Geography as a

Discipline
Geography as a Discipline

Geography is the study of the relationships between places and people and their
environments. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are
there, and how they develop and change over time.
The term "geography" was first coined by Eratosthenes (276-194 BC), a Greek scholar
known as the "Father of Geography".

“Geography” => “Geo” (Earth) + “Graphos” (Description) = Description of the Earth.

Geography as a Discipline

Geography as a subject deals with three sets of questions

• Some questions are related to the recognition of patterns of natural and cultural
features found on the surface of the earth.
• Some questions are related to the distribution of natural and human/cultural
features on the Earth's surface.
• The third question is related to the explanation or causal relationship between
features and processes/events.
Different Branches of Geography
Relationship of Geography with other disciplines

Every discipline, All the branches of physical geography have interface with
concerned with natural sciences such as geology, meteorology, hydrology and
scientific pedology.
knowledge, is
linked with
Branches of human geography have close links with social
geography as many
sciences. For example: population geography is closely linked
of their elements
with the discipline of demography.
vary over space.
Relationship of Geography with other disciplines
The Universe

The universe is a vast expanse of space that contains all matter and energy in
existence.But the exact size of the universe is still unknown. Scientists believe that the
universe is expanding outwards.
Different Views on the Universe

Geocentric View: Geocentric means

earth-centric.

Heliocentric View: Heliocentric means

sun-centric.

Aristarchus, a Greek philosopher, was the

first to put forward a heliocentric view of
the universe.
Big Bang Theory

It is a theory that explains how the

universe began. It is considered to be
the best-supported theory on the
origin of the universe.

• The universe came into existence

around 13.8 billion years ago
• The theory proposes that the
universe started as a single point
called as singularity. Singularity is
infinite mass with zero volume.
Therefore, it has infinite density.
Big Bang Theory

During the Big Bang, the

single point inflated and
exploded violently. This
resulted in expansion of the
universe.

During the initial seconds

after the explosion, the
expansion of the universe
was rapid.After a
considerable time, the
expansion slowed down.
Evidence Supporting Big Bang
When white light emitted from
a galaxy is captured as red light
Galaxies in another galaxy, it means that
“Red-Shifted”: In the distance between the
1929, Edwin galaxies has increased.
Hubble
discovered that This is because the white light
the galaxies has travelled a larger distance
appeared to be from the time of its origin. As a
moving away at result, the wavelength of the
speeds light has changed over time.
proportional to
their distance. The light from these galaxies
This is called gets shifted to a redder
Hubble’s law. wavelength.
Evidence Supporting Big Bang

Cosmic Microwave
The light arises from the
Background
heat radiation. The heat is
Radiation: It is a
supposed to be left over
faint glow of light
from the Big Bang event.
present in the
Universe. It was
discovered in 1965
by American
astronomers Arno
Penzias and Robert
Wilson.
Key Concepts

VIBGYOR: White light is formed from

seven colors- VIBGYOR (violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red). Red
has the longest wavelength and the
shortest frequency within the visible
spectrum of colors.
Red Shift: When an object is moving away
from us, the light from the object is
known as redshift.

Blue Shift: When an object is moving

towards us, the light from the object is
known as blueshift. Astronomers use
redshift and blueshift to deduce how far
an object is away from Earth.
Galaxies
A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar systems.
A galaxy is held together by gravity.
Types of Galaxies

Spiral Galaxies Elliptical Galaxies Irregular Galaxies

Spiral Galaxies

They are flat, disc-shaped with curved spiral

arms.

They have great concentration of stars at the

centre.

They are actively forming stars.

Example: Milky Way

Elliptical Galaxies

The shapes vary from almost circular to highly

elongated.
They possess comparatively little gas and dust.

They contain older stars and are not actively

forming stars anymore.
They are the most abundant in the universe.
Irregular Galaxies

They are neither disk-like nor elliptical. They are

irregularly shaped.

They have very little dust.

Milky Way

It is a huge Size: Around 1,00,000 light-years across (1 light year= 9,460 billion
collection of kilometres).
stars, dust and
gas. It is the Age: Around 13.6 billion years.
galaxy in which
our solar
system is Type: Spiral Galaxy.
located.
Milky Way

Sagittarius A*: It is a supermassive black hole. Located in the

middle of the Milky Way Galaxy. Everything in the galaxy revolves
around this black hole.
Galactic Bulge: In the immediate surrounding of the Sagittarius A,
Structure there is a tightly packed region of gas, dust, and stars. This space is
known as the galactic bulge.
Galactic Disc: Beyond the bulge, there is the galactic disc. The
galactic disc hosts billions of stars, including our Sun.

Closest Neighbouring Galaxy: Andromeda. It is a spiral galaxy.

Stars
A star is a giant, glowing ball of gas and dust held together by gravity.

Composition: They are mainly composed of hydrogen and helium.

Characteristics Size and Temperature: They vary in size, mass and temperature.

Color: The color of the star is determined by its temperature. The

hottest stars appear blue, while the coldest stars appear red.
Life Cycle of a Star
Life Cycle of a Star

The life cycle of a particular star depends on its

size.
Nebula: A star is formed from huge clouds of
dust and gas in space, also known as nebula.
Nebulae are mostly made of hydrogen. That
gravity starts pulling the dust and gas together.

Protostar: As the mass is lost, it becomes hot,

when it is so hot that the nuclei of hydrogen
start fusing together to form helium and then a
star is formed.
Life Cycle of a Star

Main sequence star: The gravitational force

holding the star together is balanced by the high
pressure due to the high temperature.
Red giant star: When all the hydrogen is used up
in the fusion process, larger nuclei begin to form
and the star may expand to become a red giant.
White Dwarf: When all nuclear reactions cease,
a small star like the Sun may begin to shrink
under the influence of gravity. In this case, the
star becomes a white dwarf. Eventually it stops
emitting heat or light and turns into a black
dwarf.
Life Cycle of a Star
Supernova: A larger star with more mass will go
on making nuclear reactions, getting hotter and
expanding until it explodes as a supernova.
Neutron star or black hole: Depending on the
mass at the start of its life, a supernova will
leave behind either a neutron star or a black
hole.
• After the explosion, the core of the star
remains. If the surviving core is between 1.5 -
3 solar masses, it contracts to become a
Neutron Star.
• If the surviving core is larger than 3 solar
masses, it may form a Black Hole.
• Black holes are places in space that are so
dense and have such immense gravity that
even light cannot pass through them. The
area beyond which nothing can escape a
black hole is called the Event Horizon.
Constellations

A constellation Naming: These are generally named after objects, animals, and
is a group of even mythological figures.
stars with a
Number: At present, there are 88 officially recognized
constant shape.
constellations.
The visibility of
a particular Uses: The constellations are used to name stars, meteor showers,
constellation and navigation.
depends on the
location and Examples: Ursa Major, Orion, Hunter, Ursa Minor, and The Little
time. bear.
Solar System
The solar system is a collection of planets, moons, asteroids, comets, dust and gas
that orbit our local star, the sun.
Origin and Evolution of the Solar System

Theory Year Proponent Details

A slowly rotating cloud of gas and matter

composed of cold, solid, and motionless
particles.Due to gravity, the particles started
colliding with each other.This induced angular
Gaseous Immanuel momentum generated heat and the cloud began
1755
Hypothesis Kant to rotate.It started spinning so fast that irregular
rings started separating from the central part.The
residual central part formed the Sun. The outer
planets and satellites gradually evolved from the
rings.
Origin and Evolution of the Solar System
Theory Year Proponent Details

The planets were formed out of a cloud of

Nebular material associated with a youthful sun, which
1796 Laplace
Hypothesis was slowly rotating

There were two stars – a protostar and a

companion star. When the companion star came
close to the protostar, many small particles were
Planetesimal T.C
1905 ejected from the outer surface of the
hypothesis Chamberlin
protostar.These isolated particles were called
planetesimals. As the planets added, they
eventually grew in size and formed the planets.
Origin and Evolution of the Solar System

Theory Year Proponent Details

There were two stars – the primordial Sun (early

stage of the Sun) and a large intruding star. The
intruding star came very close to the primordial
1919;
Tidal James star.When the intruding star was closest,
modified
Hypothesis Jeans cigar-shaped hot gaseous particles were ripped
in 1929
off the primordial Sun. It was called filament.
Large gaseous planets form in the center of this
filament.
Origin and Evolution of the Solar System
Theory Year Proponent Details

There were two stars near the primitive Sun. The

companion star, which revolved around the Sun,
Binary Star
1937 H.N. Russel ejected mass under the influence of another star
Hypothesis
approaching towards it with high speed. This
ejected mass eventually formed planets.
There was a primitive Sun and a companion star.
The companion star exploded due to nuclear
Supernova processes, and it produced a cloud of
1946 F. Hoyle
Hypothesis incandescent gases. These particles eventually
formed the planets after gradual cooling over
billions of years.
The Sun

Age: It is believed to be 5 billion years old.

Composition: Mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. It has a

It is the central
liquid inner section surrounded by a gaseous outer covering.
celestial body of
our Solar System.
It is a star. Size: It has a diameter of 13,92,000 km.
Temperature: Varies from 15 million degrees Celsius at the core
to 5,500 degrees Celsius at the surface.
Layers of the Sun
Core

Inner Layer Radiative Zone

Convection
Zone
It has two primary layers
Photosphere

Chromosphere
Outer layer
Transition
Region

Corona
Inner Layer

Core: It is the central region of the Sun where

nuclear reactions take place and hydrogen is
converted into helium. It is the hottest part of
the Sun and the entire Solar System.

Radiative Zone: It lies between the innermost

core and the outer convective zone.
Convection Zone: In this region the energy flows
out by the process of convection.The plasma
(ionized gases—hydrogen and helium) at the
base of this region becomes so hot that hot air
rises to the surface (the photosphere).
Outer layer

Photosphere: It is the solar surface. The light is

radiated from the photosphere.
Chromosphere: It lies 2100 km above the
photosphere.

Transition Region: It is the region between the

chromosphere and corona where temperature
rises abruptly from, 7700 to 500,000 degrees
Celsius.
Corona: It is the outermost layer of the Sun. The
corona cannot be seen with the naked eye
except during a total solar eclipse.
Associated Concepts

Sun Spots: Sunspots are dark patches on the surface of the Sun. They are dark
because they are cooler than the surroundings.

Solar Wind: It is a stream of plasma flowing outward from the Sun’s corona. It is
formed when the plasma is heated to the extent that the Sun’s gravity cannot hold it
anymore.

Coronal mass ejection (CME): It is the release of plasma and magnetic field from the
Sun’s corona. They occur when the Sun’s magnetic field lines reorganize.
Associated Concepts

Solar Cycle: It is the cycle that the Sun's magnetic field goes through, approximately
every 11 years. Every 11 years, the Sun's magnetic field completely flips, and the
Sun's north and south poles switch places.

Auroras: They are formed when the charged particles from the CME reach the
earth’s atmosphere and react with the different gases. Lights seen near the North
Pole are called aurora borealis or northern lights.Lights near the South Pole are
called aurora australis or southern lights.
Geomagnetic Storm

About Geomagnetic storm are disturbances of Earth’s magnetosphere

Geomagnetic caused by the release of a high-speed stream of solar wind that
storm emerges from the coronal holes of the sun.

The radiations interact with Earth’s magnetic field and affects the
communication satellites.
Effects of
Geomagnetic
storm The radiations affect space-dependent technologies. Example:
GPS, Radio, Flights, Electricity networks, etc. Affect the health
conditions of the astronauts.
Strong Thermal Emission Velocity Enhancement
(STEVE)

Context: STEVE or About STEVE: Aurora-like phenomenon that leads to a

Strong Thermal purple and green ribbon of light in the sky.
Emission Velocity
Enhancement is a rare
cosmic phenomenon About Auroras: These are luminous electromagnetic
seen after a huge solar phenomenon (greenish, white, violet, purple colour) in the
storm hit Earth. upper layers of the atmosphere.
Comparative Difference between STEVE and Auroras
Features STEVE
Occurrence ● The phenomenon is caused by a
wide ribbon of hot plasma
moving at a very speed in the
upper atmosphere
Observed ● Closer to the equator.
NB: Also observed in New Zealand,
Canada, Alaska and UK between
October and February.
Layer of ● Appears significantly lower in
Atmosphere the atmosphere in Ionosphere.
Year ● It was first spotted in 2017 and
Spotted has appeared often since.
Auroras
● Caused by the interaction of
energetic particles of solar
wind with atoms in the upper
atmosphere.
● High latitudes of both
hemispheres.
● Can occur in Ionosphere,
Thermosphere and Exosphere.
● A very old phenomenon
The Planets

Planets are celestial bodies that orbit around a star in an elliptical path. There are
eight planets and five dwarf planets in our solar system which orbit the Sun.
• Dwarf Planets: The main difference between a planet and a dwarf planet is its size.
The dwarf planets are small. They don't have a distinct orbital path.
• Exoplanets: Planets outside our Solar System are called exoplanets.
Classification of Planets
Inner Planets: Mercury, They are made up of a solid surface.
Venus, Earth and Mars
orbit near the Sun and are
called Inner Planets. The
inner planets are also They are dense. There is a presence of an iron core.
called Terrestrial
(Earth-Like) Planets.
Classification of Planets

Outer Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, They do not have a solid surface.

Uranus, and Neptune are called
Outer Planets. The outer planets are
called Jovian (Jupiter-like) Planets. They are less dense as they are made up of
gases.
Classification of Planets

Planet Order Time Time No. of No. Other Facts

from the taken for Taken for Moons of
Sun rotation revolutio Rings
n
Fastest planet in our
59 earth 88 earth solar system that travels
Mercury 1 0 0
days days through space at 47
kilometres per second
Classification of Planets

Planet Order Time Time No. of No. Other Facts

from the taken for Taken for Moons of
Sun rotation revolutio Rings
n
• Hottest planet in our
solar system
• It rotates on its axis
243 225
backward. This
Venus 2 earth earth 0 0
implies that, on
days. days
Venus, the Sun rises
on the West and sets
on the East.
Classification of Planets

Planet Order Time Time No. of No. Other Facts

from the taken for Taken for Moons of
Sun rotation revolutio Rings
n
• Shape: Oblate
Spheroid
• Fifth-Largest Planet
About 24 About
Earth 3 1 0 • It is the only planet in
hours 365 days
the solar system with
liquid water on its
surface
Classification of Planets
Planet Order Time Time No. of No. Other Facts
from the taken for Taken for Moons of
Sun rotation revolutio Rings
n
2 Appears like a reddish
Little 687
(Phobos ball due to iron minerals
Mars 4 over 24 earth 0
and on its surface
hours days
Deimos)
80 • Largest planet in our
Ganyme Yes solar system.
About 10 12 earth
Jupiter 5 de is • Mainly composed of
hours years
the gas and liquid and
largest has no solid surface
Classification of Planets
Planet Order Time Time No. of No. Other Facts
from the taken for Taken for Moons of
Sun rotation revolutio Rings
n
83 Composed of gas and
10.7 29 earth Titan is Yes does not have a solid
Saturn 6
hours years the (7) surface
largest
Known as the “Ice Giant”
as most of its mass is a
84 Earth Yes
Uranus 7 17 hours 27 hot, dense fluid of icy
years (13)
materials-water,
methane, and ammonia
Classification of Planets

Planet Order Time Time No. of No. Other Facts

from the taken for Taken for Moons of
Sun rotation revolutio Rings
n
Known as Uranus’s twin
165 because of the striking
Yes
Neptune 8 16 hours earth 14 similarity in size,
(9)
years structure, and
composition
Kuiper Belt

It is a donut-shaped region that lies beyond

Neptune’s orbit, from 30 to 55 AU.
• It contains hundreds of icy bodies called
Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) or
Trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs). They are
remnants of the formation of the solar
system
• There are four dwarf planets in the Kuiper
Belt viz. Pluto, Makemake, Haumea, and Eris.
Ceres is another dwarf planet located in the
main asteroid belt.
Pluto

It is the largest Time taken to rotate on its axis: Six earth days
among dwarf
planets Time taken to revolve around the sun: 248 earth years
No. of Moons: 5. Charon is the largest
Rings: No
Note: 1 AU, or astronomical unit, is the distance from Earth to the Sun, which is
around 150 million km
Asteroids and Comets

Asteroids: These are They are remnants left over from the early formation of
small, rocky objects that our solar system about 4.6 billion years ago.
orbit the Sun. They are
also called minor planets.
Examples: Vesta, Eros, Bennu

Asteroids occurring in the main asteroid belt, between Mars

and Jupiter
Types of Asteroids Trojans: asteroids that share an orbit with a giant planet
Near-Earth asteroids. Asteroids that orbit close to the earth.
Examples: Bennu, Apophis
Asteroids and Comets

Comets:These are large objects made up of

frozen gas, dust, and rock that orbit the sun.

• Hailey’s comet is the most popular comet,

which can be seen from the earth every 75
years.
• In 2021, a new comet called
Bernardinelli-Bernstein comet was identified.
It is the biggest comet ever observed.
Difference between Asteroid and Comet
Asteroid
These are rocky objects.
They have an elliptical orbit
The orbital period is 1 to 100 years
They are smaller in size
They do not produce a tail.
Comet
These objects are made up of frozen gas, dust
etc
They have eccentric orbit
The orbital period can be 75 years to more than
100,000 years.
They are large in size.
They form a tail that stretches in a direction
away from the Sun.
Meteors, Meteoroids and Meteorites

Meteoroids: These are space rocks. They range in size from dust grains to small
asteroids.

Meteor: When meteoroids enter the earth’s atmosphere or any other planet, it is
called a meteor. Meteors are also popularly known as shooting stars.

Meteorite: When a meteor survives in the atmosphere and hits the ground, it is
called a meteorite.
Geological History of the Earth
Geological Time Scale: It is the “calendar” of the events in Earth history. It divides the
time into eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages-in descending order of duration.
Meghalayan Age

Geologists have classified the last 4,200 years as being a distinct age in the earth’s
history.

The onset of the age was marked by mega drought and cooling which resulted in the
collapse of civilisations in Egypt, Greece, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, the Indus
Valley, and the Yangtze River Valley
Geographical Grid,
Latitude and
Longitude
Geographical Grid
It is a set of imaginary lines placed at specific points on the planet. It is used to
establish exact coordinates for every location on Earth.
Geographical Grid

Latitudes And Longitudes Are Measured In Degrees (°) As They Represent Angular
Distances.
Each Degree Is Further Divided Into 60 Minutes (‘) And Each Minute Into 60 Seconds
(“).
The Value Of Each Longitude Is Followed By Either East Or West.

The Value Of Each Latitude Is Followed By Either North Or South.

Latitude

Latitude is a geographic coordinate that

measures the distance of a location on Earth
from the Equator.

• It is measured with 180 imaginary lines

known as parallels.
• Each parallel measures one degree north or
south of the Equator, with 90 degrees north
of the Equator and 90 degrees south of the
Equator.
• One degree of latitude covers about 111
kilometres.
Latitude

It is the line of 0 degrees latitude.

The equator divides the earth into

Equator two equal halves, the Northern
Hemisphere and the Southern
Hemisphere. it is also called the Great
Circle.

North and South Pole: The latitude of the North

Pole is 90 degrees N. The latitude of the South
Pole is 90 degrees S.
Latitude

Tropic of Cancer: It is
Tropics: These are positioned approximately
geographic at 23.5 degrees north of
locations that mark the equator.
the northernmost
and southernmost
latitudes where the Tropic of Capricorn: It is
sun can be seen positioned approximately
directly overhead at 23.5 degrees south of
during a solstice. the equator.
Latitude

Arctic Circle: It is a parallel of latitude on the

Earth at approximately 66.5 degrees north of the
equator.

Antarctic Circle: It is a parallel of latitude on the

Earth at approximately 66.5 degrees south of the
equator.
Longitude

Longitude is the measurement east or west of

the prime meridian.
• Longitude is measured by imaginary lines that
run around Earth vertically and meet at the
North and South Poles. These lines are known
as meridians.
• A degree of longitude is about 111 kilometres
at its widest.
• The widest areas of longitude are near the
Equator, where Earth bulges out.
• All meridians meet at the North and South
Poles.
Longitude

Prime Meridian: The meridian that runs through

Greenwich, England, is internationally accepted
as the line of 0 degrees longitude, or prime
meridian.
Half of the world, the Eastern
Hemisphere, is measured in
Eastern and degrees east of the prime
Western meridian.
Hemisphere The other half, the Western
Hemisphere, in degrees west of
the prime meridian.
Longitude

International Date Line: The place where the

day starts is the International Date Line.
• It is an imaginary line passing from the North
Pole to the South Pole in the middle of the
Pacific Ocean.
• It passes approximately the 180° meridian of
longitude.
• There are 24 standardized time zones, one for
each hour of the earth's rotation
Longitude and Measurement of Time

As the earth rotates from

The Prime meridian west to east, those places
is taken as the east of Greenwich are
point of reference ahead of the GMT and
for calculating time. those to the west are
The time measured behind it.
at the Prime
The earth rotates 360° in
Meridian is called
about 24 hours, which
the Greenwich
means 15° an hour or 1° in
Mean Time (GMT).
four minutes.
Daylight Saving Time

In some regions (countries in the extreme north

and south), clocks are advanced in summer
months by one hour. This practice is known as
daylight saving time.
• Rationale:
• Better use of daytime
• Saves energy as use of artificial lighting is
lessened.
• Countries where practised: USA, Canada,
European Union Countries, Argentina, Cuba,
etc
Different Motions
of the Earth
Rotation

The spinning movement of the earth around its

axis is called rotation.

• The earth spins or rotates from west to east

in a counter clockwise direction.
• The earth takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4
seconds to complete one rotation on its axis.
• The period of the rotation is called day or
earth day.
• The circle that divides the day from the night
is called the circle of illumination.
Significance of Earth’s Rotation

Creates the diurnal cycle of lightness and darkness, temperature and humidity
changes. This makes life possible on earth.
Drives the movement of water in the oceans.

Responsible for deflection of tides.

Responsible for the general circulation in the earth’s atmosphere.

Deflects wind and ocean currents.

They are deflected towards the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
Southern Hemisphere.
Revolution

The movement of the earth along its elliptical

orbit around the Sun is called revolution.

• The earth takes 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes

to complete one revolution around the Sun.
This amount of time taken by earth to revolve
is called a year.
Revolution

Leap Year: A year with 366 days is called a leap year.

6 hours and 9 minutes are ignored for our convenience, and 365 days are taken into
account as one year.

The six hours saved every year are added to make one day over four years. Every 4th
year, this extra day is added to February, and it has an extra day (29 days).
Significance of Earth’s Revolution

The revolution of the earth causes seasons.

Causes aphelion and perihelion.

An imaginary line passing from the North Pole through Earth's centre to the South
Pole is called the axis of the earth. The axis is not straight, but inclines at an angle of
23.5°. This means it makes an angle of 66.5° with its orbital plane (the plane formed
by the orbit).
Aphelion and Perihelion

Aphelion: During its revolution around the sun, the earth is farthest from the sun
(152 million km) on 4th July. This position of the earth is called aphelion.
Perihelion: On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). This
position is called perihelion
Seasons

There are mainly four
seasons experienced by
Earth-Summer, Winter,
Spring and Autumn. The
change in seasons is due to
the relative change in the
position of the Earth as it
revolves around the Sun.
When the vertical or direct rays of the sun fall over a
place, the place is hotter.
When the sun rays are oblique or slanting, the heat is
spread over a larger area. As a result, the place is
cooler.
Seasons
Months Northern Hemisphere
• Direct sun rays
• More heat; warm weather
conditions
• Summers
June to August • Places beyond the Arctic
Circle till the North Pole
experience continuous
daylight for about six
months.
Southern Hemisphere
• Oblique sun rays
• Less heat, cool weather
conditions
• Winters
• Places beyond the Antarctic
Circle till the South Pole
experience night for about
six months
Seasons

Months Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

• Oblique sun rays
• Less heat, cool conditions
• Winters
• Places beyond the Arctic
December to
Circle till the North Pole
February
experience night for about
six months
• Direct sun rays
• More heat; warm weather
conditions
• Summers
• Places beyond the Antarctic
Circle till the South Pole
experience continuous
daylight for about six
months.
Seasons

Months Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

• Sun shines equally on both • Sun shines equally on both
September to
hemispheres hemispheres
November
• Autumn • Spring
• Sun shines equally on both • Sun shines equally on both
March to May hemispheres hemispheres
• Spring • Autumn
Solstices and Equinoxes

Summer Solstice
• On 21st June, the Sun is vertical over the
Tropic of Cancer. For every place, above the
Tropic of Cancer, the sun is at the highest
point in the sky.
• The Tropic of Cancer receives direct rays of
the sun as the North Pole is tilted towards the
sun.
• On this day, the Northern Hemisphere
experiences the longest day. The sun does not
set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle. This
event is called the Summer Solstice.
Solstices and Equinoxes

Winter Solstice

• On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn

receives direct rays of the sun as the South
Pole is tilted towards the sun.
• The sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of
Capricorn. The sun does not set below the
horizon at the Antarctic Circle. This event is
called the Winter Solstice.
Solstices and Equinoxes

Equinoxes

• The equinoxes occur in March (March 21)

and September (September 23).
• These are the days when the Sun is exactly
above the Equator, which makes day and
night of equal length.
• 23rd September is the Autumn Equinox,
while 21st March is the Spring Equinox.
MCQs

1. Consider the following Passage:

The origin of the universe and everything in it including ourselves on the premise
that the universe contained many millions of galaxies, each one ‘having
thousands of millions of stars and each star having numerous planets around
them.’ According to this theory everything in the universe emerged from the
point known as singularity, 15 million years ago.
Which one of the following theories is best described in the passage given above?
(a) Nebular hypothesis
(b) Big Bang Theory
(c) Gaseous hypothesis
(d) Binary star Theory
MCQs

1. Consider the following Passage:

The origin of the universe and everything in it including ourselves on the premise
that the universe contained many millions of galaxies, each one ‘having
thousands of millions of stars and each star having numerous planets around
them.’ According to this theory everything in the universe emerged from the
point known as singularity, 15 million years ago.
Which one of the following theories is best described in the passage given above?
(a) Nebular hypothesis
(b) Big Bang Theory
(c) Gaseous hypothesis
(d) Binary star Theory
MCQs

2. Which of the following is/are the features of elliptical type of galaxies?

1. They are filled with lots of bright young stars.
2. They are the largest and most common galaxies observed.
3. Our home galaxy, the Milky Way galaxy is a very good example of elliptical
galaxy.
Select the correct code using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 3 only
MCQs

2. Which of the following is/are the features of elliptical type of galaxies?

1. They are filled with lots of bright young stars.
2. They are the largest and most common galaxies observed.
3. Our home galaxy, the Milky Way galaxy is a very good example of elliptical
galaxy.
Select the correct code using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 3 only
MCQs

3. With reference to our solar system, consider the following statements:

1. Asteroids are smaller than a planet, but they are larger than meteoroids.
2. Meteorites can form when two or more asteroids collide.
3. Vredefort crater is an impact crater located on the southern hemisphere of
moon.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
MCQs

3. With reference to our solar system, consider the following statements:

1. Asteroids are smaller than a planet, but they are larger than meteoroids.
2. Meteorites can form when two or more asteroids collide.
3. Vredefort crater is an impact crater located on the southern hemisphere of
moon.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
MCQs

4. With reference to the planets of our Solar System, consider the following:
1. Venus is considered as the hottest planet of Solar System.
2. Mars has an active surface with many active volcanoes.
3. Uranus is the only planet that rolls on its side.
4. Neptune is blue in colour due to the presence of methane here.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
MCQs

4. With reference to the planets of our Solar System, consider the following:
1. Venus is considered as the hottest planet of Solar System.
2. Mars has an active surface with many active volcanoes.
3. Uranus is the only planet that rolls on its side.
4. Neptune is blue in colour due to the presence of methane here.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
MCQs

5. Consider the following passage:

The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on
decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of
Cancer and Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, and Tropic of Capricorn
and Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere have moderate temperatures.
Which one of the following heat zones of the Earth is being referred to in the passage
given above?
(a) Torrid Zone
(b) Polar Zone
(c) Frigid Zone
(d) Temperate Zone
MCQs

5. Consider the following passage:

The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on
decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas bounded by the Tropic of
Cancer and Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, and Tropic of Capricorn
and Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere have moderate temperatures.
Which one of the following heat zones of the Earth is being referred to in the passage
given above?
(a) Torrid Zone
(b) Polar Zone
(c) Frigid Zone
(d) Temperate Zone
Thank you