f214 2a Excretion Notes Questions

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com
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A2 Biology OCR
Unit F214: Communication, Homeostasis

and Energy
Module 2.1 Excretion
Notes & Questions
Andy Todd 2014 1

4.2.1 thebiotutor.com
Define the term excretion.
 Excretion – The removal of metabolic waste from the body

 Metabolic waste – any substance made by metabolism that is toxic or made
in excess
 Metabolism – The sum total of all cell reactions
Explain the importance of removing metabolic wastes, including carbon

dioxide and nitrogenous waste, from the body.
 There are two main types of metabolic waste from the human body
 Carbon Dioxide
o Produced from every living cell in the body as a result of
respiration
o What happens if carbon dioxide levels rise too much

1 Hydrogen ions competes with oxygen for space on the haemoglobin
molecule.
If there is too much carbon dioxide then the amount of oxygen
transported will be greatly reduced inside the red blood cells.
2 Carbon dioxide binds directly with haemoglobin to create

carbaminohaemoglobin.
Carbaminohaemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen than
haemoglobin and so less oxygen is transported.
3 Excess carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood plasma. Once

dissolved it combines with water to produce carbonic acid.
The carbonic acid disassociates to release Hydrogen ions (H +).
The Hydrogen ions lower the pH of the blood plasma and makes it
more acidic.
Proteins in the blood acts as buffers to resist the change in pH.
If the change is small the increased H + are detected by the
respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata of the brain.
This causes an increase in breathing rate to remove the excess
carbon dioxide.
o Respiratory acidosis can be caused by;

 Emphysema
 Chronic bronchitis
 Asthma
 Severe pneumonia
 Blockage of an airway
Andy Todd 2014 2

o If pH drops beneath 7.35 it results in...

 Slowed or difficult breathing
 Headache
 Drowsiness
 Restlessness
 Tremors
 Confusion
 Rapid heart rate
 Increased blood pressure
Toxic effect of Carbon dioxide

Tissue Fluid Capillary with blood plasma
100% 95%
Red Blood Cell
10%
2
5% CO2 Carboaminohaemoglobin
85%
-
Carbonic CO2 + H2O = H2 CO3 (Carbonic acid)
anhydrase
CO2 H+ HCO3-
Hb
(Hydrogencarbonate)
HHb
3 Haemoglobinic
1 acid
85%
HCO3-
Body Cell
 Urea
o Produced in the liver to remove excess amino acids.
o Too much protein in the diet leads to too many amino acids
o Too many amino acids will have a toxic effect on the body
Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the histology and gross
structure of the liver.
Andy Todd 2014 3

Heart
Hepatic Vein (100%)
The Liver
Deoxygenated
Oxygenated Blood
le
Hepatic Artery Hepatic Portal Vein (80%)

Bi
Blood
(20%)
Gall
Intestine
Bladder
Heart
Andy Todd 2014 4

Andy Todd 2014 5

 Hepatocytes
o Cuboidal in shape
o Many Microvilli
o Dense cytoplasm with many
organelles
o Metabolic functions include;
o Protein synthesis
o Transformation and storage of
carbohydrates
o Synthesis of Cholesterol.
o Synthesis of Bile salts.
o Detoxification
 Kupffer Cells
o Specialised macrophages
o Move within sinusoids
o Involved in the breakdown and
recycling of red blood cells
o Haemoglobin is brokendown into
Bilirubin
o Bilirubin is excreted as part of the
bile and in faeces. It gives faeces
its brown pigment.
Andy Todd 2014 6

Describe the roles of the liver in detoxification.
 The liver carries out a wide range

o Control of blood glucose levels, amino acids and lipid levels
o Synthesis of red blood cells in the fetus, bile, plasma proteins,
cholesterol
o Storage of vitamins A, D and B12, iron, glycogen
o Detoxification of alcohol, drugs
o Destruction of red blood cells
 Detoxification
o Liver detoxifies many compounds
o Some, e.g. hydrogen peroxide produced by body
o Others, e.g. alcohol consumed
o Toxins rendered harmless by oxidation, reduction, methylation or
combination with another molecule.
 Detoxification of alcohol
 Alcohol depresses nerve activity
 Also a rich store of energy, which could be used for respiration (or for getting
fat)
 Alcohol broken down by hepatocytes
Coenzyme A
Ethanal
Dehydrogenase
Ethanol Ethanal Ethanoate
Ethanoic Acetyl
(Acetate) Coenzyme A
2H 2H acid
Ethanol
Dehydrogenase NAD NAD
NADH NADH Acetyl Coenzyme A – Enters mitochondria
and is respired to generate ATP
Describe the formation of urea in the liver, including an outline of the
ornithine cycle.
 Nitrogenous wastes must be removed because the amino group is highly

toxic, but proteins and amino acids are very high in energy, so it would be
wasteful to excrete them.
 In deamination, the amine group is removed from the amino acid to form
ammonia and a keto acid when added to oxygen. The keto acid enters the
krebs cycle and is respired.
 In the ornithine cycle ammonia is converted to urea and water. The urea is
then transported to the kidneys for excretion from the body.
Andy Todd 2014 7

Too Much
 Body requires 40 – 60g of Protein a day
 In developed countries people eat well in excess of this due
to heavy meat based diet as opposed to a pulses and grains
rich diet.
Catch 22
 Excess amino acids cannot be stored as the amine group
makes them TOXIC.
 The amino acid contains
lots of energy, so it would
be wasteful to excrete
the entire molecule
 The amino acids are therefore processed in the Liver and only the toxic
amine group is excreted, while the rest is respired to create ATP.
 The process consists of two steps;
1 Deamination
2 Ornithine Cycle
Deamination
 Produces ammonia, which is highly toxic and very soluble
 The ammonia must not accumulate
 Also produces an organic compound, a keto acid, which can
enter respiration directly
2 1 2 2
R R
NH2 C COOH O2 C COOH NH3
H O
Amino Acid Oxygen Keto Acid Ammonia
Highly Toxic
Keto acid – Enters mitochondria & Soluble
and is respired to generate ATP
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Ornithine Cycle
 Ammonia is rapidly converted to something less toxic
 In the ornithine cycle
 Ammonia combines with carbon dioxide to produce urea and
water
 Urea put back into blood, then filtered out by the kidneys
2NH3 CO2 CO(NH2)2 H2O
2 x Ammonia Carbon Urea Water

Dioxide
2 x Amino Acid
Oxygen
Deamination
Ammonia
NH3
2 x Keto Acid Ammonia H 2O
NH3 CO2
Ornithine
Citrulline
Urea
CO(NH2)2
Ornithine
Cycle
H2O Arginine
H2O
Ornithine Cycle
Andy Todd 2014 9

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the histology and gross
structure of the kidney.
 The role of the Kidney is to

o Filter Urea from the blood
o Osmoregulation - Control the amount of water that leaves the body
Andy Todd 2014 10

Describe, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the detailed structure of a
nephron and its associated blood vessels.
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Andy Todd 2014 12

Describe and explain the production of urine, with reference to the processes
of ultrafiltration and selective reabsorption.
 The blood of the renal artery consists of

• RBCs
• WBCs Large molecules – RMM >69,000
• Platelets
• Plasma proteins
Small molecules – RMM <69,000
Useful but not all needed
• Water
• Ions
• Small molecules – RMM <69,000
Useful all needed
• Glucose
• Amino acids
Small molecule – RMM <69,000
• Urea Not useful – all must leave the n=body
 Ultrafiltration – Bowmans Capsule

• The filtering of molecules from the blood by size (69,000RMM)
• Blood flows into the glomerulus via the afferent arteriole and leaves by
the efferent arteriole.
• The afferent arteriole has a wider lumen that the efferent arteriole.
• This creates a bottleneck effect in the glomerulus (network of
capillaries).
• This generates a high hydrostatic pressure inside the glomerulus
compared to the lumen of the bowman’s capsule
Andy Todd 2014 13

• As the hydrostatic is high small molecules are squeezed out of the

blood and into the bowman’s capsule.
• This is known as ultrafiltration and the glomerulus and bowman’s
capsule have a specialised exchange surface that allows this to
occur.
 Endothelium of capillaries- contains gaps from which blood
passes through as well as the substances dissolved in it
 Basement membrane- fine mesh of collagen fibres and
glycoproteins
 Filter by not allowing molecules with an RMM larger the
69000 to pass through (usually proteins)
 Epithelium of Bowman’s capsule- made of specialised cells
called podocytes.
 Podocytes have finger like projections (foot processes)
that allow fluid from the glomerulus to pass through into
the Bowman’s capsule lumen
• The fluid that passes from the glomerulus into the bowman’s capsule
is referred to as the Glomerular filtrate.
Blood of renal artery Glomerular filtrate

RBC
WBC
>69,000 RMM Platelets
Plasma proteins
water water
ions ions
<69,000 RMM glucose glucose
amino acids amino acids
urea urea
Andy Todd 2014 14

 Selective Reabsorbtion: - (Proximal Convoluted Tubule)

• The selective reabsorption of useful molecules back into the blood
3 6 4
1 5
6
• Structures of the proximal convoluted tubule that makes it adapted to

carry out selective reabsorption
• A folded basal membrane – increases surface area so more space for
sodium/potassium pumps
• Many mitochondrion = lots of ATP available
• A close proximity to the blood vessels
• Microvilli – increases the surface area so there is more room for the
co-transporter proteins
• The tubule itself is highly folded (convoluted) increases the surface
area
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1 Na ions are actively transported out of the wall of the convoluted tubule
and enter the surrounding tissue fluid.
2 This lowers the concentration of Na inside the cell.
3 Na moves into the cell down its concentration gradient through co-
transporter proteins taking glucose and amino acids with it by facilitated
diffusion.
4 Sodium is transported into the cell with Amino Acids or Glucose by
facilitated diffusion.
5 As the concentrations of Amino Acids or glucose rise inside the cell, they
diffuse into the tissue fluid; they may also be actively removed.
6 They then diffuse into the blood and are carried away.
7 The reabsorption of salts, glucose or amino acids reduces the water
potential of the cell and ultimately the blood and increases the water
potential in the tubule fluid. This sets up a water potential gradient so water
will move out of the tubule and enter the cells and then be reabsorbed into
the blood by osmosis.
8 Larger molecules, such as proteins, will be reabsorbed by endocytosis.
Structure of the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule
Blood of renal Glomerular Glomerular filtrate after selective

artery filtrate reabsorption
RBC
WBC
Platelets
Plasma proteins
water water some water
ions ions some ions
glucose glucose
amino acids amino acids
urea urea urea
 Water reabsorption – The Loop of Henle

• In the loop of Henle, salts are transferred from the ascending limb to
the descending limb. This means that the tissue fluid in the medulla
has a very negative water potential, therefore water is lost by
osmosis, particularly from the collection duct.
• The longer the loop of henle, the more concentrated the interstitial
fluid. Therefore the more water can be reabsorbed back into the
blood.
• Kangeroo rats have very long loops of Henle whereas beavers have
very short.
Andy Todd 2014 16

Explain, using water potential terminology, the control of the water content of
the blood, with reference to the roles of the kidney, osmoreceptors in the
hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland.
 Osmoregulation – Collecting duct

o The collecting duct walls are impermeable to water.
o If more water needs to be conserved then the collecting duct walls can
become permeable to water allowing more water reabsorption and
increasing the concentration of the urine further.
1. The water potential of the blood is monitored by osmoreceptors in the

hypothalamus of the brain
2. When the water potential of the blood is very low, osmoreceptors shrink, and
stimulate neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.
3. These produce and release anti diuretic hormone (ADH) which flows down
the axon to the posterior pituitary gland where it is stored until needed.
4. When the neurosecretory glands are stimulated they send action potentials
down their axons and cause the release of ADH into the blood
5. It enters the capillaries running through the posterior pituitary gland. It is
transported around the body and acts on the cells of the collecting ducts.
6. When it binds to the receptors, it causes a chain of enzyme catalysed
reactions, the end result of which is the insertion of vesicles containing water-
Andy Todd 2014 17

permeable channels (aquaporins) in the membranes of the cells in the

collecting duct walls, so they are more permeable to water.
7. More water is reabsorbed, by osmosis, into the blood
8. Less urine, with a lower water potential is release.
9. Less ADH is released when the water potential rises again.
10. The ADH is slowly broken down and the collecting ducts receive less
stimulus.
• Low water potential of the blood

Blood is concentrated (low water potential)
Increase in ADH secretion from the pituitary gland into the blood
Increases the permeability of the collecting duct walls
More water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis
Increases the amount of water conserved by the body
Urine is concentrated (yellow) and in small quantities
Andy Todd 2014 18

• High water potential of the blood

Blood is dilute
Decrease in ADH secretion from the pituitary gland into the blood
Decreases the permeability of the collecting duct walls
less water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis
Decreases the amount of water conserved by the body
Urine is dilute (colourless) and in large quantities.
Outline the problems that arise from kidney failure and discuss the use of renal
dialysis and transplants for the treatment of kidney failure.
Problems:
• Unable to remove excess water & waste products from the body
• E.g. urea & excess salts
• Inability to regulate urea and salt levels
• Death
Dialysis
• Waste, excess fluids and salts are removed from the body by passing the blood
over a dialysis membrane.
• This allows the exchange of substances between the blood and the dialysis fluid,
which has the same concentration of substances as blood plasma.
• Substances diffuse from both sides to create the correct concentration of
substances.
Haemodialysis:
• Blood is drained form a vein and returned to a vein.
• Blood is passed into a dialysis machine
• It passes through pumps to keep blood hydrostatic pressure the same as inside the
body
• Heparin is added to the blood so it does not clot whilst inside the dialysis machine.
• Heparin is not added to the blood before it heads back into the body so it can regain
its normal clotting function when it is back in the body.
• This is carried out three times a week for several hours at a time.
• It is very restrictive to normal lifestyles
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Peritoneal dialysis
• The body’s own abdominal membrane is used as a filter.
• Patient is more mobile while carrying out dialysis

• Better quality of life compared to haemodialysis
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Transplant
Advantages
• No dialysis
• Less limited diet
• Better physical feeling
• Better quality of life
• No longer ‘chronically ill’
Disadvantages
• Need immunosuppressants for life of kidney
• Major surgery
• Risk of infection
• Need frequent checks in case of rejection
• Side effects of medication
Andy Todd 2014 21

Describe how urine samples can be used to test for pregnancy and detect
misuse of anabolic steroids.
Pregnancy
immobilised
antibody
position A
free
antibody
attached to absorbent
coloured membrane
marker
CG
urine sample
containing CG
• A human embryo secrets human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) as soon as it is

implanted on the uterine lining.
• The hormone can be detected in the mother’s urine after as few as 6 days.
• The hCG hormone is smaller than 69,000RMM
• hCG acts as an antigen.
• Pregnancy tests contain monoclonal antibodies which are complementary to hCG
• The antibodies are tagged with a blue bead.
• -antibody complex moves along the strip
• The hCG-anitbody complex will bind to band of immobilised complementary
antibodies,
• Forms a blue line
•
Andy Todd 2014 22

Anabolic Steroids
• Urine samples are tested using gas chromatography
1. The sample is vaporised in the presence of a gaseous solvent

2. It is passed down a long tube lined with an absorbing agent.
3. Each substance dissolves differently in the gas and stays there for a unique, specific
time- the retention time
4. Eventually, the substance leaves the gas and is absorbed by the lining
5. It is then analysed to make a chromatogram
6. Standard samples of drugs and urine samples are run so drugs can be identified and
quantified in the chromatogram.
Andy Todd 2014 23

1. The mammalian liver is made up of lobules that consist of liver cells (hepatocytes)
arranged in plates.
The figure below shows a section of a liver lobule and its associated blood vessels.
branch of
hepatic vein
hepatocyte
A
D
C
B
Name structures A to D.
A .......................................................................
B .......................................................................
C .......................................................................
D .......................................................................
[Total 4 marks]
Andy Todd 2014 24

2. The table below shows the mass of different substances excreted by a volunteer during
two 24 hour periods. During the first 24 hour period, the volunteer was fed a protein-
deficient diet; during the second 24 hour period, the volunteer was fed a protein-rich
diet. All other variables were kept constant.
mass of substance excreted / g
substance excreted protein-deficient diet protein-rich diet
urea 2.20 14.70

uric acid 0.09 0.18
ammonium ions 0.04 0.49
creatinine 0.60 0.58
(i) Calculate the percentage increase in urea excreted when the volunteer switched
from a protein-deficient to a protein-rich diet. Show your working.
Answer = ...................................................%
[2]
(ii) Describe how excess protein is converted into urea.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[3]
[Total 5 marks]
Andy Todd 2014 25

3. Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries and the human kidneys process
1200 cm3 of blood every minute. This 1200 cm3 of blood contains 700 cm3 of plasma.
As this blood passes through a glomerulus, 125 cm3 of fluid passes into the renal
tubule.
(i) Name the process by which the fluid passes from the glomerulus into the renal
tubule.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii) Calculate the percentage of plasma that passes into the renal tubule.
Show your working and give your answer to one decimal place.
Answer = ................................................ %
[2]
[Total 3 marks]
Andy Todd 2014 26

4. The first stage in the formation of urine is glomerular filtration. This results in the
production of glomerular filtrate in the Bowman’s (renal) capsules. Below is a diagram
that shows the structures and forces involved in the filtration process.
afferent arteriole
efferent
arteriole
glomerular
capillaries
capsular fluid
hydrostatic
pressure
2.7 kPa blood
hydrostatic
pressure
8 kPa
Bowman’s
(renal)
capsule water
potential
of blood
–4 kPa
A
proximal convoluted tubule
(a) The normal blood hydrostatic pressure in other capillaries is 3.3 kPa.
(i) Using the diagram, explain why the blood pressure in the glomerular
capillaries is considerably higher than in other capillaries.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
Andy Todd 2014 27

(ii) Using the data given in the diagram, calculate the effective filtration
pressure.
Answer = ........................................kPa
[2]
(b) The presence of protein molecules in the urine of an individual is a sign of kidney
disease or kidney damage.
(i) Explain why it is unusual for protein molecules to appear in the urine.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
(ii) Explain why protein in the urine is often a symptom of chronic high blood
pressure.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
[2]
Andy Todd 2014 28

(c) A complex barrier exists between the blood plasma in the glomerular capillaries
and the fluid in the renal capsule.
Describe in detail the structure of the region labelled A on the diagram above.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
(d) Coffee contains the drug caffeine, which inhibits the release of ADH.
Describe and explain the effect of drinking coffee on the volume and
concentration of urine produced.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
[Total: 16 marks]
Andy Todd 2014 29

5. The figure below is an electronmicrograph of a transverse section of part of a proximal

convoluted tubule.
(i) Name the tissue that lines the proximal convoluted tubule.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
(ii) Name the structures indicated by X.
.........................................................................................................................
[1]
Andy Todd 2014 30

(iii) The table below shows the approximate concentration of some of the substances
in the blood plasma, the glomerular filtrate and the urine leaving the collecting
duct.
concentration in concentration in
concentration in
glomerular urine leaving
substance blood plasma
filtrate collecting duct
(g dm–3)
(g dm–3) (g dm–3)
amino acids 0.50 0.50 0.00
glucose 1.00 1.00 0.00
inorganic ions 7.30 7.30 15.60
nitrogenous waste
0.03 0.03 0.28
(not including urea)
protein 80.00 0.00 0.00
urea 0.30 0.30 21.00
Andy Todd 2014 31

Some of the changes observed between the glomerular filtrate and the urine are
as a result of activity in the proximal convoluted tubule.
With reference to the table above, explain how these observed changes in
concentration are brought about by the proximal convoluted tubule.
In your answer, you should use appropriate technical terms, spelt correctly.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
[4]
[Total 6 marks]
Andy Todd 2014 32

6. The figure below shows diagrams of nephrons from the kidneys of three different
mammals, X, Y and Z.
X Y Z
B
B B
A
A
A
C
C
C
E
D E
D
not drawn to scale
X Y Z
name of beaver house mouse desert living
mammal gerbil
water potential high low very low
of urine
Explain the relationship between the length of the section D in the nephrons and the
water potential of the urine each mammal produces.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 3 marks]
Andy Todd 2014 33

7. The presence of CG in the urine can be used in pregnancy testing. Information about a
pregnancy testing kit is given below and in the figure.
• An absorbent membrane is dipped into urine.
• The membrane contains free antibodies that are specific to CG.
• The free antibodies are attached to coloured markers.
• There is a line of immobilised antibodies above position A.
• A positive result is shown by a coloured line at position A.
immobilised
antibody
position A
free
antibody
attached to absorbent
coloured membrane
marker
CG
urine sample
containing CG
Reproduced with the permission of Nelson Thornes Ltd from

‘New Understanding Biology for Advanced Level’ Fourth Edition
by Glen Toole and Susan Toole (978-0-7487-3957 -8), first published in 1999.
Andy Todd 2014 34

Using information from the figure, explain how the presence of CG in the urine results
in a coloured line at position A.
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
[Total 4 marks]
Andy Todd 2014 35

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4.2.1 thebiotutor.

Unit F214: Communication, Homeostasis

Module 2.1 Excretion

Notes & Questions

Andy Todd 2014 1

Define the term excretion.

 Excretion – The removal of metabolic waste from the body

Explain the importance of removing metabolic wastes, including carbon

o What happens if carbon dioxide levels rise too much

2 Carbon dioxide binds directly with haemoglobin to create

3 Excess carbon dioxide dissolves in the blood plasma. Once

o Respiratory acidosis can be caused by;

Andy Todd 2014 2

o If pH drops beneath 7.35 it results in...

Toxic effect of Carbon dioxide

Andy Todd 2014 3

Hepatic Vein (100%)

Hepatic Artery Hepatic Portal Vein (80%)

Andy Todd 2014 4

Andy Todd 2014 5

Andy Todd 2014 6

Describe the roles of the liver in detoxification.

 The liver carries out a wide range

 Nitrogenous wastes must be removed because the amino group is highly

Andy Todd 2014 7

Andy Todd 2014 8

2NH3 CO2 CO(NH2)2 H2O

2 x Ammonia Carbon Urea Water

Andy Todd 2014 9

 The role of the Kidney is to

Andy Todd 2014 10

Andy Todd 2014 11

Andy Todd 2014 12

 The blood of the renal artery consists of

 Ultrafiltration – Bowmans Capsule

Andy Todd 2014 13

• As the hydrostatic is high small molecules are squeezed out of the

Blood of renal artery Glomerular filtrate

Andy Todd 2014 14

 Selective Reabsorbtion: - (Proximal Convoluted Tubule)

• Structures of the proximal convoluted tubule that makes it adapted to

Andy Todd 2014 15

Blood of renal Glomerular Glomerular filtrate after selective

 Water reabsorption – The Loop of Henle

Andy Todd 2014 16

 Osmoregulation – Collecting duct

1. The water potential of the blood is monitored by osmoreceptors in the

Andy Todd 2014 17

permeable channels (aquaporins) in the membranes of the cells in the

• Low water potential of the blood

Increases the permeability of the collecting duct walls

More water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis

Increases the amount of water conserved by the body

Urine is concentrated (yellow) and in small quantities

Andy Todd 2014 18

• High water potential of the blood

Decreases the permeability of the collecting duct walls

less water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis

Decreases the amount of water conserved by the body

Urine is dilute (colourless) and in large quantities.

Andy Todd 2014 19

• Patient is more mobile while carrying out dialysis