LECTURE 1.

The Geography of the UK

The British Isles lie off the north-west coast of continental Europe and are made up of
Great Britain, Ireland and some 5.500 smaller islands. Off the southern coast of England is the
Isle of Wight and of the extreme south west are the Isles of Scilly; off North Wales is Anglesey
and in the Irish Sea the Isle of Man. Western Scotland is fringed by numerous islands and to the
far North are the groups of the Orkneys and Shetlands. The total area of the British Isles is
121.000 square miles. Care must be taken when studying British statistics to note whether they
refer to England, to Great Britain or to the United Kingdom as a whole. Great Britain is made up
of England, Wales and Scotland.
England has a total area of 50.334 square miles is divided into 39 geographical or 46
administrative counties. Wales with a total area of 8.016 square miles has 13 counties. Scotland
has a total area of 30.414 square miles and is divided into 33 counties. They make up Great
Britain proper, the largest island of the British Isles.
Northern Ireland consists of six counties and has a total area of 5.452 square miles. Great
Britain, the above mentioned islands and Northern Ireland make up the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland. The total area of the UK is 93.0287 square miles (242 sq. Km.).
The capital of Northern Ireland is Belfast, the capital of Wales is Cardiff, the capital of Scotland
is Edinburgh, the capital of England is London. The national flag is called Union Jack or British
Colours.
The patron saint of England is Saint George, the patron saint of Scotland is St. Andrew, the Saint
patron of Wales is St. David, the saint patron of Northern Ireland is St. Patrick.
The symbol of England is red rose, Scotland- thistle, Wales- leek, Northern Ireland- shamrock.
Great Britain belongs to a group of main capitalist states. It takes an active part in the
military political block NATO. At the same time Great Britain is the center of the
Commonwealth , the political and economic union of countries and territory which ones
belonged to the British Empire. Besides Great Britain, independent states, members of
Commonwealth are Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Bangladesh and others (44 states all
in all).
The Seas surrounding the British Isles are everywhere very shallow, because the islands
lie on the continental shelf. The British Isles the highest part of region which remained above the
Sea after the sinking of the whole area. The west coast is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the
Irish Sea; the East coast by the North Sea and the South Coast by the English channel which is
32 km wide at its narrowest point. (the Strait of Dover)
Great Britain is very irregularly shaped being deeply indented by numerous gulfs of the
sea, owing to the numerous bays and inlets no point in the country is as much as 75 miles from
the sea.
Britain can be divided into two main regions – Highland and Lowland Britain. Highland
Britain comprises the whole of Scotland, the Lake District, in the north-west of England, the
broad central upland plain, known as the Pennines, almost the whole of Wales (The Cumbrians,
a most rugged beautiful range of mountains occupy almost the whole northern and central part of
Wales) and in the extreme south-west is Cornwall peninsula, where ancient rocks make a low
plateau. This high ground is however, not continuous but interspersed with valleys and plains.
Lowland Britain extends from the mouth of the river Tyne in the north-east of England to
the mouth of the river Exe. Lowland Britain is fertile with good arable land and valuable pasture
land. The highest mountains are: Ben Nevis in Scotland (4.400 feet the highest), Snowdon in
North Wales(3.560 feet).
The British Isles are well provided with rivers, but they are too short to be of any value
for transport. The most valuable parts of the rivers are their estuaries, which make excellent
ports. The chief rivers are the Severn (220 miles, the longest) and the Thames is the deepest.
Scotland’s largest river is the Clyde and Ireland’s the Shannon. The largest lake is Lough Neigh
in Northern Ireland.

The climate.

Britain has a temperate and equable climate. The climate is determined by the following
facts:
1. The position of the island in the temperature belt.
2. The prevailing winds blow from the west and south west.
3. The moderate influence of the Atlantic Ocean with its Gulf- stream current.
4. The indentation of the coastline, making most parts of the country accessible to the oceanic
influence.
Besides the English weather is influenced by the Continental high-pressure system. The
temperature of the British Isles seldom reaches extremes of heat or cold. During a normal
summer, the temperature occasionally rises above 27º C in the south; winter temperature below
7º C are rare. The British Isles as a whole have an annual rainfall of over 40 inches. The
mountainous areas of the west and north have more rain than the plains of the east and the south.
Rain is fairly well distributed throughout the year. Britain is fortunate in having warmer winters
than other countries in the same latitude, but the main disadvantage is that the weather changes a
lot. The speedy changes in weather make it difficult to forecast British weather more than 24
hours ahead. All over the world Britain is notorious for its fogs. The ordinary damp mist which
afflicts all parts of the country from time to time are worse than the similar mists in other
countries; but the smoke fogs of the big towns, which usually develop in winter time, whenever
there is not enough wind to blow the smoke away are exceedingly unpleasant, unhealthy and
dangerous to movement.

Mineral Resources.

Mineral resources are not very diverse. Coal is still the mineral that contributes much to the
development of many industries in Britain. By the absolute deposits of coal Great Britain claims
the 6-th place in the world and is one of the most important coal basins along with the USA,
Russia and several other countries. The main deposits are found in Central and North England, in
the South Wales and in middle Scotland. Among other mineral resources iron ores are of
primary importance. There are tin and copper mines in Cornwall and Devonshire, copper and
leads mines in England. Big deposits of oil and gas found in the North Sea are of great
importance. The reserves of oil make up more than 2 bl. tons in the output of oil.

Population.

From the earliest known times to about 900 years ago a long succession of invaders and
colonizers moved westward towards the British Isles, which lay within easy reach of the
Continent of Europe. First, came the Iberians from Iberia, now known as Spain and Portugal;
next came the Celts, known as ancient Britons. Who by about 450 B. C. had occupied the whole
of the British Isles; then the Romans came, who occupied an area roughly equivalent to modern
England. They drove many of the Celts into the mountainous northern and western regions of the
island. The Norsemen and Dane from Scandinavia were sporadic invaders who mingled their
blood with the Angles and Saxons. The last invaders were the Normans under William the
Conqueror who crushed the Saxons army in 1066. The Normans gradually broke their ties with
France and by the 13-th century had so mingled with the Anglo-Saxons that the two were united
in the English. The marriage of Anglo-Saxon and Norman French tongues became the language
of most England and the Lowlands of Scotland. Celtic languages persisted in Wales, Cornwall,
the Highlands of Scotland and Ireland, where they are still spoken by many people.
 Great Britain is inhabited by the English – (53 mln people) who constitute 83 % of the total
population, the Scots – (5.250 people), the Irish – (1.810 people) and about 3 mln Welshmen
who live in Wales.
Among other nationalities inhabiting Great Britain there are Gael, Jews, Poles, Germans,
French people and Italians as well as migrants from India, Pakistan and African countries.
The national language is English. Some national minorities such as Irishmen, Welshmen and
Gaels speak also their own languages belonging to Celtic languages. The majority of the
residents belong to the Protestants, the rest forming the catholic minority. The latest census
puts Britain's Muslim community at some 2.8 million. Britain is home to one of the most
diverse Muslim communities on Earth.
The growth of the population was most rapid from the middle of the 19th century to the end of
the 19th. At present the natural growth of the population is rather small. The total population of
Great Britain is over 67 ml people.
Britain’s population is one of the densest in the world: it was 587 persons per square mile
(228 per sq.km). But in England and Wales there were 837 per square mile and in Greater
London 12.600 persons per square mile.
Of the four parts, England is the most densely populated with 375 people per sq. km. Scotland
is the least densely populated with 67 people per sq. km. Wales and Northern Ireland have 140 0r
122 people per sq. km.
Since 19th century there has been a trend, especially in London, for people to move away from
urban centers into the suburbs.
Migration.
Each year more than 300,000 individuals leave Great Britain to start a new life overseas.
Indeed, recent estimates suggest that up to 4.7 million British nationals now live abroad.

Language.

English is the main language spoken in Britain and is also one of the most widely used in
the world. Recent estimates suggest that 310 million people speak it as their first language. It is
an official language in a large number of overseas countries and is widely used internationally as
the main language. Modern English derives primarily from one of the dialects of Anglo-Saxon.
However it has been greatly influenced by other language, particularly, following the Norman
conquest in 1066.

LECTURE 4
British State System
Great Britain is a Parliamentary Monarchy with an unwritten constitution consisting of
Historic documents such as the Magna Carta, the Petition of Rights, or the Bill of Rights.
The British Constitution, unlike that of most other countries, is not set out in any single
document. Instead it is made up of statute law, common law and conventions.
The constitution can be altered by act of Parliament or by general agreement and is thus
adaptable to changing political conditions.
Like the Government system in any country the British Government system is
represented by three branches: legislative, executive and judiciary.
Parliament is the legislature and the supreme authority. The executive consists of:
- the Government-the Cabinet and other ministers responsible for national policies;
- government departments and agencies, responsible for national administration;
- local authorities;
- public corporations, responsible for operating particular nationalized industries and other
bodies.

The Monarchy is the oldest institution of Government. Queen Elizabeth II is herself

directly descended from King Egbert, who united England under his rule in 829. The only
interruption in the history of the Monarchy was the republic, which lasted from 1649 to 1660.
Today the Monarch is not only Head of State but also an important symbol of national
unity. The Queen's title in Britain is: "Elizabeth the Second by the Grace of God of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of her other Realms and Territories Queen,
Head of the Commonwealth defender of the faith.
The Monarch personifies the State. In law, he is the Head of executive an integral part of
legislature, head of the judiciary, the commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the Grown and
the "supreme governor" of the established Church of England. As a result of a long process of
evolution during which the Monarchy's absolute power has been reduced, the Monarch acts on
the advice of his ministers.
The Monarch takes part in some important acts of Government. These include
summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament; and giving Royal Assent to Bills passed by
Parliament. The Monarch also formally appoints many important officers, including government
ministers, judges, officers in the armed forces, governors, diplomats, bishops and some other
senior clergy of the Church of England. He is also involved in pardoning people convicted of the
crime; conferring peerages knighthoods and other honors. And one of the most important
function is appointing the Prime Minister. In international affairs the Monarch as Head of State,
has the power to declare War and make peace, to conclude treaties.

Parliament.

The three elements which make up Parliament - the Queen, the House of Lords and the
elected House of Commons - are constituted on different principles. They meet together only on
occasions of symbolic significance such as the state opening of Parliament, when the commons
are summoned by the Queen to the House of Lords.
The agreement of all three elements is normally required for legislation, but that of the
Queen is given as a matter of course to Bills sent to her.
Parliament can legislate for Britain as a whole, or for any part of the country.
As there are no legal restraints imposed by a written constitution, Parliament may legislate
as it pleases, subject to Britain’s obligation as a member of the European Union. It can make or
change any law; and can overturn established conventions or turn them into law. It can ever
prolong its own life beyond the normal period without consulting the electorate, though this
would have to be agreed by both Houses.

The Functions of Parliament

The main functions of Parliament are:

- to pass laws;
- to provide by voting for taxation, the means of carrying on the work of government;
- to scrutinize government policy and administration;
- to debate the major issues of the day.

The meeting of Parliament

A Parliament has a maximum duration of 5 years, but in practice general elections are
usually held before the end of this term.
The life of Parliament is divided into sessions. Each usually lasts for one year - normally
beginning and ending in October or November. There are "adjournments" at night, at weekends,
Christmas, Easter and the late spring Bank Holiday and during a long summer break usually
starting in late July. The average number of "sitting" days in a session is about 159 in the House
of Commons and about 140 in the House of Lords.
 The House of Lords consists of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The Lords
spiritual are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the bishops of London, Durham and
Winchester and the 21 next most senior diocesan bishops of the Church of England.
The Lords temporal consists of:
- all hereditary peers of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom;
- life peers created to assist the House in its judicial duties;
- all other life peers.
Peerages, both hereditary and life are created by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime
Minister.
In April 1996 there were 1,197 members of the House of Lords, including the 2
archbishops and 24 bishops.

Offices of the House of Lords

The House is presided over by the Lord Chancellor, who takes his or her place on the
woolsack. The woolsack is a seat in the form of a large cushion stuffed with wool from several
Commonweals countries. In his place is taken by a deputy.
The House of Lords processes and revises legislation, and acts as a check on the
Government and the House of Commons, through oral and written questions, policy debates and
scrutinising secondary legislation. It also provides a forum of independent expertise.
The House of Lords also acts as the final Court of Appeal for the United Kingdom in civil
cases and for England, Northern Ireland and Wales in criminal cases.

The House of Commons is elected by universal adult suffrage and consists of 659
members of Parliament (MPs). Of the 659 seats, 529 are for England, 40 for Wales, 72 for
Scotland and 18 for Northern Ireland. The main figure in the House of Commons is the Speaker.
General elections are held after a Parliament has been dissolved and a new one is
summoned by the Queen. When an MP dies or resigns a by election takes place. Members are
paid an annual salary.

Offices of the House of Commons

The Chief officer of the House of Commons is the Speaker, elected by MPs to preside
over the House. Other offices include the three Deputy Speakers who are elected by the House
on the nomination of the Government but are drawn from the Opposition as well as the
government party. They, like the Speaker, neither speak nor vote other that in their official
capacity.

Parliamentary Electoral System

Parliament elections are held every 5 years. For electoral purposes Britain is divides into
constituencies, each of which returns one member to the House of Commons.

Voters

British citizens, together with citizens of other Commonwealth countries and citizens of
Irish Republic resident in Britain may vote provided they are:
- aged 18 and over;
- included in the annual register of elections for the constituency;
- not subject to any disqualification.
Parties

The Party System, which has existed in one form or another since the 18th century, is an
essential element in the working of the constitution.
Most candidates in elections and almost all winning candidates belong to one of the main
parties.
For the last 150 years a predominantly two party system has existed. Since 1945 the
Conservative Party, whose origin go back to the 18th century, or the Labour Party, which
emerged in the last decade of the 19th century, has held power. A new party, the Liberal
Democrats, was formed in 1988 when the Liberal Party, which traced its origin to the 18th
century, merged with Social Democratic Party, formed in 1981.
Since 1945 eight general elections have been won by the Conservative Party, six by the
Labour Party; the great majority of members of the House of Commons have belonged to one of
these two parties.
The party which wins most seats at a general election, or which has the support of a
majority of members in the House of Commons usually forms the Governments. By tradition the
leader of the majority party is asked by the Sovereign to form a Government. The largest
minority party becomes the official Opposition.

Her Majesty's Government is the body of ministers responsible for the conduct of
national affairs. The Prime Minister is appointed by the Queen and all other Ministers are
appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Most Ministers are
members of the Commons, although the Government may be represented by Ministers in the
Lords. The Lord Chancellor is always a member of the House of Lords.
The Prime Minister is also, by tradition, First Lord of the Treasury and Minister for the
Civil Service.
The Prime Minister presides over the Cabinet. The Cabinet is composed of about 20
Ministers chosen by the Prime Minister.
The functions of the Cabinet are to initiate and decide on Policy, the Supreme control of
government and the coordination of government departments.
The Prime Minister always sits in the House of Commons. He presides over the Cabinet
is responsible for allocation of functions among ministers and informs the Queen at regular
meeting of the general business of the Government. The Prime Minister's other responsibilities
include recommending a number of appointments of the Queen.
The Prime Minister's office at 10 Downing Street the official residence in London has a
staff of civil servants who assist the Prime Minister.
Ministers in charge of government are usually in the Cabinet, they are known as
"Secretary of State" or Minister or may have a special title as in the case of the Chancellor of the
Exchequer.

Glossary

LECTURE 5
Education in the UK.

The English education system

What follows cannot bе considered а complete description of the educational system in
England. The system was and still is more complex than it seems here. What follows merely
offers the essential elements, the "backbone" of the system. There is enough information to
facilitate comparisons with systems of education in other countries.
Unified or diversified Secondary Education?
While there were only Elementary Schools for children between the ages of 5 and 13
problems were limited. There was only оnе way forward after school - the working world. There
was по possibility of аn academic career except for those who could afford it. The general nature
of education changed when it became possible for а restricted number of pupils to gain fee
places in а grammar school if they passed аn examination at the age of 11. The Elementary
School began to consider preparing for the examination as its main function. The examination
tested the ability of the children in two subjects only: English and Arifmetic. Other subjects
therefore tended to become neglected. Furthermore, the reputation of the school depended
mainly оn its success rate at this examination.Тhе examination formed the bases of what is
known as the 11 plus (11 +) examination. It led to divisions in schools (streaming), in the country
(social class distinctions) and also led to irreconcilable political attitudes (Labour у.
Conservative) with the Conservative of favour of selection process and labour against it. Аll the
opposition against the 11 + ехаm and the selection process has led to the idea of the modem
comprehensive system cherished bу Labour and rejected bу Conservatives. Whatever were the
arguments for and against the examination it was true that the future life of а child was decided
at about 11. Pupils who did not sit or who failed the 11 + examination could only gain excess to а
Secondary Modem School and later perhaps to а Technical School.
Тhе tripartite system
Before the introduction of Comprehensive Schools the state education system in England
was essentially tripartite and was made uр of.
1. Grammar Schools
2. Secondary Modern Schools
3. Secondary Technical Schools
Grammar Schools
This type of school catered essentially for those who were interested in pursuing their
studies beyond the O-level GCE stage. It provided аn academic education for pupils between the
ages of 12 and 19. There pupils саmе through the selective process of the 11 + examination and
therefore these schools hаvе the most academically gifted children. Most of the pupils entered
university after school. It was, right1y or wrongly seen as middle class institution.
Secondarv Modern Schools
Here the pupils normally attended а four-year course leading to the School Leaving
Certificate. Тhе course usually offered instruction in English, at least оnе other language,
geography, history, mathematics, science, drawing, manual instruction or domestic subjects and
physical exercise. When pupils left school they normally entered into the working world. Тhе
choice of curriculum was not influenced bу future academic achievement but was child centered.
It developed out of the interests, needs and ability of the children and as the later went to work it
obviously had а practical dimension. As there was nо external examination to bе taken at the end
of the course the pupils were not under pressure. What caused things to change? There was а
possibility of staying оп for а further year and in the 1950-s there was а growing tendency to do
so. Those who continued into the 5-th year could sit the General Certificate of Education (GCE).
As а result of increasing number of pupils taking the GCE the need was felt for а more specific
examination adapted to а Secondary Modem School. In 1963 we hаd the introduction if a new
type of external examination, the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) for fifth year pupils.
Secondary Technical Schools
This was the less popular alternative to the Secondary Modem School. Those who failed
the 11 +went to а Secondary Modem School but at the age of 12 or 13 could gain а place at а
Secondary Technical School. It is difficult to imagine why it was not successful since this type of
school was closely linked to the world of industry and commerce. It provided а general
education with special emphasis оп technical subjects. 1t was definitely more in touch with
reality than Grammar Schools and certainly more specifically geared to preparing the pupils for
their trade after leaving school. However there was а lack of qualified teachers and this must bе
seen as one cause for its lack of success. Perhaps also there was а marked psychological
deterrent. Тhе pupils who had already faced one examination failure (11 +) perhaps did not feel
inclined to go through the humiliating experience of another possible failure at such an early age.
Besides they had already overcome the pressure of the 11 + ехаmination and now felt
psychologically relieved. 1n the 1960s and 1970s the selective system was gradually replace bу
comprehensive schools, which take pupils of аn abilities. Тhе school learning age was raised to
16 in 1972-1973. Тhе secretary of state for education and employment has over аn responsibility
for school and post-school education in England.
АН children must bу law receive education between the ages of 5 and l6. More than 70%of 16-
year old children stay оп in full time education and universities, colleges and institutes of further
and higher education provide а broad range of academic and vocational courses for adults of аn
ages.
Other young people leave school at 16 to take uр training for а work or а jоb with training.
Pre school education
Before the start of formal schooling at the age of 5, many children attend nursery schools or
nursery classes attached to primary schools. Many other go to pre-school play groups which are
often organized bу parents and for еасh they have to рау.
Types оf schools.
The majority of schoolchildren go to comprehensive schools.
State schools
Most children-over 90% go to publicly financed schools, usually known as state schools.
There is а range of schools to choose from:
1. Countv schools are who are owned and maintained bу local education authorities (LEAs)
2. Voluntary schools are provided bу voluntary bodies, usually the churches. Тhey too are
financed bу LEAs.
3. Grand-maintained schools are funded directly from central government, through the funding
Agency for schools.
The schools such as Eton, Наnоw, Rugby and Winchester are famous for their ability to lay
the foundation of а successful future. Some public schools are said to educate mainly the ruling
class of England. Оnе such school Gordonstoun, which Prince of Wales left in 1968. Наnоw
school is famous as the place where Winston Churchill was educated. Public Schools are free
from public control. They are independent. Most of them are boarding schools. The fees are high
and only very rich families сап afford to рау so much.
Тhе school year
The school year starts in early September and continues into the following July. Classes
are held from Monday to Friday from 9 in the morning until 3 or 4 о' clock in the afternoon.
Pupils сап join ехtга-сrurriсulаг activities, such as sports and drama clubs, during the lunch
break or after school.
Тhе School curriculum
А national сurriculum is taught in state schools. It sets out what subjects pupil should
study, what they should bе taught and what standards they should асhiеvе. It ensures that pupils
cover а broad and balanced range of subjects and enables them to develop the qualities and skills
needed in adult life. The Emphasis is оп the practical application of knowledge.
The period of compulsory education is divided into 4 kеу stages, depending оп pupils' ages:
Кеу stage 1 - pupils aged 5 to 7
Кеу stage 2 - pupils aged 7 to 11
Кеу stage 3 - pupils aged 11 to 14
Кеу stage 4 - pupils aged 14 to 16
For each subject, at each kеу stage, programs of study set out what pupils should bе taught and
set out the expected standard of pupils' achievement.
Assessment
After four years of secondary schools, at about the age of 16, pupils sit the General
Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examination. This is taken in а wide range of
subjects according to the pupils' ability. Usually four to eight or еvеn as mаnу as ten subjects.
The exams are marked bу аn independent body. Two years later the students sit another
examination called the General Certification of Education (GCE) (А level) again based оп а
selection of subjects chosen bу each candidate (usually 3 to 5 and including а science subject
and аn arts subjects). Access to universities is based оп the number of examinations taken and
the grades achieved. The exact requirements are fixed bу the individual universities and vary
according to the type of degree course уou want to follow.
The system of higher education in Britain includes universities, colleges of higher education
and advanced courses in the further education.

LECTURE
The Geography of the USA

United States of America is the third-largest country in the world in population, and it is
the fourth-largest country in area. China and India are the only countries with more people.
Only Russia, Canada, and China have larger areas. The United States covers the entire
midsection of North America, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean
in the west. It also includes Alaska, in the northwest corner of North America; and Hawaii, far
out in the Pacific. The United States is often called the U.S., U.S.A., or America. The land of the
United States is as varied as it is vast. It ranges from the warm beaches of Florida and Hawaii to
the frozen northlands of Alaska, and from the level Midwestern prairies to the snow-capped
Rocky Mountains. This huge and beautiful country is rich in natural resources. It has great
stretches of some of the most fertile soil on earth, a plentiful water supply and excellent water
routes, and large stretches of forests. Huge deposits of valuable minerals, including coal, natural
gas, and petroleum, lie underground. Economically, the United States is one of the world's most
highly developed and productive nations. No other country equals the United States in the
production of goods and services. Its people enjoy one of the world's highest standards of living.
Until the 1500's, what is now the United States was largely a wilderness. Small groups of
Indians lived scattered over the land between the Atlantic and Pacific. Eskimos inhabited what is
now Alaska, and Polynesians lived in Hawaii. People in Europe saw in this vast "new world" a
chance to build new and better lives. Small groups of Spaniards settled in what is now the
Southeastern and Western United States in the 1500's. People from England and some other
European countries began settling along and near the East Coast during the 1600's. In 1776,
colonists in the East established an independent nation based on freedom and economic
opportunity. Through the years, large numbers of people from Europe continued to settle in the
United States. In addition, people from almost every other part of the world settled in the
country. Except for black Africans brought in as slaves, these immigrants came seeking the
rights and the opportunities that had become part of the American way of life. As a result of this
immigration, the United States today has one of the world's most varied population. It has been
called "a nation of immigrants."
The vast space and resources of the land, the ideals of freedom and economic
opportunity, and hard work by the people all helped build the United States into the economic
giant it is today. The Americans—as the people are commonly called—also made major
contributions in such fields as technology, science, and medicine. Americans developed the mass
production system of manufacturing, the electric light bulb, the telephone, and polio vaccine.
They also created the skyscraper and such new art forms as jazz and musical comedy.
At times, the U.S. economy has run into difficulty. Even so, it remains one of the most
productive systems ever developed. In some cases, groups of Americans have suffered socially
and economically from discrimination. But the country's laws have helped many people
overcome discrimination and achieve better lives.
Political divisions. The United States consists of 50 states and the District of Columbia.
The District of Columbia is a piece of land set aside by the federal government for the nation's
capital, Washington, D.C. For a list of the states, see the table in this article titled Facts in brief
about the states. In area, population, and economic output, some of the states are comparable to
many nations. The United States has a federal system of government, which gives the states
many powers that national governments have in most other countries. For example, the states
have broad control over public education and the establishment of civil and criminal laws.
Regions. The states of the United States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii, are often divided
into seven major regions. Each region is made up of states that have similarities in geography,
climate, economy, traditions, and history. The regions are: (1) New England, (2) the Middle
Atlantic States, (3) the Southern States, (4) the Midwestern States, (5) the Rocky Mountain
States, (6) the South-western States, and (7) the Pacific Coast States. For a list of the states in
each region, see the table titled Regions of the United States in this article. The map that
accompanies the table shows the location of each of these regions.
Population. Figures from the 2021 census put the population of the United States at
338,380,787. Whites make up about 80 percent of the country's population. Blacks form the
largest minority group. They account for about 12 percent of the population. About 3 percent of
the population is of Asian descent. American Indians make up about I percent of the population.
Other groups combine to make up the remaining 4 percent. The U.S. population includes many
Hispanic people, such as people of Mexican, Puerto Rican, or Cuban descent. Hispanics consist
mainly of whites, but they also include some blacks and American Indians. Hispanics make up 9
percent of the U.S. population.
Most black Americans are descendants of Africans who were brought to the United States
as slaves during the 1600's, 1700's, and 1800's and forced to work on plantations.
Since the 1800's, the United States has attracted immigrants from Asia. Most Asian Americans
trace their ancestry to China, India, Indochina, Japan, Korea, or the Philippines. For more details
on the flow of people into the United States through the years. The United States has often been
called a melting pot. This term refers to the idea that the country is a place where people from
many lands have come together and formed a unified culture. Americans have many things in
common. For example, the vast majority of them speak English, and people throughout the
country dress similarly and eat many of the same kinds of foods. Public education, mass
communication, and other influences have helped shape a common identity. But in other ways,
U.S. society is an example of cultural pluralism. That is, large numbers of its people have
retained features of the cultures of their ancestors. Many Americans take special pride in their
origins. They preserve traditions—and in some cases the languages—of their ancestors. In many
cities, people of different national or ethnic origins live in separate neighborhoods, and shops and
restaurants reflect their cultural heritages. Ethnic festivals, parades, and other events emphasize
the nation's cultural pluralism.
Language. The United States has never had an official language, but English has always
been the chief language spoken in the country. Immigrants from the British Isles—who included
the nation's founders—spoke English. Many immigrants from other lands who spoke little or no
English also came to the United States. They learned at least enough English to be able to
communicate with other Americans. Their children learned English in school. The immigrants'
children generally spoke both English and their ethnic language, and in many families the
immigrants' grandchildren spoke only English.
Today, Spanish is the second most common language in the United States. The region
that is now the Southwestern United States was colonized by Spain in the 1500's. As a result,
many people from that region speak Spanish. Since the 1950's, many Spanish-speaking people
have immigrated to the United States from Mexico, Cuba, and other places. Many of these
people learned English. But others speak only Spanish. This is especially true in Spanish-
speaking neighborhoods that developed in cities. Some people feel that special efforts should be
made to provide education and other services in Spanish for people who speak only Spanish.
Urban life. Urban areas, which range from giant cities surrounded by suburbs to small
towns, dot the U.S. landscape. Although the urban areas cover about 2 percent of the land, they
are the home of about three-fourths of the people. New York City, with about 7 million people,
is the largest U.S. city by far. Los Angeles has about 3y million people. Chicago has a
population of about 2.1 million. Five other U.S. cities—Houston, Philadelphia, San Diego,
Detroit, and Dallas—each have more than 1 million people.
Religion. About 60 per cent of all the American people are members of an organized
religious group. Among them, about 52 per cent are Protestants, 38 per cent Roman Catholics,
4 per cent Jews, 3 per cent Mormons, and 3 per cent are members of Eastern Orthodox Churches.
Relatively small numbers of Americans belong to other faiths, such as Islam and Buddhism.
Roman Catholics make up the largest single religious denomination in the United States. About
56 million Americans are Roman Catholics. The country's largest Protestant groups are, in order
of size. Baptists, Methodists, Pentecostals, Lutherans, and Presbyterians.
The relief
The United States has an area of 3,615,292 square miles (9,363,563 square kilometers).
The country, excluding Alaska and Hawaii, can be divided into seven major land regions. The
regions are: (1) the Appalachian Highlands; (2) the Coastal Lowlands; (3) the Interior Plains; (4)
the Ozark-Ouachita Highlands; (5) the Rocky Mountains; (6) the Western Plateaus, Basins, and
Ranges; and (7) the Pacific Ranges and Lowlands. For a discussion of the land regions of Alaska
and the islands of Hawaii, see the articles on those states.
The Appalachian Highlands are situated in the East and extend from the northern tip of
Maine southwestward to Alabama. This rugged region has many mountain ranges.
The White Mountains and the Green Mountains of northern New England are old mountains,
worn down but craggy in some places. Southern New England consists mostly of hilly land. New
England's chief river is the Connecticut. The Adirondack Upland of northern New York includes
mountains and many beautiful lakes. From central New York southward, the Appalachian
Highlands has three main subdivisions. They are, from east to west: the Blue Ridge Mountains
Area, the Ridge and Valley Region, and the Appalachian Plateau.
Lakes in the Interior Plains. The 5 Great lakes—Erie, Huron, Michigan, Ontario, and
Superior—are the largest group of freshwater lakes in the world. The lakes provide a vital
transportation route for shipping the agricultural and industrial products of the Interior Plains.
The Mississippi River is the region's other great waterway. The Mississippi and its many
branches, including the Missouri and Ohio rivers, form a river system that reaches into all parts
of the Interior Plains. The Missouri is considered the longest. Rio Grande is the natural
boundary between the USA and Mexico.
The Rocky Mountains form the largest mountain system in North America. They extend
from northern Alaska, through Canada and the western United States to northern New Mexico.
Many peaks of the Rockies are more than 14,000 feet (4,270 meters) high. The Continental
Divide, or Great Divide, passes through the mountains. It is an imaginary line that separates
streams that flow into the Pacific Ocean from those that flow into the Atlantic. Many important
rivers, including the Colorado, Missouri, and Rio Grande, begin in the Rockies.
Forests cover the lower mountain slopes. The timber line marks the elevation above which trees
cannot grow. Grasses, mosses, and lichens grow above the line. Bighorn sheep, elk, deer, bears,
mountain lions, and other animals live in the mountains. Lakes and streams add to the region's
spectacular beauty.
The Basin and Range part of the region is a vast area of mountains and desert lowlands
between the Columbia and Colorado plateaus. It includes Death Valley in California. Part of
Death Valley lies 282 feet (86 meters) below sea level and is the lowest place in the United
States. The Great Basin is an area within the larger Basin and Range area. Great Salt Lake is the
largest of many shallow, salty lakes in the Great Basin. Bathers cannot sink in Great Salt Lake
because the high salt content provides great buoyancy, enabling swimmers to float with ease.
Near the lake is the Great Salt Lake Desert, which includes a large, hard, flat bed of salt.
Natural resources. A variety of natural resources provide the raw materials that support
the economy of the United States. In addition to a moderate climate, the most valuable resources
are minerals, soils, water, forests, and fish.
Minerals. The United States has large deposits of coal, iron ore, natural gas, and
petroleum, which are vital to the country's industrial strength. Its many other important minerals
include copper, gold, lead, phosphates, potash, silver, sulfur, and zinc. To meet its needs,
however, the United States must import additional amounts of iron ore, petroleum, and other
minerals.
Soils. The United States has vast expanses of fertile soil that is well-suited to growing
crops. The most fertile soils include the dark soils of the Interior Plains and the alluvial (water-
deposited) soils along the lower Mississippi River Valley and other smaller river valleys. Rich,
wind-blown soil called loess covers parts of eastern Washington and the southern Interior Plains.
Water. Lakes, rivers, and underground deposits supply water for households, farms, and
industries in the United States. The nation uses about 400 billion gallons (1,500 billion liters) of
water daily. Households use only about 10 percent of this total. The vast majority of the rest is
used to irrigate farms and to operate steam power plants.

LECTURE
The American Government

The government of the United States represents, serves, and protects the American people
at home and abroad. Because the United States is a nation of great wealth and military strength,
the actions of its government affect all parts of the world.
The Constitution of the United States establishes the basic structure of the U.S.
government. The Constitution creates a federal system, in which political power is divided
between the national government and the governments of each state. The national government is
sometimes called the federal government. The Constitution also creates three separate branches
of government-legislative, executive, and judicial—to share the work of creating, enforcing, and
interpreting the laws of the nation. The branches are represented by Congress, the President,
and the Supreme Court of the United States.
The national government of the United States is the country's largest government system.
It employs about 3 million civilian workers and approximately 1 million military personnel.
Each year, it collects about $1 trillion in taxes from American citizens and corporations to help
finance its work.
From the United States capital in Washington, D.C. the national government conducts
thousands of activities that affect the lives of Americans. It helps fund many state government
services, including job training, welfare payments, roads, and health care. It manages a social
security program that provides a pension plan and other benefits to the nation's retired or
disabled workers. It sets standards for programs to aid poor, aged, or disabled people. It tests
food and drugs for purity and safety, conducts research on such diseases as AIDS and cancer, and
sets standards to control pollution. It conducts and coordinates space exploration. It oversees air
travel, forecasts the weather, and runs hospitals for veterans. It maintains national parks, forests,
historic sites, and museums.
American citizens can change the Constitution. An amendment may be proposed by
Congress or by a national convention called by Congress. The amendment becomes part of the
Constitution after being ratified (approved) by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states or by
conventions in three-fourths of the states. There have been 27 amendments to the Constitution.
The legislative branch
Congress creates, abolishes, and changes federal laws, which govern the nation.
Congressional lawmakers also play an important role in establishing public policy— what the
government does or says in response to political issues.
Organization. Congress consists of two chambers— the Senate and the House of
Representatives. The two chambers have about equal power. Voters in each state elect the
members of each chamber, or house. The Senate has 100 members, 2 from each state, who serve
six-year terms. About a third of the seats come up for election every two years. The House of
Representatives, usually called simply the House, has 435 members. House members, or
representatives, serve two-year terms. The number of representatives from each state is based on
the state's population. Each state has at least one representative. The Senate and House meet in
separate wings of the Capitol in Washington, D.C.
Elections are held in November of even-numbered years. The members start each two-
year Congress the following January. Beginning with the First Congress (1789-1791), each
Congress has been numbered. The legislative branch includes several agencies that provide
Congress with information and services. For example, the General Accounting Office audits
(closely examines) the financial records of various departments and agencies of the federal
government and reports its findings to Congress. Other support agencies of Congress include the
Congressional Budget Office, the Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress,
and the Office of Technology Assessment.
In addition, each senator and representative has a personal staff to advise him or her on
issues, answer mail from voters, handle publicity, and help in other ways. There are also staffs
that assist committees in Congress and aides (assistants) for each house.
Functions. Making laws is the main job of Congress. During each two-year Congress,
senators and representatives introduce about 10,000 bills. In that period, Congress passes, and
the President signs into law, about 650 bills. Congress makes laws on all kinds of matters. Some
laws are major policy decisions, such as taxing and spending measures. Others deal with
administrative details, such as employee benefits or the purchase of land. Still others are
commemorative laws, which honor a group, person, or event. In 1914, for example. Congress
honored mothers with a law that declared the second Sunday in May as Mothers Day. All of
these laws are called public laws if they apply to people in general. Congress also passes a few
private laws that apply to specific individuals, such as immigration cases.
Congress does more than make laws. It investigates the actions of the executive branch and
makes sure the laws are carried out. Congress also reviews the election, qualifications, and
ethical behavior of its own members. It can remove federal officials from office, including
members of Congress, for serious offenses. The House brings impeachment (misconduct)
charges against an official, and the Senate tries the official.
Each chamber of Congress has some independent duties. The Senate approves or rejects
the people that the President appoints to certain high-level federal positions. It also approves or
rejects treaties that the President makes. All legislation that deals with taxes or spending must
start in the House. In addition, senators and representatives spend much time serving their
constituents — the people who elected them. They answer individuals' questions or requests,
meet with visitors, and inform the public of issues. They often travel to their home states to
appear at public events, study area problems, and talk with voters and local officials. In addition,
legislators, usually with the help of their parties, conduct their own election campaigns,
including fund-raising.
Party leadership has an important influence on Congress. Democratic and Republican
members of Congress choose official party leaders for each house. Party leaders plan the
legislative strategy of the party, communicate their party's position on issues to other members,
and encourage members to vote along party lines. When voting on major legislation, senators
and representatives weigh their party loyalty against their own judgment or the interests of their
constituents. On less important bills, legislators usually vote according to their party's position.
The executive branch
The executive branch carries out federal laws. It also creates and enforces regulations based on
the laws. The President is the head of the executive branch. Fourteen executive departments
and about 75 agencies handle the everyday work of administering laws and programs.
The presidency. The President is elected to serve a four-year term. The 22nd
Amendment to the Constitution, approved in 1951, provides that no one can be elected to the
presidency more than twice. A nationwide presidential election is held every four years in
November. The people of each state elect delegates to the Electoral College. The delegates, or
electors, then choose the President and Vice President based on the popular votes in the states
they represent. If no candidate receives a majority of Electoral College votes, the House elects
the President and the Senate selects the Vice President. If the President dies, is removed from
office, or becomes unable to perform the duties of office, the Vice President takes over the
presidency until the next election. The President lives in the White House in Washington, D.C.,
and has offices there.
The President has many roles and duties. As chief executive, the President enforces
federal laws, directs the preparation of the federal budget, and appoints many high-ranking
officials. As commander in chief of the armed forces, the President directs foreign and national
security affairs. As chief diplomat, the President negotiates treaties with other countries. As
legislative leader, the President recommends laws to Congress and works to win their passage.
The President may veto bills approved by Congress. The threat of a veto can influence the way
Congress develops a bill.
Congress has the power to restrain most of the President's powers. Congress must approve the
federal budget and the President's legislative plans. It can override a President's veto by a vote of
a two-thirds majority of the members present in both houses. In addition, all treaties and high-
level appointments by the President require Senate approval.
For many Americans and people around the world, the President represents the United
States government. Presidents can use their visibility in the news media to focus attention on
their programs and to create public support for their policies. However, their visibility is a
double-edged sword. People often blame Presidents for problems, such as an economic
depression or a foreign crisis, that the President may not have caused and can do little to solve.
The judicial branch
The judicial branch interprets the nation's laws. It is made up of a system of federal courts and
judges. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the nation.
Authority of the courts. Federal courts settle disputes among citizens involving the
Constitution or federal laws, and disputes between citizens and the federal government. They
also hear cases involving treaties or maritime (sea) laws. In addition, federal courts may decide
certain cases between individuals or groups from different states, and cases involving other
countries or their citizens.
The courts' most important power is judicial review— that is, their authority to overturn
laws they judge unconstitutional. Any court in the United States can declare laws or the actions
of public officials illegal if they conflict with the U.S. Constitution. The Supreme Court,
however, is the final authority on such matters. Judicial review provides an important check on
the executive and legislative branches, as well as on state and local governments. The Supreme
Court first established the power of judicial review in the famous case of Marbury v. Madison
(1803), which struck down part of an act of Congress. Since then, the court has overturned all or
parts of more than 125 federal laws and over 1,000 state laws.
Lower court system. The Constitution gives Congress the job of creating a system of
lower courts. In 1789, Congress passed the Judiciary Act, which established the federal court
system. Today, the system includes both trial courts, which conduct the first hearing of a case,
and appellate courts, which review a trial court's decision at the request of the losing party. Most
federal courts hear a wide variety of cases. Several specialized courts deal only with particular
matters.
District courts are trial courts with general federal jurisdiction. There are 94 district
courts in the United States and its possessions. Each state has at least one. Most federal cases
begin in a district court.
Courts of appeals are appellate courts that review district court decisions on matters of
law. A court of appeals can change a ruling if it decides the lower court incorrectly applied the
law to the case. Courts of appeals also hear appeals of decisions made by federal agencies. The
United States is divided into 12 judicial areas called circuits, each of which has one court of
appeals. A 13th court, the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, has nationwide
jurisdiction.
Special courts. The federal court system includes several specialized courts that deal with
particular matters. For example, the United States Claims Court hears cases involving claims
against the federal government. The Court of International Trade settles disputes over imports.
The Tax Court of the United States handles conflicts between taxpayers and the Internal Revenue
Service. The Court of Military Appeals hears appeals from rulings by courts-martial (military
courts).
The Supreme Court, the nation's highest court, is mainly an appellate court. It can
review appeals from federal appellate courts and, in certain cases, appeals directly from district
courts. It can also review appeals from the highest court in each state, providing the case
involves an important federal question. In certain cases, the Supreme Court is a trial court. It tries
disputes involving diplomats from other countries or conflicts between states. But such cases
make up only a small part of its workload.
The Supreme Court has one chief justice and eight associate justices. At least six justices hear
and decide each case by a majority vote. In the event of a tie, the lower court decision stands.
The Supreme Court meets regularly in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C.

LECTURE
AMERICAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION
 The US education system consists of 12 years. The main stages are: pre-school, primary
or elementary, secondary, higher. Children start going to school at the age of 5-6. The main types
of schools are: public and private.

In the US, the school calendar begins in August or September and continues through to
May or June. The majority of students begin school in autumn. The academic year is composed
of three terms also known as semesters. The first semester is from September to December
followed by a short holiday break between semesters. The second semester is from January to
May. The last semester is a summer holiday break. Post-secondary students can be on summer
break from June to August.

Elementary and secondary school is similar across the US. However, there are minor variations
from state to state. Elementary and secondary education is divided into:

 Elementary School: Runs for 6-7 years starting in Kindergarten through to Grade 5 or 6
 Middle School: Runs for 2-3 years starting in Grade 6 or 7 through to Grade 8
 High School: Runs for 4 years starting in Grade 9 through to Grade 12

Once a student has completed Grade 12, they will receive a high school diploma. Students must
complete secondary school (high school) to qualify for post-secondary education. Public
education in the US is generally free, however, students may come across some fees including
field trips, uniforms, books, etc.

Post-Secondary Education or Higher Education.

The US has more than 4,500 post-secondary institutions. The US is unique as their
institutions are not centrally organized but are accredited on a national or regional level. There
are many different types of post-secondary education systems within the US. They include:

 State College or University

 Private College or University
 Community College
 Institute of Technology

Each type of institution provides students with a unique schooling experience, giving students
the flexibility to choose the path that works best for them and their career.

Ivy League
The Ivy League is one of the most well-known groups of universities in the world. It consists
of a group of eight historic universities. They are all located in the northeast region of the US.
The Ivy League was originally formed in the 1950s as an athletic association. To this day it
remains an athletic association, as well as leaders on the intellectual side. The eight schools
include:

 Brown University
 Columbia University
 Cornell University
 Dartmouth University
 Harvard University
 Princeton University
 The University of Pennsylvania
 Yale University

Associate Degrees: Typically 2-year programs designed to provide students with basic
knowledge on subjects. They prepare students for entry-level positions in fields including
nursing, designing, and education.

Bachelor Degree: Taking 4 years to complete, these programs provide students with education
and preparation for most careers paths. Students are able to accept full-time work in their
respective field right after graduation.

There are five types of bachelor degrees:

 Bachelor of Arts (BA)

 Bachelor of Science (BS)
 Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA)
 Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA)
 Bachelor of Architecture (BArch)

Masters: Can take 1-2 years to obtain with students specializing in one area of study. Masters
can be thesis or research-based depending on the student's specialization.

Doctoral (PhD): There are different types of doctoral degrees that students can obtain. All are
typically research-based and require students to have found a research supervisor at the
university they're applying to. Students looking to get into the medical field will need to obtain a
Doctor of Medicine designation, which is different from other doctoral streams.