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Organo-Lithotype Controls on Cleat/Fractures, Matrix-Associated

Pores, and Physicomechanical Properties of Coal Seams of Raniganj
Coalfield, India
John Buragohain, Vinod Atmaram Mendhe,* Atul Kumar Varma, and Priyanka Shukla

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ABSTRACT: The organo-lithotype properties of Barakar and

Raniganj Formation coal seams have been investigated to assess the
process of cleat origin, occurrence, and their influence on strength
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properties. Coal cleats have wide applications in coalbed methane

gas recovery, underground mine strata mechanics, beneficiation,
and pulverization. However, there is very limited information
available on the cleat occurrence and controlling parameters of
Indian coals. In this view, a total of 31 coal samples were retrieved
from eight exploratory boreholes intersecting coal-bearing for-
mations like Barakar and Raniganj in the Raniganj Coalfield. We
identified four distinct lithotypes in coal seams: (i) B, bright coal;
(ii) Db, dull banded coal; (iii) Bb, bright banded coal; and (iv) Bd,
banded coal. The abundance of bright-band-associated lithotype
indicates organic matter that attained the early anoxic conditions after deposition. The cleat system in Barakar coal is comparatively
better than in Raniganj coal controlled by the lithotype, type of organic matter, thermal maturity, and gelification extent. The carbon
enrichment process in coal mainly controls the megascopic cleat genesis pattern. The positive trend of cleat intensities with the
depth of coal seams as determined by megascopic, microscopic, and scanning electron microscope (SEM) studies postulates that the
macro- to nanocleats are interdependent and developed during devolatilization due to loss of plasticity. The field emission scanning
electron microscopy (FE-SEM) photographs have shown intricate microfractures and pore structures owing to the epigenetic
characteristics. Vitrinite bands indicate that it comprises the partially deformed planer cleat system. The resistance to quartz
weathering nature attributed to coal brittleness properties also contributed to cleat genesis. The total clay content exhibits an inverse
relationship with different cleat intensities, suggesting that hydrous clay swells due to its inherent ultrafine characteristics, thus not
supporting the cleat construction. However, it ropes the development of the irregular crack when organo−inorganic matter achieves
the dry thermal conditions. The microfractures linked with different pore structures in studied coals can be classified into seven
types: (i) vitrite-associated regular open-slit pores, (ii) vitriinertite-char allied irregular pores, (iii) irregular fracture-pore partially
filled with clay, (iv) fissile pores along bedding planes of clay, (v) organic pores evolved due to external heat received from intrusives,
(vi) deep organic pores evolved during compaction and thermal transformation, and (vii) pore fractures blocked by boghead algae.
The clay content showed a positive relationship with physicomechanical properties, signifying the cementing characteristics of clay
holding fractures and pores. There is significant variation in the strength properties of Barakar and Marren measures coal influenced
by thermal maturity, lithotype characteristics, and organo−inorganic content.

1. INTRODUCTION and safety measures.3,8−10 However, there are limited studies

Several authors have investigated the origin of the cleat and conducted on the contribution of organic, inorganic, and
fracture development process considering the stress acting on a
coalbed, basin tectonics, geological structures, cleat directions, geochemical constituents on the formation of cleats, fractures,
spacing, and orientations.1−8 These investigations are mainly
related to the occurrence of cleats/fractures in their mega- and Received: April 16, 2021
micromeasurements. A few authors have also stated that the Accepted: June 22, 2021
lithotype, macerals, elemental composition, and basin tectonics
control the pore and cleat/fracture formation in coal. Coal
cleats/fractures have significant concerns in planning, designing,
and modeling the coal extraction process for greater efficiency
© XXXX The Authors. Published by
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Table 1. Generalized Stratigraphic Succession of the Raniganj Coalfield33 (Modified After GSI, 2003)

and associated matrix pores and their influence on coal
physicomechanical properties.
Some authors have categorized the origin of cleats in coal beds
as endogenetic, where development is related to compaction,
dehydration, and devolatilization during coalification, and some
others as exogenetic, where cleat formation is thought to result
from basin tectonic forces.2,4,5,11 When coal reaches the high-
volatile bituminous stage and physical properties have reached a
state prone to fracturing, changes in tectonic forces fracture the
coals. Tectonic forces control the formation of coal cleats in a
B https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c02041
similar process that creates jointing in other rocks. The strike
directions of cleats can be related to folds12 and thrust fault13
although local and lateral disturbances occur because of
differential compaction and load release; erosion complicates
the coal cleat system. Nickelsen and Hough14 suggested that face
cleats are formed as extension fractures parallel to the direction
of maximum, horizontal crustal shortening at the time of folding.
Stone et al.15 found that the butt cleat system in the Powder
River basin coal seam is nearly parallel to the structural flexures
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Figure 1. Geological map of Raniganj Coalfield showing coal core sampling locations31−36 (after Gee, 1932; Ghosh, 2002; GSI, 2003; Mendhe et al.,
2017, 2018; Mishra et al., 2018).
and fold axis. In contrast, the face cleat system is approximately
perpendicular to the basin axis.
Alstine and Butterworth13 supported the theory of cleat
formation during and in response to tectonic events. Face cleats
are generally found perpendicular to the thrust fault strike and
the axial trend of local fold hinges, i.e., parallel to the plane of
maximum compressive principal stress.12 In contrast, butt cleats
would have formed during the release of the stress field
responsible for the face cleat formation. According to Dawson
and Esterle,11 the cleat spacing in dull coal is wider than in bright
coal, and master cleats extend across vitrain bands. Generally,
macropores are more and micropores are fewer in inertinite-rich
coals than in vitrinite-rich coals of the same rank.16,18 As the coal
rank increases, the number of meso- and macropores reduces,
which impacts the matrix strength properties of coals.19
The lithotype bands in coal that can be megascopically
recognizable by the naked eye have different macerals and
consist of complex mixtures of organic matter and minerals.20−22
The variation in the lithotype thickness of coal indicates the
heterogeneous supply of vegetation and sediments in the swamp
and change in the depositional conditions. Usually, it has been
observed that the inertinite content increases with the gradual
decrease in the vitrinite content, attributed to geochemical
alterations and inertinization of the vitrain lithotype.21,23−25 The
change in chemical properties of lithotypes is due to the
difference in maceral compositions, i.e., fusain is typically more
aromatic than other lithotypes because of the change in the
functional group during coalification from aliphatic to aromatic
compounds. The chemical properties of vitrain, clarain, and
durain lithotypes may vary and be related to the amount of
liptinite, vitrinite, and inertinite macerals.26 From different
studies, it has been observed that there is a remarkable difference
in porosity characteristics among different lithotypes. Mastalerz
et al.24 demonstrated that fusains in high-volatile bituminous
coal have the smallest and vitrains have the largest micropore
and mesopore volumes. Vitrain exhibits more fractures (cleats)
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Article
than other lithotypes27,28 and is very permeable due to its good
connectivity between pores and cleats. However, clarain has
moderate permeability, which depends on the content ratio of
vitrinite and durain. The lithotypes durain and fusain are known
for their low permeability due to the high concentration of clay
mineral, decomposed material, and inertinite content.29,30
In this study, an attempt has been made to investigate the
various coal properties and their contribution to cleat origin,
occurrence, and influence on strength properties. Coal core
samples obtained from eight vertical boreholes from Raniganj
Coalfield were analyzed for cleat intensity, lithotypes, geo-
chemical constituents, petrographic compositions, X-ray
diffraction (XRD) spectroscopy for mineralogy, scanning
electron microscope (SEM) study for microcleat/fractures,
and their physicomechanical properties. Pore distribution and
geometry were evaluated by the Brunauer−Emmett−Teller
(BET) analysis and related to cleat/fracture. Various relation-
ships were established to determine the role of maceral,
geochemical constituents, and inorganic content on cleat
formation. Also, the strength of coal seams has been discussed
based on cleat intensity and organo−inorganic content. This
study will understand in depth the coal seam characteristics
considering the influence of cleat/fracture on geomechanical
strength. It may have broad application in mine planning and
design, efficient coal extraction, rock mechanics, roof supports,
coal beneficiation, and methane recovery from coal seam
reservoirs.
2. STUDY SITE: RANIGANJ COALFIELD
The Raniganj Coalfield covers 1900 km2 occurring in a
semielliptical intracratonic rift basin lying between the latitudes
23°22′ N and 23°52′ N and longitudes 86°36′ E and 87°30′ E
(Figure 1).31−36 The basins comprise the Gondwana super-
group, which is laterally variable and reaches a thickness greater
than 3000 m in the south and northeast segments. The
sediments of the Lower Gondwana (Permian) age embody three
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major Formations: Barakar, Barren Measures, and Raniganj
Formations.32,33
The rocks of the Barakar Formation outcrop in the northern
part of the Raniganj Coalfield. The Lower portion consists of
coarse- to very coarse-grained sandstones and conglomerates
and a minor bit of shale with three persistent coal seams. Coarse-
grained sandstones are less dominant in the middle part and
contain three coal seams. Coarse- to very coarse-grained
sandstones and conglomerates and a small portion of shale are
present in the Upper portion and include three persistent coal
seams. The Barren Measures Formation is known as ironstone, a
monotonous dark-gray to black color silty shale sequence of thin
bands and lenses having minerals like cryptocrystalline clay,
ironstones, siderite, and goethite. The Raniganj Formation
contains a series of sandstones, calcareous in nature and finer
than the Barakar Formation, shale, and several well-developed
coal seams. The lithostratigraphic succession of the Raniganj
Coalfield illustrating the location of subsurface horizon of coal
samples is given in in Table 1.
coalfield and gradually thins out in the east. The development of
coal seams in the Barakar Formation exhibits a substantial lateral
variation. Gee31 identified seven regional coal seams, which are
known as BR-I to BR-VII. In the western part of the Barakar
Formation, i.e., at Mugma, 15 well-developed coal seams are
recorded; at the Central portion, i.e., at the Chanch Barakar−
Kulti−Lalganj area, there are eight seams; and at the eastern
part, i.e., at Churulia−Kasta, only the Churulia Top and Bottom
seams are present. A generalized sequence of coal horizons and
their local names in the northwestern, north-central, and
northeastern parts of the Raniganj Coalfield are presented33 in
Table 1 (GSI). Lithologs of the boreholes from which coal cores
were received, illustrating the presence of multiple coal seams in
the thick Raniganj, Barakar, and Barren Measures Formations,
are shown in Figure 2.

Table 2. Classification of Coal Lithotypes in Studied Coals

Obtained from the Raniganj Coalfield (Modified After Dissel,
1965a)
lithotype classification description
vitrain B (bright brittle, homogeneous, vitreous to
coal) subvitreous luster, even to conchoidal
fracture, durain ≤10%
clarain Bb (bright mostly vitrain; fracture: even; durain:
banded 10−40%
coal)
duroclarain Bd (banded vitrain and durain bands ranging between
coal) 40 and 60% each
clarodurain Db (dull mostly durain; fracture: uneven; vitrain:
banded 10−40%
coal)
durain D (dull heterogeneous; luster: matt; fracture:
coal) uneven; vitrain <10%
fusain F (fibrous dull with silky luster, friable, other coal
coal) lithotypes ≤10%
shaly coal Sc coal with separate bands or having an Figure 2. Borehole sections showing Lower Gondwana Formations
intimate mixture of clay and silt between (Raniganj, Barren Measures, and Barakar) comprising coal seams and
30 and 60% coal core sampling horizons in the Raniganj Coalfield.
coaly shale Cs mostly alternating laminae of coal and
noncoal, coal <40% of the total
carbonaceous Cbs sediment with 60−90% finely mixed 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
shale carbonaceous matter
shale S sediment with carbonaceous matter less than 3.1. Lithotype Characteristics and Depositional Facies.
10% The change in lithotype can be attributed to the variation in the
organo−inorganic matter, difference in river currents, depth of
2.1. Structure of Raniganj Coalfield. The Gondwana flood plains, heterogeneous mixing, and sedimentation rate.30,37
sediments of the Raniganj Coalfield are deposited along the According to Diessel,38 lithotype is an indicator of the
troughlike semielliptical, elongated, intracratonic rift basin of the depositional environment, change in the oxic to anoxic process,
half-graben configuration. The basin is restricted on the south by and geochemical alteration of organic matter during and post
a boundary fault and a homoclinal tilt of the basin floor. The diagenesis. The lithotype systems observed in the studied coal
boundary fault is a closely spaced subparallel fault in an en- core samples are compiled with supplements to the
echelon fashion. The faults in this basin are normal gravity faults nomenclature given by Diessel.39 There are four distinct
with dips of 60−70° with a throw from a few meters to more lithotypes identified as (i) B, bright coal; (ii) Db, dull banded
than 200 m. The sedimentary beds at the Raniganj Coalfield coal; (iii) Bb, bright banded coal; and (iv) Bd, banded coal
have a regional strike in the east−west direction with local (Figure 3a−f; Table 2). These litho-facies demonstrate color
variation in the trend. differences in lithotypes sourced from organo−inorganic
2.2. Coal Seams in Raniganj Coalfield. The Barakar and contents and early diagenetic effects on the late transformation
Raniganj Formations at the Raniganj Coalfield contain several process of coal.
persistent coal seams. The Raniganj Formation comprises R-I to The bright coal (B), i.e., the domination of vitrain bands,
R-XIII coal seams laterally varying with depth and thickness originates from bark or woody part of plants. The dull band
throughout the coalfield. The Barakar Formation with its coal (Db) comprises heterogeneous and smaller plant materials.40,41
seams is well represented in the northwestern part of the It is observed that vitrain containing bright band (B) and bright
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Figure 3. continued

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Figure 3. (a−f): Lithotype variation and nature of banding observed in coal core samples.

banded coal (Bb) bears more cleats or fractures than dull banded
coal (Db) and banded coal (Bd) due to brittle characteristics of
vitrain. The mixed alternate bands of bright and dull originated
from coalfield plant fragments and detrital plant material. The
dull band (Db) developed from partially altered detrital plant
material, generally indicating freshwater conditions with an
increased influx of mineral/clay matter. Megascopically, durain
containing dull bands (Db) is grayish to brownish-black and is
usually the hardest and most resistant lithotype in the studied
coal.42 The low intensity of dull coal (D) observed in the dull
banded nature (Db) of the studied coal (0.20−1.60%) indicates
the relatively less oxic condition due to early initiation of the
diagenetic process (Figure 3a−f). The fibrous coal (F)
comprising fusain with a silky luster is recorded in traces or
negligible amounts along the bedding planes. The low intensity
of other lithotypes like shaly coal (Sc), coal shale (Cs),
carbonaceous shale (Cbs), and shale (S) is in the studied coal,
demonstrating significant inputs of organic matter in the basin.
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The core samples’ fractured surfaces are mostly subconchoidal
to even with alternate thick and thin bands of bright and dull.
They are deposited in a low-energy fluvio-lacustrine freshwater
reducing condition controlled by river currents and a load of
sediments.43,44 It is interpreted that the dominance of carbon-
rich vitrain bands with a high degree of brightness signifies
anoxic waters that sheltered the organic matter from initial decay
and a continuous load of sediments sink the basin to a higher
temperature.
The lithotype intensity of different classified bands was
counted, considering a length of 10 cm (area 10 × 10 cm2)
(Table 3). The intensity of the lithotype is the cumulative
surface area of a particular band per unit volume. The
dominance of bright (B) and bright banded (Bb) lithotypes
demonstrates that the environment of deposition was favorable
for organic matter preservation before attaining early anoxic
conditions. The ternary facies of lithotypes B + Bb, Bd + Db + D
+ F, and Sc + Cs + Cbs + S are given in Figure 4, specifying the
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Table 3. Lithotype Intensity (%) Counted for Each Coal Core Sample (Considering a Length of 10 cm)
sample no. B Bb Bd Db D F Sc Cs Cbs S fracture connectivity
CG-1901 2.2 3.1 1.2 0.5 0.6 - 0.2 0.2 - - good
CG-1902 3.4 2.9 1.4 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2 - excellent
CG-1903 1.8 1.2 0.5 1.0 1.3 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 - fair
CG-1904 1.6 1.8 1.2 1.8 0.6 - 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.2 fair
CG-1905 3.1 2.2 0.9 1.3 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.2 0.2 excellent
CG-1906 0.9 1.6 3.8 2.7 0.4 0.2 0.1 - 0.2 0.1 poor
CG-1907 3.6 2.1 1.8 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.3 excellent
CG-1908 2.1 1.7 2.1 1.8 1.3 - - - - - good
CG-1909 1.6 2.5 2.3 1.6 0.2 - - 0.2 0.2 0.2 fair
CG-1910 1.2 1.9 2.7 2.0 1.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 fair
CG-1911 2.4 1.9 4.1 1.2 - - 0.1 0.2 0.1 - good
CG-1912 1.0 1.6 1.6 2.6 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.1 poor
CG-1913 3.4 2.1 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.2 0.1 - 0.2 0.2 excellent
CG-1914 2.6 1.4 2.4 1.4 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.2 - - good
CG-1915 3.0 2.0 1.9 1.7 0.9 - 0.2 - 0.1 - good
CG-1916 1.9 1.6 1.2 1.4 1.2 0.2 0.8 0.1 0.4 0.4 fair
CG-1917 2.1 1.4 1.6 0.8 1.5 0.4 1.2 0.4 0.2 0.6 good
CG-1918 1.8 2.8 0.6 2.8 0.6 1.2 0.4 1.0 0.6 0.2 fair
CG-1919 0.6 1.8 0.7 2.7 0.4 1.6 0.2 1.2 0.4 0.4 poor
CG-1920 1.4 2.1 0.9 1.6 1.2 0.6 0.4 0.7 0.2 0.9 fair
CG-1921 2.4 1.8 3.4 1.3 0.2 - 0.5 0.2 0.2 - good
CG-1922 2.4 2.1 2.4 1.4 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.4 - - good
CG-1923 3.2 1.8 0.2 1.9 0.7 0.2 - 0.4 - - excellent
CG-1924 1.4 0.5 1.6 1.5 1.4 0.2 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 fair
CG-1925 1.6 1.4 2.4 2.8 1.6 0.4 0.2 0.1 - 0.1 fair
CG-1926 2.1 1.5 3.1 1.3 1.2 0.2 0.4 0.1 1.2 0.3 good
CG-1927 3.4 2.1 2.4 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.7 - 0.1 0.1 excellent
CG-1928 0.8 1.4 4.6 1.8 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 - 0.1 poor
CG-1929 0.3 0.4 2.8 2.1 1.4 0.6 0.2 1.2 0.8 0.2 poor
CG-1930 0.4 0.6 1.8 3.9 0.6 0.2 0.7 1.0 0.4 0.1 poor
CG-1931 1.2 0.8 2.6 2.4 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 fair
maximum 3.60 3.10 4.60 3.90 1.60 1.60 1.20 1.20 1.20 0.90 poor-to-excellent cleat and fractures
minimum 0.30 0.40 0.20 0.40 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
average 1.96 1.75 1.99 1.68 0.81 0.38 0.38 0.42 0.33 0.27
stdev. 0.94 0.64 1.07 0.80 0.43 0.35 0.27 0.35 0.26 0.21

carbon enrichment results from constructive organic matter

Figure 4. Ternary facies plot of lithotypes showing the trends of organic
matter preservation and alteration due to change in environmental
conditions.
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preservation and transformation conditions.30,45 The type I
window suggests the preservation of a significant amount of
organic matter attributed to the early approach of the reducing
condition. The type II window relates to the partial alteration of
organic matter during early diagenesis, ensuing clarain and
durain. However, the type III window exhibits an irregular
mixing of organic and inorganic contents received from a sudden
influx of mud and sand, resulting in a shaly coal and shale
formation. The higher concentration of clarain and durain
lithotypes indicates that Barakar and Raniganj coal seams were
initially subjected to wet-to-dry fluvio-terrestrial conditions
(Figure 3a−f). The sudden overload of sediments by flooding
subjected the material to deeper horizons, preventing the
organic matter from decomposition for a longer time.
3.2. Megascopic Cleat Types and Fractures. The
megascopic cleat and fracture systems have been investigated
by measuring their intensity in studied coal of Barakar and
Raniganj Formations. The intensity of the megascopic cleat is
the cumulative surface area of the particular cleat (MCL, FCL,
and BCL) per unit volume. The schematics drawn from vertical
and horizontal sections of selected coal core samples are
presented in Figure 5a−v. It can be seen from the schematics
drawn that there is significant variation in cleat types of different
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Figure 5. continued

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Figure 5. (a−v): Type of cleats recorded in vertical and horizontal sections of studied coal core samples.
coal seams of Barakar and Raniganj. According to Kendall and
Briggs and Laubach et al.,4,46 cleats are vertical and are
characteristically oriented perpendicular to the stratification,
even where beds are deformed, which indicates that the cleat
generation happened earlier than the structural disturbances of
the beds.
All of the coal samples of the Raniganj Formation, e.g., CG-
1901 to CG-1904 and then CG-1916 to CG-1931 (Figure 5a−d
and l−v), show well-developed face and butt cleat systems in the
vitrain bands. In contrast, the Barakar Formation coal samples
show deformed cleat/fracture, which lost the original structures
due to heat effects, basin tectonics, higher compaction, and
thermal transformation. The thick vitrain band is shown in the
horizontal sections of sample no. CG-1901; its schematic and
vertical section indicate the higher intensity of both the face and
butt cleat. The face and butt cleat are the properties of the vitrain
lithotype because of the higher carbon content and brittle
characteristics, specifying that the coal seam was subjected to
constant stresses (Figure 5a).4,47,48 Likewise, in CG-1902, the
bands of vitrain are slightly thick and contain multiple faces and
butt cleats with a bright luster and subconchoidal fractures. The
butt cleats are not always perpendicular to the face cleats (Figure
5b). Crowded face cleats in vitrain bands with irregular butt
cleats with layers of fusain bands are present in the CG-1903 coal
sample with a master cleat traversing all of the bands (Figure 5c).
The cleats in coal sample no. CG-1904 are in a thick band of
vitrain with a broad face and butt cleats. These cleats are inclined
to the core axis, and at some part, the coal sample parted away
along with the major cleats (Figure 5d). Coal sample nos. CG-
1917 and CG-1931 show secondary cleat infilling with
calcareous materials. It has been observed that if the vitrain
band is thick, the face and butt cleats are widely developed
compared to the thin vitrain bands.
Similarly, the Barakar coal samples, from sample nos. CG-
1905 to CG-1915 (Figure 5e−k), show distorted, asymmetrical,
crumpled, uneven cleats with a vitreous gellified luster,
indicating that the constituents of coal passed through a plastic
state caused by a thermal process due to nearby igneous
intrusions.49 Tertiary cleats are seen to develop in coal sample
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Article
no. CG-1907 and are inclined to the coal core axis (Figure 5f)
and indicates their origin after the heating episode of igneous
intrusion. The photograph of the horizontal and vertical sections
of the coal sample with the schematic illustrating the richness of
cleats that is the property of vitrain. The face and butt cleats are
partially deformed (Figure 5l). The gelification effects on the
face, butt, and master cleats caused by thermal transformation
during the bituminization process are indicated in Figure 5m.
The irregular plane of breakability is the function of mixing
organo−inorganic content and alternate deformed heteroge-
neous bands (Figure 5n). The irregular cracks and well-
developed face and butt cleats in vitrain indicating postdeposi-
tional tectonics are responsible for cleat genesis in coal (Figure
5o,p). The master cleat at the center with a high density of face
and butt cleat is shown in Figure 5q. It is interpreted that there is
no movement along the master cleat demonstrated by the face
cleat. Likewise, the sample CG-1924 indicated partially
deformed intensified cleat and cracks during postdepositional
activities (Figure 5r). The impact of bituminization and thermal
transformation on cleat occurrence is shown in Figure 5s−t. The
multiple influences on cleat consistency are demonstrated in
Figure 5u,v. It is summarized that the depositional environment,
lithotype, type of organic matter, gelification extent, and tectonic
activities of the basin played an essential role in cleat generation.
Additionally, the change in bedding plane orientation and
thermal compaction also supported the formation of the cleat.
3.3. Role of Geochemical Attributes in Cleat/Fracture.
The analyses data on the proximate properties of the Barakar
Formation coal samples like moisture (IM), ash, volatile matter
(VM), and fixed carbon (FC) content are in the range of 0.92−
3.04 wt % (avg. 1.50 wt %; stdev. 0.59); 12.05−24.68 wt % (avg.
18.67 wt %; stdev. 4.23), 16.11−28.48 wt % (avg. 22.28 wt %;
stdev. 4.12), and 46.92−70.83 wt % (avg. 57.54 wt %; stdev.
7.74), respectively (Table 4). The low moisture content,
significant carbon content, and moderate values of the volatile
matter when placed in Seyler’s diagram illustrate the thermally
matured medium-volatile coal of bituminous rank. The fuel ratio
(FR; the ratio of volatile matter to fixed carbon) varies from 1.73
to 4.40 (avg. 2.72; stdev. 0.84), also indicating the carbon-rich
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Table 4. Borehole Location, Formation Type, and Proximate and Ultimate Analyses Results of Coal Samples
proximate analysis (wt %) ultimate analysis (wt %) atomic ratio
coal-bearing
formation borehole ID depth fuel
and contacts and location sample no. (m) IM Ash VM FC ratio C H N S O O/C H/C
Raniganj BH#01, CG-1901 221 6.96 11.78 16.75 64.51 3.85 60.01 8.54 1.93 0.01 17.73 0.39 0.17
Ichhapur
CG-1902 283 6.35 15.66 21.47 56.52 2.63 57.83 10.48 1.93 0.01 14.09 0.32 0.22
CG-1903 318 6.40 17.23 25.20 51.17 2.03 56.89 12.43 1.98 0.01 11.46 0.27 0.26
CG-1904 392 6.12 16.36 22.28 55.24 2.48 57.55 9.81 1.97 0.01 14.30 0.33 0.21
Barakar BH#02, CG-1905 565 1.66 12.50 20.12 65.72 3.27 61.84 10.85 2.08 0.02 12.72 0.27 0.21
Sitarampur
CG-1906 830 1.72 20.57 28.48 49.23 1.73 55.07 13.73 2.43 0.02 8.18 0.20 0.30
CG-1907 869 1.01 12.05 16.11 70.83 4.40 65.62 8.20 2.20 1.71 10.22 0.21 0.15
Barakar BH#03, CG-1908 481 1.74 19.09 27.79 51.38 1.85 51.48 12.65 2.04 1.59 13.15 0.34 0.30
Sitarampur
CG-1909 660 1.23 17.40 23.59 57.78 2.45 57.63 11.16 2.13 1.49 10.19 0.24 0.23
CG-1910 728 1.59 24.68 26.81 46.92 1.75 52.57 15.98 2.34 1.78 2.65 0.07 0.37
CG-1911 768 1.19 22.47 18.87 57.47 3.05 61.33 10.92 2.30 1.79 1.19 0.03 0.22
Barakar BH#04, CG-1912 943 3.04 24.56 23.73 48.67 2.05 53.15 13.59 2.13 1.63 4.94 0.12 0.31
Kulti
CG-1913 968 1.15 18.29 19.45 61.11 3.14 60.56 8.66 2.21 1.71 8.57 0.19 0.17
CG-1914 1029 0.92 17.28 21.57 60.23 2.79 62.90 12.70 2.17 1.72 3.23 0.07 0.24
CG-1915 1048 1.26 16.51 18.61 63.62 3.42 61.72 9.22 2.23 1.73 8.59 0.19 0.18
Raniganj BH#05, CG-1916 323 7.49 20.34 28.70 43.47 1.51 52.55 11.36 2.03 1.40 12.32 0.31 0.26
Trans
Damodar
CG-1917 412 5.21 18.09 20.68 56.02 2.71 59.85 10.41 1.99 1.37 8.29 0.18 0.21
CG-1918 508 5.12 17.42 21.65 55.81 2.58 60.44 10.98 2.03 1.42 7.71 0.17 0.22
CG-1919 596 4.95 28.40 29.21 37.44 1.28 49.80 16.72 2.02 0.26 2.80 0.08 0.41
Raniganj BH#06, CG-1920 275 5.29 22.08 31.42 41.21 1.31 53.87 12.79 1.97 0.26 9.03 0.22 0.29
Andal
CG-1921 500 4.50 17.47 16.87 61.16 3.63 57.47 10.50 1.98 0.27 12.31 0.29 0.22
CG-1922 560 4.27 13.86 25.96 55.91 2.15 53.09 14.54 1.98 0.28 16.26 0.41 0.33
CG-1923 632 4.10 15.75 27.82 52.33 1.88 58.83 13.99 1.96 0.27 9.20 0.21 0.29
Raniganj BH#07, CG-1924 178 7.31 24.33 27.96 40.40 1.44 49.91 14.57 2.04 0.25 8.90 0.24 0.35
Jagannath
pur,
Durgapur
CG-1925 270 7.95 20.95 28.04 43.06 1.54 52.05 11.01 2.04 0.25 13.70 0.35 0.26
CG-1926 282 7.23 24.86 26.64 41.27 1.55 56.66 10.71 2.07 0.26 5.44 0.13 0.23
CG-1927 358 7.88 19.42 28.29 44.41 1.57 53.11 11.41 2.03 0.25 13.78 0.35 0.26
Raniganj BH#08, CG-1928 151 4.97 22.83 32.95 39.25 1.19 48.80 16.10 1.94 0.27 10.06 0.27 0.40
(CH-10)
CG-1929 295 4.91 20.63 33.04 41.42 1.25 49.52 16.73 1.98 0.27 10.87 0.29 0.41
CG-1930 337 3.93 17.85 31.97 46.25 1.45 54.47 15.51 1.96 0.27 9.94 0.24 0.34
CG-1931 556 4.24 21.69 26.07 48.00 1.84 56.01 14.30 2.16 0.29 5.55 0.13 0.31
Raniganj maximum 7.95 28.40 33.04 64.51 3.85 60.44 16.73 2.16 1.42 17.73 0.41 0.41
coal
minimum 3.93 11.78 16.75 37.44 1.19 48.80 8.54 1.93 0.01 2.80 0.08 0.17
average 5.76 19.35 26.15 48.74 1.99 54.94 12.64 2.00 0.38 10.69 0.26 0.28
stdev. 1.34 4.01 4.86 8.01 0.77 3.74 2.48 0.05 0.45 3.77 0.09 0.07
Barakar coal maximum 3.04 24.68 28.48 70.83 4.40 65.62 15.98 2.43 1.79 13.15 0.34 0.37
minimum 0.92 12.05 16.11 46.92 1.73 51.48 8.20 2.04 0.02 1.19 0.03 0.15
average 1.50 18.67 22.28 57.54 2.72 58.53 11.61 2.21 1.38 7.60 0.18 0.24
stdev. 0.59 4.23 4.12 7.74 0.84 4.79 2.39 0.12 0.68 4.06 0.09 0.07

bituminous coal. Similarly, the Raniganj Formation coal
constituents like moisture (IM), ash, volatile matter (VM),
fixed carbon (FC) content, and fuel ratio are in the range of
3.93−7.95 wt % (avg. 5.76 wt %; stdev. 1.34), 11.78−28.40 wt %
(avg. 19.35 wt %; stdev. 4.01), 16.75−33.04 wt % (avg. 26.15 wt
%; stdev. 4.86), 37.44−64.51 wt % (avg. 48.74 wt %; stdev.
8.01), and 1.19−3.85 (avg. 1.99; stdev. 0.77), respectively
(Table 4). The Raniganj Formation coal can be categorized as
carbon-rich with medium- to high-volatile bituminous rank. The
J https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c02041
proximate properties reveal that the Barakar coals are more
matured than Raniganj coals because they are geologically older,
occurs at greater depth, and have passed through longer
coalification processes.37,50
The results of ultimate analyses (CHNSO) of Barakar coal
were in the range of 51.48−65.62 wt % (avg. 58.53 wt %; stdev.
4.79), 8.20−15.98 wt % (avg. 11.61 wt %; stdev. 2.39), 2.04−
2.43 wt % (avg. 2.21 wt %; stdev. 0.12), 0.02−1.79 wt % (avg.
1.38 wt %; stdev. 0.68), and 1.19−13.15 wt % (avg. 7.60 wt %;
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stdev. 4.06), respectively, for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur,
and oxygen (Table 4). The values of atomic ratios of H/C and
O/C vary from 0.03 to 0.34 (avg. 0.18; stdev. 0.09) and from
0.15 to 0.37 (avg. 0.24; stdev. 0.07), respectively. Likewise, the
results of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen
contents of Raniganj coal are in the range of 48.80−60.44 wt
% (avg. 54.94 wt %; stdev. 3.74), 8.54−16.73 wt % (avg. 12.64 wt
%; stdev. 2.48), 1.93−2.16 wt % (avg. 2.00 wt %; stdev. 0.05),
0.01−1.42 wt % (avg. 0.38 wt %; stdev. 0.45), and 2.80−17.73 wt
% (avg. 10.69 wt %; stdev. 3.77), respectively (Table 4). The
values of atomic ratios of H/C and O/C vary from 0.08 to 0.41
(avg. 0.26; stdev. 0.09) and from 0.17 to 0.41 (avg. 0.28; stdev.
0.07), respectively. The high carbon and hydrogen values in
Raniganj Formation coals also confirm the carbon-rich high-
volatile coals of bituminous rank. The Box and Whisker plot
shows the range of proximate and CHNSO constituent
distributions in studied coal core samples (Figure 6). The
narrow range of variation indicated by moisture content, volatile
matter, carbon, and oxygen reveals that Barakar coal is
comparatively matured than Raniganj coals. However, a little
variation in the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen contents is
demonstrated by the heterogeneity in the organo−inorganic
content, depositional conditions, and thermal maturity.
Figure 6. Box and Whisker plot showing the content range of proximate
and CHNSO constituents in coal samples (B, Barakar; R, Raniganj; B &
R, Barakar and Raniganj combined).
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The evolutionary path of types III−IV kerogen is shown by
the van Krevelen plot of H/C and O/C atomic ratios of studied
coals, indicating a humic nature (Figure 7). It has also been
Figure 7. van Krevelen plot of H/C and O/C atomic ratios showing
kerogen type in coal samples.
supported by the predominance of a vitrain lithotype and
alternate bright and dull bands.30,51,52 It is interpreted that both
the Raniganj and Barakar coals are subjected to organic thermal
transformation by the basin sinking and heavy load of
overburden sediments in a long geological period. Relatively
low H/C and O/C ratios may be described by continuous
reduction of the hydrogen content due to the compaction and
coalification process, which is also responsible for the cleat
genesis as a function of loss of plasticity. The relationships of
megascopic cleat intensity with proximate and ultimate
constituents are presented in Figure 8a−f. The inverse relation
of volatile matter with master, face, and butt cleats with good
correlation coefficients (R2 = 0.7899, 0.5106, and 0.5396)
postulates that higher thermal maturity increases the cleat
intensity as a function of loss of organic oil by thermal
compaction (Figure 8a). The carbon enrichment in coal during
maturation controls the megascopic cleat genesis pattern
(Figure 8b,c). The vitrain-rich bands of coal having high carbon
are more prone to cleat formation due to their brittle
characteristics. The hydrogen content in coal is also an indicator
of the type of coal. The reduction of hydrogen content during
organic matter transformation is also responsible for cleat
genesis (Figure 8d). The relation of O/C and H/C with
megascopic cleat intensity (Figure 8e,f) signifies primary
thermal compaction, mainly accountable for cleat genesis in
coal.
3.4. Organo-Petrographic Characteristics and Depo-
sitional Environment. The maceral composition of coal has
been measured in detail to delineate organic facies, microscopic
cleat, and microlithology and to deduce the paleo-environments
and hydrodynamic conditions deposition. The studied samples
show the presence of all three maceral groups; the values of
different maceral and mineral matters are listed in Table 5, and
microphotographs are shown in Figure 9a−p. The vitrinite
group recorded a higher concentration (avg. 44.02 vol % on
mineral matter free basis (mmf)) and is mainly dominated by
collotelinite maceral (avg. 35.86 vol %), while tellinite is trivially
present and is included in collotelinite values. The detrovitrinite
subgroup (avg. 5.07 vol %) has been recorded in lesser
concentrations and is represented by vitrodetrinite and
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Figure 8. Relationship of geochemical constituents with the cleat
intensity of coal samples. (a) Volatile matter vs megascopic cleat
intensity. (b) Fixed carbon vs megascopic cleat intensity. (c) Carbon
content vs megascopic cleat intensity. (d) Hydrogen content vs
megascopic cleat intensity. (e) O/C atomic ratio vs megascopic cleat
intensity. (f) H/C atomic ratio vs megascopic cleat intensity.
collovitrinite macerals. The inertinite group of macerals is
second in abundance (avg. 33.04 vol % on mmf basis), chiefly
represented by semifusinite (avg. 16.64 vol %), inertodetrinite
(avg. 10.56 vol %), and fusinite (avg. 3.47 vol %) macerals. In
contrast, fungnite maceral has a sporadic appearance in the
maceral composition. The mineral matter contents vary between
2.26 and 15.09 vol %, with an average of 7.36 vol %. Quartz and
pyrite are the dominant minerals and recorded in almost all of
the samples, reaching up to 10.61 vol % (avg. 3.53 vol %) and
8.72 vol % (avg. 1.90 vol %), respectively. Pyrite occurs as
massive and euhedral crystals in the framboidal form, which is
often associated with vitrinite macerals (syngenetic pyrite), and
is also present as cell lumen fillings (epigenetic pyrite) in pores
of collotelinite and semifusinite macerals.2,53 The variation in
microlithotype from a thin to thick band, the detrital form of
maceral, and the alternate inertinization of vitrite specify internal
and external processes that influenced the coal seams and
associated structures. These processes may be pre- and
postdepositional conditions, compaction, diagenesis, and
restructural and tectonic activity of the basin.
Further, it is concluded that the studied coal seams are
vitrinite rich with a higher terrestrial plant input, indicating that
the prevailing conditions were favorable for the conservation of
the organic matter. It might have consistently comprised high,
acidic water that kept the surficial peat and lignite very wet and
dysoxic, which were prevailing for a considerable period of
time.54 Also, the fair proportions of liptinite macerals like
sporinite, cutinite, and resinite contents in the studied coal
samples (Table 5) suggest that the higher plant inputs
dominated from hinterland vegetation at the time of peat
accumulation. The low content of tellinite and the relatively high
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amount of liptodetrinite reflect the high pH conditions of
groundwater and the anaerobic decomposition of organic
matters. Severe bacterial degradation of organic matter is also
evident from the presence of framboidal pyrite (Figure 9a−p).
The decomposed part of liptinite got perfused in the vitrinite
maceral and formed perhydrous or fluorescing vitrinite9,53
(Figure 9b,c,n), which is appreciably present in almost all of the
samples. The moderately high content of inertinite maceral
suggests that the peat surface witnessed an aerial exposure either
due to slow subsidence or due to a receding water table for a
longer period. The appreciable percentage of inertodetrinite
maceral (discrete fragments) in the studied samples further
supports this hypothesis. The volumetric contents of vitrinite,
inertinite, and liptinite are plotted in the ternary facies diagram
(Figure 10). It indicated frequent changes in depositional
conditions during sedimentation, and most of the samples fall in
the wet gas and mixed oil zone, and few samples are placed in the
dry gas zone.17,21,35,55
The petrographic constituents (maceral) and the coal facies
indices (TPI, GI, GWI, and VI) derived from them have also
been used to indicate the paleo-environment of the deposits,
fluctuating groundwater conditions, pH and Eh conditions of
mires, the difference in the type of vegetation during the time of
sediment accumulation, and so on.56−61 It is recommended to
use these facies indicators along with other facies analysis
methods such as palynology, organic geochemistry, etc.55,62−65
The calculated values of GI and TPI are plotted56 on Diessel’s
model using the relation given by66 Kalaitzidis et al. as
collotellinite + collodetrinite + gelovitrinite
GI =
tellinite + vitrodtrinite + inertinite
TPI =
telovitrinite + corpogelinite + semifusinite + fusinite
detrovitrinte + gelinite + inertodetrinite)
The coal samples are characterized by moderate GI (range
0.54−3.12, avg. 1.27) and high TPI (range 2.09−6.23, avg. 3.81)
values (Table 5; Figure 11a). The values of the petrographic
ratio plotted in Diessel’s diagram indicated that the deposition of
mires forming peat occurred during the fluvio-lacustrine wet
forest swamp to dry forest swamp environmental conditions
(Figure 11a). However, the small variation in these values could
be due to changes in source vegetation and/or due to early
microbial alteration of organic matter.
The relationship between GWI and VI shown in ref 66 is
used to infer the hydrological settings and type of vegetation
prevailing in the paleomire according to the facies model of58
deterovitrinite + gelovitrinite + mineral matter
GWI =
telovitrinite
VI = (telovitrinte + cutinite + sporinite + resinite
+ suberinite + fusinite + semifusinite)
/(detrovitrinite + alginite + liptodetrinite
+ inertodetrinite)
The studied samples show that the GWI values range from 0.08
to 0.64 and the VI values vary from 1.99 to 4.88 (Table 5; Figure
11b), indicating that varying ombrotrophic hydrological
conditions existed in the basin of deposition and atmospheric
contact of the peat surface. The oxidation of peat leads to
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 Table 5. Maceral and Mineral Content Values Measured by Petrographic Analysis of Coal Samples
vitrinite (V), vol % liptinite (L), vol % inertinite (I), vol % maceral (mmf), vol % petrographic ratios
mineral matter %
ACS Omega

sample no. collotelinite detrovitrinite sporinite cutinite resinite liptodetrinite semifusinite fusinite inertodetrinite (MM) vol % vitrinite liptinite inertinite TPI GI VI GWI VRom
CG-1901 32.99 8.15 13.24 3.26 3.05 5.50 18.94 1.23 10.79 2.85 42.35 25.78 31.87 2.81 1.09 2.98 0.33 1.24
CG-1902 32.87 9.99 15.87 2.50 4.99 6.12 13.15 5.67 6.58 2.26 43.85 30.16 25.99 3.12 1.30 3.31 0.37 1.37
CG-1903 29.76 7.35 13.00 1.68 5.24 6.29 10.48 4.20 10.48 11.52 41.94 29.62 28.44 2.49 1.17 2.67 0.63 1.26
CG-1904 43.40 4.55 11.36 2.73 1.59 7.27 11.36 0.92 6.36 10.46 53.55 25.63 20.82 5.10 2.22 3.93 0.35 1.47
CG-1905 30.34 3.68 3.68 0.92 5.75 10.34 20.22 5.29 8.05 11.73 38.54 23.44 38.02 4.76 0.86 3.00 0.51 1.32
CG-1906 32.72 0.69 4.35 2.29 2.75 7.09 9.15 17.85 14.65 8.46 36.50 18.00 45.50 3.89 0.80 3.08 0.28 1.62
CG-1907 31.40 - 1.84 0.53 3.96 13.72 29.82 4.22 11.87 2.64 32.25 20.59 47.15 5.51 0.68 2.80 0.08 1.55
CG-1908 38.89 1.21 13.04 3.38 3.39 6.28 18.11 3.38 8.94 3.38 41.50 27.00 31.49 5.95 1.25 4.88 0.12 1.65
CG-1909 25.57 1.77 1.77 1.77 5.57 8.61 31.13 6.08 10.38 7.35 29.51 19.13 51.37 5.17 0.54 3.46 0.36 1.18
CG-1910 31.47 5.17 2.59 0.00 5.17 13.79 10.77 6.47 9.48 15.09 43.15 25.38 31.47 3.32 1.07 1.99 0.64 1.39
CG-1911 34.19 4.41 1.10 0.37 4.41 8.46 29.41 5.15 6.62 5.88 41.01 15.24 43.75 6.23 0.75 3.83 0.30 1.25
CG-1912 32.87 1.11 2.94 0.68 8.36 6.96 25.90 2.23 13.37 5.58 35.99 20.06 43.95 4.17 0.75 3.40 0.20 1.15
CG-1913 35.19 3.29 2.96 0.32 5.82 8.37 22.79 4.30 9.62 7.34 41.53 18.85 39.62 4.82 0.88 3.35 0.30 1.40
CG-1914 36.23 2.23 0.74 0.00 2.23 8.44 25.31 2.24 15.63 6.95 41.33 12.26 46.41 3.57 0.80 2.54 0.25 1.16
CG-1915 34.44 3.83 0.50 0.00 2.05 2.30 34.44 2.55 14.80 5.09 40.32 5.11 54.57 3.83 0.63 3.53 0.26 1.63
CG-1916 33.33 5.03 13.84 4.40 2.52 4.82 13.21 0.62 14.47 7.76 41.59 27.73 30.68 2.42 1.00 2.79 0.38 1.22
CG-1917 28.57 3.15 20.34 4.60 1.45 3.15 13.08 0.73 15.25 9.68 35.12 32.71 32.17 2.29 1.07 3.19 0.45 1.31
CG-1918 29.62 4.90 14.25 1.79 1.11 4.23 19.38 3.56 11.36 9.80 38.27 23.70 38.03 3.23 0.85 3.40 0.50 1.30

M
CG-1919 39.20 5.57 15.37 5.79 0.67 4.01 12.03 1.56 12.25 3.55 46.42 26.79 26.79 2.96 1.38 3.42 0.23 1.19
CG-1920 35.87 7.61 13.48 5.00 2.17 1.96 13.48 1.52 11.30 7.61 47.06 24.47 28.47 2.69 1.28 3.43 0.42 0.98
CG-1921 36.84 10.04 9.15 1.34 1.79 5.13 14.96 1.78 8.93 10.04 52.11 19.35 28.53 2.82 1.24 2.73 0.55 1.36
CG-1922 41.98 5.27 11.21 1.97 0.88 4.62 15.82 5.28 10.33 2.64 48.53 19.19 32.28 4.04 1.25 3.82 0.19 1.33
CG-1923 42.62 4.60 9.93 2.66 0.97 7.02 11.86 0.98 10.65 8.71 51.73 22.54 25.73 3.64 1.68 3.10 0.31 1.46
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CG-1924 31.52 6.58 10.20 2.95 1.36 5.22 15.87 1.82 16.78 7.70 41.28 21.38 37.35 2.09 0.92 2.23 0.45 1.11
CG-1925 34.90 3.88 12.86 2.87 1.83 5.91 12.65 1.43 11.84 11.83 43.98 26.62 29.40 3.12 1.25 3.08 0.45 1.29
CG-1926 37.85 7.86 11.67 2.62 0.71 5.71 16.43 3.57 8.81 4.77 48.00 21.75 30.25 3.46 1.29 3.26 0.33 1.32
CG-1927 37.96 8.46 11.71 4.13 1.08 3.47 18.22 2.39 9.11 3.47 48.09 21.12 30.79 3.33 1.32 3.59 0.31 1.47
CG-1928 46.58 5.56 13.89 2.57 0.85 4.27 10.90 1.92 6.62 6.84 55.97 23.16 20.87 4.88 2.02 4.66 0.27 1.02
CG-1929 47.40 7.36 12.12 7.14 1.30 3.25 6.28 1.94 5.63 7.58 59.25 25.76 14.99 4.28 3.12 4.69 0.32 1.08
CG-1930 44.27 5.83 9.90 6.02 3.11 6.21 6.99 3.88 7.38 6.41 53.53 26.97 19.50 4.17 2.45 3.82 0.28 0.94
CG-1931 40.67 2.94 12.16 2.93 4.82 7.76 3.77 2.73 9.01 13.21 50.25 31.88 17.87 3.95 2.36 3.40 0.40 1.29
max 47.40 10.04 20.34 7.14 8.36 13.79 34.44 17.85 16.78 15.09 59.25 32.71 54.57 6.23 3.12 4.88 0.64 1.65
min 25.57 0.69 0.50 0.00 0.67 1.96 3.77 0.62 5.63 2.26 29.51 5.11 14.99 2.09 0.54 1.99 0.08 0.94
avg 35.86 5.07 9.39 2.56 2.93 6.33 16.64 3.47 10.56 7.36 44.02 22.95 33.04 3.81 1.27 3.33 0.35 1.30
stdev. 5.43 2.52 5.45 1.87 1.98 2.80 7.66 3.16 3.01 3.35 6.99 5.73 9.93 1.09 0.60 0.65 0.13 0.18
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Figure 9. Micropetrographic photographs showing microlithotype, maceral types, and microscopic cleat in coal samples.
Figure 10. Ternary diagram of vitrinite, inertinite, and liptinite showing
the window of the oil and gas genesis potential of coal samples.
inertinite maceral development53,57,67 during atmospheric
exposure in the early stage of peatification.
The ternary facies plot of TPI−VI-GI (Figure 12a) shows the
transformation of organic matter from wet anoxic conditions to
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anoxic conditions controlled by water influx and salinity (change
in water pH). Further, the comparatively younger Raniganj coal
seams follow the older Barakar coal course during thermal
transformation. Similarly, the ternary facies plot of TPI-GI-GWI
(Figure 12b) also indicates a uniform trend of organic matter
transformation. The liptinite macerals are known for being rich
in hydrogen-containing compounds. The reduction in hydro-
gen-rich liptinite (sporinite and cutinite) in Barakar and
Raniganj coal seams shows the trend of coalification, mainly
due to thermal alteration (Figure 12c). The abundance of
detrital macerals due to the role of the process of organic matter
accumulation (in swamp and mires), geochemical alteration,
and basin tectonics is shown in Figure 12d. It is inferred that
progressive conversion of collotelinite, telovitrinite, and
liptodetrinite into detrovitrinite is mainly due to geochemical
alteration.
The microscopic cleat measured during maceral counting is
presented in Table 6. The intensity of a microscopic cleat is the
cumulative surface area of a specific cleat per unit volume. The
microscopic cleat and the spacing between the two cleats are
categorized into three categories: <2, 2−5, >5% and <10, 10−
20, >20 (μm), respectively (Table 6). The measured megascopic
cleat intensities indicating a positive relationship with micro-
scopic cleat intensities are shown in Figure 13a−d. The master
cleat (MCL) intensity is directly proportional to face cleat
(FCL) and butt cleat (BCL) intensities, indicating that these
cleats are interdependent. The thermal compaction of organic
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Figure 11. Depositional facies of coals. (a) Plot of tissue preservation
index (TPI) and gelification index (GI) showing wet and dry forest
conditions. (b) Plot of vegetation index (VI) and groundwater index
(GWI) showing the ombrotrophic environment of deposition.
Figure 12. Depositional facies of coals. (a) Ternary plot of TPI-GI−VI
showing a narrow change in the depositional environment. (b) Ternary
plot of TPI-GI-GWI illustrating uniformity in the trend of organic
matter transformation. (c) Ternary plot of sporinite−cutinite−resinite
demonstrating the trend of coalification as a function of a longer
geologic age. (d) Ternary plot of collotelinite−detrovitrinite−
liptovitrinite showing the trend of geochemical alteration of organic
matter.
matter attributed to shrinkage, stress release, devolatilization,
and extensional strain simultaneously developed these cleats68
(Figure 13a). Moreover, the positive trend of MCL, FCL, and
BCL with microscopic cleat intensity also validates the
progressive development of microcleats and microfractures in
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Article
coals through dehydration, devolatilization, and gelification of
organic content during coalification at the microlevel (Figure
13b−d).
3.5. Influence of Lithotype and Thermal Maturity on
Cleat/Fracture Development. Coal seam-associated physical
properties and structures are influenced by pre-and postdeposi-
tional processes like lithological arrangements and assemblages
of the coal-containing system.30 The vitrinite and inertinite plot
of the 31 coal samples shows an inverse relationship, which
indicates a common source material and the presence of two
genetic paths, vitrinitization and fusinitization, respectively38
(Figures 14a and 15a,b). Further, it reveals that the formation of
peat to coal from vegetal matter involves partial biodecompo-
sition of organic matter followed by a physicochemical
process.35,41 The percentage of inertinite is comparatively
higher in Barakar coal samples than in the Raniganj coals
because the Barakar coals were subjected to greater depth and
passed through a longer geochemical alteration process. In
Barakar and Raniganj Formations coals, the majority of vitrinite
is detrovitrinite. The amount of collotelinite also increases,
indicating a major maceral subgroup in vitrinite-rich coal
(Figure 14b). The thickness and extent of these maceral layers
depend upon the original vegetal matter, the sediments
deposited during the peat formation, the state of plant materials’
preservation, and prevailing geochemical conditions in the
depositional environment.69
The relationship between vitrinite reflectance (VRom %) and
intensity (B, %) with moderate values of R2 = 0.6707 states that
the change in thermal maturity enriched the higher carbon-
containing bright coal. On the other hand, the dull banded coal
results from organic matter alteration and inertinization during
geochemical and thermal transformation under an anoxic
condition (Figure 15a,b). The megascopic cleat intensity
(MCL, FCL, and BCL) increases in bright coal bands and
signifies shrinkage, dehydration, and desiccation of vitrain
lithotype advances the cleats in coal uniform in thickness (from
5−17 mm) (Figure 15c). However, the microscopic cleat
spacing (space between two nearby cleats) decreases with
increasing bright coal (B) band intensity, validating the above
statement (Figure 15d). The dull banded coal (Db) intensity
increases with a decrease in megascopic cleat intensity and
specifies that soft and carbonized organic matter with ductile
characteristics is less prone to cleat genesis in coal (Figure 15e).
Likewise, the microscopic cleat intensity showed a negative
relation with dull band intensity (Db), indicating at the
microlevel also that there is no influence of stress or strain in
inertinite maceral during the cleat (Figure 15f). The cleat
intensity and spacing measured from SEM photographs are
correlated with the dull band (Db) intensity showing a similar
nature as found in megascopic and microscopic measurements
(Figure 15g,h). It can be summarized that cleats are formed by
primary organo−inorganic thermal transformation and is the
property of individual lithotypes.
The values of vitrinite reflectance vary from 0.94 to 1.65%,
indicating the bituminous rank of the studied coal. The thermal
maturity of coal increases with the depth of occurrence of coal
seams, as seen from the relationship between vitrinite reflectance
and depth in Figure 16a. It is accentuated that thermal heat
received from a greater depth played an important role in coal
maturation.70,71 The positive relationship of vitrinite reflectance
with megascopic, microscopic, and SEM cleat intensities also
supports the fact that the organo−inorganic transformation is
mainly responsible for the formation of cleats (Figure 16b,c,e).
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Table 6. Cleat/Fracture Intensity and Spacing Measured on Different Visualization Scales in Coal Samples
megascopic (in 100 cm2) microscopic (in 6.25 cm2) scanning electron microscopy (in 1 mm2)
cleat intensity (%) cleat intensity (%) cleat spacing (μm) cleat intensity (%) cleat spacing (μm)
sample no. MCL FCL BCL <2 2−5 >5 <10 10−20 >20 <5 5−10 >10 <2 2−5 >5
CG-1901 3.85 16.23 7.21 3.11 3.16 3.08 2.23 10.19 20.19 3.85 8.23 9.76 0.54 2.04 6.23
CG-1902 3.06 15.37 6.58 2.64 3.26 3.16 3.63 11.91 25.05 3.97 7.64 8.09 1.06 2.78 8.65
CG-1903 2.15 7.91 5.23 1.17 3.07 3.06 6.75 12.64 23.76 3.36 6.45 7.85 1.07 2.94 9.52
CG-1904 2.75 11.87 4.29 1.74 2.48 1.98 7.54 13.92 31.56 3.16 5.36 5.49 1.48 3.58 14.23
CG-1905 2.61 14.32 6.45 1.72 2.82 2.91 4.77 10.43 20.25 3.9 7.25 7.92 1.02 2.76 7.56
CG-1906 1.14 5.17 2.49 0.98 2.63 1.33 7.69 14.25 32.92 2.49 6.32 6.33 1.63 3.79 12.22
CG-1907 3.56 17.29 6.18 3.46 3.78 2.46 4.26 10.68 23.35 3.63 7.2 8.25 0.78 2.45 5.46
CG-1908 1.21 13.61 4.25 0.95 1.97 3.12 4.33 13.63 26.26 3.41 6.79 6.37 1.07 3.56 6.45
CG-1909 1.58 11.23 3.85 1.66 2.95 0.95 5.94 14.85 24.59 3.46 6.85 5.26 1.55 3.05 17.3
CG-1910 0.85 6.28 3.96 1.79 2.61 1.65 7.85 15.25 32.27 2.85 5.69 8.01 1.61 3.85 18.26
CG-1911 2.26 9.36 6.78 2.34 2.36 1.42 5.29 10.94 25.18 3.28 5.78 7.68 1.36 2.62 13.48
CG-1912 1.47 6.32 2.88 1.48 2.24 1.96 6.58 13.36 28.5 2.58 6.4 4.92 1.24 3.58 14.67
CG-1913 3.04 16.95 5.78 2.15 3.26 2.57 4.21 10.78 22.69 3.7 8.65 8.34 0.76 2.94 8.62
CG-1914 2.21 8.91 4.48 1.59 2.12 1.39 4.68 10.36 24.71 3.48 7.29 7.05 1.12 2.79 9.27
CG-1915 2.86 17.29 5.65 1.64 3.16 2.56 5.02 11.49 25.28 3.55 8.5 8.34 0.78 2.22 8.37
CG-1916 1.75 11.62 3.51 2.49 2.23 1.55 6.56 12.77 28.95 3.46 6.41 9.16 1.23 3.79 9.94
CG-1917 3.31 13.46 6.14 3.36 2.33 2.16 6.37 11.26 23.52 3.24 5.46 7.13 1.33 2.85 14.33
CG-1918 2.58 14.78 4.82 2.58 2.21 2.3 6.26 14.38 30.13 2.53 8.26 6.77 1.21 3.39 17.25
CG-1919 0.62 5.96 3.26 1.46 1.65 1.47 7.35 14.92 35.85 2.55 5.47 4.63 1.65 3.74 16.59
CG-1920 1.45 8.39 3.44 1.75 2.12 1.96 5.64 14.56 31.27 2.92 6.85 7.26 1.12 3.14 14.85
CG-1921 3.11 14.62 4.45 1.59 2.26 3.49 5.15 11.21 29.36 3.33 7.89 8.65 1.26 2.64 11.59
CG-1922 1.69 10.29 5.16 1.85 3.36 1.88 5.04 12.62 28.25 3.48 7.78 9.26 1.36 3.35 10.36
CG-1923 2.17 12.26 5.69 4.02 3.22 2.46 4.45 11.23 21.56 3.63 7.79 7.11 1.22 2.96 8.22
CG-1924 1.26 5.47 4.16 1.25 2.31 1.49 5.26 14.61 32.73 3.09 5.64 5.58 1.95 3.46 14.26
CG-1925 1.94 8.28 3.78 1.56 2.16 1.78 6.99 12.8 27.91 2.89 6.56 6.84 1.16 3.98 15.89
CG-1926 1.87 13.62 4.04 1.95 2.85 2.55 5.88 10.39 27.35 2.95 5.62 7.25 0.85 3.47 9.33
CG-1927 1.75 12.36 6.19 1.84 4.12 2.16 4.71 11.73 22.29 3.61 7.26 9.26 1.12 2.69 7.63
CG-1928 0.36 3.85 3.14 0.49 1.26 1.04 6.55 14.91 35.79 2.59 6.85 5.74 1.26 4.06 14.22
CG-1929 0.47 5.9 1.65 1.08 1.44 0.65 6.28 15.58 36.49 2.07 5.11 5.88 1.86 4.48 19.18
CG-1930 0.72 7.62 1.83 1.64 1.88 1.02 7.46 16.27 34.08 2.11 5.26 4.68 1.88 4.66 15.64
CG-1931 1.38 4.36 4.29 1.22 1.53 1.22 8.05 13.65 28.32 2.64 6.42 8.21 1.53 3.55 14.29
max 3.85 17.29 7.21 4.02 4.12 3.49 8.05 16.27 36.49 3.97 8.65 9.76 1.95 4.66 19.18
min 0.36 3.85 1.65 0.49 1.26 0.65 2.23 10.19 20.19 2.07 5.11 4.63 0.54 2.04 5.46
avg 1.97 10.68 4.57 1.89 2.54 2.03 5.77 12.82 27.76 3.15 6.74 7.20 1.26 3.26 12.06
stdev. 0.94 4.16 1.45 0.79 0.68 0.75 1.39 1.83 4.68 0.52 1.03 1.43 0.34 0.63 3.93

The SEM cleat spacings show an inverse relation with
microscopic intensity. It suggests that microstresses related to
compaction, dehydration, devolatilization, and internal shrink-
age/desiccation played a vital role in cleat genesis (Figure 16d,f).
3.6. Influence of Mineral Constituents on Cleat/
Fractures. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum is a reliable
tool for identifying different mineral/inorganic compositions in
coal samples and understanding the source rock properties.34−36
The values of the identified mineral phases in the studied
samples are enumerated in Table 7. The patterns of XRD spectra
(Figure 17a−g) revealed that the studied samples possess
nonclay minerals predominantly (47.42−83.95 vol %), includ-
ing quartz (21.66−57.14 vol %), clintonite (1.00−23.53 vol %),
and calcite (2.56−13.32 vol %). Other nonclay minerals such as
dolomite (2.56−17.66 vol %), muscovite (0.25−8.41 vol %),
and pyrite (0.12−1.25 vol %) were found at relatively lower
concentrations. The clays are second in abundance and range
from 16.05 to 52.58 vol %. Among them, dickite and kaolinite
range from 2.95 to 16.67 vol % and from 3.31 to 46.52 vol %,
respectively, while illite is recorded up to 14.96 vol %. The data
show that, in general, the more prominent XRD peaks of quartz
are noted in all of the samples although some small peaks of
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quartz are also observed (Figure 17a−h), suggesting a quartz-
rich source rock. Consequently, the occurrence of a large
amount of quartz in the samples suggests the brittle nature of
coal, which may help establish the connectivity between the
fracture and pores during hydrofracturing in coal seam gas
reservoirs.72 Usually, quartz grains are relatively more resilient to
the weathering agents compared to K-feldspar. Therefore, the
stress fields of burial depth, geothermal gradient, and textural
alterations due to diagenesis have a negligible influence.30,35,36
The evaluation of clay mineral types from XRD can help
reconstruct the environmental conditions prevailing during
sedimentation. It appears that the presence of kaolinite in the
studied coal seams reveals intense leaching of inorganic minerals
(feldspar and pyroxene) in an acidic medium under a humid-
fluvio-terrestrial climate.73 Illite, on the other hand, usually
forms in a relaxed environment under low precipitation.
Meunier,74 however, advocates that an arid environment with
a weak eluvial process is more suitable for forming and
preserving illites. The formation of kaolinite and illite can be
attributed to the weathering of silicates like mica and feldspar
minerals. It is also formed due to the alteration of smectite and
other minerals (muds and silts) during diagenesis. The larger
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Figure 13. Relationship of cleats in coal samples. (a) Master cleat intensity vs face and butt cleat intensities. (b) Master cleat vs microscopic cleat
intensity. (c) Face cleat vs microscopic cleat intensity. (d) Butt cleat vs microscopic cleat intensities.

The influence of quartz on cleat occurrence in coal is

Figure 14. Relationship of macerals in coal: (a) vitrinite vs inertinite
and (b) vitrinite vs telovitrinite.
contents of aluminium and potassium are the product of rock
interaction and dissolution under temperate water conditions
(neutral or slightly alkaline) which is also favorable for illite
formation.75,76 Pyrites are usually formed under oxygen-
deficient conditions by reduction of common sulfate (S) to
sulfide (S2) combined with iron (Fe) during compaction,
increase in salinity of aquifer water, and loss of oxygen source.
Carbonates like calcite and dolomite might have derived from a
secondary source during a postdepositional environment.76,77
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demonstrated by the positive relationship between quartz
content and megascopic cleat (Figure 18a). The resistance to
the weathering nature of quartz makes its grain rounded to
subrounded while transportation in the basin and contributes to
the brittle properties of coal. This property makes coal easily
breakable in a different direction by internal and external
stresses. The total mineral content, including muscovite,
chloritoid, clintonite, calcite, and dolomite, also has an
involvement in cleat formation (Figure 18b). The total clay
content exhibits an inverse relationship with the megascopic
cleat intensity (Figure 18c), suggesting hydrous clay swells due
to its inherent intrinsically ultrafine characteristics, which is
unsupportive to cleat construction; however, it ropes in the
development of irregular cracks when organo−inorganic matter
achieves dry thermal conditions. The quartz content vs
microscopic cleat intensity of various ranges like <2, 2−5, and
>5% (Figure 18d) showed a positive relation due to rounded to
subrounded grains of quartz having brittle characteristics in the
bedding and fracture plains. Similarly, the quartz content vs
SEM cleat intensity measured at the microlevel also indicates a
positive correlation point toward micrograins of quartz,
supporting the cleat/pore development in the studied coal
(Figure 18e). The inverse relation of total clay with microscopic
cleat intensity and SEM cleat intensity suggests that massive and
hydrous clay influences the microcleat/fracture development in
coal (Figure 18f and g). Likewise, the microscopic cleat spacing
in coal is controlled by quartz grains of ultrafine to macro size
(Figure 18h). Further, it is summarized that quartz and clay
contents have relatively positive and negative impacts on cleat
origin (Figure 18i−l). The kaolinite content is the major
constituent of inorganic coal content because of the granitic
source rock of sediments. Kaolinite is the product of extensive
alteration of K-feldspar and associated rocks, which have gone
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Figure 15. Relationship of lithotype intensities with cleat intensities of coal samples. (a) VRom vs B (bright coal). (b) VRom vs Db (dull banded coal).
(c) Megascopic cleat intensity vs B (bright coal). (d) Microscopic cleat spacing vs B (bright coal). (e) Megascopic cleat intensity vs Db (dull banded
coal). (f) Microscopic cleat intensity vs Db (dull banded coal). (g) SEM cleat intensity vs Db (dull banded coal). (h) SEM cleat spacing vs Db (dull
banded coal).

through strong weathering patterns and are elastic in nature
(Figure 18l).
3.7. Matrix-Associated Pore Types in Coal. The low-
pressure N2 adsorption−desorption isotherm curves are used to
determine the surface area, pore size, pore volume, and coal
matrix pore structures. The types of pores, the pore volume, and
the surface area of coals are essential to determine the gas
holding capacity. The fluid flow mechanism of the coal seam is
due to adsorption, and the desorption from the internal surfaces
is a function of the pore type and pore volume.78 The isotherms
obtained from the N2 sorption study of the studied coal samples
correspond to the types-I and II isotherms with desorption
hysteresis pattern Types A and B, which are characteristics of a
well-developed mesopore having cylindrical, slit-shaped, and
combined open pores (Figure 19a−j).37,79−81 The adsorption
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and desorption branches of the isotherms show distinct
hysteresis loops in almost all of the samples except for sample
nos. CG-1906 to CG-1909, CG-1922, CG-1923, CG-1928, and
CG-1929. The negligible hysteresis pattern indicates less
condensation of gas in the mesopores. The dominance of slit,
combined, and open-ended cylindrical pores is associated with
cleat and fracture systems. The reduction in adsorption of gas
with increasing relative pressure (sample nos. CG-1910 and
1927) indicates condensation of gas after filling the monolayer
and multilayer due to the abundance of large cylindrical open
pores in the samples (Figure 19e).
The surface area, pore size, and pore volume were obtained
from the low-pressure nitrogen (N2) sorption isotherm curves
following different methods (Table 8). The multipoint BET
surface area, the Barrett−Joyner−Halenda (BJH) pore volume,
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Figure 16. Relationship of cleats with thermal maturity (VRom%) of coal samples. (a) VRom vs depth. (b) Megascopic cleat intensities vs VRom. (c)
Microscopic cleat intensities vs VRom. (d) Microscopic cleat spacing vs VRom. (e) SEM cleat intensities vs VRom. (f) SEM cleat intensities vs VRom.

and pore size distributions vary from 1.352 to 14.348 m2/g,
0.002 to 0.021 cm3/g, and 2.057 to 13.320 nm, respectively. As
per the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC), the pores of coal can be grouped into three types: ≥50
nm (macropores), 2−50 nm (mesopores), and ≤2 nm
(micropores).82 The BJH plots indicate the dominance of
mesopores in studied coal samples (Figure 20a−l). Generally,
the pore structure plays a vital role in the flow of fluid in the
interlinked dendritic pore to the cleat/fracture coal system.
The vitrinite content showed an increasing trend with
increasing multipoint BET surface area, signifying that pores
associated with the vitrinite maceral mainly contributed to the
total surface area (Figure 21a). Moreover, the vitrinite content
vs the BJH pore volume and pore size revealed a very good
correlation (R2 = 0.8118 and R2 = 0.7612, respectively) (Figure
21b,c). The pores and fractures in vitrinite-containing matrix
systems having a carbon-rich lithotype merged to form clusters
with irregular connections due to pre- and post-tectonic
stresses.83 Figure 21d−f exhibits the relation of inertinite
content with multipoint BET surface area, BJH pore volume,
and pore size, indicating the evolution of chiefly large-diameter
pores in the studied coals during inertinization or alteration of
organic matter.
S https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c02041
3.8. Microfractures and Pore Morphology in Coal. The
field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) photo-
graphs (Figure 22a−p) of the Raniganj and Barakar Formations
coal seams show intricate microfractures and pore structures
owing to the epigenetic characteristics. It also indicates that only
vitrinite bands comprise the partially deformed planer cleat
system (Figure 22a). These cleats and fractures are the main
pathways for the movement of gas through the coal. The
diversified pore system can be observed in microlithotypes like
clarite, inertite, and durite containing macerals, e.g., collotelinite,
detrovitrinite, fusinite, semifusinite, and mineral matters (Figure
22b−d).84 Further, the quartz and clay grains having algae
overgrown developed shallow and deep micropores to
mesopores in coal (Figure 22e). Decomposed pores due to
heat received from external intrusive altering microlithotypes are
shown in Figure 22f. It may be noticed that collotelinite, inertite,
and dull bands have macro- and mesopores partially filled with
secondary clay minerals like illite and kaolinite (Figure 22g,h).
The evolution of organic pores by cracking organic compounds
during coalification is illustrated in Figure 22i. The sericite clay
having irregular altered micropores and cracks allied with
duroclarite is shown in Figure 22j,k. Distinct polymeric boghead
algae overgrew in macropores of vitrite during the postdeposi-
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Table 7. Minerals and Clays Identified through XRD Spectroscopy of Coal Samples
minerals (vol %) clays (vol %)
sample no. quartz muscovite chloritoid clintonite calcite dolomite pyrite total mineral (vol %) dickite kaolinite illite total clays (vol %)
CG-1901 57.14 0.26 - 14.29 6.14 - 0.95 78.78 14.08 7.14 - 21.22
CG-1902 50.22 1.25 0.52 7.22 2.56 6.34 0.18 68.29 7.25 21.81 2.65 31.71
CG-1903 38.26 3.47 0.85 8.56 4.64 2.56 1.25 59.59 11.26 24.89 4.26 40.41
CG-1904 42.62 1.69 5.27 10.52 5.27 - 0.63 66.00 5.27 23.46 5.27 34
CG-1905 44.19 3.48 1.62 6.37 8.51 4.18 - 68.35 5.62 21.98 4.05 31.65
CG-1906 25.67 2.11 0.95 5.16 6.74 6.37 0.42 47.42 4.58 46.52 1.48 52.58
CG-1907 55.33 3.41 1.48 2.44 2.96 4.59 - 70.21 4.98 18.48 6.33 29.79
CG-1908 35.3 1.76 - 11.76 5.88 17.66 0.74 73.1 11.76 13.26 1.88 26.9
CG-1909 33.58 8.41 1.65 7.65 5.98 3.78 0.18 61.23 7.56 26.92 4.29 38.77
CG-1910 35.36 3.68 2.58 1.00 4.22 5.44 0.69 52.97 6.35 38.21 2.47 47.03
CG-1911 44.29 2.11 2.96 8.56 3.72 6.7 - 68.34 4.95 20.39 6.32 31.66
CG-1912 30.29 0.56 - 23.53 5.88 3.15 0.47 63.88 11.76 18.48 5.88 36.12
CG-1913 47.26 2.14 1.47 21.58 6.55 4.59 0.36 83.95 8.56 3.31 4.18 16.05
CG-1914 35.78 1.72 3.14 20.14 5.94 6.22 0.14 73.08 7.62 9.64 9.66 26.92
CG-1915 40.99 2.00 5.05 12.33 7.45 15 0.37 83.19 2.95 6.63 7.23 16.81
CG-1916 31.92 3.14 1.45 10.62 5.74 5.78 - 58.65 5.96 31.14 4.25 41.35
CG-1917 42.78 1.92 1.26 8.59 6.47 6.59 0.33 67.94 8.56 19.88 3.62 32.06
CG-1918 46.63 0.98 10.53 10.53 5.26 - 0.95 74.88 15.79 7.22 2.11 25.12
CG-1919 32.96 1.22 1.74 7.56 5.95 4.29 1.22 54.94 4.36 36.47 4.23 45.06
CG-1920 34.25 3.47 1.56 5.98 7.21 6.47 0.48 59.42 8.65 25.61 6.32 40.58
CG-1921 44.42 1.22 5.56 11.11 5.56 5.56 0.12 73.55 14.78 9.22 2.45 26.45
CG-1922 40 0.34 3.05 6.67 13.32 4.73 0.47 68.58 12.24 15.86 3.32 31.42
CG-1923 38.95 0.75 3.66 7.59 4.99 5.51 0.62 62.07 4.63 30.97 2.33 37.93
CG-1924 33.68 0.36 3.58 14.25 3.44 6.15 - 61.46 8.56 28.57 1.41 38.54
CG-1925 30.17 1.74 3.96 8.69 6.51 7.24 0.37 58.68 5.64 29.36 6.32 41.32
CG-1926 41.43 1.65 5.56 11.11 11.10 - 0.69 71.54 16.67 6.23 5.56 28.46
CG-1927 45.77 1.89 2.45 4.89 7.25 5.95 - 68.20 8.95 18.00 4.85 31.8
CG-1928 28.99 0.25 2.75 9.55 4.96 4.58 0.72 51.80 4.96 31.01 12.23 48.2
CG-1929 21.66 0.65 11.3 4.34 12.30 3.08 0.31 53.64 6.66 35.07 4.63 46.36
CG-1930 23.47 1.74 2.85 10.45 5.88 5.48 0.58 50.45 7.22 27.37 14.96 49.55
CG-1931 30.37 1.25 5.26 10.53 10.53 5.26 - 63.20 10.53 21.01 5.26 36.80
maximum 57.14 8.41 11.30 23.53 13.32 17.66 1.25 83.95 16.67 46.52 14.96 52.58
minimum 21.66 0.25 0.52 1.00 2.56 2.56 0.12 47.42 2.95 3.31 1.41 16.05
average 38.18 1.96 3.36 9.79 6.42 6.05 0.55 65.08 8.35 21.75 4.99 34.92
stdev. 8.66 1.58 2.61 5.04 2.51 3.21 0.31 9.25 3.65 10.67 3.02 9.25

tional course (Figure 22l), creating an obstacle for pore
connectivity and the gas flow mechanism.85 The organic pores
that evolved during compaction, gelification, and thermal
transformation generated deep irregular pores due to cracking
of organic compounds, as shown in Figure 22m. The parallelly
placed boghead algae in the microcleat blocking the flow path
related to vitrite are illustrated in Figure 22n. The diatom (algae)
in cracks/fractures indicates postdepositional overgrowth of
algae by influencing the influx of water from nearby drainage
systems (Figure 22o). The deep pore (pore pipe) in clarain
emphasizes lithotypes other than vitrinite, also expansively
cracked and evolved large pores (Figure 22p). The micro-
fractures linked with different pore structures in the studied coal
are classified into seven types: (i) vitrite-associated regular open-
slit pores, (ii) vitriinertite-char allied irregular pores, (iii)
irregular fracture pores partially filled with clay, (iv) fissile pores
along bedding planes of clay, (v) organic pores evolved due to
external heat received from intrusives, (vi) deep organic pores
evolved during compaction and thermal transformation, and
(vii) pore fractures blocked by boghead algae. It is summarized
that the maceral type, microlithotype, diagenesis process, clay
and mineral alteration, and heat received from intrusives (sill/
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dyke) control the microcleat/fracture and pore system in the
Raniganj and Barakar Formations coal seams.
For more clarity on microcleats, the different microlithotypes
observed under FE-SEM are revealed in Figure 23a. The vitrite
showed a well-developed face and butt cleat perpendicular to
each other. The clarite indicates alternate thin bands, vertical
fractures, and spacing aligning the beddings. The decomposed
altered organo−inorganic matter comprises mesopores and
fractures associated with durite and the parallel spacing-pores in
char formed during inertinization. It also validates the above
statement that maceral and geological transformation of organic
matter influenced the pore, microcleat, and microfractures in
coal.86,87 The micro- and mesopores in inertite-char on different
magnifications (from 1.0 to 102.5k×) are shown in Figure 23b.
On zooming-in on the char bands, micro- and mesopores with
connecting microfractures are gradually visible, demonstrating
that inertodetrinite is transitional between vitrite and inertite.
This interaction is observed in the vitrite-clarite-inertite bands of
all of the studied coal samples. These microfractures look similar
to shrinkage cracks with ultrafine granularity developed in coal
due to dehydration.47,88−91
Similarly, the durite is magnified in four stages from 292× to
37.65k× to determine the pore and fracture morphologies
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Figure 17. XRD spectra showing peaks of identified minerals and clays
in coal samples.
(Figure 23c). The microlithotype durite contains pores of
diverse shapes with a regular network of fractures and is the most
porous compared to the other macerals in terms of macropores.
The associated clay minerals in durite, mostly kaolinites, are
found to be flaky and packed. The platy clay crystals are stacked
side by side, and their planer pores provide a much easier passage
to fluids and have significant surface areas, which can adsorb
methane on their surface.
3.9. Relation of Physicomechanical Properties with
Cleat/Fractures. The previous section stated that the
formation of cleats in coal seams is attributed to diagenetic,
organo−inorganic transformation, and tectonic processes
(internal and external). However, there is little information on
the relation of cleat occurrence and physicomechanical
properties of coal. The physicomechanical behavior of coal is
different from other sedimentary rocks due to different
lithotypes present in it. The lithotypes vitrain, clarain, durain,
and fusain deform differently under loading conditions. The
density of the Barakar Formation coal samples ranges from 1.31
to 1.62 g/cm3, whereas for the Raniganj Formation coal samples,
the density ranges from 1.28 to 165 g/cc (Table 9). The Barakar
Formation Coal seam (CG-1906) and the Raniganj Formation
coal (CG-1929 and CG-1930) are affected by igneous intrusion,
due to which the density is on the higher side. It has been
observed that there is no influence of depth on density on the
studied coal seams.
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The range of physicomechanical properties of Barakar coal
samples like compressive strength (σc), tensile strength (σt),
Young’s modulus (E), Poisson’s ratio (υ), cohesion (C), angle of
internal friction (Φ), point load index, slake durability index, and
Protodyaknov strength index varies in the range of 5.49−19.91
MPa, 0.48−2.42 MPa, 0.69−2.37 GPa, 0.08−0.25, 1.40−4.65
MPa, 47.69−55.22 (°), 0.33−0.67 MPa, 97.34−98.94%, and
0.73−0.83, respectively. However, the physicomechanical
properties of the Raniganj Formation vary in the range of
5.82−24.79 MPa, 0.65−2.69 MPa, 0.78−2.58 GPa, 0.08−0.24,
1.85−7.76 MPa, 35.49−58.16 (°), 0.08−1.86 MPa, 92.30−
98.90%, and 0.67−1.85, respectively (Table 9). The stress−
strain plot of selected coal samples is given in Figure 24. The
variation in volumetric, diametric, and axial strains is due to the
banded nature and diversified cleat intensity in coal controlled
by lithotypes.
The different values of physicomechanical properties
measured from the coal core samples are plotted in the Box−
Whisker plot (Figure 25) to determine the minimum, maximum,
median, lower quartile, and upper quartile values for different
parameters. There is significant variation in strength properties
of Barakar and Barren measures coal influenced by thermal
maturity, lithotype characteristics, and organo−inorganic
content.
3.10. Relation of Physicomechanical Properties with
Inorganic Content. The studied coal samples from Barakar
and Raniganj Formations are of drift origin. Hence, heteroge-
neous mixing of organo−inorganic content during trans-
portation of sediments to the basin is primarily responsible for
the banded nature of coal. The accumulation, consolidation, and
subsequently compaction of sediments by basin sinking and
overburden pressure make the forming rocks compact and
massive. However, the material loses its plastic and elastic
properties by the geological process (internal and external),
generating pore, cleat, and fracture in coal. The relationship
between physicomechanical properties and mineral/clay con-
tent of coal samples is shown in Figure 26a−f. The inverse
relation between quartz content and density indicates rounded
to subrounded quartz grains spaced widely in coal (Figure 26a).
The positive relation between total clay content and density
specifies that densely packed clay makes the dull coal bands
more massive (Figure 26b). The negative relation between
quartz content and compressive and tensile strengths signifies
the increase in brittle characteristics of coal when the quartz
content increases (Figure 26c). The total clay content vs
compressive and tensile strength (Figure 26d) showed a positive
correlation that validates the statement made for Figure 26b.
Likewise, the positive relation between the quartz content and
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio demonstrates that the
increase in quartz content reduces the plasticity and more
deformation occurs in coal (Figure 26e). The relation between
total clay content and Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio
indicates the increase in elasticity with an increase in clay
concentration in coal (Figure 26f).
4. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The organo−geochemical constituents like macerals and
elemental composition control the pore and cleat/fracture
formation in coal. Therefore, understanding the effects of
organo−geochemical components on cleat/fracture, pore, and
strength properties can help design the drilling operation, coal
mining methods, type of roof supports, rock mechanics, and
planning of the mineral beneficiation process. The present study
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Figure 18. Relationship of cleat occurrence with mineral/clay content in coal samples. (a) Quartz content vs megascopic cleat intensity. (b) Total
mineral content vs megascopic cleat intensity. (c) Total clay content vs megascopic cleat intensity. (d) Quartz content vs microscopic cleat intensity.
(e) Quartz content vs SEM cleat intensity. (f) Total clay content vs microscopic cleat intensity. (g) Total clay content vs SEM cleat intensity. (h)
Quartz content vs microscopic cleat spacing. (i) Quartz content vs SEM cleat spacing. (j) Total clay content vs microscopic cleat spacing. (k) Total clay
content vs SEM cleat spacing. (l) Kaolinite content vs megascopic cleat intensity.

Figure 19. (a−j): Low-pressure N2 adsorption and desorption isotherm pattern showing cylindrical and slit-shaped pore types in the studied coal
samples.

investigated 31 coal samples from eight boreholes in the
Raniganj Coalfield by various measurements and analyses such
as petrography, proximate and ultimate analyses, X-ray
diffraction (XRD), low-pressure N2 sorption isotherm, cleat/
fracture intensity, and physicomechanical properties. The broad
conclusions drawn from the study are as follows.
i. There are four distinct lithotypes identified: (i) B, bright
coal; (ii) Db, dull banded coal; (iii) Bb, bright banded
coal; and (iv) Bd, banded coal. These litho-facies
demonstrate color differences in lithotypes sourced
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from organo−inorganic content and early diagenetic
effects to the coal late transformation process.
ii. Face and butt cleat is the property of vitrain lithotypes
because higher carbon content and brittle characteristics
specifying the coal seam were subjected to uniform
stresses.
iii. The inverse relationship of volatile matter with master,
face, and butt cleat thermal maturity controls the cleat
intensity.
iv. The carbon enrichment process in coal controls the
megascopic cleat genesis pattern. The vitrain-rich bands
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Table 8. BET Surface Area, Pore Size, and Pore Volume Obtained through Low-Pressure N2 Adsorption of Coal Samples
surface area (m2/g) pore volume (cm3/g) pore size (nm)
sample no. single-point BET multipoint BET Langmuir BJH method t-method external BJH method DFT method BJH method DFT
CG-1901 1.162 2.626 2.013 0.694 1.226 0.004 0.003 4.489 3.969
CG-1902 2.453 2.663 4.287 1.910 2.663 0.007 0.006 5.189 5.689
CG-1903 2.133 1.509 3.446 0.821 0.987 0.010 0.003 4.262 0.718
CG-1904 4.314 4.379 8.971 2.778 4.379 0.014 0.007 9.450 3.627
CG-1905 3.285 1.352 6.767 2.515 3.852 0.005 0.007 2.057 3.969
CG-1906 2.022 5.499 4.621 1.581 2.093 0.004 0.003 3.161 2.769
CG-1907 3.883 6.410 42.060 3.947 3.589 0.004 0.006 1.988 2.769
CG-1908 4.840 3.320 23.320 4.387 4.904 0.004 0.008 2.989 3.169
CG-1909 2.308 2.495 4.124 1.167 1.446 0.002 0.003 1.993 0.718
CG-1910 0.401 5.644 0.597 0.278 0.644 0.004 0.002 5.070 1.410
CG-1911 3.057 3.691 7.403 2.105 3.533 0.008 0.006 3.160 2.769
CG-1912 2.133 2.452 4.292 1.471 2.452 0.005 0.005 3.486 2.769
CG-1913 3.290 2.960 0.320 5.820 12.790 0.006 1.200 5.794 4.820
CG-1914 1.232 1.719 3.336 1.690 1.719 0.004 0.003 3.341 1.410
CG-1915 0.864 10.887 2.926 0.563 0.887 0.009 0.001 4.346 2.769
CG-1916 5.991 6.638 23.050 3.747 3.980 0.007 0.007 2.990 3.169
CG-1917 5.476 13.867 15.860 3.650 4.488 0.005 0.008 3.203 3.627
CG-1918 1.862 8.041 3.466 1.260 2.041 0.006 0.005 3.161 3.969
CG-1919 1.991 12.826 3.484 1.100 2.082 0.010 0.004 7.991 3.969
CG-1920 2.054 6.329 4.097 1.150 1.995 0.012 0.004 5.993 3.169
CG-1921 1.211 7.443 2.792 0.592 0.987 0.016 0.002 10.160 3.169
CG-1922 11.990 10.330 35.140 9.937 10.150 0.013 0.017 5.989 3.169
CG-1923 9.673 12.370 46.010 8.650 8.969 0.015 0.016 8.085 3.169
CG-1924 4.322 14.607 7.158 2.305 4.607 0.008 0.011 4.492 3.969
CG-1925 1.461 12.587 2.583 0.876 1.587 0.008 0.005 5.460 4.543
CG-1926 2.381 10.883 3.569 1.508 1.888 0.014 0.011 13.320 7.795
CG-1927 0.515 11.206 0.747 0.659 1.206 0.010 0.004 5.739 3.969
CG-1928 8.277 13.096 14.730 4.344 4.421 0.021 0.009 10.991 0.718
CG-1929 6.510 14.348 12.580 4.520 5.110 0.017 0.009 11.285 2.897
CG-1930 4.682 12.330 14.520 3.876 4.464 0.015 0.007 11.159 2.769
CG-1931 8.184 9.416 15.950 6.023 7.576 0.013 0.013 7.728 3.627
maximum 11.990 14.607 46.010 9.937 12.790 0.021 1.200 13.320 7.795
minimum 0.401 1.352 0.320 0.278 0.644 0.002 0.001 1.988 0.718
average 3.676 7.546 10.459 2.772 3.636 0.009 0.045 5.759 3.259
stdev. 2.830 4.461 11.985 2.366 2.875 0.005 0.214 3.137 1.436

Figure 20. (a−l): BJH plot showing pore size distribution and cumulative pore volume in coal samples.

of coal with high carbon are more prone to cleat formation
due to their brittle characteristics.
v. The hydrogen content in coal is also an indicator of coal
type. The process of reduction of hydrogen content
during organic matter transformation is also responsible
for cleat genesis.
vi. The master cleat (MCL) intensity is directly proportional
to face cleat (FCL) and butt cleat (BCL) intensities,
specifying that these cleats are interdependent and
simultaneously developed during the thermal trans-
formation of organic matter due to shrinkage, stress
release, devolatilization, and extensional strain.
vii. The resistance to the weathering nature of quartz makes
its grains rounded to subrounded while transportation in
the basin and contributes to the brittle properties of coal.

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Figure 23. (a−c): SEM photographs showing pore, cleat, and fracture
morphologies at focused points on different magnifications.

Figure 21. Relationship of macerals with surface area, pore size, and
pore volume of coal samples. (a) Vitrinite content vs multipoint BET
surface area. (b) Vitrinite content vs BJH pore volume. (c) Vitrinite
content vs BJH pore size. (d) Inertinite content vs multipoint BET
surface area. (e) Inertinite content vs BJH pore volume. (f) Inertinite
content vs BJH pore size.
This property makes coal easily breakable in a different
direction by internal and external stresses.
viii. The FE-SEM photographs show intricate microfractures
and pore structures owing to the epigenetic character-
istics. Vitrinite bands indicate that it comprises the
partially deformed planer cleat system.
ix. There is significant variation in strength properties of
Barakar and Marren measures coal influenced by thermal
maturity, lithotype characteristics, and organo−inorganic
content.
x. The positive relation between the quartz content and
Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio demonstrates that
the increase in quartz content reduces the plasticity and
more deformation occurs in coal. The relation between
the total clay content and Young’s modulus and Poisson’s

Figure 22. (a−p): SEM microphotographs showing variation in organic-matter-associated pores, fractures, minerals, and clays.

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Table 9. Physicomechanical Properties of Coal Samples

sample no. ρ (g/cc) PLI (MPa) PDI SDI (%) σc (MPa) σt (MPa) E (GPa) υ C (MPa) Φ (deg)
CG-1901 1.28 0.66 0.98 95.10 5.82 0.65 2.58 0.22 3.55 46.09
CG-1902 1.36 0.62 1.06 96.94 8.29 1.05 2.08 0.24 - -
CG-1903 1.48 0.55 1.09 94.07 16.06 1.35 1.28 0.20 - -
CG-1904 1.41 0.47 1.00 95.89 14.65 1.59 1.78 0.19 - -
CG-1905 1.34 0.33 0.76 97.81 8.8 1.2 2.31 0.16 - -
CG-1906 1.62 - - 98.60 19.91 1.86 0.69 0.12 4.65 55.22
CG-1907 1.31 0.38 - 97.34 5.49 0.48 2.37 0.25 2.33 47.69
CG-1908 1.43 0.67 0.73 97.48 15.92 1.54 1.88 0.13 - -
CG-1909 1.41 - - --- 17.3 1.61 1.62 0.08 - -
CG-1910 1.43 0.36 - 98.22 16.27 1.26 1.19 0.10 - -
CG-1911 1.34 0.40 0.83 97.93 6.63 0.81 1.68 0.16 1.71 48.74
CG-1912 1.53 0.36 - 97.35 18.38 2.42 1.35 0.09 - -
CG-1913 1.45 0.38 - 98.94 6.71 0.96 1.56 0.14 - -
CG-1914 1.41 0.36 - 98.15 16.42 1.38 1.65 0.17 - -
CG-1915 1.43 0.46 - 97.97 9.98 1.09 1.49 0.14 1.40 50.21
CG-1916 1.44 0.70 1.85 95.55 15.21 1.51 1.79 0.12 3.45 48.98
CG-1917 1.41 0.48 1.32 96.66 12.32 1.76 1.64 0.14 - -
CG-1918 1.48 0.55 1.37 96.80 10.59 1.06 1.76 0.18 - -
CG-1919 1.45 1.25 1.14 98.90 17.05 1.57 1.53 0.16 - -
CG-1920 1.39 1.38 1.18 98.13 17.9 1.35 1.16 0.12 3.03 57.39
CG-1921 1.32 1.86 1.35 97.07 14.72 1.48 1.55 0.21 7.76 43.81
CG-1922 1.46 1.79 1.32 96.97 11.44 1.14 1.54 0.19 2.81 56.45
CG-1923 1.43 1.02 0.81 97.65 13.8 1.56 1.61 0.17 - -
CG-1924 1.46 0.08 1.15 92.30 20.25 1.75 1.78 0.14 - -
CG-1925 1.50 0.13 1.11 93.38 24.79 1.6 1.24 0.13 3.85 58.16
CG-1926 1.48 0.11 1.39 93.07 12.87 1.35 1.55 0.14 7.52 35.49
CG-1927 1.35 0.11 1.09 93.31 10.73 1.60 2.41 0.15 6.10 41.43
CG-1928 1.58 1.23 - - 16.2 2.50 0.78 0.10 3.24 50.04
CG-1929 1.65 1.11 0.98 92.33 22.85 2.69 0.94 0.08 1.85 43.28
CG-1930 1.64 0.43 0.67 96.45 23.55 2.48 1.02 0.1 - -
CG-1931 1.54 0.56 - - 15.84 2.23 1.79 0.13 2.26 40.58
maximum 1.65 1.86 1.85 98.94 24.79 2.69 2.58 0.25 7.76 58.16
minimum 1.28 0.08 0.67 92.30 5.49 0.48 0.69 0.08 1.40 35.49
average 1.45 0.65 1.10 96.44 14.41 1.51 1.60 0.15 3.70 48.24
stdev. 0.09 0.47 0.28 2.02 5.15 0.53 0.45 0.04 2.00 6.67
a
ρ, density (g/cc); υ, Poisson’s ratio; SDI, slake durability index (%); σc, compressive strength (MPa); C, cohesion (MPa); PDI, Protodyaknov
strength index; σt, tensile strength (MPa); φ, friction angle (°); E, Young’s modulus (GPa); PLI, point load index (MPa).

ratio indicates the increase in elasticity with an increase in
the clay concentration in coal.
5. MATERIAL AND METHODS
5.1. Coal Sampling, Preparation, and Megascopic
Cleat Intensity Measurement. A total of 31 sets of coal
samples were collected from eight exploratory boreholes drilled
at different locations in Raniganj Coalfield (Table 4; Figures 1
and 2). The coal core samples were analyzed systematically for
band-by-band with lithotype characteristics and the cleat
distribution in each band. The cleat/fractures were counted
along with length and types, and the megascopic cleat intensity
was calculated for an area of 100 cm2. After determining the cleat
intensity, the coal core samples were crushed manually and
sieved (212 and 150 μm) for further analysis following the
standard procedure as per the proximate and ultimate analyses
and XRD requirement. Moreover, the samples were also
prepared in size ranging from 0.8 to 1.0 mm for determining
the surface area, pellet preparation for petrographic character-
istics, and low-pressure N2 adsorption isotherm pattern
following the BET method.
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5.2. Lithotype Analysis. The coal core samples were
studied megascopically for different lithotypes. Lithotypes in
bituminous coal are the most easily recognizable bands by the
naked eye and are described based on the distribution, amount,
and thickness of fibrous (charcoal), bright, and dull bands.92 has
classified the lithotypes of humic coal into four categories, i.e.,
vitrain, clarain, durain, and fusain; later, two more lithotypes
were introduced by Diessel,39 i.e., duroclarain and clarodurain.
In this study, the classification proposed by Diessel38 is followed
for lithotype identification of coal samples. The minimum
thickness of the lithotype/band is considered to be 5 mm during
measurement (Tables 2 and 3).
5.3. Proximate and Ultimate Analyses. The physical
attributes of coal (moisture, ash, volatile matter yield, and fixed
carbon contents) were determined (in weight percentage) by
analyses performed on −212 μm-size coal samples, as per the
procedure of the Bureau of Indian Standard.93 The elemental
compositions (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen)
of the studied sample (−150 μm) were determined (in weight
percentage) using the Elementar Vario EL III-CHNS Analyzer
using the standard procedure laid down by ASTM94−96 and IS.97
About 10 mg of prepared samples was taken and wrapped in a tin
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Figure 24. Stress−strain plot recorded for coal samples.
foil and then placed on the automatic sample stage of the CHNS
analyzer. The analyzer comprises an oxidation tube, a reduction
tube, and absorption columns for absorbing N2, CO2, SO2, and
water vapor. The amount of gases absorbed during oxidation
under the peaks was transformed into the elemental
configuration such as C, H, N, and S in the analyzer itself
through an inbuilt data acquisition program. The analysis results
were presented in the data acquisition system connected to the
analyzer after the input of required commands. The oxygen
amount was determined by subtracting the sum of C, H, N, S,
and ash from 100 (Table 4).
5.4. Organic Petrography, Vitrinite Reflectance, and
Microscopic Cleat/Fracture Analysis. The maceral analysis
was carried out on pellets using a Carl Zeiss Axio Imager M2m
microscope using 50×, simultaneously using white and
fluorescence light modes and adopting the single-scan method.
The counting of the maceral was (1000 counts/sample) done on
an automatic point counter stage of Petroglite 2.35 attached with
data acquisition software by following ICCP guidelines98 and
subsequently adopted by ISO standards.99,100 The classification
and nomenclature were used as specified by the International
Committee for Coal and Organic Petrology101 for vitrinite,
liptinite,102 and inertinite103 groups of macerals. The random
vitrinite reflectance analyses were carried out on collotellinite
over 100 different points using a Carl Zeiss photomultiplier
(PMT) unit (Table 5). The microscopic cleat length, aperture,
and spacing were measured on pellets considering the
microlithotypes (Table 6).
5.5. Spectroscopic Analysis (XRD). Identification of clay
and other coal minerals was carried out on sample size 150 μm
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Figure 25. Box and Whisker plot showing range distribution of
physicomechanical properties of coal samples (B, Barakar; R, Raniganj;
B & R, Barakar and Raniganj combined).
through X-ray diffraction (XRD) by relating to the reference
pattern values from the ICDD database. For the present study,
the analyses were carried out on a Rigaku−Ultima IV (Type II)
X-ray diffractometer at CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad. The sample
preparation and the instrumental parameter mentioned in
Mendhe et al.35 have been followed (Table 7).
5.6. Low-Pressure N2 Sorption Isotherm. The complex-
ity and distribution of pore patterns were studied by low-
pressure N2 sorption isotherms using the Quantachrome
AutosorbiQ2 MP-XR machine at CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad.
The pore surface area, pore size, and pore volume of coal/shale
by BET techniques have been explained in several stud-
ies.36,37,104,105 Coal samples of 40−50 mg and size 0.8−1 mm
were taken. To remove the moisture and residual gases, the coal
samples were degassed at 200 °C before the analysis. Nitrogen
gas (purity 99.999%) is injected into the reference cell and then
connected to the sample cell at 77 K (−196 °C) under a liquid
nitrogen chamber. The adsorption and desorption isotherms
were obtained under relative pressures (P/Po) ranging from 0.05
to 0.99, where P is the balance pressure and Po is the saturation
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5.8. FE-SEM Analysis. The FE-SEM study was carried out

using MERLIN VP Compact with a GEMINI electron optical
column made by Carl Zeiss at the CSIR-CIMFR Central facility,
Dhanbad. The small chips of coal sample of dimension about 2 ×
5 × 5 mm were split from the coal cores and were oven-dried and
gold-coated before the study. The coal chips were observed
under different magnifications and photographs taken at
magnification from 12.5 to 74.0KX. The SEM photographs
were analyzed for organo−inorganic heterogeneity, micro-
lithotype, cleat intensity, cleat/fracture spacing, pore pattern,
and distribution to characterize their microstructural dispersal.

Figure 26. Relationship of physicomechanical properties with mineral/
clay content of coal samples. (a) Quartz content vs density. (b) Total
clay content vs density. (c) Quartz content vs compressive and tensile
strength. (d) Total clay content vs compressive and tensile strength. (e)
Quartz content vs Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. (f) Total clay
content vs Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
pressure.30,105,106 The Brunauer−Emmett−Teller equation
(BET)79,107−109 was used to calculate the surface area as follows
C − 1 ijj P zzy
j z
WMC jjk P0 zz{
1 1
= +
■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
Vinod Atmaram Mendhe − CSIR-Central Institute of Mining
and Fuel Research and AcSIR, Dhanbad 826015 Jharkhand,
India; orcid.org/0000-0003-3212-8298;
Email: vamendhe@gmail.com
Authors
John Buragohain − Department of Applied Geology, Indian
Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad 826004 Jharkhand,
India; CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research
and AcSIR, Dhanbad 826015 Jharkhand, India
Atul Kumar Varma − Department of Applied Geology, Indian
Institute of Technology (ISM), Dhanbad 826004 Jharkhand,
India
Priyanka Shukla − CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel
Research and AcSIR, Dhanbad 826015 Jharkhand, India
Complete contact information is available at:
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c02041
Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.

W ((P0/P) − 1) WMC
where W is the weight of the adsorbed gas at a relative pressure,
P/P0; Wm is the weight of the monolayer adsorbate; and C is a
constant related to the adsorption energy in the first adsorbed
layer.
The surface area of samples completely covered by the
nitrogen molecule monolayer is calculated using the equation St
1 C−1
= W M NA cs /M, where WM = slope + intercept , slope = W C ,
M work.
■
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are thankful to the Directors of IIT (ISM) and
CSIR-CIMFR, Dhanbad, for granting permission to publish this
paper. The authors are also grateful to Coal India, Ministry of
Coal, Govt. of India, and M/s Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
Ltd. for allowing the collection of coal samples from exploratory
boreholes and granting partial funding to support this research

■
1
intercept = WMC
, N is the Avogadro constant (6.0221415 ×
1023 molecules/mol), M is the adsorbate molecular weight, and ABBREVIATIONS
Acs is the adsorbate molecules’ cross-sectional area. The results GSI Geological Survey of India
of surface area, pore volume, and pore size distribution are IS Bureau of Indian Standard
shown in Table 8. ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
5.7. Physicomechanical Properties. The coal core ISRM International Society of Rock Mechanics
samples were examined for different physicomechanical proper- ICCP International Committee for Coal and Organic
ties according to the methods suggested by the Bureau of Indian Petrology
Standards (BIS), i.e., the density and porosity110 (IS:13030), IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
uniaxial compressive strength111 (IS:9143), tensile strength112 ICDD International Center for Diffraction Data
(IS:10082), Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio113 (IS:9221), ISO International Organization for Standardization
triaxial strength114 (IS:13047), point load strength115 (IS 8764), XRD X-ray diffraction
Protodyaknov strength index, and slake durability index116 SEM scanning electron microscope
(IS:10050) were determined. Also, refer to the Handbook of117 FE-SEM field emission scanning electron microscope
Brown, ISRM suggested methods for rock characterization, N2 nitrogen gas
testing & monitoring for the determination of uniaxial CO2 carbon dioxide
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■ NOTE ADDED AFTER ASAP PUBLICATION

Published ASAP on July 21, 2021; Figure labeling revised July
28, 2021.

AE https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.1c02041
ACS Omega XXXX, XXX, XXX−XXX