Materials Engineering Dep.

Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials

MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

PLASTICITY
Monotonic Stress / Strain Diagram for Elastic-Plastic Behaviour

Yield Criterion

The Maximum Shear Stress (Tresca) Criterion

states that the material will yield when the maximum shear stress in the material exceeds a limiting
value. If 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎3 are the three principal stresses (𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎2 ),

The limiting value can be related to the uniaxial yield stress, 𝜎𝑦 , obtained from a uniaxial tensile test.
In this case, 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 and 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0.

The 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 criteria therefore states that the material will yield if

The Maximum Shear Strain Energy (von-Mises) Criterion

states that the material will yield when the maximum shear strain energy (per unit volume) exceeds a
limiting value. If 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎3 are the three principal stresses (𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎2 ) then

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

Again, the limiting value can be related to the uniaxial yield stress, 𝜎𝑦 obtained from a

uniaxial tensile test, i.e. at yield 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 and 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0..

𝝈𝒚

Or
𝟏 𝟏⁄
𝝈𝒚 = [(𝝈𝑿 − 𝝈𝒀 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝒀 − 𝝈𝒁 )𝟐 + (𝝈𝒁 − 𝝈𝑿 )𝟐 + 𝟔(𝝉𝟐 𝑿𝒀 + 𝝉𝟐 𝒀𝒁 + 𝝉𝟐 𝑿𝒁 )] 𝟐
√𝟐
Two-dimensional stress systems (i.e. 𝜎3 = 0, 𝜎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜎2 can take on any values)

Three-dimensional stress systems

It can be seen that both the Tresca yield criterion

and the von-Mises yield criterion

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

are not altered if a constant stress component, say 𝜎, is added to each stress component, i.e.

This means that the addition a hydrostatic stress state does not change the shapes of the yield
surfaces shown in the section on two-dimensional stress systems.

Now, the 𝜎, which we added, can have any value, so the yield boundaries can move any distance in
the direction 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 . In doing so they describe a yield surface in 3D stress space

which has a constant oblique section and hence a constant perpendicular cross-section whose true
shape can be seen in the view along the line 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 .

This is an ISOMETRIC view which shows the three axes inclined at 120o intervals. This is sometimes
called a view on the π-plane or deviatoric plane, on which the Tresca yield surface is a hexagon and
the von-Mises yield surface is a circle. Therefore, large principal stresses do not necessarily result in
yield; it is stress differences and the route to the final stress state which governs whether yielding will
occur.

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

Yield Criterion for Orthotropic Materials

Hill (1950) generalized the von Mises criterion to account for the different material properties in the
various material directions.

The yield function has the form

where subscripts 1, 2 and 3 are the material directions and the coefficients F, G, H, L, M and N are
obtained from uniaxial load tests.

If the yield stresses in the 1,2,3 directions are X, Y and Z respectively and the shear yield stresses are
S12, S13 and S23 then

where the yield stresses X, Y and Z are equal in tension and compression.

For an isotropic material it can be seen that

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

and the yield function reduces to the von Mises yield function.

Elastic-Plastic Material Behavior Models

1. Elastic-perfectly-plastic (EPP)
In this case there is no hardening, i.e. the yield stress, 𝜎𝑦 , is always ± 𝜎𝑦 , regardless of any plastic
deformation. The yield surface (locus) doesn't change. This is a good model for mild steel with
moderate plasticity, but is also used very generally for materials without well-defined yield i.e. 𝜎𝑦 ≈
𝜎0.2%

Strain hardening of materials

When the material is subjected to plastic deformation under external loading, the stress required to
obtain further deformation after the yield point increases. This phenomenon is called strain hardening,
also referred to as work hardening. More than one rule was proposed to describe the strain hardening
in material e.g. isotopic hardening, kinematic hardening and combined isotropic and kinematic
hardening.

2. Isotropic Hardening

The yield surface changes uniformly in all directions in isotropic hardening, which means the yield
stress increases in all stress directions as plastic straining occurs. Isotropic hardening is useful for
cases involving large plastic straining or where the straining at each point is essentially in the same

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

direction in the strain space throughout the analysis. The Figure below shows the isotropic hardening
of a uniaxial stress-strain curve with non-linear hardening.

3. Kinematic Hardening
If the material is subjected to plastic tension followed by compression the material yield stress in the
reverse loading is less than the initial yield stress. This phenomenon is called the Bauschinger effect.
The kinematic hardening rule is used in order to simulate the Bauschinger effect in the materials.
With kinematic hardening, the yield surface preserves its orientation and shape but merely translates
in the stress space, as shown in Figure. The yield range remains constant (2𝜎𝑦 ) and the yield surface
(locus) moves (assuming linear plasticity for simplicity).

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

4. Combined Isotropic and Kinematic Hardening

In the case of cyclic plasticity, the materials show both kinematic and isotropic hardening. In the
individual cycle, the Bauschinger effect (kinematic hardening) is represented, but after a large number
of cycles, isotropic hardening is observed so that the peak of stresses (tension or compression)
increases from one cycle to another. Therefore, in such cases, the combined kinematic and isotropic
hardening rule should be used to predict the real behaviour of material hardening. The Figure below
illustrates combined kinematic and isotropic hardening with the strain imposed resulting in cyclic
plasticity.

Combined kinematic and isotropic hardening: (a) yield surface with resulting stress–strain curve
and (b) strain imposed resulting in cyclic plasticity.

EFFECTIVE STRESS

It is useful to define an effective stress, 𝜎̅, for a yield criterion such that yielding occurs when the
magnitude of 𝜎̅ reaches a critical value. For the von Mises criterion,

This can also be expressed as

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

EFFECTIVE STRAIN

The effective strain, 𝜀̅, is defined such that the incremental plastic work per volume is

The von Mises effective strain may be expressed as

or more simply as

For proportional straining with a constant ratio of dε1:dε2:dε3, the total effective strain is

For the Tresca criterion the effective strain is

where the subscript, i, refers to the principal strains. Thus, for Tresca, the effective strain is the
absolutely largest principal strain.

Plastic Flow Rule

Assume elastic-perfectly–plastic (i.e. yield locus retains size and shape). Each increment of strain in
the plastic range is the sum of an elastic strain and a plastic strain:

elastic is recovered on unloading (governed by Hooke’s law,)

plastic is unrecoverable on unloading (governed by Plastic Flow rule)

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

So rewriting the generalized Hooke’s equations in terms of the deviatoric and hydrostatic stresses,

Reuss assumed that the plastic component of strain increment is proportional to the deviatoric and
shear stresses at any given time

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

only plastic strain increments can be found in terms of stresses because 𝑑𝛾is not constant – if the
total plastic strain is required it must be integrated over the strain history.

The total strain increment for an elastic-plastic material is

These equations are difficult to solve, but if the elastic portion is neglected (ie. We assume rigid-
perfectly-plastic material) – this is sound as usually the elastic component is small compared with
the plastic component – we get the Levy-von Mises equations

1 2
If we compare this to the Hooke equations we see that is replaced by 3 𝑑𝛾 and ν is replaced by ½
𝐸

(i.e. constant volume). Elastic deformation, which is the stretching of chemical bonds, usually
involves volume change, as reflected in a Poisson’s ratio less than 0.5. However, plastic and creep
deformations involve atoms changing neighbours by various mechanisms and so usually do not result
in significant volume change. The diagram below shows the transverse strains in a tension test being
extended beyond yielding. Prior to yielding, the slope of −𝜀𝑦 versus 𝜀𝑥 is simply Poisson’s ratio (~
0.3). However, after yielding, the slope increases and approaches to 0.5, as plastic strains dominate
the behaviour.

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

Elastic and plastic components of total strain, and the effect of plastic deformation on Poisson’s
ratio.
NORMALITY PRINCIPLE
One interpretation of the flow rules is that the vector sum of the plastic strains is normal to the yield
surface. This is illustrated in three-dimensions and in two-dimensions in Figures below. With
isotropic solids, the directions of principal strain and principal stress coincide. As a result the relation

Three-dimensional yield surfaces. If a material is loaded to yielding at A, the resulting plastic strain
is represented by a vector, dεv normal to the yield surface and which is the vector sum of dε1, dε2
and dε3.

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

Illustration of normality. Note that the ratio of dε3/dε1 is given by the normal to the yield
surface at the point of yielding.

Ex1/ A thin-wall tube with closed ends is subjected to a maximum internal pressure of 35 MPa in
service. The mean radius of the tube is 30 cm.

(a) If the tensile yield strength is 700 MPa, what minimum thickness must be specified to prevent
yielding with (using Tresca)?
(b) If the material has a yield strength in shear of k = 280 MPa, what minimum thickness must be
specified to prevent yielding (using Tresca)?

Sol.

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

Ex2/Reconsider the capped tube in Example 1 except let t = 1.5 cm. Use both the Tresca and von
Mises criteria to determine the necessary yield strength to prevent yielding.

Sol.

Ex3/ The diagram below shows a solid circular steel shaft subjected to combined bending and torsion
loadings. Assume the uniaxial tensile yield stress is 350 MPa for the material, and the torque and the
bending moment applied are T = 24 kN.m and M = 8 kN.m, respectively, calculate the value of
diameter d based on:

(a) Tresca yield criterion; and

(b) von Mises yield criterion.

A safety factor, fs, of 2 is assumed to be applicable to the above.

Sol.

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

Ex4/ A thin sheet is subjected to biaxial tension σ1 = σ2 ≠ 0, σ3 = 0. The principal strains in the sheet
were ε2 = −(1/4)ε1.

(a) Using the principle of normality, determine the stress ratio, α = σ2/σ1, using the von Mises and
the Tresca criteria.
(b) Show that the normal to the yield locus in both cases corresponds to the answers to (a).

Sol.

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 Materials Engineering Dep. Subject: Mechanical Behavior of Materials
MSc MSc Lecture 2 Dr. Shakir M. Gatea

(b)

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