THE VARIABLE STARS

& COMPACT STARS

SUBMITTED BY:
Morales, Jerome R.
Nadua, Peter James
Lagunzad, Andrei
Torres, Eric
Morillo, Gerald
Hilario, Kyle Ryneth
Ilagan, Lance
Omar, Diangca

GS-21
A. Variable Stars & Classifications

 A variable star is, quite simply, a star that changes brightness. A star is considered
variable if its apparent magnitude (brightness) is altered in any way from our
perspective on Earth.

 These changes can occur over years or just fractions of a second, and can range
from one-thousandth of a magnitude to 20 magnitudes. More than 100,000
variable stars are known and have been catalogued, and thousands more are
suspected variables.

 Our own sun is a variable star; its energy output varies by approximately 0.1
percent, or one-thousandth of its magnitude, over an 11-year solar cycle.
 The first modern identified variable star was Omicron Ceti, later renamed Mira. It
had been described as a nova in 1596 by David Fabricius.

 In 1638, Johannes Holwards observed Omicron Cetipulsating in a regular 11-

month cycle. This was an important discovery, as it helped verify that the stars
were not eternal and invariable as ancient philosophers such as Aristotle had
believed.

 The discovery of variable stars, along with reports of supernovae, paved the way
for development of the science of astronomy.

 In 1669, a second variable star was identified by Geminiano Monanari. It was an

eclipsing variable called Algol, although its variability was not explained until
more than a hundred years later by John Goodricke in 1784.

 The third variable star, Chi Cygni, was observed in 1686 and in 1704. Over the
next 80 years seven more variable stars were identified.
 Characteristics and Compositions of Variable Stars

 There are a number of reasons for variability. These include

changes in star luminosity or in star mass, and obstructions in the
amount of light that reaches Earth. Pulsating variables swell and
shrink. Eclipsing binaries get dimmer when a companion star
moves in front, then brighten as the occulting star moves away.
Some of the identified variable stars are actually two very close
stars that exchange mass when one takes atmosphere from the
other.

 There are two different categories of variable stars. Intrinsic

variables are starring whose luminosity physically changes due to
pulsations, eruptions or through swelling and shrinking. Extrinsic
variables are stars that change in brightness because of being
eclipsed by stellar rotation or by another star or planet.

 Intrinsic Variables

 These are stars which vary their light output, hence their
brightness, by some change within the star itself. They are an
extremely important and useful group of stars to astronomers as
they provide a wealth of information about the internal structure of
stars and models of stellar evolution. Perhaps their greatest value is
the role of some types such as Cepheids and supernovae in
distance determination. Intrinsic variables are further classified as
to whether they exhibit periodic pulsations are more explosive or
eruptive events as in cataclysmic variables.

 Cepheid Variables are very luminous stars, 500 to 300,000 times

greater than the sun, with short periods of change that range from 1
 to 100 days (about 3 and a half months). They are pulsating
variables that expand and shrink dramatically within a short period
of time, following a specific pattern. Astronomers can make
distance measurements to a Cepheid by measuring the variability
of its luminosity, which makes them very valuable to science.

 Other pulsating variables include RR Lyrae stars, which are short

period, older stars that are not as large as Cepheids; and RV Tauri
stars, super giants with greater light variations.

 Long-period pulsating variables include the Mira class, which are

cool red super giants with large pulsations; and Semiregular, which
are red giants or super giants with longer periods that can range
from 30 to 1000 days (about 2 and a half years). One of the best-
known Semiregular Variables is Betelgeuse.

 Irregular pulsating variables have also been identified. These are

usually red super giants, but very little study has been done on
them.

 Cataclysmic Variables - (also called Explosive Variables) brighten

because of sharp or violent outbursts caused by thermonuclear
processes either on the surface or deep inside.

o These include binary type stars, with two close stars

having a mutual effect on mass. Supernovae, Novae,
Recurrent Novae and Dwarf Novae are a group of stars that
have dramatic or sudden magnitude increases, usually
because of a stellar explosion.
o Supernovae - are the most dramatic, at times emitting as
much energy as a whole galaxy. They can increase more
than 20 magnitudes, becoming approximately one hundred
million times brighter. Supernovae usually represent the
death of a massive star, although the core can remain as a
neutron star or remnants can form nebulae.

o Supernovae are caused by one of two main mechanisms.

The first takes place when accreting material falling onto a
white dwarf in a binary system takes it over the mass set by
the Chandrasekhar limit. The resulting instability triggers a
runaway thermonuclear explosion that destroys the star and
releases large amounts of radioactive and heavy elements
into space.

o The second process occurs in very massive stars once all

the material in their core has been fused into iron. As fusion
cannot occur in elements heavier than iron the drop in
outwards radiation pressure means that gravitational
collapse overwhelms the core which rapidly implodes. The
core material gets crushed to form degenerate neutron-
density material whilst the extreme temperature and
pressure in the surrounding layers cause rapid (R-process)
nuclear reactions that synthesize the heaviest elements.
o Novae and Recurrent Novae - are close binary systems that
are variable due to explosions on the surface, but the star is
not destroyed. Nova Scorpii, which obtained peak
brightness in 2007, is the brightest seen in recent years;
Nova Cygni is the brightest seen in the last 70 years. The
brightest measured nova since 1901 was Nova Aquilae,
which in 1918 shone almost as brightly as Sirius, the
brightest star in the sky.

o Dwarf Novae - are double white stars that transfer mass and
cause outbursts of regular variations. Another form of
 explosive variable are Symbiotic stars, close binary systems
with a red giant and a hot blue star enmeshed in a cloud of
dust or gas.

o Eruptic
Variables -
this are
stars with
eruptions
or flaring on the surface or interaction with other
interstellar matter. There are quite a few sub-types in this
category, including luminous blue variables, flare stars,
supergiants, protostars, and Orion variables. Some eruptic
variables are close
binary systems.

 Extrinsic variables

 Extrinsic variables are those in which the light output varies either
due to processes external to the star itself or due to the rotation of
the star. The two main classes of extrinsic stars are the eclipsing
binaries and rotating variables.

 Eclipsing binary stars - are celestial bodies that traverse each

other's paths, resulting in variations and dimming of the light
observed from Earth. Such binary systems might possess
accompanying planets that, in a manner akin to a lunar eclipse on
Earth, intermittently obstruct their light. Algol stands out as a
prominent example of an eclipsing binary star.
  Pulsars - are rotating neutron stars — the core of long-exploded
supernovae — that emit electromagnetic radiation that is only seen
when the beam is pointing at Earth. Pulsars produce precise,
measurable intervals of light, and are often compared to
lighthouses as they periodically sweep beams of energy while they
orbit.

B. Compact Stars

 Compact Stars are a class of stellar objects known for their high densities and
strong gravitational fields. It primarily includes the white dwarfs, neutron stars,
and black holes.

 They are stellar remnants that have undergone gravitational collapse. It plays a
crucial role in our understanding of stellar evolution, extreme physics, and the
structure of the universe, giving each variety of compact stars that exhibits unique
characteristics and properties.

 TYPES OF COMPACT STARS

 White Dwarfs:

 White dwarfs are formed from low to medium mass stars, typically
those with initial masses less than about 8 times that of the Sun.

 When such a star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it undergoes a phase of

stellar evolution called the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase.
During this phase, the star expands and sheds its outer layers,
leaving behind a hot, dense core composed mainly of carbon and
oxygen. This core then contracts under its own gravity and
becomes a white dwarf (NASA).

 First discovered by William Herschel dated January 31, 1783,

White dwarf is described as a stellar core remnant composed
mostly of electron-degenerate matter. (Crockett 2023) It is formed
when a star, particularly a Sun, exhausts its nuclear fuel and
undergoes gravitational collapse. It is primarily composed of
carbon and oxygen with a dense core surrounded by a thin layer of
hydrogen or helium. Ergo, here are some of the detailed
characteristics of White Dwarfs.
  With great size comes with great density. White Dwarfs are
incredibly dense objects, with a mass comparable to that of the Sun
but a volume comparable to that of Earth. This extreme density is
due to the gravitational compression of the star’s core during its
evolution.

 In luminosity, White dwarfs have low luminosity, meaning they

emit very little light compared to main-sequence stars. Their low
luminosity comes from the emission of residual thermal energy, as
no fusion takes place in a white dwarf.

 In fact, White Dwarfs cool down over time as they radiate away
their stored thermal energy. Initially, they are very hot and emit a
significant amount of light, but over billions of years, they
gradually cool and become dimmer.

 The evolutionary fate of a White Dwarf, being Sun as an example,

is expected to evolve into a white dwarf in about 5 billion years.
As stars exhausts their nuclear fuel, it will shed its outer layers and
leave behind a hot, dense white dwarf core.

 Neutron Stars:
 Neutron stars are formed from the remnants of massive stars,
usually those with initial masses between about 8 and 25 times that
of the Sun. When such a massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it
undergoes a supernova explosion. The intense gravitational
collapse that occurs during the explosion compresses the core of
the star to extremely high densities. The core collapses until it is
supported by neutron degeneracy pressure, resulting in the
formation of a neutron star (NASA).

 According to its definition on Britannica, a neutron star is an

extremely dense and compact stellar object primarily composed of
neutrons. It is formed through the gravitational collapse of a
massive star during a supernova explosion.

 Neutron stars are known for their incredible density and small size,
typically measuring around 20 kilometers (12 miles) in diameter
(Britannica). Neutron stars are incredibly dense, with densities
ranging from about 10^14 to 10^15 grams per cubic centimeter.

 This high density is a result of the immense gravitational

compression that occurs during the collapse of the star's core
(Britannica). They have masses that range from about 1.18 to 1.97
times that of the Sun, with most neutron stars having a mass of
approximately 1.35 times that of the Sun (Britannica).

 The composition of neutron stars primarily consists of tightly

packed neutrons, resulting from the intense gravitational forces.
However, they also contain a small fraction of protons and
electrons, which are necessary to maintain charge neutrality
(Britannica).

 Neutron stars are known for their incredibly strong magnetic fields,
which can be a trillion times stronger than the Earth's magnetic
field. These magnetic fields play a crucial role in various
astrophysical phenomena associated with neutron stars, such as
pulsars (Britannica).

 Neutron stars can exhibit various observational signatures,

including pulsars. Pulsars are rapidly rotating neutron stars that
emit beams of electromagnetic radiation.

 The extreme conditions inside neutron stars, such as high densities

and pressures, can give rise to exotic states of matter, including
 superfluidity and superconductivity. Neutron stars provide a
unique laboratory for studying the behavior of matter under
extreme conditions (Britannica).

 Black Hole

 Black holes are formed from the remnants of massive stars with
initial masses greater than about 25 times that of the Sun. When
such a massive star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it undergoes a
supernova explosion similar to the process for neutron star
formation.

 However, in the case of a black hole, the core of the star collapses
to such a high density that not even neutron degeneracy pressure
can halt the collapse.
 The core collapses to a singularity, a point of infinite density,
surrounded by an event horizon beyond which nothing can escape
(NASA).

 Black hole is a cosmic object with an extremely intense

gravitational field from which nothing, not even light, can escape.

 It is formed through the gravitational collapse of a massive star,

wherein its core undergoes a process called gravitational collapse,
compressing to a point of zero volume and infinite density known
as a singularity (Britannica).

 Black holes are among the most mysterious objects in the universe
and have been the subject of extensive study.

 They are not actually holes but rather enormous concentrations of

matter packed into incredibly tiny spaces (NASA Universe
Exploration).

 The gravitational pull of a black hole is so strong that it creates a

region called the event horizon, which defines the boundary
beyond which the escape velocity exceeds the speed of light,
making it impossible for anything to escape, including light
(NASA).

 Black holes are real and represent some of the strangest objects in
space. They are characterized by their immense gravitational pull
and unique properties.

 Our understanding of black holes has been greatly enhanced

through ongoing research and observations (Space).

 The formation of black holes is primarily associated with the

collapse of massive stars. When a massive star exhausts its nuclear
fuel, it undergoes a supernova explosion, and the core collapses
under its own gravity.

 If the core's mass exceeds a certain threshold, it collapses to form

a black hole. Other methods of black hole formation, beyond the
collapse of massive stars, are still not fully understood (University
of Chicago News).
  Black holes usually cannot be observed directly on account of both
their small size and the fact that they emit no light. They can be
“observed,” however, by the effects of their enormous gravitational
fields on nearby matter (Britannica).

 Summarization

 In summary, White dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes are fascinating
objects that have profound implications for astrophysics and our
understanding of the cosmos. These compact stars represent different
stages of stellar evolution and provide valuable insights into the
fundamental physics governing the universe.

 Neutron stars, on the other hand, are incredibly dense and possess strong
magnetic fields. They provide unique environments for studying the
behavior of matter under extreme densities and pressures (Space.com).
The study of neutron stars allows us to explore the properties of
superfluidity, superconductivity, and exotic states of matter that cannot be
replicated on Earth (Britannica). Neutron stars also play a crucial role in
astrophysical phenomena such as pulsars, which emit beams of
electromagnetic radiation and help us study the properties of space-time
and the nature of gravity (NASA).

 Black holes, with their immense gravitational pull and event horizons,
challenge our understanding of space, time, and the laws of physics. They
are crucial in testing Einstein's theory of general relativity and provide
insights into the nature of singularities and the behavior of matter under
extreme gravitational fields (NASA). The study of black holes has
revolutionized our understanding of the universe, revealing the existence
 of supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies and their role in
galaxy formation and evolution (Space.com).
 While the direct impact of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes on
our daily lives may not be apparent, their study has far-reaching
implications. The knowledge gained from studying these compact stars
contributes to advancements in astrophysics, cosmology, and our
understanding of the fundamental laws of nature. It broadens our
perspective on the universe and our place within it.
References:
Variable Stars

Space.com Staff. (2015, January 29). Types of variable stars: cepheid, pulsating and
cataclysmic. Space.com. https://www.space.com/15396-variable-stars.html#:~:text=There
%20are%20two%20different%20categories,by%20another%20star%20or%20planet
scheme=AGLSTERMS.AglsAgent; corporateName=CSIRO Australia Telescope National
Facility; address=PO Box 76 Epping NSW 1710 Australia; contact=+61 2 9372 4100 (phone),
+61 2 9372 4310 (fax); jurisdiction=Commonwealth. (n.d.). Types of variable stars.
https://www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach/education/senior/astrophysics/variable_types.html#:~:text=A
%20variable%20star%20is%20simply,the%20Sun%27s%20case%20for%20example).

White Dwarfs
Crockett, C., & Crockett, C. (2023, April 25). What are white dwarf stars? How do they form?
EarthSky | Updates on Your Cosmos and World. https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/white-
dwarfs-are-the-cores-of-dead-stars/?
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3MCfo#:~:text=White%20dwarfs%20are%20the%20hot,most%20stars%2C%20including
%20our%20sun
Thakur, V. (2023, October 19). What is a white dwarf? Science ABC.
https://www.scienceabc.com/nature/universe/what-is-a-white-dwarf.html?
fbclid=IwAR381yV3rI97K5vDMFuFEP8e7AZAq1uamyKYf6yl_xNfBmX7dc-nyEDm0m8

Neutron Star
Briggs, A., & Briggs, A. (2023, March 28). What is a neutron star? How do they form? EarthSky
| Updates on Your Cosmos and World. https://earthsky.org/astronomy-essentials/definition-what-
is-a-neutron-star/?fbclid=IwAR0rBU6sa_yiG0o45W-qpXhNpIIUd-Yyx_3-
Xwo5YMRZ7gYi6DQBuzZ5hag#:~:text=When%20a%20massive%20star
%20explodes,exploded%20stars%20are%20neutron%20stars

Black Holes
The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica. (2024, January 15). Black hole | Definition, Formation,
Types, Pictures, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/black-
hole
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