CHALOGENS

Table of Contents:
1-Introduction

2-Electronic Configuration

3-Physical and Chemical Properties of Chalcogens

4-Occurance of Chalcogens

5-Applications of Chalogens

6-Environmental Impact of Chalcogens

7-Chalcogens in Synthesis of Compounds

8-Chalcogens in Biological Systems

9-Conclusion

10-Reference
Introduction:

Chalcogens, also known as the oxygen group, are a group of chemical elements
consisting of oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and polonium
(Po). These elements share several common properties and have wide-ranging
applications in various fields.

Electronic Configurations:
The chalcogens possess an electron configuration of ns²np⁴, where n represents the
principal quantum number. This configuration indicates that these elements have six
valence electrons. The unique electronic structure of chalcogens influences their
chemical behavior and reactivity.

.Properties of Chalcogens:
Atomic and Physical Properties:

1-Atomic Number and Atomic Weight:

Each chalcogen element has a distinct atomic number and atomic weight.

2-Atomic Radius:
The atomic radius generally increases down the group.

3-Density:
Chalcogens have relatively high densities, with oxygen being the lightest and
polonium being the densest.

4-Melting and Boiling Points:

The melting and boiling points generally increase down the group due to the
increasing atomic size and the strength of intermolecular forces.

Chemical Properties:

1-Electronegativity:
Chalcogens exhibit increasing electronegativity from oxygen to polonium, with
oxygen being highly electronegative.

2-Valence Electrons:
Chalcogens typically have six valence electrons, resulting in a valence electron
configuration of ns2np4.

3-Oxidation States:
 Chalcogens can exhibit multiple oxidation states, with oxygen usually having an
oxidation state of -2 and the other elements displaying a range of positive oxidation
states.
4-Reactivity:
Chalcogens are relatively reactive and can form compounds with a wide range of
elements.

Occurrence of Chalcogens:

1-Oxygen:
Oxygen is the most abundant chalcogen element and makes up approximately 21% of
Earth's atmosphere by volume.

2-Sulfur:
Sulfur is commonly found in the Earth's crust, primarily in the form of sulfide and
sulfate minerals.

3-Selenium:
Selenium is often found in association with sulfur-containing minerals or as selenide
ores.

4-Tellurium:
Tellurium is primarily obtained as a byproduct of copper refining and is found in a
few minerals, such as tellurides.

5-Polonium:
Polonium is a rare and highly radioactive element that occurs naturally in trace
amounts in uranium ores.

Applications of Chalcogens:

1-Oxygen:

 Life Support and Combustion: Oxygen is vital for respiration and combustion
processes.
 Ozone Production: Oxygen molecules are used to generate ozone for various
applications, such as water treatment and air purification.
 Oxygen is used in the steel industry for steel production and in medical settings
for respiratory support.

2-Sulfur:

 Chemical Industry: Sulfur is widely used in the production of sulfuric acid, a key
industrial chemical.
 Fertilizers: Sulfur-containing fertilizers are utilized to enhance plant growth and
crop yield.
 Pharmaceuticals: Sulfur compounds are important in the pharmaceutical industry
as active ingredients in drugs.
 Sulfur is employed in the production of sulfuric acid, rubber vulcanization, and
the manufacturing of fertilizers

3- Selenium:
 Photovoltaic Cells: Selenium is used in the manufacturing of photovoltaic cells
for solar panels.
 Glass Production: Selenium compounds are added to glass to provide a red color
and increase its light transmission properties.
 Electronics: Selenium rectifiers and photocells find applications in electronic
devices.
 Selenium is utilized in the production of glass, electronics, and photocopiers, as
well as in dietary supplements and medicinal treatments.

3-Tellurium:

 Solar Panels: Tellurium is a crucial component of cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-

film solar cells.
 Thermoelectric Applications: Tellurium-based materials are used in
thermoelectric devices to convert waste heat into electricity.
 Alloying Agent: Tellurium alloys find applications in metallurgy, such as in the
production of high-strength steels.
 Tellurium is essential in the production of solar cells, thermoelectric devices, and
certain alloys.

4-Polonium:

 Industrial Applications: Polonium has limited industrial applications, primarily in

devices that require a compact and long-lasting source of alpha particles.
 Research and Nuclear Technology: Polonium is used in scientific research and
nuclear technology, including neutron initiators and alpha particle sources.
 Although polonium's applications are limited due to its radioactive nature, it has
been used in antistatic devices, nuclear initiators, and in some scientific research
applications.

Environmental Impact of Chalcogens:

Examination of the environmental effects of chalcogens, such as:

 Oxygen's role in the atmosphere and its importance in sustaining life

 Sulfur's contribution to acid rain and its impact on ecosystems
 Selenium's presence in water sources and its potential toxicity
 Tellurium's occurrence in mining activities and its environmental consequences
 Polonium's radioactivity and its implications for health and safety
Chalcogens in Synthesis of Compounds :
 Discussion of chalcogens' involvement in the synthesis of various inorganic and
organometallic compounds, including:
 Oxides, sulfides, selenides, and tellurides
 Chalcogen-based ligands and their coordination chemistry
 Chalcogen-containing catalysts and their applications in chemical reactions

Chalcogens in Biological Systems:

Examination of the importance of chalcogens in biological processes, such as:

 Oxygen's role in respiration, oxidative metabolism, and the formation of

biological macromolecules
 Sulfur's incorporation into amino acids and proteins, as well as its role in enzyme
catalysis
 Selenium's presence in selenoproteins and its impact on human health