Dipa 1090 Introduction To Government and Politics Ii

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION (NIPA)
DISTANCE LEARNING DIVISION
DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
DPA 104: INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS II
SEMESTER TWO (2)
MODULE
Property of National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA)
©copyright2020
All rights reserved.
PREPARED BY: MR G. CHABU

BA, MPA, MPSM
DPA 104-INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS-II
DPA 104 INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I
NOTIONAL HOURS: 160 CREDIT: 16
COURSE AIM: To equip the students with knowledge, skills and attitudes
required in government operations, politics and administration to enable them
apply principles of government and politics in their institutions.
LEARNING OUTCOMES: At end of the module, the student will be able to:
1. Examine the Rights and Duties of citizens.
2. Evaluate the forms of government.
3. Examine the nature of politics.
4. Analyze the civil service.
5. Examine political culture, political socialization and political parties.
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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION-NIPA
COURSE CONTENT
UNIT 1: EXAMINING THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS………….…6
1.1 Concepts of Right……………………………………………………..………7
1.2 Civil Rights……………………………………………………………………..8
1.3 Political Rights………………………………………….…………….……....8
1.4 Economic Rights………………………………………………………………9
1.5 Human Rights…………………………………………………………………9
1.6 Moral Rights………………………………………………………………..….9
1.7 Natural rights and legal rights ………………………………..…………10
1.8 Duties of Citizens ……………………………………………….………….11
UNIT 2: EVALUATING THE FORMS OF GOVERNMENT……………………15
2.1 Democracy……………………………………………………………...…….16
2.2 Dictatorship…………………………………………………………………...25
2.3 Monarchy………………………………………………………..……………..27
2.4 Presidential…………………………………………………………….……..39
2.5 Parliamentary…………………………………………………………………43
UNIT 3: EXAMINING THE NATURE OF ELECTIONS…………………………49
3.1 Concept of elections………………………………………………………..49
3.2 Types of elections………………………………………………….……….51
3.3 Universal suffrage…………………………………………………..……..53
3.4 Excluded classes…………………………………………………………..53
3.5 Forms of electoral systems………………………………………….…..54
3.6 Election management……………………………………………………..60
3.7 Post Election Conflict Management……………………………………68
UNIT 4: ANALYSING THE CIVIL SERVICE…………………………………………71
4.1 Definitions………………………………………………………………….…71
4.2 Characteristics of civil service…………………………………………...…72
4.3 Relationship between Political and Civil service/Administrators…73
4.4 Functions/duties of Civil servants……………………………………....75
UNIT 5: DESCRIBING POLITICAL CULTURE, POLITICAL PARTIES AND
POLITICAL SOCIALISATION……………………………………………………………91
5.1 Political culture………………………………………………………………91
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5.2 Political Parties………………………………………………….……..…..98

5.3 Political Socialization…………………………..……………….……......99
METHODS OF TEACHING
 Lectures
 Group discussions
 Exercises
 Tutorials
 Case studies
ASSESSMENT
 Continuous Assessment 30%
 Final Examination 70%
Continuous Assessment will comprise of:
 Assignment 15%
 Test 15%
PRESCRIBED READINGS
1. Ball A, (1998) Modern Politics and Government London, Mac Millan
2. Johari. C. (2003) Principles of Modern Political science, New Delhi, India
RECOMMENDED READINGS
1. J. C. (2002) Contemporary political theory, New Dimensions, Basic
Concepts and Major Trends, New Delhi, India
2. Plant R (1991) Modern Political thought Blackwell Oxford
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3. Tordoff W. (1993) Government and Politics in Africa, Macmillan, London
STUDYING AT A DISTANCE
There are many advantages to studying by distance education – a full set of
learning materials as provided, and you study close to home in your own
community. You can also plan some of your study time to fit in with other
commitments like work or family.
However, there are also challenges. Learning at a distance from your learning
institution requires discipline and motivation. Here are some tips for studying at
a distance.
1. Plan – Give priority to study sessions with your tutor and make sure you
allow enough travel time to your meeting place. Make a study schedule
and try to stick to it. Set specific days and times each week for study and
keep them free of other activities. Make a note of the dates that your
assessment pieces are due and plan for extra study time around those
dates.
2. Manage your time – Set aside a reasonable amount of time each week for
your study program – but don’t be too ambitious or you won’t be able to
keep up the pace. Work in productive blocks of time and include regular
rests.
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3. Be organised – Have your study materials organized in one place and keep
your notes clearly labeled and sorted. Work through the topics in your
study guide systematically and seek help for difficulties straight away.
Never leave this until later.
4. Find a good place to study – Most people need order and quiet to study
effectively, so try to find a suitable place to do your work – preferably
somewhere where you can leave your study materials ready until next
time.
5. Ask for help if you need it – This is the most vital part of studying at a
distance. No matter what the difficulty is, seek help from your tutor or
fellow students straight away.
6. Don’t give up – If you miss deadlines for assessments, speak to your tutor
– together you can work out what to do. Talking to other students can also
make a difference to your study progress. Seeking help when you need it
is a key way of making sure you complete your studies – so don’t give up.
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UNIT 1: EXAMINING THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS
Learning Outcomes
After completing the Unit you will be able to:
 Define a right
 State some of your rights
Introduction
In order to live both men and women must have some rights, in order to develop
his or her personality to the best extent he must have some particular rights. If
state is the condition of civilized life, the civilized life requires of rights that both
men and women must have. You need to have right to study for a Diploma in
Public Administration.
A right simply put is a claim of an individual recognized by the community and
the state. The term right has three ingredients, first it a claim by the individuals.
However to every claim can be a right. It is required that the claim should have
a universal application. The guiding factor is that what an individual wills should
be of common interest. The motivating factor should be rational consideration
(Victoria Burnett (July 26, 2007).
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It is also required that the claim of an individual should receive social
recognition. A recognition of this type of claim leads to the creation of right to
life.
The claim should have a political recognition. Rights are moral declarations and
are protected by the state.
A proper definition of the term right should include all the three ingredients.
However in the ream of political theory, the most important of is the fact of
political recognition. Some writers like Laski, claim that rights are the those
conditions of social life without which man cannot seek to be himself at his best.
1.1 Concepts of Right
From time to time various explanations regarding rights and nature of rights
have been given which have led to emergence of different theories, in this
direction.
Teary of Natural Rights, It holds that rights being rationally deducible from man’s
nature have universal application irrespective of the differences in place, time
and environment. The United Nations General Assembly in 1948, invoked the
spirit of this Theory, when it declared,” all human beings are born free and equal
in dignity and rights”( John E. Roemer (December 14, 2005).
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It is difficult to classify rights because some of them overlap their categories. In
order to study them in a simplified form we may categorize them as follow:
1.2 Civil Rights
These rights relate to the person and property of an individual. They are civil
or social rights as they relate to the conditions of a civilized life. The right to
self-defense, the right to education (Ayn Rand (2009-12-18).
Civil rights include the ensuring of peoples' physical and mental integrity,
life, and safety; protection from discrimination on grounds such as race,
gender, sexual orientation, national origin, color, age, political affiliation,
ethnicity, religion, and disability; and individual rights such as privacy and
the freedom of thought, speech, religion, press, assembly, and movement
(The Civil Rights act of 1964).
1.3 Political Rights
These rights relate to man’s participation in the political affairs of the state.
These rights include the right to vote the right to public employment and the
right to religion.
Political rights include natural justice (procedural fairness) in law, such as
the rights of the accused, including the right to a fair trial; due process; the
right to seek redress or a legal remedy; and rights of participation in civil
society and politics such as freedom of association, the right to assemble,
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the right to petition, the right of self-defense, and the right to vote (Robert
Book (March 23, 2012).
1.4 Economic Rights
These rights relate to man’s vocation to engage in gainful employment so as
to solve the problem of food, clothing shelter It means the right to earn a
living through proper means.
1.5 Human Rights
This is a modified version of natural rights and recognizes the equality and
freedom of individuals. For example the right to security in the event of
unemployment, sickness, old age or disability.
1.6 Moral Rights
These are the claims of an individual based on the conscience of the community.
These are the claims recognized by the good sense of the people. For instance
the teacher has the moral right to be respected by the pupils.
The moral rights include the right of attribution, the right to have a work
published anonymously or pseudonymously, and the right to the integrity of the
work. The preserving of the integrity of the work allows the author to object to
alteration, distortion, or mutilation of the work that is "prejudicial to the author's
honor or reputation". Anything else that may detract from the artist's
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relationship with the work even after it leaves the artist's possession or
ownership may bring these moral rights into play. Moral rights are distinct from
any economic rights tied to copyrights. Even if an artist has assigned his or her
copyright rights to a work to a third party, he or she still maintains the moral
rights to the work (Sundara Rajan, Mira T. 2006).
1.7 Natural rights and legal rights
Natural rights and legal rights are two types of rights. Natural rights are those
that are not dependent on the laws or customs of any particular culture or
government, and so are universal and inalienable (they cannot be repealed by
human laws, though one can forfeit their enforcement through one's actions,
such as by violating someone else's rights). Legal rights are those bestowed onto
a person by a given legal system (they can be modified, repealed, and restrained
by human laws).
The concept of natural law is related to the concept of natural rights. Natural
law first appeared in ancient Greek philosophy, and was referred to by Roman
philosopher Cicero. It was subsequently alluded to in the Bible, and then
developed in the Middle Ages by Catholic philosophers such as Albert the Great
and his pupil Thomas Aquinas. During the Age of Enlightenment, the concept of
natural laws was used to challenge the divine right of kings, and became an
alternative justification for the establishment of a social contract, positive law,
and government – and thus legal rights – in the form of classical republicanism.
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Conversely, the concept of natural rights is used by others to challenge the
legitimacy of all such establishments.
The idea of human rights is also closely related to that of natural rights: some
acknowledge no difference between the two, regarding them as synonymous,
while others choose to keep the terms separate to eliminate association with
some features traditionally associated with natural rights. Natural rights, in
particular, are considered beyond the authority of any government or
international body to dismiss. The 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of
Human Rights is an important legal instrument enshrining one conception of
natural rights into international soft law. Natural rights were traditionally viewed
as exclusively negative rights, whereas human rights also comprise positive
rights. Even on a natural rights conception of human rights, the two terms may
not be synonymous.
The proposition that animals have natural rights is one that gained the interest
of philosophers and legal scholars in the 20th century and into the 21st.
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1.9 Duties of Citizens
 Support and defend the Constitution.
 Stay informed of the issues affecting your community.
 Participate in the democratic process.
 Respect and obey the laws of the country.
 Respect the rights, beliefs, and opinions of others.
 Participate in your local community.
 Pay income and other taxes honestly, and on time, to government and
local authorities.
 Be ready to serve the country when called upon.
 Defend the country if the need should arise.
Human rights commission
The mission of the human rights commission in Zambia is to promote and
protect human rights for all people in Zambia through investigations of human
rights violation and rehabilitation human rights abuses, education of
communities and advocacy for policy and legal changes influenced by evidence
based research.
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Unit Summary
You are now able to define and state the different types of right. By now
you are to tell if one of rights has been suppressed. And what you
should do when such a situation occurs. In the next Unit you will learn
about forms of governments.
Activity 7.0
Visit the Offices of the Zambia Human Rights
Commission. Write a two-page essay about the
prevalence of human rights abuses in Zambia
Prescribed readings
Johari JC [2007] Principles of modern political science
Recommended Readings
Ayn Rand (2009-12-18). "The Virtue of Selfishness: Individual Rights". The Ayn
Rand Lexicon. Retrieved 2009-12-18.
John E. Roemer (December 14, 2005). "Roemer on equality of opportunity"
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Victoria Burnett (July 26, 2007). "Human Rights Watch says migrant children are
at risk in Canary Islands"
The Civil Rights act of 1964, ourdocuments.gov Archived
Robert Book (March 23, 2012). "The Real Broccoli Mandate". Forbes. Retrieved
September 15, 2013.
Sundara Rajan, Mira T. (2006). Copyright and Creative Freedom: A Study of Post-
Socialist Law Reform
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UNIT 2: EVALUATING THE FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
This is unit about the forms of government old and modern. Some of which have
never practiced in our country. But it is worth learning about them.
Learning Outcomes.
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 Define a government
 State different forms of government
 Differentiate democracy from dictatorship
 Tell the different types of democracy
Introduction
As pointed out earlier, a government can be defined as body in a community or
organization that has the right to make and enforce laws, rules and regulations.
Typically the term refers to a civil government or sovereign state which can either
be local national or international.
Let us start discussing these forms of government with Dictatorship. This form
of government attracted the attention of the world following the Great War. It
saw its manifestation in Turkey under the leadership of Kemal Ataturk in Russia
under the Stalin in Italy under the leadership of Mussolini in German under the
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leadership of Hitler and in Spain under the leadership of General Franco. There
also have been post-war dictatorship. It emerged in other countries of the world,
in Argentina under Peron, in Portugal under Salazar, in Uganda under Idi A min.
2.1 Democracy
Meaning: Democracy is now the most popular form of government, though it is
as old as the Greeks. The peculiar thing about democracy is that it is a form of
state, a form of government, a form of society, and above all an ethical idea or a
way of life. In the first place, as a form of state, democracy, prevails where people
are powerful or the sovereign authority is vested in the people (Haider-Markel,
Donald P. 2014).
However what has engaged general attention is the meaning of democracy as a
form of government .Since it is a combination of two words ‘demos” [people] and
“kratia”,[rule], it implies the rule of the people. Thus, the great Greek
leader.Pericles, could define it as a government in which the people are powerful.
Aristotle defined it as the rule of many. Former USA President, Lincoln defined
as the government of the people, by the people for the people. An English writer,
Seeley defined it as government in which everyone has a share.
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Kinds of Democracy
If democracy means a government in which political power is vested in the
people, a question arises as to how it is exercised. From this standpoint,,
democracy has two forms-direct or pure and indirect or representative. In
direct democracy, the residence and the exercise of power is in the hands of
a large and powerful section of the people. Democracy in its pure form is
practical only in very small and relatively undeveloped communities where it
is practically possible, to assemble at a public place to deliberate and make
public decisions. This form of government prevailed in ancient city-states but
today this form may be seen in five small cantons {provinces] of Switzerland
where the voters meet in open-air parliament known as landsgemeinde, for
the purpose of electing their public officers, voting taxes, and adapting
legislative and administrative regulations.
A new kind of democracy has come up after the English Glorious Revolution
of 1688. The American Revolution of 1776. And the French Revolution of
1789, in particular. It means that while the political power should be vested
in the people, its exercise should be given to the representative chosen and
accountable to the people. This also known as representative democracy.
This is the type of democracy we enjoy in Zambia, where we have chosen our
representative who are accountable us the people.
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In a pure democracy, the source of authority are the people unlike in the
indirect democracy where people are assumed to be incapable of exercising
the power directly and hence the authority is vested in the hands of the
representatives.
Essential Features of indirect or representative democracy
1. Universal adult Suffrage: The first and foremost requirement of indirect
democracy is that all adults of the state, should have the right to vote. The
minimum age of a voter may be anything like, 21 years in France, 20 years
in Japan, 18 years in Zambia, 18 years in Britain, USA, Australia, India and
Russia. There should be no restrictions in matters of suffrage based on
factors of religion, caste, wealth, sex, color of the skin language, domicile,
and the like. It is however a different matter that a very negligible section of
the people may be deprived of the privilege of franchise on the grounds of
lunacy, undercharged insolvency leprosy, heinous crimes and the like.
2. Free, Fair and Periodical Elections
Then, elections should take place from time to time so that the voters may
choose and change their representatives. It is necessary that the elections
that the elections should be free from corruption of rigging of any kind. Let
the voters and frank manner. It is equally necessary that the elections
should be contested periodically as after every four or five years. In case the
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elections are delayed for a very long duration without any reasonable cause,
it amounts to negation of a democratic system.
3. Role of Parties and Interest Groups.
There should be a number of political parties and interest groups in the
country to take party in the political process. They may form a healthy public
opinion so as to force the government to run according to the will of the
people. The powers should alternate between these parties and groups so
that it not be monopolized by a section of the people as happens in a fascist
or in a communist country.
4 Freedom of the Press and Mass Media Agency.
It is also necessary that all channels of information should be open so that
people may have a clear ‘image’ of the news and views of great matters of
public concern. The freedom of the press is therefore an essential
requirement of a democratic system. So other mass media agencies like
broadcasting and telecasting should be free to play part in the making of
public opinion.
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5. Independence of the Judiciary
Above all, the courts should be free to decide matters according to the law of
the land. There should be no coercion or compulsion of over the matters of
adjudication. Their selection should be based on the basis of merit: they
should get promotions on the basis of seniority as well as efficiency, their
tenure should be fixed, their emoluments should be attractive, and the mode
of their removal on some change must be tedious. They should not be allowed
to maintain public contacts. These measures are required to maintain the
independence of the Judiciary that has its own role to play in the
maintenance of a democratic system.
Garner has enumerated these essentials of a representative of democratic
government as follows:
1. Strictly speaking a democratic government is one whose officials and agents
are chosen by an electorate democratically constituted.
2. The head of state may , or may not be elected by the people[like monarch in
Britain] or the head be elected by the people but his ministers may not be
chosen by the people[as in the USA].
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3. The Election of the executive functionaries and judicial magistrates by the
head of state or by some independent and autonomous authority is not
inconsistent with the principles of representative government.
In short, a representative government is one that establishes what A.V Dicey
calls, ‘the rule of law’. It guarantees essential liberties to the people principle of
ty of mankind. It is a limited government bound by the principle of separation of
powers. Thus According to FG Wilson, its essential requirements are [a[ a
constitution specifying the rules of the composition and working of the
government [b] constitutionalism implying the rule of laws and not of men[c] a
declaration of the fundamental rights of the people and [d[ a democratic
structure of government.
Criticisms of Democracy.
Many writers have expressed their views to laud democracy as the best form of
government man has ever been able to design for himself. Let us first look at the
merits of Democracy:
i. Democracy is the best form of government for the reason that it ensures
popular participation. It is the only government stands on the will of the
people and stimulates them to take part in the political affairs of the
country.
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ii. Since people have the power and they use it, there is a feeling of satisfaction,
they do not think of a violent revolution or bloody agitation for the change
of government or for the change of their rulers.
iii. . It gives some political education and training to its people. Its main
manifestation is in the democratic process. The strongest argument in
favor of democracy lies in the value of developing and elevating the
masses of the people in stimulating their interest in public affairs and
strengthening their loyalty and trust in the government in which they
take active part. Democracy thus serves a training school for citizenship.
It strengthens love for the country.
iv. The case of democracy is defended on moral grounds as well. It is said that
democracy makes the character of the people noble. It inculcates in them
the feeling of hard work and enterprise; it sharpens their sense of
responsibility and patriotism.
v. Above all democracy is the only government that acts in a self-correcting
manner. The government commits many mistakes of commission and
omissions and the process of self-correcting is at work simultaneously.
People know that they are the real rulers of the country, they choose the
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rulers and when they want to change they can do it without destroying
the constitutional system.
On the contrary, the system of democracy has been denounced for various
reasons. Aristotle described it as’ degenerated form of polity, Carlyle sneeringly
referred to the people as ‘certain numbers, mostly fools’. Ludovici said
‘democracy means death.’
Weaknesses of Democracy
1. It ignores the side of quality. All decisions are taken by the majority, who
critics say are fools. The sycophants, the clappers, and the hand-raises have an
upper hand over those who think and speak in the real interest of the people.
Thus merit and wisdom weep unknown. It is for this reason that Plato and
Aristotle condemned democracy.
2. Politics becomes a professional in a democratic system with the result that
crafty leaders excite popular passions to serve their own interests. Innocent
and poor people are hoodwinked by crooks.
3. Democracy is a very expensive type of government, A lot of national wealth is
squandered on lengthy discussions , by-elections and so forth. It is a luxury
for the rich people.
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4. In rich countries like the UAS, it degenerates into a plutocracy or the
perverted rule of the wealthy persons.
5. A democratic system brings about instability in the sphere of legislation and
administration. The rulers change very quickly and every leader tries to run
the administration according to his choice. The personal interest of the leader
is or his group is exbited as the national interest. Laws are enacted or
changed, policies are adopted, appointments are made, and all important
decisions are taken to suit the purpose of the leader in power.
Conditions for successful working of Democracy
1. Democracy requires something more than intelligence and virtue. The people
though they may be divided in parties must fulfill fundamentally, one or
major objects of governmental activity and must not be bent on conflicts and
antagonism.
2. No class should be permanently excluded from power so that it may feel
disgruntled and always remain grumbling. Each must share in the
advantages of common existence.
3. The national must exhibit habits of tolerance and compromise .Its various
elements must try to understand each other and appreciate each other’s
view point.
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4. They have a sense of deference whether it is to the monarch or the
constitution.
5. . The people must not be influenced by the vulgar ,that is the ignorant ,
masses for this means supremacy of ignorance over instructions of numbers
over knowledge.
2.2 Dictatorship
The existence of dictatorship has its proof in the position of a person who holds
extra- constitutional powers and identifies himself with the state. He is the head
of the state, of government of the party or the military group, in power. His word
is law, and any kind of opposition to his power invite mutilation .In fine
dictatorship “ is the assumption f of extra legal authority by the head of the
state.
In other words, dictatorship means absolute rule of the single person who
occupies his position by means of force and as such he is not accountable to any
popular institution.
Some features of Dictatorship
1 It is the outcome of direct or indirect militarism. The dictator stands as the
saviour of the people./motherland against foreign invasion or intervention
2 The dictator undertakes to put down domestic discord with a firm hand
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Merits of Dictatorship
1. It means a powerful and efficient government .The government does not
waste time on unnecessary discussions .Decisions are promptly made by
the dictator.
2. It assures progress and prosperity of the people by taking quick decisions.
3. It recognizes the elements of quality and merit.
4 It enhances glory and prestige of the nation A weak government cannot
protect the honour of motherland. Dictatorship makes the nation strong.
5. It can meet the situation of emergencies effectively.
Demerits of Dictatorship
It destroys the liberties of the individual. State becomes an end itself and the
individual its means.
1. It dwarfs personality of the individual. Opposition is outlawed and the
people are commanded to live and act like deaf and dumb-driven animals.
2. It makes the people politically indifferent or apathetic. They do not want
to take part in national affairs because of the terror that stalks the whole
land.
3. It stands for imperialism
4. It is the enemy of internationalism. It does not believe in the quality o all
nations. Above all it is the most unstable form of government It lasts for
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so long as the dictator wields a strong word. The dissident elements
secretly prepare for a revolution. They remain underground and the time
comes a coup is made to overthrow the regime of the dictator. The result
is either the replacement of one dictatorship with another or the emergence
of a democratic system Thus a dictatorship is unstable form of
government.
2.3 Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of
state for life or until abdication. The legitimation and governing power of the
monarch may vary from purely symbolic (crowned republic), to restricted
(constitutional monarchy), to fully autocratic (absolute monarchy), combining
executive, legislative and judicial power.
In most cases, the succession of monarchies is hereditary, often building
dynastic periods, but there are also elective[1] and self-proclaimed monarchies.
Aristocrats, though not inherent to monarchies, often serve as the pool of
persons to draw the monarch from and fill the constituting institutions (e.g. diet
and court), giving many monarchies oligarchic elements.
A monarchy can be a polity through unity, personal union, vassalage or
federation, and monarchs can carry various titles such as king, queen, emperor,
khan, caliph, tsar, or sultan.
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The republican form of government has been established as the opposing and
main alternative to monarchy. Republics though have seen infringements
through lifelong or even hereditary heads of state. Republics’ heads of state are
often styled "President" or a variant thereof.
Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 20th century.
Forty-five sovereign nations in the world have a monarch as head of state,
including sixteen Commonwealth realms that each have Queen Elizabeth II (in
separate capacities). Most modern monarchs are constitutional monarchs, who
retain a unique legal and ceremonial role but exercise limited or no political
power under the nation's constitution. In some nations, however, such as
Brunei, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Eswatini and Thailand, the
hereditary monarch has more political influence than any other single source of
authority in the nation, either by tradition or by a constitutional mandate.
Advantages of a Monarchy
1. A monarchy is regarded as one of the most stable forms of government.
A constitutional monarchy is less prone to a forced takeover of the government
when compared to other arrangements because it provides a dual support
structure. You have the side that includes all of the elected or appointed officials
that govern over legislation and the daily tasks of governing. Then you have the
monarch who serves as the head of state in some manner.
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If the country feels that their government is no longer rendering them with what
they require, then there is the opportunity to select new officials or request for a
change in appointments.
2. Monarchies reduce the levels of political divide in a country.
Monarchy governments reduce the political arguing that takes place within a
homeland. There are still fierce assemblages who pursue specific agendas, but
there isn’t the same kind of gridlock seen in the various houses of government
as there are in other approaches.
It is the ruler in most monarchies who will have the final say on all matters
within the executive, judicial, and legislative branches of the government. That
requires the elected officials to recommend strategies that fall in line with what
the sovereignty desires.
4. Most monarchies rule from a centrist approach.
A monarchy does run the risk of having a dictator at the helm of government,
exploiting the population for their personal benefit. Most of these rulers tend to
come from a centrist approach because that is the easiest way to bring people
together. There is more willingness to compromise because there is another layer
of approval that must be obtained before something becomes law in almost all
governments. Once the prime minister or equivalent supports an idea, then the
sovereign must also sign off on what will happen – even if their role is not overly
influential in the government.
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5. It is possible to reduce or eliminate corruption within the boundaries
of a monarchy.
Any government official, such as a king, queen, caliph, emperor, tsar, caliph,
sultan, or khan can be corrupt. What is different in the world’s long-standing
monarchies is that the ruler has nothing to gain by using the government to their
benefit. They are the government. That means these rules benefit in numerous
ways by holding the position. In return, the nation typically identifies with the
ruler, and this creates a mutually beneficial relationship.
5. There are opportunities to refresh the government.
Since most monarchies take the constitutional approach in our world today, then
there is an incentive to stay engaged with what the population needs within the
country. If bureaucrats can secure themselves into a long-term status of service,
then there is no longer the urge to stay actively involved with their communities.
Because of the structure of this monarchy, there are occasions to alter who gets
to participate in the government. This advantage allows for fresh viewpoints on
different commissions, updated community representation, and better
communication regarding the governing process.
Even though the monarch cannot be voted out in most government structures,
every other position could be changed systematically to remove the menace of
complacency.
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6. Monarchy leaders are trained from birth to become leaders.
The order of succession is established in a monarchy based on the birth order
within the family under most structures. This option allows everyone, including
the people, the opportunity to understand who their next ruler will be. It also
provides the ruling group a chance to train the new ruler thoroughly before they
take the throne. That allows even young rulers to be experienced in the ways of
government so that they can make a positive, immediate impact for their country
in their role as the head of state.
7. The government can move faster when implementing decisions with a
monarchy.
Democratic governments tend to operate with speed when the action benefits
those elected to office in some way. The 2018 meeting of the legislature and
Senate in Washington State is an example of this fact, with both bodies passing
multiple bills within an hour of each other so that the officials could limit their
liability with regards to new state privacy laws with a veto-proof margin.
State funding for education in Washington State took several years to complete
instead, with the judicial branch fining the legislative one $100,000 per day
because of their inaction. When you consider the advantages of a monarchy,
then the fact that one person makes all decisions improves the pace of
implementation. This benefit allows the administration to be more responsive
whenever there is a need.
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8. There are fewer transfers of power that happen in monarchy
governments.
There is a complete transfer of power in the United States in every 4-year or 8-
year cycle depending on the Presidential election. Some elections come every two
years under the American system, which means there are fewer opportunities to
maintain consistency in governing. Even FDR, who served four consecutive
terms before passing away in office, was limited to less than 20 years of serving
the people.
A monarchy is usually in place for life. When you consider the multiple
generations in a family that can stay in power, then there is more consistency in
the approach to governing. That means long-term plans have a better chance of
implementation under this government structure.
9. A monarchy works to support a nation’s cultural identity.
The Commonwealth realm may allow for extensive self-governing over its 16
different states, but this fact does not change the overall structure of the
government. Each person in the domain, which stretches from the UK to Canada
to the South Pacific, intensely identifies with their administrative structure.
Their monarchy helps to define who they are as a people because of the
approaches they see their leadership practicing. If there is an effort to cooperate
and unify, then these are the core values that become an indispensable part of
a nation’s cultural identity.
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10. Monarchies can apply more money toward the economy and their
people.
Elections can be a costly event in any country that holds them. The average price
of a presidential election in the United States is more than $2 billion. When you
add in the hundreds of House and Senate elections at the national level, then
another $4 billion goes into the cost of putting people into government positions.
When there is a monarchy in place, then this need is greatly reduced – or even
eliminated.
Monarchies do have a reputation of hoarding wealth for the ruling family, but
this issue is seen more with dictatorships today instead of as a general rule.
Queen Elizabeth has an estimated private wealth of $530 million, or about 25%
of the cost of a single U.S. presidential election.
11. The government can operate independently of the monarchy in some
structures.
Although the constitutional version of a monarchy can grant almost unlimited
powers to the leadership, most of these governments decide to give only a reserve
power to this person or family. This process is what creates the head of state
position, allowing the sovereign to serve in an ambassadorial role instead. There
is still the authority to request revisions on any legislative agenda that they feel
is unsuitable.
It is a process that can also maintain the authority of the government during a
leadership transition that extends beyond the natural lineage. In an emergency,

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constitutional monarchies even provide a secondary layer of leadership that
keeps the government operating while remaining helpful in its oversight role.
Disadvantages of a Monarchy
1. Monarchies can require minors to serve as their country’s head of state.
Because a monarchy often uses family lineage as the designation of who can take
over the throne, there are numerous instances in history when children were
placed in this role. This disadvantage has even occurred in the modern era. The
final emperor of China before the communist takeover was only two years old
when brought into that position. Tahiti installed King Pomare III in this position
at just 17 months.
There are even younger examples, such as King Sobhuza II of Swaziland who
became a ruler at just four months of age. He would go on to rule for 82 years.
Even England was not immune to this problem, with King Henry VI crowned
when he was only eight months old.
2. It can be difficult to stop the powers of the monarchy.
The head of state has absolute control over the government. Even when this
approach is more ceremonial than functional, an elected legislature must still
work with the sovereign to ensure that laws and regulations fit within an
expectation guideline. That means the person in charge can decree almost
anything to have it become law if their authority is considered absolute.

34
If the sovereign decides to become violent or oppressive, then the nation has little
choice but to go along with the problem or try to overthrow the government.
Monarchs can even declare war on other countries unilaterally because there are
so few checks and balances available in this system.
3. There is no guarantee of competency coming from the leadership.
New rulers in a monarchy come from the line of succession. This process is
usually based on family lineage, but some leaders will designate a specific person
if they don’t leave any heirs. That means some people can receive leadership
training at an early age so that they are ready to ascend to the throne, but that
advantage is not always possible. You can train some people to be political
leaders and have them fail at the position. Others might not even want to be in
charge in the first place.
When there is apathy within the monarchy, then the nation will suffer. This one
leader plays an integral role in the entire governing process since they are part
of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. This disadvantage is so
powerful that it has caused entire governments to fall in the past.
4. A monarchy can decide to remove all checks and balances.
Even if a monarchy decides to take a constitutional approach, these individual
leaders can decide to move in a different direction because of this government’s
structure. King Sobhuza II helped to write a governing document for his nation
only to throw it out about five years later. This disadvantage applies even when
the head of state is in more of a symbolic role. They can even influence societal
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balances, such as freedom of the press, to continuously reinforce their powers
over the population.
5. Monarchies create a class-based society.
Almost any government structure results in the formation of a class-based
society. Only true socialism where the public owns everything avoids this
disadvantage. The one threat that you’ll see in this area from a monarchy is that
wealth becomes a foundation of family status. If you are born into money, then
society says that you’re superior to those who don’t have as much as you do.
There are even titles that some people have, such as Lord, Duke, or Baron, that
reflect the “importance” of wealth.
6. The structures of a monarchy are variable throughout the world.
Because about one-quarter of the monarchies in the world fall under the
leadership of the Commonwealth realm, there is a lot of consistency in this
government structure. Once you get outside of those 16 nations, the structures
have a lot of variabilities. Japan has an emperor who has zero political authority,
serving as a figurehead and nothing more. There are African nations that have a
sovereign serving as a leader, but the role of that person is closer to an
authoritarian dictator than a benefactor.
This flexibility can offer a lot of advantages when the monarchy serves the people
first. It can also be inherently dangerous because one person or family can make
drastic changes to the government without many ways to stop them.
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7. The head of state is usually the final say on all governing matters.
When a monarchy is in place, including constitutional ones, then those who are
in leadership roles (such as a prime minister) can wield considerable power.
Their decisions are held in check by the sovereign who serves as the head of
state. The ability to override is often an unaccountable power given to this one
person. Even if Queen Elizabeth II says that something needs to change in
presented legislation, then everyone must go back to the drawing board to create
something new.
8. Even a figurehead sovereign can replace elected officials who are in
charge.
Many people see Queen Elizabeth II as a figurehead head of state, but that has
not always been the case during her reign. There are three times when she has
decided to appoint the prime minister instead of allowing the elected officials to
do so. This outcome happened in 1957, 1963, and 1974. She has even dismissed
people in the past because of her desire to change something specific in the
government. There can be more stability with this governing structure, but it
often needs the monarchy to take a back seat to the rest of the government.
9. A monarchy reduces the amount of diversity found in the government.
Countries become more powerful when diverse ideas, views, and backgrounds
come together to form a pathway that encourages progress. When a nation
decides to use a monarchy as their form of government, then these components

37
exist in one person or their family. That perspective is what the driver of national
momentum becomes.
Because sovereigns train for their role from an early age with this governing
structure, the only influence they encounter comes from those responsible for
their training. This disadvantage reduces diversity because it encourages a
closed mind.
10. The structure of a monarchy encourages one person to stay in power.
The intention of a sovereign or ruling family is to preserve their power before any
other action. These leaders depend upon their ability to govern to maintain their
status. That means the temptation to hold onto this role by any means possible
can be a massive temptation.
The need to reinforce their position in the government can come at the cost of
social programs or basic government structures. That is why a monarchy is often
one of the most expensive forms of ruling a country, even if the family doesn’t
hoard wealth or use past riches to shore up their position.
11. How a sovereign behaves becomes the definition of a country.
President Donald Trump makes a lot of headlines for the way that he treats
people on social media. The fact that his wife runs an anti-bullying campaign
only reinforces the public perspective of the Trump administration globally. His
actions become the definition of how the world perceives Americans, even if the
president’s approval rating remains below 40% consistently.
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This disadvantage, when applied to a lifelong sovereign, can become a
tremendous problem for some countries. If the head of state is in more of a
ceremonial role, then some nations might not take their opinion seriously. When
an abusive dictator is in charge, then other world leaders might not even want
to do business with their country. Since no one can really control the leadership’s
behavior, an unfit monarchy can lead to a difficult life for the average person.
2.4 Presidential
Meaning; As Prevailing in the USA and a number of other countries like Brazil,
Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Philippines ,North Korea etc., is based on the doctrine
of the separation of powers. The chief executive [the president] is the head of
state, is elected by the people, directly of indirectly, for a definite period and is
not accountable to the legislature though he may be removed by the process of
impeachment (Novak, Michael; Younkins, Edward W. 2001). Thus, it is that
system in which the executive [including both the head of state and ministers] is
constitutionally independent of the legislature in respect to the duration of his
or their tenure and irresponsible to it for his or their policies. Its main features
are:
1. Real Authority of the president: The leadership of the executive is in the
hands of the president-elected by the people for a fixed period, as of four
years in the United States and five years in Zambia.

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2. Separation of the Legislature from the Executive: The president and his
ministers cannot be members of the legislature. In case the president
appoints a member of the legislature as his minister, he has to leave
legislative membership. It is for this reason the president and ministers do
not take part in the in the deliberations of the legislature.
3. Checks and Balances Lest, the chief executive acts in an autocratic way, a
system of checks and balances is devised so that each organ of government
acts as a check on the other two organs. For instance in the UAS, all
nominations made and all treaties signed, by the President are ratified by
the Senate., the Bills passed by Congress and the decrees of the executive
be struck down by the court, on the grounds of being violative of the
constitution. Mere separation of powers will not do, separation
supplemented by checks and balances makes the system work.
3. Process of Impeachment: Above all, the process of impeachment is
provided to remove the president, in case he is held guilty of violating the
oath of office. Usually, the power of impeachment is given to the
legislature,. For instance, I the United States, the work of impeachment
shall initiate in the House of Representatives. The House shall present the
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charge sheet, and the president tender his explanation. The matter shall
be decided by 2/3 majority of voters in the Senate.
Merits of Presidential Government
1. It may meet the conditions of a national crisis effectively
2. Since the is based on the principle of the separation of powers it is not
possible for the president to assume , legislative power as a happens in a
country with a parliamentary form of government.
3. It ensures stability of government .The president is elected for a period of
four years, and it is a very tedious job to remove by the process of
impeachment.
4. It is also good from the administrative point of view. Since the ministers are
not obliged to give attendance in the legislature, they can devote themselves
wholly to the duties of their departments.
5. Since the legislature cannot be controlled by the executive, it is also possible,
for it to act independently.
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Demerits of Presidential Government
On the other hand, the demerits of the presidential government can be counted
under:
1 It leads to executive autocracy. Since the president is elected for a fixed
term and since he cannot be removed by the process of impeachment, on
account of its being a tedious affair, he may rule like a despot.
2 Since it is founded on the principle of separation of powers, it is also
possible that the executive and legislative departments are at
loggerheads. There could be deadlocks due to confrontation between the
executive and the legislative departments.
3 Since the legislature is free from the control of the executive, it may act
in a very irresponsible manner. There is nothing like discipline in the
American Congress.
4 It may also be accused of being a rigid system. The president cannot
influence the parliament to make laws quickly so as to meet the condition
of a crisis. The legislature may or may not support the executive the
necessary extent.
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5 Extravagance in appropriations and the use of lo-rolling techniques for
passing measures of sectional interest more likely occur in presidential
system. The lack of direct initiative in respect to legislation on the part of
the president and his ministers and the lack of direct responsibility of
the president to the representatives of the electorate are other defects of
the system.
3.4 Parliamentary
Parliamentary system or parliamentary democracy is a system of democratic
governance of a state (or subordinate entity) where the executive derives its
democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the confidence of the
legislature, typically a parliament, and is also held accountable to that
parliament. In a parliamentary system, the head of state is usually a person
distinct from the head of government. This is in contrast to a presidential system,
where the head of state often is also the head of government and, most
importantly, the executive does not derive its democratic legitimacy from the
legislature.
Countries with parliamentary democracies may be constitutional monarchies,
where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost
always a member of parliament (such as Thailand, the United Kingdom,
Denmark, Sweden, and Japan), or parliamentary republics, where a mostly
ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is
43
regularly from the legislature (such as Ireland, Germany, India, and Italy). In a
few parliamentary republics, such as Botswana, South Africa, and Suriname,
among some others, the head of government is also head of state, but is elected
by and is answerable to parliament. In bicameral parliaments, the head of
government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house.
Advantages of parliamentary system
1. Adaptability
Parliamentary systems like that found in the United Kingdom are widely
considered to be more flexible, allowing rapid change in legislation and policy as
long as there is a stable majority or coalition in parliament, allowing the
government to have 'few legal limits on what it can do' Due to the first-past-the-
post 'this system produces the classic "Westminster Model" with the twin virtues
of strong but responsive party government'. This electoral system providing a
strong majority in the House of Commons, paired with the fused power system
results in a particularly powerful Government able to provide change and
'innovate'.
2. Scrutiny and accountability
The United Kingdom's fused power system is often noted to be advantageous
with regards to accountability. The centralized government allows for more
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transparency as to where decisions originate from, this directly contrasts with
the United States' system with former Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon
saying "the president blames Congress, the Congress blames the president, and
the public remains confused and disgusted with government in Washington".
Furthermore, ministers of the U.K. cabinet are subject to weekly Question
Periods in which their actions/policies are scrutinized, no such regular check on
the government exists in the U.S. system.
3. Distribution of power
Parliamentary government has attractive features for nations that are ethnically,
racially, or ideologically divided. In a presidential system, all executive power is
vested in one person, the president, whereas power is more divided in a
parliamentary system with its collegial executive. In the 1989 Lebanese Taif
Agreement, in order to give Muslims greater political power, Lebanon moved from
a semi-presidential system with a powerful president to a system more
structurally similar to classical parliamentary government. Iraq similarly
disdained a presidential system out of fears that such a system would be
tantamount to Shiite domination of the large Sunni minority. Afghanistan's
minorities refused to go along with a presidency as strong as the Pashtuns
desired.
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It can also be argued that power is more evenly spread out in parliamentary
government, as the government and prime minister do not have the power to
make unilateral decisions, as the entire government cabinet is answerable and
accountable to parliament. Parliamentary systems are less likely to allow
celebrity-based politics to fully dominate a society, unlike what often happens in
presidential systems, where name-recall and popularity can catapult a celebrity,
actor, or popular politician to the presidency despite such candidate's lack of
competence and experience.
Disadvantages and criticisms
1. Legislative flip-flopping
The ability for strong parliamentary governments to 'push' legislation through
with the ease of fused power systems such as in the United Kingdom, whilst
positive in allowing rapid adaptation when necessary e.g. the nationalization of
services during the world wars, does have its drawbacks. The flip-flopping of
legislation back and forth as the majority in parliament changed between the
Conservatives and Labour over the period 1940–1980, contesting over the
nationalisation and privatisation of the British Steel Industry resulted in major
instability for the British steel sector.
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2. Party fragmentation
In R. Kent Weaver's book Are Parliamentary Systems Better? he writes that an
advantage of presidential systems is their ability to allow and accommodate more
diverse viewpoints. He states that because "legislators are not compelled to vote
against their constituents on matters of local concern, parties can serve as
organizational and roll-call cuing vehicles without forcing out dissidents."
Unit Summary
From the unit you have learnt the different types of government. You
have learnt dictatorship democracy and presidential types of
government. I wish to make it clear to you there are many types of
government which you have not covered in this unit and which may be
covered at a later time in this course or other courses.
You are now able to define all the types of government that you have
learnt. Most importantly, I am happy as at now that, you can easily
distinguish each one of them from the other. You can now tell the
conditions required for the democracy to work successfully.
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In the next unit. I will introduce an equally important unit about
elections to you. As for now relax and answer a self-assessment test given
in the box. Do not send it for marking. It is for your own revision.
Activity 8.0
Some critics of Democracy have defined it as a
government of ‘many, most of them fools.’ Do you agree
with this statement?
Prescribed Readings
Johari JC [2007]. Principles of modern political science
Janda IB [2004]: The challenge of Democracy
Recommended readings
Haider-Markel, Donald P. (2014), The Oxford Handbook of State and Local
Government, ISBN 978-0-19-957967-9
Novak, Michael; Younkins, Edward W. (2001). Three in One: Essays on
Democratic Capitalism, 1976–2000. Rowman and Littlefield. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-
7425-1171-2
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UNIT 3: EXAMINING THE NATURE OF ELECTIONS
3.1 Concept of elections
Election means recruitment of the representative by the voters. Janda et.al
(2007) define elections as a forma procedures for making group decisions and
voting as an act individuals engage in when they choose among alternatives in
an election. This may be done in one of the two ways. In case the voters choose
their representative by their votes, these are direct elections. In Zambia, voters
use this type of method when they choose their members of parliament or
president. In the UK, this method is used when voters choose members of the
House of Commons, In America, when voters choose members of House of
Representatives and in India, when voters choose members of the Indian Lok
Sabha.
Different from this, when voters elect some persons who elect some other persons
this becomes indirect election In America, the intermediary body is called the
Electoral College.
Merits of direct elections:
 It establishes direct touch between the voters and their chosen
representative.
 It stimulates the interest of the voters in public affairs.
The representative has a particular regard for the will of his/her constituents.
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Demerits of direct elections
All voters are not equally intelligent and so clever candidates have more chances
to woo the voters in their own interest.
.Wrong and undesirable methods are adopted for securing votes.
Really good and conscientious people avoid such elections.
Merits of indirect elections
o It confines the electorate to a small body of persons possessing a higher
average of political ability and necessarily feeling a keener sense of
responsibility.
o It tends to diminish the evils of party passion and struggle by removing
the object of popular choice.
o It is suited to infant democracies, like Zambian, where the number of
people who are politically conscious is small.
Demerits of indirect elections
 It is undemocratic because it prevents a large number of people from
taking part in what they should have taken part.
 It can create conditions for general apathy and alienation since it prevents
a number of people from taking part in the elections. Since it is a small
group competing chances of adoptions of corrupt means to win election
can be enhanced.
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3.2 Types of elections
General Election:
-this is an election in which all or most members of a given political body are up
for elections. In Zambia we hold this type of election after every five years, when
we choose our president and members of parliament .The term originate from
the United Kingdom general election for House of Commons.
Parliamentary Election
This is an election held chose members of parliament only. This Happened
recently in Egypt, where the presidential and parliamentary elections were held
separately.
Presidential Election
This is an election for the head of state called the President.
Local Government election
This election is meant to elect the executive of the city, or town, or region
(Alderman, Mayor or Councilor).
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Primary election
Though this is not a common practice in Zambia, this system requires that
candidates for a coming election standing on a ticket of a particular party should
be elected through this process. Candidates are chosen at grass root level
through primary election. The one who wins the primary election for that
particular constituency will represent that party in general elections. This system
originated from the United States of America.
By-election
In the United Kingdom, is known as a special election. This election takes place
between scheduled elections. For example, in Zambia , we had general elections
on the 28th of September, 2011.Any election , whether for president or member
of parliament that will be held before the next scheduled election , will be a by-
election. This can happen in any organization such as the union or council.
There a number of reasons or factors that can lead to a by-election. Some of
these are as follows
 Death of the incumbent.
 Expulsion from the political party.
 Resignation of a member from the party.
 The incumbent becoming mentally deranged.
 Conviction of the incumbent to a prison sentence exceeding six months.
 Invalidation of the seat by the court of law due to voting irregularities.
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3.4 Universal suffrage and the Franchise
Both mean the right to vote. Universal suffrage implies the right to vote in an
election, universal in the sense that worldwide this principle is accepted in
many democratic countries. However there are certain individuals who
cannot vote in a particular country depending on the laws of that country. In
Zambia, prisoners, unregistered voters under age, all those below the age of
18 years are not allowed to vote are not allowed to vote in our elections. Even
foreigners’ are not allowed to take part in our elections. In Some counties
people suffering from leprosy cannot vote. There is an age limit for
participating in an election which differs from country to country.
3.5 Excluded classes
In order to register as a voter, you must be:
 A Zambian citizen in possession of a green National Registration Card; and

 At least 18 years old.
The following classes are excluded from the voting process:
 Foreigners in Zambia are not allowed to vote unless the law is changed
 Kids under the age of 18.
 Condemned prisoners.
These conditions differs from country to country depending on the constitution of a given
country.
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Reasons for apathy/ unwillingness of people to vote
 Lack of knowledge: Many people who don’t vote believe they do not
understand enough the about government, election process or individual
party policies.
 Lack of interest: Some people don’t vote just because they are not
interested in doing so.
 Lack of trust: Some people do not vote because they do not have trust in
their political leaders.
 Fear of wasting their votes: Some people do not vote when they are in
an area that is a strong hold of a party they do not support.
3.6 Forms of electoral systems
In this type of system, the candidate with the most votes wins, even without the
absolute majority. This is the system we use here in Zambia where the candidate
with most votes wins the election. This is also known as: ‘first-past-the-post
system “For example in constituency x, there were five parliamentary candidates.
The results they got were as follows:
Candidate A got 2,000 votes
Candidate B got 2,001 votes
Candidate C got 500 votes
Candidate D got 780 votes and
Candidate E got 1,999 votes
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Using this system, we could declare candidate ‘candidate B, with 2001 votes as
having been duly elected by beating his/her closest rival by one vote. This is the
easiest system to use.
The Majoritarian System
In this system, a candidate must win by a majority vote. In case of a deadlock,
it can be rectified in two ways; either by run-off between the top two candidates
is held after the initial vote. In some countries like Australia and Ireland, the
voters rank the candidates. If no candidate receives the majority, the last
candidate is eliminated and the votes are distributed to second choices. The
process is repeated until a candidate earns the majority.
Proportional Representation
Proportional representation usually means the “list” system.
It sounds a bit complex, but it is not. What happens is that parties present lists
of candidates in multimember districts. Voters choose a party list. Seats are
allocated to each party according to proportion of votes each receives.
The intent-usually achieved is to ensure the health of smaller parties. The more
equitable transfer of popular support to legislative representative means that
voters who support third or fourth parties have every reason to assume not only
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that their vote will not be wasted but also that the vote will be faithfully reflected
in legislative power.
Electoral systems determine how votes cast at an election are translated into
seats won by parties and candidates. Different electoral systems can produce
different results even from identical votes. There are countless electoral system
variations but can be grouped into three broad families:
 Majority Systems
 Proportional Representation systems and
 Semi proportional representation systems.
The main feature of majority systems is that they usually have single-member
electorates.
1. First past the post voting [fppv]
This system of voting is the simplest-the voter only votes for one candidate
and whoever gets the highest number of votes is elected. It is the easiest vote
counting system to calculate results. The wining candidate is the one who
gains more votes than the other candidate, but not necessarily an absolute
majority [50%+1]. This is the type of electoral system which is generally used
in Zambia. You may recall that in one constituency on the copper belt, a
particular candidate, now deputy minister, won by only one vote.
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2. Proportional Representation Systems
PR can only be used in multi-member electorates. Candidates are elected in
proportional to the number of votes they receive which increases the chances
of representation for small minority parties. PR is used in South America and
Western Europe and makes up about one –third of all electoral systems in
Africa.
The proportion of seats won by one group or party should equal the proportion
of votes cast for those groups or parties. For example, if one party wins 40%
of votes it should win about 40% of the seats, and if a party gets 10% of the
votes it should gain 10% of the seats.
3. Semi-Proportional systems.
Semi-proportional systems are a cross between proportional representation
and majority systems. There are two main types;
.the single non-transferable vote
.parallel systems.
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The summary of the electoral systems are given in the table below:
Electoral System Type Description
First-past-the-post pluralist The candidate that obtains more votes than
any other elected[wins] even if that candidate

[fptp]
won a minority of votes cast.
Two –round system majority A run-off election is held between the two top
[trs] vote-getters in order to ensure that the winner
obtains a majority of votes cast.
Alternative vote or majority Voters indicate an order of preference among
instant run-off[Av] candidates. If no candidate obtains a
majority outright, the last place candidate is
removed and the associated second choice
votes are added to the totals of the remaining
candidates .The process is repeated until a
candidate secures a majority.
Block vote [bv] pluralist Voters may cast as many votes as there are
open seats. If there are n seats to be filled,
the top n vote-getters are elected.
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Single non- Esmi- Voters can only cast a single vote among
transferable vote[sntv proportional candidates for n votes. The top vote-getters
are elected/
Mixed member proportional The legislature consist of a block of seats
proportional[mmp] that are elected by pluralist or majority fro
single –member districts, and another block
of seats that are elected in multimember
districts under a proportional system. The
proportional seats are awarded in such a way
as to compensate for disproportional effects in
the single- member district outcomes.
Parallel Semi- The legislature consists of a block of seats
proportional that are elected by pluralist or majority from
a single-member districts and another block
of seats that are elected in a multi-member
districts under a proportional system. The
proportional seats are awarded independently
of the outcomes in a single-member districts.
Party list [pl] proportional Received by each party. Candidates are
seated in the order listed. others choose from
among party lists, and seats are awarded in
proportional to the vote
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3.7 Election management
In Zambia, the conduct and management of elections are done by the Electoral
Commission of Zambia, which has been mandated by the laws of Zambia.
Different countries have put in place necessary mechanisms to manage elections
and the disputes that may result form these elections. In Zambia provisions are
there to solve post-election disputes. The Zambia Electoral Commission is
situated at Ndeke House near Long Acres. It is a walkable distance from the Long
Acres bus stop. The Commission has produced a guide on the conduct of
elections called ‘the electoral conduct’. Get the booklet and read more about the
way elections are conducted in Zambia (Electoral Commission of Zambia, 2014).
President
Since 1991 the President had been elected in a single round of voting by the first-
past-the-post system. However, the 2016 elections are likely to see the two-round
system used. The constitutional changes have been approved by the National
Assembly and did receive presidential assent.
If a president dies in office, a by-election is held to elect a president to serve the
remainder of the five-year term. However, the 2015 constitutional amendments
provide for a running mate, who would serve the remainder of the five-year term
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without the need for a by-election in the instance of the death of an incumbent
(Michael Gelfand 1961).
National Assembly
Of the 159 members of the National Assembly, 150 are elected by the first-past-
the-post system in single-member constituencies, with a further eight appointed
by the President and a Speaker elected from outside the National Assembly.
National Assembly candidates must be at least 21.
Referendums
Since independence in 1964 two national referendum have been held in Zambia.
A constitutional referendum in 1969 saw 85% of voters approve amendments to
the constitution to remove the need for referendums on certain constitutional
amendments. Another constitutional referendum in 2016 a majority of those
voting were in favour of the amendments to the bill of rights, but turnout was
below the 50% threshold required to validate the results.
Below are some of the important features of election management.
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Campaign process
1. After nominations are completed, the candidates are allowed a period of time
in which to campaign, this is called the campaign period. It has been a
normal practice in Zambia to allow competing parties enough time in which
to campaign At least two week-period is allowed .During this period
candidates go full blast to sell their party manifestos and articulate issues
on which they feel they can attract voters. During this campaign period, all
competitors are required to abide by the code of conduct failure to which they
could disciplined by the commission. To ensure that there is a level political
playing ground for competing parties, measures are put in place to
 Regulate the use of public resources. for political campaigns
 Regulate the use of public assets and funds
 Political parties and candidates should account to the electoral
commission of Zambia.
2. All candidates must ensure that they promote a culture of peace and
tolerance. This will guarantee free, fair and credible elections. There should
not be violence or intimidation at all. Political parties should educate their
supporters and general membership the importance of peaceful campaign.
This calls for civic and voter education. This programme should include
enlightening the people on the right to vote, and the importance of a violent
free election. The ballot papers should looked after properly. There must be
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total security for the ballot papers and other election materials. These should
be delivered in time and measures should be taken to see to it that competent
personnel are unavailable at every polling station. All voting malpractices
should be avoided and when discovered, they should be promptly brought to
the attention of the competent authority.
Role of Security Forces
The role played by the security forces in the electoral process depends on
individual countries. In Zambia it is the police who keep peace and security on
daily basis from the start of the campaign period through out to the
announcement of the results. They ensure that there is security of the ballot
papers, security of the voters including the polling day. While the presence of the
police officers at the polling station may intimidate the voters, at the same time
this will guarantee protection of the voters. Those bullies who would try to
disrupt the public peace will not do so because f the security presence.
For the general public to build confidence in the police and other security
services, they should remain neutral. For example during the campaign, the
police should ensure that all competing parties should be allowed to hold peace
campaign rallies without any intimidation or denial of permits. It is also
suggested that the security forces should be well acquainted with the electoral
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code of conduct to minimize confrontation with the public or political
competitors. Where a police officer will be assigned outside his constituency, it
has been suggested that that necessary measures be put in place to allow such
an officer to vote a day or before the actual polling day.
Counting of Ballot Papers
It is an accepted practice in Zambia, like any SADC countries to count the
ballot papers manually at each polling station in the presence of competing
candidates or their agents or representatives. or some election observers or
monitors. This is to avoid suspicion of vote rigging and vote manipulation. This
is a very important and sensitive assignment, and as such officials charged
with this responsibility should be given adequate training. It has been the
practice in Zambia that immediately the counting is completed and necessary
verification done. The results are announced and copy of these results is
posted at that particular polling station for public scrutiny. The announcement
of results in Zambia has been very transparent, in that they broadcast on radio
and screened on the television for everyone who has access to these facilities to
see. However, this practice may not apply in other countries which less
democratic than Zambia (African Arguments, 15 December 2015).
In Zambia the Electoral Commission has the right to announce the elections.
According to survey that conducted recently in Zambia ,to determine the most
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transparent public institution in Zambia, the electoral commission of Zambia
came first. In terms of transparence, the electoral commission of Zambia is the
best and first. There is no doubt it does it work very efficiently and transparently.
After the announcement of the results it is expected that the commission
compiles a comprehensive report to the government on the results and conduct
of elections.
Acceptance of results.
In some countries ,including Zambia election results are often rejected. To quote,
Mr. Nevers Mumba, the former president of the Reform Party, who once
remarked after losing the presidential election in 2006,’it is very painful to lose
an election.’ If you were Nevers Mumba, how could you react? You can agree
with him that it is surely very painful to lose an election at such a higher level.
More so after spending a lot of resources on party mobilization and campaign.
But one good thing was that he accepted the result of the elections. This is a very
important lesson which we can learn from him. There should be a culture of
acceptance. After all in an election there is ‘no winner or loser.’
Campaigns in Zambia
After parliament has been dissolved, the president will announce the date of the
elections. Once the date of elections has been announced, the parties will be
allowed to campaign, specific period for campaigning is given-this is known as
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campaign period. During this period different parties and their candidates will
be allowed to campaign.
After nominations are completed, the candidates are allowed a period of time in
which to campaign, In Zambia, this is a period characterized by insults,
falsehoods, money changing hands under the table and misuse of personal and
public resources. It should be born in mind that this period is not for such bad
things mentioned above but this is a period in which parties and individual
candidates must sell their party manifestos to the electorate. During this period
candidates must explain to the electorate what they intend to do for the people
once elected into office. All parties, be it in power or in the opposition must avoid
the following;
 Misuse of government resources at any given time. Government officials
with the exception of the president and his vice must use their personal
resources to campaign.
 Enticing voters into voting for them by giving them bribes in form of money,
Chitenge materials, bicycles or promising to build them houses.
 Any form of violence, such as that characterized the Mufumbwe by-
election in the North-Western province of Zambia, which resulted in the
nullification of the election results.
 Intimidation of voters from other political parties. Voters must be left alone
to choose their preferred candidate without any form of intimidation from
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any one. Political party cadres should not interfere with the campaign
activities if other parties. Each party should be left to campaign freely and
without threats. Political party leaders must promote the culture of peace
and tolerance among themselves and their members.
At all times, political parties, their candidates and supporters must abide by the
Electoral Code of Conduct from the Electoral Commission of Zambia. Any breach
of the electoral rules might lead to sanctions, among which could be the
nullification of results.
At some time before the Election Day, the Electoral Commission of Zambia may
ask all registered voters to go to their polling stations to verify their registration
as voters. This is the duty of the political leaders of various political parties to
sensitize their members on the importance of this exercise by the electoral
Commission of Zambia. If you are a political leader, please ensure that you
educate and sensitize all your members on the importance of this exercise.
Other important stake holders in the conduct of free, fair and credible elections
are the members of the Security forces, such as the police, the army, ZAF and
office of the president. These play a very important role in ensuring that elections
are free and fair., by protecting the ballot papers, carrying the ballot papers,
protecting the voters and political players such as candidates and election and
electoral officials. For them to do a professional job, it is imperative that they
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read and understand the election rules and regulations and that they remain
neutral. Members of the security forces should not threaten voters or candidates
and should any time be ready to protect any political player despite his or
political affiliation
3.7 Post Election Conflict Management
This is a situation which arises when losing candidates do not accept the results
of the elections. In Zambia mechanisms have been put in place to deal with this
situation, which has the potential to create conflicts. Any aggrieved person can
report the matter to the electoral commission of Zambia or seek legal redress
from the courts of law (the constitutional court).
In Zambia aggrieved parties have sought assistance from the courts of law to
solve political disputes. They have freely portioned the results of the elections to
high court. There is no need in Zambia for any aggrieved or losing candidate to
resort to violence or insults, because there is provision to settle these disputes
amicably in courts of law, both in the constitutional court. However as in all civil
cases, the process of litigation can take long but this should not be used as
enough grounds to resort unconstitutional means when solving a dispute over
the election results. When the aggrieved part in doubt, it is advisable to seek
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advice and guidance from relevant and competent offices. This will minimize
post-election conflicts.
Unit Summary
From the unit you have learnt a lot concerning elections. You have leant
that an election is a formal decision making process in which the
electorates choose who should hold public office. In addition you have
learnt that there are three main electoral systems. These are the majority
systems, proportional representation system and semi-proportional
representation systems. You have also learnt that although there is
universal suffrage, there are classes that have been excluded for various
reasons.
The unit has also discussed election management and has highlighted
the types of stake holders in the electoral process and measures that are
generally put in place to ensure free, credible and fair elections.
In the next unit, you will learn about the Civil Service.
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Activity 9.0
Suppose you are the Director of the Zambia Electoral
Commission. What measures would you put in place to
ensure free, fair and credible elections?
Prescribed Readings
Harmon Z [1990]: The political community
Allan R B [1982]; Modern government and politics
Recommended Readings
Michael Gelfand (1961) Northern Rhodesia in the days of the charter: medical
and social study, 1878-1924, Basil Blackwell, p138
Can Zambia’s opposition unseat President Lungu in the 2016 elections?
African Arguments, 15 December 2015
Electoral Commission of Zambia, 2014
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UNIT 4: ANALYSING THE CIVIL SERVICE
In this unit I will talk about the civil service, especially the Zambia civil service.
Learning Outcomes.
After completing this unit you will be able to:
 Define the civil service
 State the importance of the neutrality of the civil service.
 Tell some of the duties of the civil service.
Introduction
The civil service of any country is the engine of that particular government. It
drives the machinery of the country. It is a very important element of
government.
4.1 Definitions
The civil service has been defined differently by different writers. Finer Herman
[1954], in his book entitled, ’Practice and theory of modern government,’ defines
the civil service as professional body of officials permanent, paid and skilled.
Gladden [1948], in his book entitled ‘the civil service its problems and the future’
, defines the civil service as the servant of the Crown[not the holder of a political
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or judicial office] who is employed in the civil service capacity and whose
enumeration is wholly paid out of monies provided by parliament. Generally, civil
servants in Zambia are servants of the stets concerned with the conduct of
government activities and are tasked to carry out the day-to-day duties of public
administration. They are law abiding citizens, whose pre-occupation is to serve
the government of the day loyal and diligently (Pierre, Jon, eds. 2004).
Career Civil Service.
This is a system that offers equal opportunities to all citizens to enter
government service , equal pay to all employees doing work requiring the same
degree of intelligence, and capacity equal opportunities for advancement, equal
favorable conditions and equal participation in retirement allowances and
makes equal demands up on employees. It is a system aimed at recruiting
young talented and ambitious people to be trained for more future assignments.
4.2 Characteristics of civil service
1 Permanent tenure and stability of service,
2 Equal opportunities for advancement and training
3 Merit in both recruitment and training—recruitment of civil servants
should be transparent in such a way that suitable candidates are allowed
to compete for opportunities in the public service.
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4 Integrity- servants should exhibit the highest standard of discipline and
should avoid doing things that will bring reproach on the civil service
5 Confidentiality- civil servants must keep confidential matters to the office
4.3 Relationship between Political and Civil service/Administrators
Sometimes there may be confusion associated with the different expectations
placed on the civil service. The requirements for the civil service to be loyal on
the one hand and neutral and professionally independent on the other hand are
in principle requirements that may contradict each other. The civil service’s duty
of loyalty applies both to their own cabinet minister and the Government as a
collegium.
The tension between the various requirements placed on the civil service are
built into the system. For the civil service, this is about being able to handle a
potential role conflict along two dimensions. Firstly, the civil service shall be a
loyal and constructive teammate for the cabinet minister, while at the same time
maintaining party-political neutrality. The civil service shall both contribute to
and promote the policies of the Government, but it shall also in principle be able
to potentially serve any government. Secondly, there are expectations that the
civil service shall present its assessments based on its best professional
judgement, regardless of what would be politically desirable for the cabinet
minister.
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It is important to have a good relationship of trust between the political
leadership and the civil service. Therefore, the civil service must in practical daily
life, and in the dialogue with the political leadership, be open about the various
dilemmas and discuss the balance between the various demands. In addition, it
is important that both politicians and the civil service clarify and respect each
other’s roles and tasks.
The civil service shall act loyally and follow up the intentions and decisions of
the cabinet minister to the best of their judgement. This applies both to
preparation of the Government’s and the cabinet minister’s political matters and
initiatives, and to the implementation of adopted policy.
Both proposals from the civil service and political decisions must be lawful, i.e.
they must be within the limits of the prevailing laws and regulations nationally
and internationally. Professional advice from the civil service must at the same
time be relevant, i.e. they must also lie within the political scope of action.
In the ministries, there will be a scope of action that enables the political
leadership to weigh various solutions and dilemmas against each other. A high
level of professional competence and high level of professional integrity enables
the civil service to account for the scope of action that exists within the
regulations.
It is conceivable that situations may arise where there is a contradiction between
professional advice provided by the civil service and what the politicians want to
decide. When the civil service has given its professional assessment and
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recommended a solution based on this, but the politicians choose another
solution, the democratic rules of play imply that the politicians have the last
word.
The professional integrity of the civil service is expressed by its competence and
provision of advice based on what is professionally justifiable, regardless of the
sitting political leadership. This is important in order to maintain trust in public
administration.
Employees of a ministry, regardless of their role and position, may occasionally
be assigned tasks that require closer cooperation with the political leadership,
such as being project managers for politically initiated programs/projects. For
some positions, close contact with the political leadership is more permanent.
This applies, for example, to the secretary generals, director generals and certain
communication staff. Employees in the aforementioned positions will therefore
find themselves in various dilemma situations more often than other employees.
4.4 Duties of Civil servants
4.4.1 Legality
The civil service shall act within the limits of the laws. This is fundamental in a
state governed by law. For the civil service, the duty of legality applies both to
when advice is given and measures are suggested to the politicians, and also to
when political decisions are implemented.
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If the politically desired measures violate the prevailing rules or do not have
sufficient legal authority, the civil service must propose amending or revoking
the prevailing laws or propose new laws.
In some cases, the law may be unclear or ambiguous and allow room for
interpretation. In such cases, it is important that the civil service, also in relation
to the cabinet minister if he or she is to make a decision, accounts for this
uncertainty and the available legal scope of action. In addition, what
interpretations of the regulations have been made shall be made known,
including the factors and facts to which importance has been attached as the
basis for the conclusion.
This duty entails, for example, that the civil service:
• must ensure that the decisions made by the ministry are in accordance with
the prevailing law
• must not give advice entailing that the ministry or cabinet minister makes
decisions that contradict the prevailing law
• proposes new statutory and regulatory provisions when necessary to
implement the desired resolutions or measures
• must give clear notice if the cabinet minister or other superiors give orders that
are in contrary to the prevailing law
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4.4.2 Truth
The duty of truth means that the civil service does not itself provide or spread
incorrect information, or contribute to this happening. The same applies to
information that cannot be said to be incorrect, but that may be misleading in a
given context, for example, when important information is not included in the
statement of case. Finally, the civil service must not fail to provide information
of significant importance to a matter.
The civil service has first and foremost a duty of truth in relation to the cabinet
minister. In addition, the civil service has a duty to help ensure that the ministry
or cabinet minister does not spread false or misleading information to others.
The duty means that one must not fail to disclose information that is of decisive
importance to the matter, so that the response becomes misleading.
The duty of truth does not entail an obligation to answer questions either, for
example, from the press or to reveal internal deliberations and plans, for
example, about a planned financial measure. The duty of truth does not entail
either that one should or may violate the duty of confidentiality.
• must not themselves communicate, or contribute to that the Government,
cabinet minister or ministry communicate information that is incorrect or
misleading. This duty also applies, among other things, to the ministry’s website,
documents for which the ministry is responsible for issuing and other
information from the ministry

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• not give incorrect or unbalanced presentations of the facts to promote a
particular political view, for example, through the choice and design of diagrams,
graphs, figures or the like
• shall give clear notice if the cabinet minister or another senior official instructs
the civil service in a manner that is not in accordance with the duty of truth
• shall present all the relevant facts in a matter and be open about uncertain
factual information, uncertain calculations and unclear law
• shall be open to different viewpoints and alternative proposals.
Loyalty The civil service is the Government’s and cabinet minister’s most
important resource for developing and implementing their policies. The duty of
loyalty entails that the civil service has a duty to the cabinet minister to carry
out its work in accordance with the work instructions given by the leadership.
The civil service shall follow up decisions by the King in Council, conclusions
from government conferences and decisions from their own cabinet minister.
Formally, decisions are made by the King in Council and by the individual
cabinet minister. If a matter has been considered at a government conference,
the cabinet minister will in reality be bound by the Government’s conclusions.
The sitting Government must be confident that the dialogue with the civil service
remains between those two. The duty of loyalty remains therefore in effect even
after employees have concluded their employment in the ministries.
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The duty of loyalty entails that the civil service, as a professional and
independent resource for any government, shall be loyal to both former
governments and the current Government.
• shall be loyal, but not servile
• shall contribute to the implementation of the policy of the cabinet minister and
the Government, even if this policy contradicts the morals, opinions and
perceptions of the individual employee. Nonetheless, there is still a limit for what
may not be legal. The civil service shall not violate the regulations.
• shall contribute advice to the political leadership with regard to both
communication and the planning and implementation of the Government’s and
the cabinet minister’s political projects. This implies that the civil service must
know about the Government’s political platform
• shall make considerations visible and not coordinate so that important
considerations are eliminated before political clarification
• does not make decisions that are obviously political, but ensures that such
matters are presented to the political leadership as soon as possible for a
decision
• shall not pursue unnecessary replays in situations where the political
leadership has chosen an alternative other than the professionally recommended
alternative from the civil service
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• shall quickly brief new cabinet ministers and others in the political leadership
about their areas of responsibility, important matters, regulations and the roles
and tasks of the civil service. This applies in particular to general regulations,
for example, the Public Administration Act, Freedom of Information Act, Archives
Act and the Instructions for the Preparation of Central Government Measures
(Instructions for Official Studies)
• This duty entails that the civil service shall rely on professional standards and
criteria, methods and knowledge within the various fields that are relevant to
various matters. The civil service shall be open about any professional
disagreements. Professionalism also entails ensuring that alternative solutions
are researched and presented, and that both the positive and negative impacts
of measures are researched. The requirements in the Instructions for Official
Studies apply even if it has already been decided at the political level to
implement measures, including specific measures, cf. the Guide to the
Instructions for Official Studies and Reports.
Professionalism entails having a good understanding of how the Norwegian
public administration is organised, governed and managed, and knowledge
about the organisations and the specific sector for which the cabinet minister is
responsible. This implies having knowledge of both how the sector is organised,
how it is regulated and what instruments are the most prominent in the sector
and their effects.
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Professional independence means that the civil service does not take party
political considerations into account when it collects facts, makes professional
assessments and exercises discretion or advises politicians. Nonetheless, the
civil service’s assistance to the political leadership must be politically relevant.
The civil service shall assist the cabinet minister in deciding, presenting and
implementing the Government’s policies, and show in this connection what
scope of action the politicians have for making decisions. The political leadership
is entitled to choose if, when and possibly how they will act.
• shall base their administrative procedures, decisions and communication on
professional criteria in their advices to the political leadership
• shall present alternatives, possibly also subsidiary solutions and compromise
proposals, and make their effects on the public administration and other parts
of society visible
• shall make the necessary professional objections to all types of matters as early
as possible in a process, including matters where there may be professional
doubt.
• shall make the effects of a solution that is desired by the cabinet minister visible
if the civil service has important objections to this solution
• shall present all the relevant facts in a comprehensive manner
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• shall not contribute to political arguments acquiring a false professional veneer,
or that political standpoints are presented as the best or the only professionally
acceptable solutions, if there are several solutions that are professionally
acceptable
• regardless of how they work, they have a duty and right to present their
professional view in such a way that it can be made known to the cabinet
minister.
• shall safeguard the management of subordinate agencies in such a way that
the agencies can fulfil their professionally independent role in the best possible
way
• shall conduct an ongoing dialogue with the relevant specialist environments
outside of the ministry regarding the development of professional issues in the
field.
4.4.5 Party-political neutrality and objectivity
The civil service shall be able to serve the sitting cabinet minister and the
Government as a collegium at any given time. An important hallmark of the
neutrality of the civil service is that it can serve any government regardless of
the party. An important part of this is the fact that the civil service interprets
and practices the seven duties for the civil service discussed in these guidelines
in the same manner, regardless of what parties are in the Government.
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The duties for the civil service are to follow the regulations, ensure equal
treatment, prevent unfair discrimination and arbitrary decisions, be a guarantor
of thoroughness and professionalism in their assessments and be efficient, cf.
the core public administration values. This contributes to the necessary
continuity when new politicians come to power.
The civil service shall work for the cabinet minister as the head of the ministry
and not as a party politician. This means that the civil service shall not prepare
campaign materials or otherwise contribute to party-political activities. When the
cabinet minister is travelling or on an assignment that has a directly party
political aspect, boundaries must be defined that balance the fact that the civil
service shall not contribute directly to party and election campaign activities, but
at the same time ensure that the cabinet ministers are given assistance in
maintaining ongoing contact with the ministry, handling issues related to the
cabinet minister’s portfolio, dissemination of the Government’s policies,
arranging travel when there are several items on the program, etc.
The civil service may draft memorandums and draft articles and commentary at
the request of the cabinet minister regardless of the context in which the cabinet
minister will use them. It is a prerequisite that the matter lie within the ministry’s
area of responsibility, and that the civil service’s contribution satisfies the
requirements of professionalism and objectivity. The political leadership itself
must formulate any party-political argumentation.
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The civil service shall also be objective. This means that the individual employee’s
personal interests, opinions, morals, dislikes and sympathies shall not form the
basis of assessments and advice.
• shall not let their own political attitudes influence their professional advice and
assistance to the political leadership
• shall understand whether the cabinet minister is performing the role of the
head of the ministry/member of the Government or the role as a party politician
• shall assist the cabinet minister in implementing the Government’s policies,
but not assist the cabinet minister in purely party-political activities
• shall not contribute to the preparation and implementation of election
campaigns related to the cabinet minister’s role as a party politician
• can research the consequences of specific individual proposals from other
parties, but not make an assessment of the other parties’ program
• shall not prepare nor communicate party politics themselves, for example,
through negative characteristics of political parties, the opposition or former
governments
• can help write the professional elements of draft commentary within the cabinet
minister’s area of responsibility, regardless of the context in which the
commentary is to be presented.
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4.4.6 Transparency
This duty concerns internal transparency in the public administration. For
external transparency, reference is made in general to Article 100, sixth
paragraph of The Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway, which states that the
central government authorities are required to facilitate open and enlightened
public discourse.
Trust between the civil service and the political leadership requires a high degree
of transparency internally within the public administration. The political
leadership and the civil service have a mutual duty to brief and report if they
obtain information that may be of importance to the matters for which the
ministry is responsible (Government of Canada 2011-04-18).
• shall contribute actively to create a good and open culture between the civil
service and the political leadership based on mutual trust in each other’s roles
and tasks
• shall be open about the arguments to which importance has been attached and
which discretionary considerations have been made as a basis for the decisions
made
• shall be open to the political leadership about all aspects of a matter and the
effects of the professional recommendations that are given
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• must evaluate the information available and brief their superiors if they
understand that it may be of importance to the administrative procedures
• must ensure that important information is documented, archived and
journalled correctly
• shall be open about possible conflict of interests and ensure that such conflicts
are handled in a good and efficient manner.
4.7 Good public governance and management
The civil service shall facilitate the efficient use of resources and perform its work
as efficiently as possible. This implies a duty of good public governance and
management within the powers granted by the cabinet minister. Efficiency is
about: – cost-effectiveness, i.e. doing things right, – effectiveness, i.e. doing the
right things and – prioritisation effectiveness, i.e. prioritising between different
goals, purposes or policy areas so that the highest possible degree of overall goal
achievement is ensured.
The civil service shall ensure that the ministry is organised at any given time so
that it can efficiently perform its duties and also ensure that there are at least
two persons involved in matters that involve making decisions (the principle of
two-step administrative procedures, cf. Section 12 of the Ministerial
Regulations).
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The civil service shall also ensure good coordination with other ministries and
the municipal sector.
This duty entails that the civil service:
• shall ensure that recruitment processes are good and efficient and that the best
qualified candidates are employed
• shall facilitate good competence development for the employees
• shall brief each other if they receive information that they realize is of
importance to their work – this applies in relation to superiors, subordinates and
colleagues, as well as colleagues in other ministries
• shall organize their work as efficiently as possible
• shall make sure that matters and processes are documented as required and
distribute the resources so that political goals can be achieved with the least use
of resources
• shall take the initiative to coordinate with other ministries and the municipal
sector when this is necessary and appropriate, so that the solution of tasks is
coordinated and coherent
• shall contribute to innovation and change
• shall ensure that the ministry’s resources are not used for party-political work
or private tasks
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• shall delegate tasks to the right level, both internally within the central
government and to the municipal sector
• shall safeguard the principle of two-step administrative procedures in matters
that involve decisions, cf. Section 12 of the Ministerial Regulations
• shall brief superiors of errors and omissions so that they can be corrected, and
not persist or be repeated
• shall not cover up errors and omissions but facilitate learning from them
• shall present cases of doubt and dilemmas to an immediate leader, cf. line
management principle, and follows the instructions given, unless they are illegal
-in which case the civil service must give clear notice and not follow the
instructions.
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Unit Summary
The unit has given you an overview of the civil service. You have learnt
that the civil service is an engine of government and as such those
employed in the civil service must exhibit high level of intelligence and
commitment. Besides, you have learnt that as a civil servant it m calls
up on an individual to remain in the execution of his/her duties to ensure
unbiased discharge of public duties. If you are a civil servant. What it
means to you is that you must not take part in partisan politics but to
ensure that you serve the government of the diligently and loyally.
Activity 10.0
Why do think that civil servants should not take part
in partisan politics?
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Prescribed Reading
Michael B[1978]; An introduction to Public Administration
Recommended Reading
Peters, B. Guy; Pierre, Jon, eds. (2004). The Politicization of the Civil Service in
Comparative Perspective: A Quest for Control
Government of Canada (2011-04-18). "Population of the Federal Public Service"
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UNIT 5: DESCRIBING POLITICAL CULTURE, POLITICAL PARTIES AND
POLITICAL SOCIALISATION
Learning Outcomes.
After completing this unit you will be able to:
 Define political culture, political party and political
socialization.
 Explain; the functions of a political party and the agents
of socialization
What Is Political Culture?
Political culture can be thought of as a nation’s political personality. It
encompasses the deep-rooted, well-established political traits that are
characteristic of a society. Political culture takes into account the attitudes,
values, and beliefs that people in a society have about the political system,
including standard assumptions about the way that government works. As
political scientist W. Lance Bennett notes, the components of political culture
can be difficult to analyze. “They are rather like the lenses in a pair of glasses:
they are not the things we see when we look at the world; they are the things we
see with”W. Lance Bennett, Public Opinion in American Politics (New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980), 368. Political culture helps build community
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and facilitate communication because people share an understanding of how
and why political events, actions, and experiences occur in their country.
Political culture includes formal rules as well as customs and traditions,
sometimes referred to as “habits of the heart,” that are passed on generationally.
People agree to abide by certain formal rules, such as the country’s constitution
and codified laws. They also live by unstated rules: for example, the willingness
in the United States to accept the outcomes of elections without resorting to
violence. Political culture sets the boundaries of acceptable political behavior in
a society.Daniel J. Elazar, The American Mosaic (Boulder, CO: Westview Press,
1994).
While the civic culture in the United States has remained relatively stable over
time, shifts have occurred as a result of transforming experiences, such as war,
economic crises, and other societal upheavals, that have reshaped attitudes and
beliefs.RonaldInglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990). Key events, such as the Civil War, World
War I, World War II, the Great Depression, the Vietnam War, the civil rights
movement, and the terrorist attacks of 9/11 have influenced the political
worldviews of American citizens, especially young people, whose political values
and attitudes are less well established.
American Political Culture
Political culture consists of a variety of different elements. Some aspects of
culture are abstract, such as political beliefs and values. Other elements are
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visible and readily identifiable, such as rituals, traditions, symbols, folklore, and
heroes. These aspects of political culture can generate feelings of national pride
that form a bond between people and their country. Political culture is not
monolithic. It consists of diverse subcultures based on group characteristics
such as race, ethnicity, and social circumstances, including living in a particular
place or in a certain part of the country. We will now examine these aspects of
political culture in the American context.
Beliefs
Beliefs are ideas that are considered to be true by a society. Founders of the
American republic endorsed both equality, most notably in the Declaration of
Independence, and liberty, most prominently in the Constitution. These political
theories have become incorporated into the political culture of the United States
in the central beliefs of egalitarianism and individualism.
Egalitarianism is the doctrine emphasizing the natural equality of humans, or at
least the absence of a preexisting superiority of one set of humans above another.
This core American belief is found in the preamble to the Declaration of
Independence, which states that “all men are created equal” and that people are
endowed with the unalienable rights to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness.” Americans endorse the intrinsic equal worth of all people. Survey
data consistently indicate that between 80 percent and 90 percent of Americans
believe that it is essential to treat all people equally, regardless of race or ethnic
background.James Davison Hunter and Carl Bowman, The State of Disunion
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(Charlottesville, VA: In Media Res Educational Foundation, 1996); Pew Research
Center for the People and the Press, Values Survey (Washington, DC: Pew
Research Center, March 2009).
The principle of individualism stresses the centrality and dignity of individual
people. It privileges free action and people’s ability to take the initiative in making
their own lives as well as those of others more prosperous and satisfying. In
keeping with the Constitution’s preoccupation with liberty, Americans feel that
children should be taught to believe that individuals can better themselves
through self-reliance, hard work, and perseverance.James Davison Hunter and
Carl Bowman, The State of Disunion (Charlottesville, VA: In Media Res
Educational Foundation, 1996).
The beliefs of egalitarianism and individualism are in tension with one another.
For Americans today, this contradiction tends to be resolved by an expectation
of equality of opportunity, the belief that each individual has the same chance to
get ahead in society. Americans tend to feel that most people who want to get
ahead can make it if they’re willing to work hard.Pew Research Center for the
People and the Press, Retro-Politics: The Political Typology (Washington, DC: Pew
Research Center, November 11, 1999). Americans are more likely to promote
equal political rights, such as the Voting Rights Act’s stipulation of equal
participation for all qualified voters, than economic equality, which would
redistribute income from the wealthy to the poor.Richard W. Wilson, “American
Political Culture in Comparative Perspective,” Political Psychology, 18, no. 2
(1997): 483–502.
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Values
Beliefs form the foundation for values, which represent a society’s shared
convictions about what is just and good. Americans claim to be committed to the
core values of individualism and egalitarianism. Yet there is sometimes a
significant disconnect between what Americans are willing to uphold in principle
and how they behave in practice. People may say that they support the
Constitutional right to free speech but then balk when they are confronted with
a political extremist or a racist speaking in public.
Core American political values are vested in what is often called the American
creed. The creed, which was composed by New York State Commissioner of
Education Henry Sterling Chapin in 1918, refers to the belief that the United
States is a government “by the people, for the people, whose just powers are
derived from the consent of the governed.” The nation consists of sovereign states
united as “a perfect Union” based on “the principles of freedom, equality, justice,
and humanity.” American exceptionalism is the view that America’s exceptional
development as a nation has contributed to its special place is the world. It is
the conviction that the country’s vast frontier offered boundless and equal
opportunities for individuals to achieve their goals. Americans feel strongly that
their nation is destined to serve as an example to other countries.James Davison
Hunter and Carl Bowman, The State of Disunion (Charlottesville, VA: In Media
Res Educational Foundation, 1996). They believe that the political and economic
systems that have evolved in this country are perfectly suited in principle to
permit both individualism and egalitarianism.

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Consequently, the American creed also includes patriotism: the love of one’s
country and respect for its symbols and principles. The events of 9/11 ignited
Americans’ patriotic values, resulting in many public displays of support for the
country, its democratic form of government, and authority figures in public-
service jobs, such as police and firefighters. The press has scrutinized politicians
for actions that are perceived to indicate a lack of patriotism, and the perception
that a political leader is not patriotic can generate controversy. In the 2008
presidential election, a minor media frenzy developed over Democratic
presidential candidate Barack Obama’s “patriotism problem.” The news media
debated the significance of Obama’s not wearing a flag lapel pin on the campaign
trail and his failure to place his hand over his heart during the playing of the
national anthem.
Rituals, Traditions, and Symbols
Rituals, traditions, and symbols are highly visible aspects of political culture,
and they are important characteristics of a nation’s identity. Rituals, such as
singing the national anthem at sporting events and saluting the flag before the
start of a school day, are ceremonial acts that are performed by the people of a
nation. Some rituals have important symbolic and substantive purposes:
Election Night follows a standard script that ends with the vanquished candidate
congratulating the opponent on a well-fought battle and urging support and
unity behind the victor. Whether they have supported a winning or losing
candidate, voters feel better about the outcome as a result of this ritual.Benjamin
Ginsberg and Herbert Weissberg, “Elections and the Mobilization of Popular

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Support,” American Journal of Political Science 22, no.1 (1978): 31–55. The State
of the Union address that the president makes to Congress every January is a
ritual that, in the modern era, has become an opportunity for the president to
set his policy agenda, to report on his administration’s accomplishments, and to
establish public trust. A more recent addition to the ritual is the practice of
having representatives from the president’s party and the opposition give formal,
televised reactions to the address.
President Barack Obama gives the 2010 State of the Union address. The ritual
calls for the president to be flanked by the Speaker of the House of
Representatives (Nancy Pelosi) and the vice president (Joe Biden). Members of
Congress and distinguished guests fill the House gallery.
Political traditions are customs and festivities that are passed on from generation
to generation, such as celebrating America’s founding on the Fourth of July with
parades, picnics, and fireworks. Symbols are objects or emblems that stand for
a nation. The flag is perhaps the most significant national symbol, especially as
it can take on enhanced meaning when a country experiences difficult times. The
bald eagle was officially adopted as the country’s emblem in 1787, as it is
considered a symbol of America’s “supreme power and authority.”
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6.2 Political Socialization
This section will define what is meant by political socialization and detail how
the process of political socialization occurs in the United States. It will outline
the stages of political learning across an individual’s life course. The agents that
are responsible for political socialization, such as the family and the media, and
the types of information and orientations they convey will be discussed. Group
differences in political socialization will be examined. Finally, the section will
address the ways that political generations develop through the political
socialization process.
What Is Political Socialization?
People are inducted into the political culture of their nation through the political
socialization process.Fred I. Greenstein, Children and Politics (New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, 1969). Most often older members of society teach younger
members the rules and norms of political life. However, young people can and
do actively promote their own political learning, and they can influence adults’
political behavior as well.Michael McDevitt and Steven Chaffee, “From Top-Down
to Trickle-Up Influence: Revisiting the Assumptions about the Family in Political
Socialization,” Political Communication, November 2002, 281–301.
Political scientists Gabriel Almond and James Coleman once observed that we
“do not inherit our political behavior, attitudes, values, and knowledge through
our genes.”Gabriel A. Almond and James S. Coleman, eds., The Politics of the
Developing Areas (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960), 27. Instead,
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we come to understand our role and to “fit in” to our political culture through
the political learning process.Pamela Johnston Conover, “Political Socialization:
Where’s the Politics?” in Political Science: Looking to the Future, Volume III,
Political Behavior, ed. William Crotty (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University
Press, 1991), 125–152. Political learning is a broad concept that encompasses
both the active and passive and the formal and informal ways in which people
mature politically.Carole L. Hahn, Becoming Political (Albany: State University of
New York Press, 1998). Individuals develop a political self, a sense of personal
identification with the political world. Developing a political self begins when
children start to feel that they are part of a political community. They acquire
the knowledge, beliefs, and values that help them comprehend government and
politics.Richard E. Dawson and Kenneth Prewitt, Political Socialization (Boston:
Little Brown and Company, 1969). The sense of being an American, which
includes feeling that one belongs to a unique nation in which people share a
belief in democratic ideals, is conveyed through the political learning process.
Political socialization is a particular type of political learning whereby people
develop the attitudes, values, beliefs, opinions, and behaviors that are conducive
to becoming good citizens in their country. Socialization is largely a one-way
process through which young people gain an understanding of the political world
through their interaction with adults and the media. The process is represented
by the following model:Fred I. Greenstein, Children and Politics (New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, 1969).
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who (subjects) → learns what (political values, beliefs, attitudes, behaviors) →
from whom (agents) → under what circumstances → with what effects.
Agents of socialization, which include parents, teachers, and the mass media,
convey orientations to subjects, who are mostly passive. For example, parents
who take an active role in politics and vote in every election often influence their
children to do the same. Young people who see television coverage of their peers
volunteering in the community may take cues from these depictions and engage
in community service themselves. The circumstances under which political
socialization can take place are almost limitless. Young people can be socialized
to politics through dinner conversations with family members, watching
television and movies, participating in a Facebook group, or texting with friends.
The effects of these experiences are highly variable, as people can accept, reject,
or ignore political messages.
People develop attitudes toward the political system through the socialization
process. Political legitimacy is a belief in the integrity of the political system and
processes, such as elections. People who believe strongly in the legitimacy of the
political system have confidence that political institutions will be responsive to
the wants and needs of citizens and that abuses of governmental power will be
held in check. If political leaders engage in questionable behavior, there are
mechanisms to hold them accountable. The presidential impeachment process
and congressional ethics hearings are two such mechanisms.
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Political efficacy refers to individuals’ perceptions about whether or not they can
influence the political process. People who have a strong sense of political efficacy
feel that they have the skills and resources to participate effectively in politics
and that the government will be responsive to their efforts. Those who believe in
the legitimacy of the political system and are highly efficacious are more likely to
participate in politics and to take strong stands on public-policy issues.Stephen
C. Craig, Malevolent Leaders (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993). Citizens who were
frustrated about the poor state of the economy and who felt they could influence
the political process identified with the Tea Party in the 2010 election and worked
to elect candidates who promised to deal with their concerns.
Much political socialization in the United States passes on norms, customs,
beliefs, and values supportive of democracy from one generation to the next.
Americans are taught to respect the democratic and capitalist values imbedded
in the American creed. Young people are socialized to respect authorities, such
as parents, teachers, police officers, and fire fighters, and to obey laws.
The goal of this type of socialization is deliberately intended to ensure that the
democratic political system survives even in times of political stress, such as
economic crisis or war.Jack Dennis, David Easton, and Sylvia Easton, Children
in the Political System (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969). One indicator of a stable
political system is that elections take place regularly following established
procedures and that people recognize the outcomes as legitimate.Jack Dennis,
David Easton, and Sylvia Easton, Children in the Political System (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1969). Most Americans quickly accepted George W. Bush as

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president when the 2000 election deadlock ended with the Supreme Court
decision that stopped the recounting of disputed votes in Florida. The country
did not experience violent protests after the decision was announced, but instead
moved on with politics as usual.Pamela Johnston Conover, “Political
Socialization: Where’s the Politics?” in Political Science: Looking to the Future,
Volume III, Political Behavior, ed. William Crotty (Evanston, IL: Northwestern
University Press, 1991), 125–152.
Political Socialization over the Life Course
Political learning begins early in childhood and continues over a person’s
lifetime. The development of a political self begins when children realize that they
belong to a particular town and eventually that they are Americans. Awareness
of politics as a distinct realm of experience begins to develop in the preschool
years.Jack Dennis, David Easton, and Sylvia Easton, Children in the Political
System (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969).
Younger children tend to personalize government. The first political objects
recognized by children are the president of the United States and the police
officer. Children tend to idealize political figures, although young people today
have a less positive view of political actors than in the past. This trend is partially
a result of the media’s preoccupations with personal scandals surrounding
politicians.
Young people often have warm feelings toward the political system. Children can
develop patriotic values through school rituals, such as singing the “Star
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Spangled Banner” at the start of each day. As children mature, they become
increasingly sophisticated in their perceptions about their place in the political
world and their potential for involvement: they learn to relate abstract concepts
that they read about in textbooks like this one to real-world actions, and they
start to associate the requirements of democracy and majority rule with the need
to vote when they reach the age of twenty-one.
People are the most politically impressionable during the period from their
midteens through their midtwenties, when their views are not set and they are
open to new experiences. College allows students to encounter people with
diverse views and provides opportunities for political engagement.Richard G.
Niemi and Mary A. Hepburn, “The Rebirth of Political Socialization,” Perspectives
on Political Science, 24 (1995): 7–16. Young people may join a cause because it
hits close to home. After the media publicized the case of a student who
committed suicide after his roommate allegedly posted highly personal videos of
him on the Internet, students around the country became involved in
antibullyinginitiatives.VirginiaSapiro, The Political Integration of Women (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 1983).
Significant events in adults’ lives can radically alter their political perspectives,
especially as they take on new roles, such as worker, spouse, parent,
homeowner, and retiree.Janie S. Steckenrider and Neal E. Cutler, “Aging and
Adult Political Socialization,” in Political Learning in Adulthood, ed. Roberta S.
Sigel (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988), 56–88. This type of transition
is illustrated by 1960s student protestors against the Vietnam War. Protestors

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held views different from their peers; they were less trusting of government
officials but more efficacious in that they believed they could change the political
system. However, the political views of some of the most strident activists
changed after they entered the job market and started families. Some became
government officials, lawyers, and business executives—the very types of people
they had opposed when they were younger.Paul Lyons, Class of ‘66 (Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, 1994).
Student activists in the 1960s protested against US involvement in the Vietnam
War. Some activists developed more favorable attitudes toward government as
they matured, had families, and became homeowners.
Even people who have been politically inactive their entire lives can become
motivated to participate as senior citizens. They may find themselves in need of
health care and other benefits, and they have more time for involvement.
Organizations such as the Gray Panthers provide a pathway for senior citizens
to get involved in politics.Anne Daugherty Miles, “A Multidimensional Approach
to Distinguishing between the Most and Least Politically Engaged Senior
Citizens, Using Socialization and Participation Variables” (PhD diss., Georgetown
University, 1997).
Agents of Political Socialization
People develop their political values, beliefs, and orientations through
interactions with agents of socialization. Agents include parents, teachers,
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friends, coworkers, military colleagues, church associates, club members,
sports-team competitors, and media.Richard E. Dawson and Kenneth Prewitt,
Political Socialization (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969). The political socialization
process in the United States is mostly haphazard, informal, and random. There
is no standard set of practices for parents or teachers to follow when passing on
the rites of politics to future generations. Instead, vague ideals—such as the
textbook concept of the “model citizen,” who keeps politically informed, votes,
and obeys the law—serve as unofficial guides for socializing agencies.Kenneth P.
Langton, Political Socialization (New York: Oxford, 1969); Michael P. Riccards,
The Making of American Citizenry (New York: Chandler Press, 1973).
Agents can convey knowledge and understanding of the political world and
explain how it works. They can influence people’s attitudes about political actors
and institutions. They also can show people how to get involved in politics and
community work. No single agent is responsible for an individual’s entire political
learning experience. That experience is the culmination of interactions with a
variety of agents. Parents and teachers may work together to encourage students
to take part in service learning projects. Agents also may come into conflict and
provide vastly different messages.
We focus here on four agents that are important to the socialization process—
the family, the school, the peer group, and the media. There are reasons why
each of these agents is considered influential for political socialization; there are
also factors that limit their effectiveness.
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Family
Over forty years ago, pioneering political-socialization researcher Herbert Hyman
proclaimed that “foremost among agencies of socialization into politics is the
family.”Herbert Hyman, Political Socialization (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1959), 69.
Hyman had good reason for making this assumption. The family has the primary
responsibility for nurturing individuals and meeting basic needs, such as food
and shelter, during their formative years. A hierarchical power structure exists
within many families that stresses parental authority and obedience to the rules
that parents establish. The strong emotional relationships that exist between
family members may compel children to adopt behaviors and attitudes that will
please their parents or, conversely, to rebel against them.
Parents can teach their children about government institutions, political leaders,
and current issues, but this rarely happens. They can influence the development
of political values and ideas, such as respect for political symbols or belief in a
particular cause. The family as an agent of political socialization is most
successful in passing on basic political identities, especially an affiliation with
the Republican or Democratic Parties and liberal or conservative ideological
leanings.Jack Dennis and Diana Owen, “The Partisanship Puzzle: Identification
and Attitudes of Generation X,” in After the Boom, ed. Stephen C. Craig and
Stephen Earl Bennet (Lanham, MD: Rowman& Littlefield, 1997), 43–62.
Children can learn by example when parents act as role models. Young people
who observe their parents reading the newspaper and following political news on
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television may adopt the habit of keeping informed. Adolescents who accompany
parents when they attend public meetings, circulate petitions, or engage in other
political activities stand a better chance of becoming politically engaged
adults.Richard M. Merelman, Making Something of Ourselves (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1986). Children can sometimes socialize their
parents to become active in politics; participants in the Kids Voting USA program
have encouraged their parents to discuss campaign issues and take them to the
polls on Election Day.
The home environment can either support or discourage young people’s
involvement in political affairs. Children whose parents discuss politics
frequently and encourage the expression of strong opinions, even if it means
challenging others, are likely to become politically active adults. Young people
raised in this type of family will often initiate political discussion and encourage
parents to become involved. Alternatively, young people from homes where
political conversations are rare, and airing controversial viewpoints is
discouraged, tend to abstain from politics as adults.M. N. Saphir and Steven H.
Chaffee, “Adolescents’ Contribution to Family Communication Patterns,” Human
Communication Research 28, no. 1 (2002): 86–108. Politics was a central focus
of family life for the Kennedys, a family that has produced generations of
activists, including President John F. Kennedy and Senator Ted Kennedy.
There are limitations on the effectiveness of the family as an agent of political
learning and socialization. Most families are not like the Kennedys. For many
families, politics is not a priority, as they are more concerned with issues related
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to day-to-day life. Few parents serve as political role models for their children.
Many activities, such as voting or attending town meetings, take place outside
of the home.Richard M. Merelman, “The Family and Political Socialization:
Toward a Theory of Exchange,” Journal of Politics, 42:461–86.
School
Some scholars consider the school, rather than the family, to be the most
influential agent of political socialization.Robert Hess and Judith Torney, The
Development of Political Attitudes in Children (Chicago: Aldine, 1967). Schools can
stimulate political learning through formal classroom instruction via civics and
history classes, the enactment of ceremonies and rituals such as the flag salute,
and extracurricular activities such as student government. Respect for
authorities is emphasized, as teachers have the ability to reward and punish
students through grades.
The most important task of schools as agents of political socialization is the
passing on of knowledge about the fundamentals of American government, such
as constitutional principles and their implications for citizens’ engagement in
politics. Students who master these fundamentals feel competent to participate
politically. They are likely to develop the habit of following politics in the media
and to become active in community affairs.Norman H. Nie, Jane Junn, and
Kenneth Stehlik-Barry, Education and Democratic Citizenship in America
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
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The college classroom can be an environment for socializing young people to
politics. Faculty and student exchanges can form, reinforce, or change
evaluations of politics and government. A famous study of women students who
attended Bennington College during the Great Depression of the 1930s
illustrates how the college experience can create long-lasting political attitudes.
The Bennington women came predominantly from wealthy families with
conservative values. The faculty consisted of political progressives who
supported the New Deal and other social programs. About one-third of the
Bennington women adopted the progressive ideals of their teachers. Many of
these women remained active in politics their entire lives. A number became
leaders of the women’s rights movement.Duane F. Alwin, Ronald L. Cohen, and
Theodore M. Newcomb, Political Attitudes Over the Life Span (Madison: University
of Wisconsin Press, 1991).
While schools have great potential as agents of political socialization, they are
not always successful in teaching even basic facts about government to students.
Schools devote far less time to civics and history than to other subjects that are
considered to be basic skills, such as reading and math. The average amount of
classroom time spent on civics-related topics is less than forty-five minutes per
week nationwide, although this figure varies widely based on the school.
Students whose exposure to civics is exclusively through lectures and readings
generally memorize facts about government for tests but do not remember them
or make connections to real-world politics. The most effective civic education
programs engage students in activities that prepare them for the real world of
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politics, such as mock elections and legislative hearings.Richard G. Niemi and
Jane Junn, Civic Education (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998).
Peer Group
Peers (a group of people who are linked by common interests, equal social
position, and similar age) can be influential in the political socialization process.
Young people desire approval and are likely to adopt the attitudes, viewpoints,
and behavior patterns of groups to which they belong. Unlike the family and
school, which are structured hierarchically with adults exercising authority, the
peer group provides a forum for youth to interact with people who are at similar
levels of maturity. Peers provide role models for people who are trying to fit in or
become popular in a social setting.Lawrence J. Walker, Karl H. Hennig, and
Tobias Krettenauer, “Parent and Peer Contexts for Children’s Moral Reasoning
Development,” Child Development 71, no. 4 (August 2000): 1033–48.
Peer-group influence begins when children reach school age and spend less time
at home. Middle-childhood (elementary school) friendships are largely segregated
by sex and age, as groups of boys and girls will engage in social activities such
as eating together in the lunchroom or going to the mall. Such interactions
reinforce sex-role distinctions, including those with political relevance, such as
the perception that males are more suited to hold positions of authority. Peer
relationships change later in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood,
when groups are more often based on athletic, social, academic, and job-related
interests and abilities.Judith Rich Harris, “Where Is the Child’s Environment? A
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Group Socialization Theory of Development,” Psychological Review 102, no. 3
(1995): 458–89.
The pressure to conform to group norms can have a powerful impact on young
people’s political development if group members are engaged in activities directly
related to politics, such as student government or working on a candidate’s
campaign. Young people even will change their political viewpoints to conform to
those held by the most vocal members of their peer group rather than face being
ostracized. Still, individuals often gravitate toward groups that hold beliefs and
values similar to their own in order to minimize conflict and reinforce their
personal views.Eric L. Dey, “Undergraduate Political Attitudes,” Journal of Higher
Education, 68 (1997): 398–413. As in the case of families, the influence of peer
groups is mitigated by the fact that politics is not a high priority for most of them.
Media
As early as the 1930s, political scientist Charles Merriam observed that radio
and film had tremendous power to educate: “Millions of persons are reached
daily through these agencies, and are profoundly influenced by the material and
interpretations presented in impressive form, incessantly, and in moments when
they are open to suggestion.”Charles Edward Merriam, The Making of Citizens
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931), 160–61. The capacity of mass
media to socialize people to politics has grown massively as the number of media
outlets has increased and as new technologies allow for more interactive media
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experiences. Most people’s political experiences occur vicariously through the
media because they do not have personal access to government or politicians.
Since the advent of television, mass media have become prominent socialization
agents. Young people’s exposure to mass media has increased markedly since
the 1960s. Studies indicate that the typical American aged two to eighteen
spends almost forty hours a week consuming mass media, which is roughly the
equivalent of holding a full-time job. In one-third of homes, the television is on
all day. Young people’s mass-media experiences often occur in isolation. They
spend much of their time watching television, using a computer or cell phone,
playing video games, or listening to music alone. Personal contact with family
members, teachers, and friends has declined. More than 60 percent of people
under the age of twenty have televisions in their bedrooms, which are multimedia
sanctuaries.Kaiser Family Foundation, The Media Family (Menlo Park, CA:
Kaiser Family Foundation, 2006).
The use of more personalized forms of media, such as text messaging and
participation in social networking sites, has expanded exponentially in recent
years. Young people using these forms of media have greater control over their
own political socialization: they can choose to follow politics through a Facebook
group that consists largely of close friends and associates with similar
viewpoints, or they may decide to avoid political material altogether. Young
people, even those who have not reached voting age, can become involved in
election campaigns by using social media to contribute their own commentary
and videos online.

112
Media are rich sources of information about government, politics, and current
affairs. People learn about politics through news presented on television, in
newspapers and magazines, on radio programs, on Internet websites, and
through social media. The press provides insights into the workings of
government by showcasing political leaders in action, such as gavel-to-gavel
coverage of Congress on C-SPAN. People can witness politicians in action,
including on the campaign trail, through videos posted on YouTube and on
online news sites such as CNN and MSNBC. Entertainment media, including
television comedies and dramas, music, film, and video games also contain much
political content. Television programs such as The West Wing and Law and Order
offer viewers accounts of how government functions that, although fictionalized,
can appear realistic. Media also establish linkages between leaders, institutions,
and citizens. In contrast to typing and mailing a letter, it is easier than ever for
people to contact leaders directly using e-mail and Facebook.
Some factors work against the media as agents of political socialization. Media
are first and foremost profit-driven entities that are not mandated to be civic
educators; they balance their public service imperative against the desire to
make money. Moreover, unlike teachers, journalists do not have formal training
in how to educate citizens about government and politics; as a result, the news
often can be more sensational than informative.
113
114
POLITICAL PARTIES: MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS
Why Do We Need Political Parties?
In the present day democratic countries, political parties are considered as
essential components for the formation and working of the government. Of
course, in some countries like Libya, Oman, Qatar and the United Arab
Emirates, there are governments without parties. These countries are not
democratic and political parties are banned there. We can therefore infer that
democracies function successfully in countries which have competitive party
systems. Political parties actually help the institutions and processes of a
government democratic.
They enable people to participate in elections and other processes of governance,
educate them and facilitate them to make policy choices. If political parties are
necessary to make the working of the representative government possible, you
may well ask as to what is the meaning of a political party? What are its main
characteristics? What are their roles in a democratic government?
Meaning of a Political Party
A political party is generally described as an organized body of people who share
common principles and cherish certain common goals regarding the political
system. A political party operates and seeks political power through
constitutional means to translate its policies into practice. It is a body of like-
minded people having similar views on matters of public concern. Gilchrist
defines a political party as “an organized group of citizens who profess or share
115
the same political views and who by acting as a political unit, try to control the
government”.
Another definition given by Gettell is: “a political party consists of a group of
citizens, more or less organized, who act as a political unit and who, by the use
of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out their general
policies”. From these definitions it is clear that political parties are organized
bodies and are primarily concerned with the acquisition and retention of power.
Characteristics
From the above mentioned definitions of political parties, following can be
identified as their main characteristics:
 a political party is an organized group of people;
 the organized group of people believe in common principles and common
goals:
 its objectives revolve around seeking political power through collective
efforts;
 it employs constitutional and peaceful methods in seeking control over the
government through elections; and while in power, it translates its
declared objectives into governmental policies.
116
POLITICAL PARTIES: FUNCTIONS AND ROLE
You have already read about that political parties are essential for the proper
functioning of representative democracy. They perform vital functions in every
political system. It is important to know who places candidates before the
electorate when there are elections in the country? Do you know who carries out
campaigns during elections? Have you ever realized how a government is formed
and who is nominated as the Prime Minister or the Chief Minister? All these
relate to the functions of political parties and their role in a democratic polity.
The functions performed by the political parties, especially in the context of
India, are asunder:
 they nominate candidates during elections;
 they campaign to obtain support for their candidates in the elections;
 they place objectives and programmes before the voters through their
manifestos;
 those securing the majority in elections form the government and enact
and implement the policies;
 Those not in power form opposition and keep a constant check on the
government; they form opposition when they are in minority in the
legislature and constantly put pressure on the government for proper
governance;
117
 they educate people and help in formulating and shaping public opinion;
 they articulate peoples’ demands and convey them to the government; and
they provide a linkage between people and governmental institutions.
In India political parties have been performing the above-mentioned functions
quite effectively since independence. They have made representative
governments in India both possible and successful for over past six decades.
They provide effective links between the citizens and the governments on the one
hand, and the electorates and their representatives on the other. They try to
cater to people’s demands on public matters, and mobilize political participation.
Elections without parties would have almost been impossible. In fact, democracy
needs strong and sustainable political parties with the capacity to represent
citizens and provide policy choices that demonstrate their ability to govern for
the public good.
The experience of functioning of political parties in India during the last six
decades indicates that by and large they have been instrumental in shaping
public opinion, creating political awareness, and imparting political education to
the people. They successfully form the governments where they receive the
mandate of the people and implement their respective policies and programmes
both at the Centre and in the States. They have contributed towards making the
institutions and processes of government truly democratic. We can, therefore,
118
say that democracy in India has been strengthened by a competitive and multi-
party system.
PRESSURE AND INTEREST GROUPS
You might have seen demonstrations, dharnas, and such like activities in your
locality, city or State by students, farmers, workers, etc. Some of these activities,
you might have observed, are carried by organized groups like Students Union,
Farmers Union, Trade Union, Business Association, Teachers’ Associations, etc.
In general, these groups try to press upon the government for formulation of
policies or enactment of laws according to their interests. Yet they themselves do
not contest elections. Therefore, you will agree that they are not political parties.
Then what are these? In any country, especially a democratic one, there are large
number of organized groups which, directly or indirectly influence politics and
government. The members of such organized groups are united in respect of
some specific interests that they tend to advance. For example, the workers of a
factory are organized in what is called the trade union to promote their interests.
Similarly, there are other organized groups. These are called pressure groups or
interest groups. What are these pressure groups or interest groups?
How do they differ from each other? What role do they play in the political system
of our country? Let us discuss that.
Zambia Congress of Trade Unions ( ZCTU) is an organization that can be
described both as a pressure group and an interest group. Generally, interest
groups and pressure groups are considered synonyms, but they are actually not.
119
Interest groups are organized groups of people which seek to promote their
specific interests. Their characteristics are:
(a) they are well-organized,
(b) they have certain common interests,
(c) the interest that unites the members is specific and particular,
(d) the members of such organized groups seek to attain, protect and promote
their interests for which they are united. A pressure group, on the other hand,
is an interest group which exerts pressure on the government or the decision-
makers for the fulfillment of their interests. It is important to make a distinction
between an interest group and a pressure group. Interest groups may exist
without even exerting pressure on the government or the decision-makers. A
group that does not exert pressure to influence or pressurize the authorities in
order to achieve the desired objects, is not called a pressure group. An interest
group that exerts pressure on the government to achieve its goals is called a
pressure group. All pressure groups are interest groups while all interest groups
may not be pressure groups. The following differences between the two groups
are significant:
Interest Groups and Pressure Group
Formally organised selfInterest-oriented Pressure-focused May or may not
influence the politicsMust influence the policies of the government. Softer in
outlook Harsher in attitude more or less protective and promotive
120
Pressure Groups: Role and Techniques
In the democratic functioning of a polity, pressure groups play a vital role. They
seek to promote, discuss, debate and mobilize public opinion on major public
issues. In this process, they educate people and widen their vision, enhance their
democratic participation and raise and articulate various issues. These groups
try to bring changes in public policy. To achieve their objectives and goals, the
pressure groups employ various techniques and methods. These include
appeals, petitions, demonstrations, picketing, lobbying, and processions. They
also write in the media, distribute pamphlets, issue press releases, organize
discussions and debates, put up posters and chant slogans. They may carry out
satyagraha, that is, a non-violent protest. At times, pressure groups resort to
strikes in order to pressurize the legislators, the executive officials, the decision-
makers. Often, they resort to boycott. Have you not seen lawyers, sometimes
boycotting the courts, the teachers, their classes? The pressure groups resort to
such activities to influence governmental policies.
You have already read that political parties and pressure groups are not same.
However, both of them play an important role in a democracy. Therefore, their
relationship is markedly close and clear. For example, the trade unions help their
respective political parties by providing them workers during elections. On the
other, it is the political parties which advocate legislation in respect of the
interests of the workers. Do you know that the National Students Union of India
(NSUI) provides future leadership to the Congress,While some pressure groups
are linked to particular political parties, there are many which have no linkage
121
to any political party. It is important to understand that the pressure groups are
different from political parties. The distinction between the two can be stated as
under:
 Pressure groups are not primarily political in nature. For example,
although the OASIS Forum supported the opposition in opposing
Chiluba`s third term bid , it was, by and large, a civil organization. The
political parties are basically political.
 Pressure groups do not seek direct power; they only influence those who
are in power for moulding decisions in their favour. The political parties
seek power to form the government.
 Pressure groups do not contest elections; they only support political
parties of their choice. Political parties nominate candidates, contest
elections, and participate in election campaigns.
 Pressure groups do not necessarily have political ideologies. Political
parties are always wedded to their ideologies. For example, the Patriotic
Front( PF) party is wedded to the ideologies of socialism, secularism and
democracy; the Communists advocate the interests of workers, peasants
and other weaker sections.
 The interests of the pressure groups are usually specific and particular,
whereas the political parties have policies and programmes with national
and international ramifications
122
Unit Summary
From the unit you have learnt about the meaning of various political
concepts such as political culture, political party and socialization.
In addition you have learnt about what constitutes culture, the functions
of political parties and agents of socialization.
This is the last unit in this course and it is my sincere hope that you will
put to good use the vast knowledge you have gained from this course.
Activity 10.0
1. Explain what is meant by culture.
2. Identify the agents of socialization.
Prescribed References
123
Johari JC [2007] Principles of modern political science
Recommended References
Glasberg, Davita Silfen; Shannon, Deric (2011). Political sociology: Oppression,
resistance, and the state.
VENTURA, RAPHAEL (2016). "Family Political Socialization in Multiparty
Systems". Comparative Political Studies.
Pearson‐Merkowitz, Shanna; Gimpel, James G. (2009-08-19). Religion and
Political Socialization
Huntington, Samuel P. (2006). Political order in changing societies. Yale
University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11620-
124
DPA : Introduction to government and politics.
Questions for September 2020 residential school. Answer both

questions.
Instructions:
 Three to five pages typed.

 Font 12 and 1.5 spacing.
 Font type New Romans.
1 Between democracy and dictatorship, which of the two forms of

government do you recommend for Zambia?
2 It is a requirement that the civil servants must always remain politically
neutral. Discuss.
Submission dates will be communicated during residential school.
END OF ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS.
GOOD LUCK
MR. G. CHABU
Email: gchabu2003@yahoo.co.uk
125

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NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC

DISTANCE LEARNING DIVISION

DIPLOMA IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

DPA 104: INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS II

SEMESTER TWO (2)

Property of National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA)

All rights reserved.

PREPARED BY: MR G. CHABU

DPA 104 INTRODUCTION TO GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS I

NOTIONAL HOURS: 160 CREDIT: 16

required in government operations, politics and administration to enable them

apply principles of government and politics in their institutions.

1. Examine the Rights and Duties of citizens.

2. Evaluate the forms of government.

3. Examine the nature of politics.

4. Analyze the civil service.

5. Examine political culture, political socialization and political parties.

5.2 Political Parties………………………………………………….……..…..98

 Continuous Assessment 30%

 Final Examination 70%

Continuous Assessment will comprise of:

1. Ball A, (1998) Modern Politics and Government London, Mac Millan

2. Johari. C. (2003) Principles of Modern Political science, New Delhi, India

1. J. C. (2002) Contemporary political theory, New Dimensions, Basic

Concepts and Major Trends, New Delhi, India

2. Plant R (1991) Modern Political thought Blackwell Oxford

3. Tordoff W. (1993) Government and Politics in Africa, Macmillan, London

There are many advantages to studying by distance education – a full set of

commitments like work or family.

Never leave this until later.

effectively, so try to find a suitable place to do your work – preferably

fellow students straight away.

UNIT 1: EXAMINING THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS

After completing the Unit you will be able to:

 State some of your rights

A right simply put is a claim of an individual recognized by the community and

be of common interest. The motivating factor should be rational consideration

(Victoria Burnett (July 26, 2007).

It is also required that the claim of an individual should receive social

recognition. A recognition of this type of claim leads to the creation of right to

are protected by the state.

1.1 Concepts of Right

nature have universal application irrespective of the differences in place, time

in dignity and rights”( John E. Roemer (December 14, 2005).

It is difficult to classify rights because some of them overlap their categories. In

order to study them in a simplified form we may categorize them as follow:

1.2 Civil Rights

self-defense, the right to education (Ayn Rand (2009-12-18).

life, and safety; protection from discrimination on grounds such as race,

gender, sexual orientation, national origin, color, age, political affiliation,

the freedom of thought, speech, religion, press, assembly, and movement

(The Civil Rights act of 1964).

1.3 Political Rights

Political rights include natural justice (procedural fairness) in law, such as

right to seek redress or a legal remedy; and rights of participation in civil

society and politics such as freedom of association, the right to assemble,

Book (March 23, 2012).

1.4 Economic Rights

These rights relate to man’s vocation to engage in gainful employment so as

living through proper means.

1.5 Human Rights

freedom of individuals. For example the right to security in the event of

unemployment, sickness, old age or disability.