs. The
ready queue is divided into different queues
according to different properties of the
process like memory size, process priority, or
process type. All the different processes can
be implemented in different ways, i.e., each
process queue can have a different scheduling
algorithm.
4.3
Deadlock
System Models
1. For the purposes of deadlock
discussion, a system can be modeled
as a collection of limited resources that
can be divided into different categories
and allocated to a variety of processes,
each with different requirements.
2. Memory, printers, CPUs, open files,
tape drives, CD-ROMs, and other
 Operating Systems Unit 04

resources are examples of resource the tape drive and printer,

categories. are inherently non-
3. By definition, all resources within a shareable.
category are equivalent, and any of the b. There are two techniques
resources within that category can to detect the deadlock by
equally satisfy a request from that simulation which are
category. If this is not the case (i.e. if i. Resource
there is some difference between the allocation graph
resources within a category), then that ii. Banker’s
category must be subdivided further. algorithm
For example, the term “printers” may
need to be subdivided into “laser
printers” and “color inkjet printers.” * RAG & Banker’s Algorithm will have another
4. Some categories may only have one exclusive s4 episode
resource.
5. The kernel keeps track of which
resources are free and which are
allocated, to which process they are
allocated, and a queue of processes
waiting for this resource to become
available for all kernel-managed
resources. Mutexes or wait() and
signal() calls can be used to control
application-managed resources (i.e.
binary or counting semaphores. )
6. When every process in a set is waiting
for a resource that is currently
assigned to another process in the set,
the set is said to be deadlocked.

Necessary conditions

1. Mutual Exclusion
2. Hold & Wait
3. No Pre-emption
4. Circular Wait

Deadlock Handling

1. Deadlock Prevention:
a. Elimination of any of the
necessary conditions
b. Detect & Recover
c. Static Process
2. Deadlock Avoidance
a. Eliminate Mutual
Exclusion: It is not
possible to dis-satisfy the
mutual exclusion because
some resources, such as