LESSON 2: UNIVERSE

The Galaxy
The Evolution of the Universe

Learning outcomes:
 identify the Evolution of the Universe and different
heavenly bodies;
 define the different types of Galaxy;
 determine the Chronological Events of the Evolution
of the universe; and
 differentiate the Astronomy and Astrology

Topic Discussion:
The Universe

The Galaxy
The known universe contains an estimated 100 billions galaxies. They are grouped in massive clusters and separated
by vast empty spaces. Astronomers study galaxies to learn about the structure of the universe. Galaxies are huge collections
of billions of stars. Our sun is a part of Milky Way Galaxy. Galaxies also contain dark strips of dust and may contain huge
black holes at their centers. Galaxies exist in different shapes and sizes. Some galaxies are spirals, some are oval, or elliptical,
and some are irregular. The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy. Galaxies tend to group together in clusters.
Galaxy, a massive ensemble of hundreds of millions stars, all gravitationally interacting, and orbiting about a common
center. Astronomers estimate that there are 125 billion galaxies in the universe. All the stars visible to the unaided eye from
Earth belong to Earth’s galaxy, the milky way. The Sun, with its associated planets, is just a star in this galaxy. Besides stars
and planets, galaxies contain clusters of stars; atomic hydrogen gas; molecular hydrogen; complex molecules composed of
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and silicon, among others, and cosmic rays.

Evolution of Universe
The universe is thought to have exploded into existence 15 billion years ago at the Big Bang. The Big Bang Theory
states that the universe began to expand with the explosion of concentrated matter and energy in the universe was once
concentrated into a single space. This place of course was extremely hot and dense. Then some 15 billion years ago, an
explosion –the Big Bang-shot concentrated matter and energy in all directions. The fastest moving matter travelled farthest
away. Energy too, began moving away from the area of the Big Bang. Three minutes late, atomic nuclei, the center of the
atoms, begin to form out of the soup of sub-atomic particles. Three hundred thousand years after the Big Bang, the first ripples
of matter emerged. One billion years after the Big Bang, the first galaxy evolved. Light from the stars begin to journey across
space. Thirteen billion years ago, the stars of Milky way form from the break-up of a vast cloud of helium and hydrogen. And
then 4.6 billion years ago, the solar system was born out of the whirling cloud of gas studded with ice and rocks. 3.8 billion
years ago, life evolved on earth. The only planet in the universe to support the living things.
 LESSON 2: UNIVERSE
The Solar System
The Sun
Learning outcomes:
 determine the different types of heavenly bodies;
 determine the structure,surface features of the sun;
 identify the members of Solar System and its features; and
 differentiate the Inner Planets and the Jovian Planets

Topic Discussion:
The Solar System

The Solar System is made up of sun, its planets, satellites, asteroids, meteoroids and comets. Each of these bodies are held
to each other by the force of gravity.

Members of Solar System

Members of the Solar System includes the Sun and everything that orbits it like planets, their satellites, asteroids, comets,
interplanetary gas and dust. The sun is the most largest part of the solar system, the other principal members of the solar
system are the major planets.

Sun
A star that is the basis of the solar system and that sustain life on Earth, being the source of heat and light.

The sun’s mass is 99.8 percent of all the mass in the solar system. Because the sun is so large, its gravity is strong
enough to hold all of the planets and other distant objects in orbit.

Unlike Earth, the sun does not have a solid surface. Like Earth, the sun has an interior and an atmosphere.
The sun’s interior consists of the core, radiation zone, and convection zone. Each layer has different properties.

The sun produces an enormous amount of energy in its core, or central region. The sun’s energy comes from
nuclear fusion. In the process of nuclear fusion, hydrogen atoms in the sun join to form helium.

The light and heat produced by the sun’s core first pass through the middle layer of the sun’s interior, the radiation
zone. The radiation zone is a region of very tightly packed gas where energy is transferred mainly in the form of
electromagnetic radiation.
The convection zone is the outermost layer of the sun’s interior. Hot gases rise from the bottom of the convection zone and
gradually cool as they approach the top. Cooler gases sink, forming loops of gas that move heat toward the sun’s surface.

The sun’s atmosphere consists of the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona. The inner layer of the
sun’s atmosphere is called the photosphere. Photo means “light,” so the photosphere is the sphere that gives off visible
light.

At the beginning and end of a solar eclipse, you can see a reddish glow around the photosphere. This glow comes
from the middle layer of the sun’s atmosphere, the chromosphere. Chromomeans “color,” so the chromosphere is the “color
sphere.” During a total solar eclipse, a fainter layer called the corona is visible. The corona sends out a stream of
electrically charged particles called solar wind.

Features on or above the sun’s surface include sunspots, prominences, and solar flares. Sunspots are areas
of gas on the sun that are cooler than the gas around them. Sunspots usually occur in groups. Reddish loops of gas called
prominences link different parts of sunspot regions. Sometimes the loops in sunspot regions suddenly connect, releasing
large amounts of energy. The energy heats gas on the sun to millions of degrees Celsius, causing the gas to explode into
space. These explosions are known as solar flares. Solar flares can greatly increase the solar wind.

Planets
The planets are the Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The planets orbiting nearer
the sun than the Earth are called inferior planets, those whose orbits are larger are called superior planets. The planets
move almost in circular elliptical orbits based on the force of gravity. The sun’s gravitational pull is the most powerful
gravitational force in the solar system.

The other heavenly bodies have a much smaller gravitational force on one another called perturbations. The planet
orbit the sun in the counterclockwise direction. A planets year is the time required for it to complete one full orbit around
the sun. This is referred to as the planet’s revolution. All the planets rotate about their own axes as they revolve around the
sun, The planets are grouped according to their physical properties.
Terrestrial Planets:
The inner planets Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called the terrestrial planet which means earthlike planets.
They are dense and small in size. They have solid, rocky crusts and interiors of metal. Except for Mercury, they have gaseous
atmospheres from which lighter elements have escaped because of the low gravitational force.

Jovian Planets:

The Jovian planets are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. They orbit far from the sun. These planets have no solid
surfaces and are essentially large balls of gas composed primarily of hydrogen and helium with traces of methane, ammonia,
water, and other gases in their atmospheres.. They are much larger than the terrestrial planets (Earth, Mercury, Venus, and
Mars)

Mercury:
Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun. It is around 36 million miles (58 million km) from the sun and takes 88 days
for Mercury to orbit the Sun. It has a diameter of about 3,000 miles or 4,800 kilometers. Small amounts of carbon dioxide have
been detected on its atmosphere. Its rotation on its axis is equal to 59tth earth days. This results in periods of daylight and
night of 90 earth days.
Temperature during the day get as high as 800 degrees Fahrenheit or 450 degrees Celsius. Night temperatures are
thought to get as low as 300 degrees Fahrenheit or 180 degrees Celsius.

Venus: Veiled Planet

Venus is a second largest planet from the sun. It is about .67 million miles or 108 million kilometres from the sun.
Venus year equal about 225 days and is the amount of time takes Venus to orbit around the sun. It comes closer to the earth
than any other place.

It is covered with a thick layer of clouds and has a surface temperature of 890 degrees Fahrenheit or 476 degrees
Celsius. The cloud layer hold the heat and keeps the planet much hotter than the earth. The thick atmosphere made up
mainly of carbon dioxide, with a slight amount of water vapour and bit of nitrogen and other elements. Venus rotates on its
axis 243 earth days. The temperature is very similar on the lit (daytime) unlit ( nighttime) parts of the planet.

Earth
Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to harbor life. According to radiometric
dating estimation and other evidence, Earth formed over 4.5 billion years ago. Earth's gravity interacts with other objects in
space, especially the Sun and the Moon, which is Earth's only natural satellite. Earth orbits around the Sun in 365.256 solar
days, a period known as an Earth sidereal year. During this time, Earth rotates about its axis 366.256 times, that is, a sidereal
year has 366.256 sidereal days.[n 6]
Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to its orbital plane, producing seasons on Earth. The gravitational interaction
between Earth and the Moon causes tides, stabilizes Earth's orientation on its axis, and gradually slows its rotation. Earth is
the densest planet in the Solar System and the largest and most massive of the four rocky planets.

Mars: Red Planet

Mar is the fourth planet from the sun., with an orbit next in order beyond that of earth.
Mars is red in appearance due to oxides in its crust and is easiest to see opposite the sun. Furthermore it has a diameter of
4,200 miles or 6,800 kilometers, just over half the diameter of the earth , and its mass is only 11% of the earth’s mass.
Mars has a very thin atmosphere made up of carbon dioxide, with some nitrogen and argon and it has an extreme day-to-
night temperature range, resulting from its thin atmosphere, from about 80 degrees Fahrenheit or 73 degrees Celsius at noon
to about -100 degrees Fahrenheit 73- degrees Celsius at midnight the high daytime temperatures are only present at less
than 3 feet or 1 meter above the surface.

This planet has hot spots under the crust. This may explain volcano activity thought to be on Mars. There is evidence
that Mars may have been warmer several billion years ago and that there may have lakes, river, etc. That would have worn
away the surface of Mars. It has seasons like the earth. This shows up in the areas of the poles where there are thin polar
caps that get smaller during Mars summer and whiter and bigger during its winter. Mars is about 141 million miles 228 million
kilometers from the sun. Its orbits the sun in 687 days, which makes its year twice as long as ours or two of our earth day in
length-about 24 hours.
Mars has two moons discovered. The innermost, Phobos, and the outermost moon, Deimos.
Jupiter: Largest Planet

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun and largest planet of the solar system. Its orbit is about 484 million miles or
778 million kilometers from the sun. It orbit the sun every 12 years. In order from the sun it is the first of the Jovian planets
so they a thick atmosphere.Jupiter has a diameter of 88,800 miles or 143,000 kilometers, its mass is 318 times that of the
earth and about 2 ½ times the mass of all other planet combined. The atmosphere of the Jupiter is made up mostly of
Hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia. The atmosphere seems to have a number of light and dark bands parallel to its
equator.

Jupiter has no solid rock surface. One theory is that there is a gradual transition from the outer ammonia clouds to a
thick layer of frozen gases and finally to a liquid or solid hydrogen mantle. Beneath that Jupiter probably has a core of rocky
material with a mass 10-15 times that of earth . Jupiter’s day is about 10 hours. This rotation causes a polar flattening. The
temperature ranges from about -190 degrees Fahrenheit or -128 degrees Celsius for the visible surface of the atmosphere,
to 90 F (-130 C )at lower cloud levels. Certain regions reach as high as 400F (40C ) at still lower clouds levels near the equator.
Jupiter gives off four times as much heat as it gets from the sun. This heat emission may contribute to a slow contraction of
this planet. There are twenty eight moons that orbit Jupiter. Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. A second group is made up of
four innermost moons of Metis, Adrastea, Amalthea , and Thebe. The final group consist of the eight moons with orbits outside
that of Callisto: Leda , Himalia , Lysithea , Elara , Ananke , Carme , Pasiphae , and Sinope . in addition of Jupiter has three
rings.

Saturn :

Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun. Its distance from the sun is around 886 million miles or 1.43 billion kilometers
, almost twice that of Jupiter. It takes Saturn about 29 1/2 years to orbit or revolve around the sun. Saturn is covered with a
thick atmosphere made up of hydrogen and helium . Saturn’s temperature is believed to be about -270 degrees Fahrenheit
or - 168 degrees Celsius .Saturn’s day is about 10 and one half hours . This rapid rotation makes the largest polar flattening
among the planets. Saturn is the second largest planet in the solar system. Saturn’s diameter is around 75,000 miles 120,000
kilometers. Its volume is more than 700 times the volume of the earth and a mass is about 95 times that of earth although
less dense , making it lighter than water . It has five rings and eighteen known moons. Pan , Atlas , Prometheus , Pandora,
Epimetheus , Janus , Mimas , Enceladus , Tethys , Telesto , Calypso , Dione , Helene , Rhea , Titan , Hyperion , Iapetus ,
and Phoebe . More than a dozen others have been thought to exist .

Uranus: Green Planet

Uranus is the seventh planet from the sun. It is around 1.78 billion miles or 2.87 billion kilometers and orbits the sun
every 84 years. Uranus has a diameter of around 32,000 miles or 47,000 kilometers , four times that of the earth, and a mass
or weight is about 15 times that of the earth . In addition it has a thick atmosphere of hydrogen , helium , and methane .
Uranus ‘ day is around 18 hours. Its temperature is about -330 degrees Fahrenheit
or- 200 degrees Celsius , Uranus has twenty moons and 11 rings .

Neptune
It is the eighth and currently the last planet of solar system . It is about 3 billion miles or 4.5 billion kilometers from
the sun. It orbits the sun about 165 years .Neptune has a diameter of about 30,700 miles or 49,000 kilometers , nearly four
times that of the earth . Its mass is about 17 times the earth ‘s mass. It is much like Uranus as it has a thick atmosphere of
hydrogen , helium , methane , and ammonia and a rapid period of rotation. Neptune’s atmosphere has zones like Jupiter’s
and giant storm systems that look like dark spots on its surface. Its temperature is similar as well i.e -350 degrees Fahrenheit
or -212 degrees Celsius . Furthermore Neptune has eight moons and a ring system made up of three bands.

Other members of the Solar System

1. Asteroids – are small planetary bodies that revolve around the sun. They are sometimes called minor planets or
planetoids. Asteroids revolve around the sun in a zone called the asteroid belt. Asteroids have irregular shape, Ceres is
the largest asteroids.

2. Meteoroids, Meteors and Meteorites

 Meteoroids –are small pieces of metallic or stony matter. They have different speed and orbits around the
sun. Some scientist believe, they are the results of a breakup of comet. When meteoroids enters the earth’s
atmosphere the objects heat up from friction. As it falls, it begins to burn intensely. When it appears on earth,
they are called meteors.
  A meteor is the flash of light that we see in the night sky when a small chunk of interplanetary debris burns
up as it passes through our atmosphere, also known as a shooting star. Most meteoroids that enter the
Earth's atmosphere are so small that they vaporize completely and never reach the planet's surface.
Meteorites

3. Comets are icy bodies in space that release dust. They are often compared to dirty snowballs, though recent
research has led some scientists to call them snowy dirtballs. Comets contain dust, ice, carbon dioxide, ammonia,
methane and more.
 LESSON 2: UNIVERSE
The Moon
The Eclipse

Learning outcomes:
 define what is eclipse;
 identify and describe the Phases of the Moon;
 illustrate the different types of eclipse; and
 differentiate Solar and Lunar Eclipse

Topic Discussion:
Moon
The Moon, otherwise known as Luna, is the only natural satellite of Earth. It was created 4.6 billion years ago, and it is widely
accepted that it was created when Earth collided with a planet-sized object called Theia. It’s the fifth-largest moon in our solar
system and is the second brightest object in the sky (after the Sun). Due to its size and composition, the Moon is sometimes
classified as a terrestrial “planet” along with Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

Earth’s Moon is known to be a slightly egg-shaped ball composed mostly of rock and metal. The moon moves in an
elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit around the earth. For the moon to go one phase to the next similar phase-as seen from Earth it
requires 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes. This is called the Lunar Month.

The Moon Profile

orbit: 384,400 km from Earth or about one fourth of the earth

diameter: 3476 km
revolution: 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes
mass: 7.35e22 kg or 1.2 percent of Earth Mass
average distance

Phases of the Moon

As the moon circles the Earth, the shape of the moon appears to change. This is because different amount of the
illuminated part of the moon are facing us. The shape varies from a full moon (when Earth is between the sun and the moon)
to a new moon (when the moon is between the sun and the Earth)

The appearance of the Moon from Earth depends on the relative positions of the Earth, Moon, and Sun. This
illustration shows what the Moon looks like from Earth at different stages of the Moon’s lit.

The time depends on the phases of the moon. It rises about 30 to 70 minutes later each day that the previous day,
so the moon is out during daytime as often is it’s out at night. At the time of the new moon, the moon rises at about the same
time the sun rises, and its sets at about the same time the sun sets. As the days go by (as it waxes to become a crescent
moon, a half moon, and a gibbous moon, on the way to a full moon), the moon rises during daytime (after the sun rises),
rising later each day, and it sets at nighttime, setting later and later each night.
At the full moon, the time of moonrise and moonset have advance so that the moon rises about the same time the sun sets,
and the moon sets at about the same time the sun rises. As the moon wanes (becoming a half moon and a crescent moon,
on the way to a new moon), the moon rises during the night, after sunset, rising later each night. It then sets in the daytime,
after the sun rises. Eventually, the moon rises so late at night that’s actually rising around sunrise, and its setting around
sunset. That’s when it’s a new moon once again.
What Is an Eclipse?
An eclipse takes place when one heavenly body such as a moon or planet moves into the shadow of another heavenly
body. There are two types of eclipses on Earth: an eclipse of the moon and an eclipse of the sun.

When Earth passes directly between the sun and the moon, a lunar eclipse takes place.
Credits: NASA
What Is a Lunar Eclipse?

The moon moves in an orbit around Earth, and at the same time, Earth orbits the sun. Sometimes Earth moves
between the sun and the moon. When this happens, Earth blocks the sunlight that normally is reflected by the moon. (This
sunlight is what causes the moon to shine.) Instead of light hitting the moon’s surface, Earth's shadow falls on it. This is an
eclipse of the moon -- a lunar eclipse. A lunar eclipse can occur only when the moon is full.
A lunar eclipse can be seen from Earth at night. There are two types of lunar eclipses: total lunar eclipses and partial lunar
eclipses.

A total lunar eclipse occurs when the moon and the sun are on exact opposite sides of Earth. Although the moon is
in Earth's shadow, some sunlight reaches the moon. The sunlight passes through Earth's atmosphere, which causes Earth’s
atmosphere to filter out most of the blue light. This makes the moon appear red to people on Earth.

A partial lunar eclipse happens when only a part of the moon enters Earth's shadow. In a partial eclipse, Earth's
shadow appears very dark on the side of the moon facing Earth. What people see from Earth during a partial lunar eclipse
depends on how the sun, Earth and moon are lined up.

A lunar eclipse usually lasts for a few hours. At least two partial lunar eclipses happen every year, but total lunar
eclipses are rare. It is safe to look at a lunar eclipse.

During a solar eclipse, the moon casts two shadows. One is called the umbra; the other is called the penumbra.
Credits: NASA
What Is a Solar Eclipse?

Sometimes when the moon orbits Earth, it moves between the sun and Earth. When this happens, the moon blocks the
light of the sun from reaching Earth. This causes an eclipse of the sun, or solar eclipse. During a solar eclipse, the moon
casts a shadow onto Earth.

Three types of Solar Eclipses.

1. total solar eclipse. A total solar eclipse is only visible from a small area on Earth. The people who see the total eclipse
are in the center of the moon’s shadow when it hits Earth. The sky becomes very dark, as if it
were night. For a total eclipse to take place, the sun, moon and Earth must be in a direct line.
2. Partial solar eclipse. This happens when the sun, moon and Earth are not exactly lined up. The sun appears to have a
dark shadow on only a small part of its surface.

3.Annular solar eclipse. An annular eclipse happens when the moon is farthest from Earth. Because the moon is farther
away from Earth, it seems smaller. It does not block the entire view of the sun. The moon in front of
the sun looks like a dark disk on top of a larger sun-colored disk. This creates what looks like a ring
around the moon.

What Is a Solar Eclipse?

Sometimes when the moon orbits Earth, it moves between the sun and Earth. When this happens, the moon blocks the
light of the sun from reaching Earth. This causes an eclipse of the sun, or solar eclipse. During a solar eclipse, the moon
casts a shadow onto Earth.

Three types of Solar Eclipses.

1. total solar eclipse. A total solar eclipse is only visible from a small area on Earth. The people who see the total eclipse
are in the center of the moon’s shadow when it hits Earth. The sky becomes very dark, as if it
were night. For a total eclipse to take place, the sun, moon and Earth must be in a direct line.

2. Partial solar eclipse. This happens when the sun, moon and Earth are not exactly lined up. The sun appears to have a
dark shadow on only a small part of its surface.

3.Annular solar eclipse. An annular eclipse happens when the moon is farthest from Earth. Because the moon is farther
away from Earth, it seems smaller. It does not block the entire view of the sun. The moon in front of
the sun looks like a dark disk on top of a larger sun-colored disk. This creates what looks like a ring
around the moon.

2 types of shadows on Earth during solar eclipse

1. Umbra-is the dark center portion of a shadow. The Moon's umbra causes total solar eclipses, and the Earth's
umbra is involved in total and partial lunar eclipses.

2. penumbra - a partial shadow between regions of full shadow (the umbra) and full illumination, especially as
cast by Earth, the Moon, or another body during an eclipse. During a partial lunar eclipse, a portion of the
Moon's disk remains within the penumbra of Earth's shadow while the rest is darkened by the umbra.