1 s2.0 S1290072923004015 Main

International Journal of Thermal Sciences 193 (2023) 108540
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts
Research on heat and mass transfer characteristics of a counterflow wet

cooling tower using a new type of straight wave packing
Ying Xi a, b, c, Zhikang Yu a, b, Lin Zhang a, b, c, e, *, Aimei Yu a, c, e, Lei Liu a, b, Bingguo Bao a, d,
Youchang Zhao a, b, c, Chengman Zhou a, b, c, Bingjie Wu c, Kexin Dong a
a
School of Mechanical Engineering and Rail Transit, Changzhou University, Changzhou, 213164, China
b
Jiangsu Changnuo Energy and Environmental Protection Technology Co, Ltd, Changzhou, 213100, China
c
Xianglai (Changzhou) Energy Saving Technology Co., Ltd, Changzhou, 213000, China
d
Jiangsu Seagull Cooling Tower Co., Ltd., China
e
Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of High-Level Energy and Power Equipment, Changzhou, 213000, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: In this paper, a new type of straight wave packing is developed for the purpose of improving the heat and mass
Cooling tower transfer characteristics of counterflow wet cooling towers. Experimental studies and numerical simulations are
New straight wave packing carried out to explore the effects of inlet air velocity, water drenching density, gas-liquid ratio and packing height
Heat and mass transfer
on the heat and mass transfer characteristics of cooling towers. According to research, the novel packing’s
Cooling efficiency
cooling efficiency increased by 14.4% when compared to the conventional straight wave packing. This is a more
substantial effect, and it offers a new plan for the cooling tower’s heat transfer that can direct engineering
practice. Combined with the analysis of the actual tower operating conditions, it is found that the higher the
height of the packing, the easier it is to meet the cooling task, and the smaller the reasonable gas-liquid ratio and
air volume required, the maximum air volume can be saved by 30%.
1. Introduction Plastic packing was first introduced in the 1970s and has the ad
vantages of being simple, inexpensive, tough and with good cooling
Cooling towers are very common in the energy and chemical in properties. According to its structural condition, the packing can be
dustry and other fields. They function on the basis of evaporative and separated into three categories [11].
convective heat exchange between the gas and liquid phases to achieve
heat dissipation and make the circulating water cool. Significant energy (1) Splash packing: The industrial circulating water sprayed on the
losses or a decline in product quality may result from inefficient cooling packing is broken into fine particles to increase the contact area
in damp cooling towers. Consequently, there has been considerable in between the gas and liquid phases, thereby allowing more heat to
terest in enhancing the thermal efficacy of cooling towers. Many factors, be removed and cooling to be accomplished. The flow resistance
such as the type of packing, the passage rate of air and water, and the of the fluid inside the splash packing is much lower and less
inlet temperature of the circulating water, influence the heat transfer susceptible to scaling, but it has evident disadvantages: the liquid
efficiency of a cooling tower. Therefore, the cooling efficiency can be is held on the wall for a shorter time, the quantity of liquid held is
enhanced by obtaining optimal values for these parameters. Numerous less, and the cooling effect is suboptimal.
experimental and theoretical studies [1–5] have been conducted to (2) Film packing: This form is the most common on the market and is
evaluate the heat transfer efficacy of damp cooling towers under various usually made of an environmentally friendly plastic such as PVC.
operating conditions. However, due to the comparatively sluggish speed of the water in
The ideal packing design is another important element in the con the film packing, it is simple for pollution to form, and as time
struction of cooling towers. With the least amount of energy, a better passes, blockage may occur, resulting in a decrease in the cooling
packing improves the heat and mass transmission process to its tower’s effectiveness.
maximum potential [6–10].
* Corresponding author. School of Mechanical Engineering and Rail Transit, Changzhou University, Changzhou, 213164, China.
E-mail address: zhanglin-tg@cczu.edu.cn (L. Zhang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2023.108540
Received 11 April 2023; Received in revised form 14 June 2023; Accepted 5 July 2023
Available online 15 July 2023
1290-0729/© 2023 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
Y. Xi et al. International Journal of Thermal Sciences 193 (2023) 108540
(3) Splash-film packing: The packing is a combination of the two and a heat transfer unit. The study determined the effect of heat and
preceding packings and serves both purposes. The M packing mass transfer coefficients and Lewis number on the thermal perfor
plate in the American Marley tower is the earliest example of this mance of the closed wet cooling tower. Xie et al. [26] also investigated
packing style. The later development of the folded wave packing, the thermal and hydraulic performance models of closed wet cooling
which gives it a splash-film type performance, increases the heat towers with various finned tubes by means of numerical analysis. They
dissipation performance and improves the cooling effect. Another investigated the correlation between heat and mass transfer coefficients
type of splash film packing is the grid-like formwork packing, the and pressure drop for three configurations, namely plain finned tubes,
early use of cement mesh panels, honeycomb packing, plastic elliptical finned tubes and longitudinal finned tubes. Several other
grid, etc. all belong to this category. With the proper use of this mathematical models proposed in the literature [27–32] are also able to
type of packing, users can save investment and reduce annual investigate the heat and mass transfer phenomena in the packing zone of
maintenance and operating costs. cooling towers very well.
Many studies have been conducted on the impact of packing struc
According to previous studies, the main factor affecting the heat ture and operating parameters on the heat and mass transfer perfor
transfer efficiency of cooling towers is the heat and mass transfer per mance of cooling towers. An extensive analysis of liquid film generation
formance of the packing section, as up to 70% of the heat dissipation and flow has also been conducted, analyzing the role of a variety of
capacity occurs in this area [12]. Therefore, it is necessary to study the factors on the impact of liquid film flow patterns and summarizing a
transport phenomena in the packing area. number of comprehensive laws. The majority of earlier studies, how
Goshayshi et al. [13] investigated the effect of the shape and surface ever, were not based on particular environments and are not entirely
roughness of corrugated packing on pressure drop and mass transfer in relevant to cooling towers, necessitating more research. Especially in the
an experimental cooling tower. The study showed that the mass transfer field of wastewater treatment, where the water quality conditions are
coefficient decreased with increasing packing sheet spacing. Ghar poor, straight wave packing is usually used, but the efficiency of tradi
agheizi et al. [14] investigated the heat and mass transfer performance tional straight wave packing is low, so it is necessary to study how to
of two types of thin film packing using experimental means. The study improve the heat transfer effect of straight wave packing. The paper
showed that the vertical corrugated packing was much more efficient examines the counterflow wet cooling towers’ heat and mass trans
compared to the horizontal corrugated packing. In addition, Lemouari mission mechanisms in low-quality water environments. The mathe
[15,16] carried out an experimental analysis of the thermal performance matical model is developed, and the influence of various operating
of a wet cooling tower configured with a vertical grid. They found that factors on the characteristics of heat and mass transfer in counterflow
two defined operating states (thin film state and bubble dispersion state) wet cooling towers is examined using numerical calculations. These
during the contact between air and water in the tower can determine the calculations are then verified and analyzed through experimental
best way to promote the transport phenomenon. Singla et al. [17] studies. To improve the heat and mass transfer properties of counterflow
experimentally investigated the performance parameters of mechani wet cooling towers, to increase cooling efficiency, and to extend packing
cally ventilated cooling towers with expanded wire mesh packing. It was life, a novel kind of straight wave packing is proposed.
shown that various combinations of air and water flow rates satisfy a
given Merkel number, which can be used by the operator to regulate the 2. Design of a new type of straight wave packing structure
desired conditions.
Rahmati et al. [18,19] have made a significant contribution to the According to the design principle of vertical corrugated packing, a
research on the effect of packing structure and inlet parameters on the new type of straight wave packing is designed, the physical drawing of
thermal performance of wet cooling towers. Their results show that which is shown in Fig. 1 (a) and the partial structure schematic diagram
cooling efficiency is directly related to packing height, circulating water is shown in Fig. 1 (b). The packing distribution area and the flow
temperature and air mass flow rate. On the contrary, it decreases with disturbance area make up the packing’s two main components.
increasing water flow. Furthermore, in experimental work, the authors Compared to conventional straight wave packing, the straight channel is
have investigated the effect of packing arrangement and type (7, 9 and optimized as an extension of the straight channel to the flat channel. As
18 ribs) on the performance of wet cooling towers. The results show that can be seen from Fig. 1 (b), the industrial hot water enters the packing
the water temperature decreases and the cooling efficiency increases channel from the upper entrance and flows downward along the wall in
after the addition of ribs. the form of a liquid film in the cloth film area, while the external cold air
Rotating splash packings for mechanically ventilated cooling towers enters the packing channel from the lower entrance and travels upward
were the subject of research by Lavasani [20], which showed that such to exchange heat with the liquid film. In addition, the dimensions of the
packings with higher rotational speeds could significantly increase the various parts of this packing are shown in Fig. 1 (d) and Figure (f).
amount of heat discharged from the water. Recently, Amini et al. [21] The specific dimensions of each part of the packing in the figure are
experimentally investigated the heat transfer performance of rotating shown in Table 1.
splash-type packings using nanofluids. The results showed that the
performance depended on the type of nanofluid, the inlet temperature 3. Numerical research
and the concentration of the nanofluid. Gao et al. [22] conducted an
experimental study related to the heat transfer performance of five The physical model is simplified and the simplified model is
different packing arrangements in a wet cooling tower. From the extracted from the flow channel by DM in Workbench, as shown in Fig. 2
experimental results, it can be found that the non-uniform layout can (a) for its complete basin, and then meshed in ICEM. As the computa
improve the heat transfer performance by up to 30% compared to the tional domain is not regular, a hybrid grid is used, with a structural grid
uniform layout. for the computational domain of the flat wall of the film fabric zone and
In addition to experimental studies, there have been many theoret a one-click generated unstructured grid for the computational domain of
ical studies to evaluate the heat transfer performance of cooling towers. the uneven surface of the disturbed flow zone. In addition, in order to
Milosabljevi et al. [23] derived a mathematical model that can predict better reflect the flow process of the liquid phase, the grid at the wall
the heat transfer performance of different packing materials. Petruchik needs to be encrypted, as shown in Fig. 2(b) and (c).
et al. [24] proposed a mathematical model for evaporative cooling of a The specific calculation conditions are shown in Table 2.
water film using a double corrugated PVC sheet. Xia et al. [25] inves
tigated a closed wet cooling tower by means of numerical analysis,
which consists of two main components: a heat and mass transfer unit
2
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the structure of the new straight wave packing and the traditional straight wave packing.
Table 1
Local structural dimensions of packing.
Geometric parameter L L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 a
Value（mm） 630 300 240 10 10 10 40 16 26 42 53◦
contact, W/(m2⋅K);Tw—Cooling water temperature, K; T—Wet air

temperature; dA—Contact area at the interface between the gas and
liquid phases, m2.
The heat transfer Stanton number St is used to characterize the ratio
of the convective heat transfer heat flow density to the maximum
transferable heat flow density during the actual flow of a fluid. The
expression is shown in Equation (2).
Nu α
St = = (2)
Pr⋅Re ρcp v
In the equation: v—Flow rate, m/s; cp—Constant pressure specific

heat capacity, KJ/(kg⋅K); ρ—Fluid density, kg/m3.
The actual work of the cooling tower, when the gas-liquid two-phase
Fig. 2. Calculation domain and grid diagram.
contact heat exchange, wet air in the tower to the upper movement of
the process of adsorption of saturated gas phase within the liquid phase
molecules, so that the evaporated water will finally be led out of the
3.1. Theoretical analysis of heat and mass transfer in counterflow wet
tower under the action of the fan.
cooling towers
The amount of evaporated water per unit time on the contact surface
of the two liquid phases can be defined as Equation 3
3.1.1. Gas-liquid two-phase flow heat and mass transfer principle
Heat transfer between the gas and liquid phases takes place mainly dQm = αm (χ b − χ )dA (3)
by means of contact and evaporation, i.e. convective heat transfer and
In the equation: αm—Convective mass transfer coefficient, m/s;
convective mass transfer.
χ b—Saturated moisture content of the gas phase, g/kg; χ —Actual
Due to the temperature difference between the cold outside air and
moisture content of the gas phase, g/kg.
the high temperature liquid droplets and liquid film, convective heat
The mass transfer Stanton number Stm characterize the ratio of
exchange occurs when they come into contact, and the apparent heat
convective mass flow density to the maximum transferable mass flow
transferred per unit time on the micro-element area of the gas-liquid
density during the actual flow of the fluid and is expressed as shown in
contact surface can be expressed in Equation (1).
Equation (4).
dQm = α(Tw − T)dA (1)
Nu αm
Stm = = (4)
In the equation: α—Heat transfer coefficient for gas-liquid two-phase Re⋅Sc ρv
Table 2
Specific calculation conditions.
Operating parameters Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3 Condition 4 Condition 5
Intake temperature（K） 289.15 289.15 289.15 289.15 289.15

Inlet water temperature（K） 314.15 314.15 314.15 314.15 314.15
Cross section wind speed（m/s） 1.0 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.0
Water intake velocity（m/s） 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.013 0.016
Gas water ratio 0.342 0.684 0.855 0.547 0.456
3
Based on Colburn’s research, the following correlation equation can

be obtained: ∂(ρ→v) →
+ ∇ ⋅ (ρ→
v→v ) = − ∇p + ∇[μ(∇→ v )] + ρ→
v +→ (11)
T
g +F
∂t
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
α Pr 3 α v/a 3 α D 3 α −
(5)
2
αm = = = = Le 3
cp Sc cp v/D cp a cp In the equation: p—Continuous phase pressure, Pa;
In the equation: The Pr number is often used to express the rela μ—Continuous phase kinetic viscosity, kg/(m⋅s).
tionship between temperature and the flow boundary layer; The Sc (3) Conservation of energy equation
number characterize the ratio of the momentum point hysteresis to the ∂(ρT)
(
α
)
diffusion coefficient and is often used to describe fluids in which mo + div(ρvT) = div gradT + ST (12)
∂t Cp
mentum and mass diffusion act together.
The Lewis factor Lef can usually be expressed as the ratio of St and
Stm, and the relative rates of heat and mass transfer resulting from the In the equation: T—Continuous phase temperature, ◦
C;
convective mass transfer process can be characterized by Lef as shown in t—Time, s; ST—Energy source item.
Equation (6). (4) Component transport equations
St α ρv α In order to simulate the mass transfer between the gas and liquid
Lef = = = (6)
Stm ρvcp αm cp αm phases using Fluent, the mass fractions of the gas and liquid phases in
The correlation between the Lewis factor Lef and the Lewis number the computational domain must be obtained, so the convective equation
Le can be established according to Equations (5) and (6): must be used for the prediction. It can be expressed in Equation (13):
∂ ( )
(7) (ρYi ) + ∇ ⋅ ρ→ (13)
2
Lef = Le3 v Y j = − ∇ ⋅ J i + Ri + S i
∂t
3.1.2. Calculation analysis of the air resistance in the tower In the equation: Ri—Rate of change of the rate of reaction generation;
The airflow resistance inside the cooling tower is caused by its Si—The rate of change of velocity resulting from the motion of a liquid
components and is present in six main parts, namely the lower inlet of drop.
the tower, the rain area, the packing layer, the drenching system, the Since the mass exchange between the gas and liquid phases is
water collector and the top fan. The resistance of the components is simulated, the effect of chemical reactions on the component transport
calculated on the basis of their given resistance coefficients, except for equations is not taken into account, but the accuracy of the numerical
the resistance of the packing layer, which needs to be measured using simulation results must be ensured. To simplify equation (13):
specific experimental data for actual operating conditions. Assuming ∂ ( ) →
that the resistance of the packing layer is ΔP, then the resistance coef (ρYi ) + ∇ ⋅ ρ→
v Yj = − ∇⋅ J i (14)
∂t
ficient can be characterized by Equation (8) as ξ.
→
In the equation: J i —Diffusion density.
2ΔP
ζ= (8)
ρa v2a → ∇T
J i = − ρDi,m ∇Yi − DT,j (15)
T
In the equation: ΔP—Test resistance values, Pa; va—Windward ve
locity of packing section, m/s; ρa—Local air density, kg/m3. Turbulence is generated during the Fluent calculation and the
dispersion coefficient caused by it can be calculated using Equation (16):
3.2. Mathematical and computational models →
(
μ
)
∇T
J i = − ρDi,m + t ∇Yi − DT,i (16)
Sct T
3.2.1. Mathematical model for gas-liquid two-phase flow
Through the analysis of the heat and mass exchange mechanism of In the equation: Sct—The effective Schmidt number of turbulence;
the cooling tower, it was determined that the VOF two-phase flow model μt—Turbulent viscosity.
was used to calculate the flow process of the liquid phase, in addition to μt
Sct = (17)
comparing the effect of different parameters on the heat exchange effect ρDt
of the cooling tower.
In summary, the mass exchange between the gas and liquid phases is
affected by turbulent diffusion and it is also affected by changes in Sct. It
(1) Conservation of mass equation
follows from equation (17) that the process of turbulent diffusion
∂ρ ∂ ∂( ) ∂ already includes laminar diffusion, so there is no need to re-gift the
+ (ρvx ) + ρvy + (ρvz ) = 0 (9)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z laminar flow with other conditions.
3.2.2. Gas-liquid two-phase flow model

In the equation: ρ—Continuous phase density, kg/m3; t—time,
The study of multiphase flow can be found in a variety of forms,
s; vx, vy, vz—Velocity components of continuous phase flow
generally divided into four categories, namely gas-liquid, liquid-liquid,
through the x, y and z directions, m/s.
gas-solid and liquid-solid, the object of this paper is the gas-liquid two-
Assuming that the air entering the cooling tower is incom
phase flow. In order to simulate the flow process of gas-liquid two-phase
pressible, then the density ρ can be considered as a constant and
flow, the proposed FLUENT software is used for calculation. VOF models
the whole process is a steady state process, then ∂ρ
∂t = 0.
are commonly used to solve for two immiscible fluids, such as the steady
Equation (9) can be further defined as:
state treatment of a gas-liquid interface. The hybrid model is a refined
∂vx ∂vy ∂vz simplification and is suitable for solving cases with a few variables. The
+ + =0 (10)
∂x ∂y ∂z Eulerian model is suitable for solving for phases that have a tendency to
separate or are soluble.
Through the above analysis of the conditions of applicability of the
(2) Conservation of momentum equation three common multiphase flow models, the VOF model is more suitable
for the transient treatment of the gas-liquid interface in this study.
4
For the VOF model, the gas-liquid phases can share a common set of
k2
solution equations, so the location of the phase interface can be solved μt = ρCμ (22)
for by calculating the volume fraction αq of phase q within the cell. In ε
any given calculation cell, when αq = 0, it means that there is no q-phase The relevant constants in Equations (20)–(22) are G1ε = 1.44, G2ε =
in the cell; when αq = 1, it means that the cell is all q-phase; and when 1.92, Gμ = 0.09, σ k = 1.0 and σ ε = 1.3 respectively.
0 < αq < 1, it means that there are other phases in the cell besides q- The defining equation for Gk is shown in Equation (23).
phase. The volume fraction equation for q-phase is shown below: ( → ) ( → )
→→∂→ vj 1 ∂ vi ∂→
uj ∂ vi ∂→uj
Gk = − ρ vi′ vj′ = μt + × + (23)
∂αq → ∂xi 2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xi
+ u ⋅ ∇ ⋅ αq = 0 (18)
∂t →
In the equation, →vi and vi′ denote the components of the mean and
∑
n
αq = 1 (19) instantaneous velocity in the x, y and z directions respectively (where i
q=1 = 1, 2, 3).
In the case of complex flows, especially where there are multiple
In the equation: aq—The volume fraction of phase q in the calculated
bends, the accuracy of this model is greatly reduced, so the researchers
cell.
have made relevant improvements based on the standard k-ε model.
Amongst the improved models the realizable k-ε (RKE) model is more
3.2.3. Turbulence models
suitable, with more accurate calculations and taking into account reflux.
Turbulence is a disordered flow, achieved by the kinetic energy of a
The RKE model, however, has the same calculation of k compared to the
fluid, usually resulting from changes in the flow velocity, temperature,
standard model, but a different calculation of ε. It is characterized as
pressure and density of the fluid. Turbulence affects the heat and mass
shown in Equations (24)–(26).
transfer of the fluid, it causes the heat transfer rate to increase and thus
[( ) ] ( )
the surface temperature of the object, this allows the fluid to consume ∂ε ∂ε ∂ μ ∂ε ε2
ρ + ρ→ vi = μ+ t × + ρC1 Sε − ρC2 √̅̅̅̅̅ (24)
heat faster and thus improves the performance of the machine. ∂t ∂xi ∂xi σε ∂xi k + νε
Turbulence affects the mass transfer of a fluid, it causes the propa
⎡ ⎤
gation and transfer of substances to be faster, thus increasing the con √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ k
centration of substances in the fluid volume. During heat and mass ⎢ 2Sij Sij ε ⎥
C1 = max⎣0.43, √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ k ⎦ (25)
transfer, turbulence can have a significant effect on the temperature of a 2Sij Sij ε + 5
substance and the disturbance of the equilibrium between a group of
substances and their heat. As turbulence affects the temperature of the 1
fluid, it can cause the balance of substances and heat to be affected. This Cμ = √̅̅̅
[ (
√̅̅̅ Sij Sjk Ski
)] √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
can affect the rate of heat and mass transfer and thus the efficiency of an
1
4.04 + 6cos 3 arccos 6 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ × Sij Sij + Ωij − 3εijk ωk kε
Sij Sij
ordered heat and mass transfer process.
(26)
Turbulence can also be used to regulate and control the distribution
of temperature in a fluid and thus the heat and mass transfer process. At In the equation: Cμ = 0.09, σ k = 1.0, σ ε = 1.2; Sij = Average strain rate
the smallest scales, turbulence affects the temperature and velocity of tensor; Ωij = The average rate of the rotational tensor at a local angular
the flow in a fluid, which can alter the impact of the fluid on the surface velocity ωk.
of other objects, thus affecting the efficiency of heat and mass transfer. From equation (25) it can be noticed that Cμ in this kind of model is
The heat and mass transfer properties of turbulence can be studied not the same as the standard equation, it is influenced by the average
through a range of mathematical models. By modelling turbulent heat rate of the average strain rate tensor and the average rate of the rotation
and mass transfer, it is possible to study and derive the effects of tur tensor at local angular velocity. As a result, this model is able to
bulence on the heat and mass transfer process and other effects that calculate situations with strong shear and rotation more accurately.
result, such as changes in the surface of an object. Even small differences However, the RKE model has limitations in that the μt neglects high
in heat and mass transfer can be derived from this to provide informa strain forces and the Re number effect, so scholars have again optimized
tion on angles and scales to better understand the effects of turbulence. it to produce a more refined RNG model. Unlike the standard k-ε model,
For the case of low Re number laminar flows, the N–S equation can be the constants included in this type of model are redefined and comple
solved numerically, and in addition no other conditions need to be given mentary to ε. In addition, the model uses a variety of differential
to the physical model. For high Re numbers, however, it is necessary to equations, so that the accuracy of the calculations is greatly improved,
discuss turbulence. The time-averaged equation method is usually used making it the most suitable model. Equations (27)–(29) can be used to
to solve diffusion problems caused by simulated turbulence. In that case, characterize the equations of the model.
this difficult problem can be solved by turbulent viscosity, but turbulent ( ) ( 2)
∂ε ∂ε ∂ε 1 ∂ε ε ε
viscosity is difficult to determine and, as far as research is concerned, ρ + ρ→ vi = μeff + C1ε Gk − C2ε ρ − R (27)
∂t ∂xi ∂xi σε ∂xi k k
there are a variety of research methods to choose from. Of these ap
proaches the k-ε model is the most frequently used. The model is often (
η
)
developed by finding the turbulent energy k and the turbulent dissipa Cμ ρη3 1 − η0 ε2
R= × (28)
tion rate ε in the transfer equation. The subject of this paper is eligible 1 + β η3 k
for use in this model, so that k and ε can be characterized using Equation ( 2 )
(20) with Equation (21). ρk ζ
d √̅̅̅̅̅ = 1.72 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ dζ (29)
[( ) ] εμ 3
ζ − 1 + Cζ
∂k ∂k ∂ μ ∂k
ρ + ρui = μ+ t × + Gk − ρε (20)
∂t ∂xi ∂xi σk ∂xi √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
2Sij Sij k
In the equation: η = ,ζ = μ ; C1ε = 1.42, C2ε = 1.68, Cμ =
μeff
[( ) ] ( ) ε
∂ε ∂ε ∂
ρ + ρui =
μ
μ+ t ×
∂ε ε
+ G1ε Gk − C2ε ρ
ε2
(21) 0.0845, Cζ = 0.0845, η0 = 4.38, β = 0.012.
∂t ∂xi ∂xi σε ∂xi k k
In the equation: μt—Turbulent viscosity, which can be solved from
Equation (22).
5
3.3. Cooling tower performance evaluation indicators [ { ( )} { ( )}]

Δα3 = α” at Tw,out + 0.6 Tw,in − Tw,out − αTa,in + 0.6 αTa,out − αTa,in
3.3.1. Approximation [ { ( )} { ( )}]

Δα4 = α” at Tw,out + 0.9 Tw,in − Tw,out − αTa,in + 0.9 αTa,out − αTa,in
The heat and mass transfer performance of a cooling tower is heavily
dependent on the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling
tower. The degree of agreement between the outlet water temperature 3.4. Calculation method
and the wet bulb temperature of the inlet air is usually used to evaluate
the heat and mass transfer performance of the cooling tower, which is FLUENT 19.0 numerical simulation software was used to carry out
also the most direct evaluation indicator [33–35]. The difference be the relevant calculations, transient calculations were chosen in General,
tween them is called the approximation (also known as the cold the VOF model suitable for the study of this paper was used in Multi
amplitude height) and is shown in the following equation: phase and RNG was used in Viscous. The pressure-velocity coupling
term in the Methods setup uses the PISO method, both using the first-
Tapp = Tw,out − τa,in (30) order downwind equation, which facilitates the convergence of the
In the equation: Tapp—Approximation of cooling towers, C; Tw,out
◦ calculation results.
—Temperature of circulating water outlet, ◦ C; τa,in—The wet bulb tem Set the air viscosity to g = 1.14 g/m3 and the gas phase density to the
perature of the inlet air, ◦ C. Sutherland laws. Uniform air distribution at the packing channels’ input,
having inlet speeds between 1.0 m/s and 3.5 m/s. At the intake of the
3.3.2. Cooling efficiency packing channels, the liquid phase is also homogeneous and the liquid
Cooling efficiency is often used to assess the heat and mass transfer phase density is fixed at d = 998 kg/m3. The packing channel outlets all
characteristics of counterflow wet cooling towers. The cooling efficiency use pressure outlets. The specific boundaries are shown in Table 3.
is defined as the ratio of the temperature difference between the cooling As the quantity and quality of the mesh is related to the length of the
tower inlet and outlet water to the cooling water heat transfer temper calculation and the accuracy of the results, it is necessary to verify the
ature difference and can be characterized by the equation [36,37]： irrelevance of the mesh. Fig. 3 displays the computation’s outcomes. The
pressure drop at the inlet and outlet of the packing channel grows with
t1 − t2 the number of grids as the inlet wind speed rises from 1.0 m/s to 3.5 m/s.
η= (31)
t1 − τ1 However, when the number of grids increases from 215971 to 356239,
In the equation: η—Cooling efficiency, %; t1—Initial temperature of the difference in pressure drop at the same wind speed is small and
circulating water, ◦ C; t2—Temperature after cooling of circulating nearly nonexistent. Therefore, using a grid of order 215971 for the nu
water, ◦ C; τ1—Inlet air wet bulb temperature, ◦ C. merical calculation is appropriate and Economical.
3.3.3. Cooling number 3.5. Calculation results and analysis

The heat and mass exchange processes inside the cooling tower are
subject to phase changes, so that its heat and mass transfer character 3.5.1. Analysis of internal flow field of packing under different parameters
istics are very complex. The prerequisite is to know the temperature and Taking condition 1 as an example to analyze the flow situation of the
humidity of the incoming air and industrial circulating water so that the gas-liquid phase, the gas-liquid phase distribution diagram under this
cooling performance can be assessed. Therefore, the cooling number (N) condition is shown in Fig. 4.
is used to characterize the heat and mass transfer characteristics of the It is clear from Fig. 4(a) that the liquid phase contains both liquid
cooling tower more accurately, based on Merkel’s theory the ratio of film and liquid droplet forms in the basin. The liquid droplets and the gas
mass and heat transfer rates is defined by its Lef and given Lef = 1, which phase are mostly present in the central part of the basin and convective
results in the cooling number, where the equation characterizing Lef can heat exchange occurs between the two. In the film area above the
be expressed as: packing, the distribution of the liquid phase remains relatively homo
/ geneous. However, in the turbulent zone below, as a result of the
Lef = α βp Ca (32)
constriction of the packing channel, almost all of the liquid films have
Merkel assumes that Lef = 1, which suggests that a/bx = Ca, and fractured, and the liquid phase appears as droplets. Under the action of
therefore a simplification of Equation (33), is expressed as: the incoming air in the lower part of the disturbance zone, the distur
( ) bance is more intense and favors the exchange of heat and mass between
Cw Qdt = βxv α″t − α dV (33) the gas and liquid phases.
Fig. 4(b) depicts a cloud plot of the velocity distribution of the gas-
For the next verification step of the above equation, cooling number
liquid phase at various heights in the packing channel under working
can be defined as [38]:
condition 1, with the liquid phase inlet position at Y = 0 mm. The graph
∫ ∫ tw,out
βxv β V Cw dt reveals that the velocity distribution of the two phases of gas and liquid
N= dV = xv = (34)
Q Q ″
tw,in αt − α at different heights broadly follows the same pattern, with larger values
in the center and smaller values on the edges. As the height decreases
The temperature and humidity of the air largely determine its
from Z = − 50 mm to Z = − 610 mm, the liquid phase velocity increases
enthalpy, assuming that changes in enthalpy due to changes in humidity
and then decreases. This is because the liquid phase in the film area is
are smaller than changes in temperature. In this case, the American
less affected by wind and is accelerated downwards by gravity. As the
Cooling Institute (CTI) recommends the Chebyshev Integral Method
[39] as a further derivation of the cooling numbers, as opposed to the
Table 3
Simpson Integral Method.
Boundary conditions.
[ ]
Tw,out − Tw,in 1 1 1 1 Boundary condition Parameter
N= ⋅ Cw,p ⋅ + + + (35)
4 Δα1 Δα2 Δα3 Δα4
Time Transient
In the equation: Δα1 = [α” at {Tw,out + 0.1(Tw,in − Tw,out )} − {αTa,in + Inlet wind speed 1.0–3.5 m/s
Section air inlet temperature 16 ◦ C
0.1(αTa,out − αTa,in )}]. Gravitational acceleration 9.81 m/s2
[ { ( )} { ( )}] Water drenching density 12~25m3/(m2⋅h)
Δα2 = α” at Tw,out + 0.4 Tw,in − Tw,out − αTa,in + 0.4 αTa,out − αTa,in Spray water temperature 41 ◦ C
6

conditions.
Comparatively, the liquid phase flow state is superior in cases 1 and
5, and the gas-liquid disturbance is greater. In case 1, the flow velocities
of both the gas and liquid phases are lower, the liquid phase adheres
more readily to the channel walls and moves more slowly downwards,
without the excessive wind speed causing the liquid film to break. Both
thus also have the highest turbulence intensity in the disturbed flow
zone and the best heat and mass transfer. Condition 5 occurs when the
liquid phase velocity is the greatest, the water volume is also the
greatest, the structure of the channel will prevent the liquid phase from
falling too quickly, the accumulation of liquid phase will be adsorbed on
the wall in the form of a liquid film downward flow, and due to the
greater effect of gravity, its disturbance in the lower portion of the
packing channel is small. The unsatisfactory film formation effect in
cases 2–4 is a result of the high wind speed, as the liquid phase velocity is
insufficient to overcome the wind force. As a result, the liquid film
Fig. 3. Relationship between the number of grids and the pressure drop at the
inlet and outlet.
wind force continually increases, in conjunction with the viscous force

of the walls, the velocity of the liquid phase gradually decreases, and the
liquid phase eventually accumulates at the bottom.
The flow of the gas and liquid phases is affected by the different pipe
diameters in the film and flow disturbance zones. Due to the disruption
of the gas and liquid phases, the gas phase is dispersed to the periphery,
and the central peak velocity zone of the gas phase decreases as the
height increases from Z = − 610 mm to Z = − 50 mm, with the peak
velocity zone of the gas phase appearing near the wall at the interfaces Z
= − 550 mm, Z-400 mm, and Z = − 310 mm.
Based on the above analysis of the phase diagrams and velocity
clouds for Case 1, it is clear that the velocity of both the gas and liquid
phases plays a significant role in the flow pattern and velocity distri
bution of the liquid film, and must therefore be analyzed under various
working conditions. Fig. 5 depicts a cloud atlas of the gas-liquid phase
distribution at the X = 25 mm interface under various operating Fig. 5. Gas-liquid phase distribution on the wall at varying gas-liquid ratios.
Fig. 4. Gas-liquid phase distribution and velocity distribution clouds for different sections of condition 1.
7
coverage on the wall is poor, the liquid holding capacity is low and the temperature is close to 300 K and the temperature drop reaches 14 ◦ C.
heat and mass transfer effect is poor. The cooling effect is exceptional and completely fulfils the cooling
In addition, the gas-liquid ratio of the five working conditions is first tower’s task criteria. From the research above, it is clear that the air
increasing and then decreasing, and the amount of liquid held on the volume to circulating water ratio, or the size of the air-water mass ratio,
wall is not directly related to the trend of the gas-liquid ratio. However, is a key factor in the packing’s performance as well as the cooling
the velocity of the gas-liquid phase has a more pronounced effect on the tower’s ability to transfer heat and mass. Because of this, numerical
amount of liquid held on the wall, so it is necessary to select a wind studies are required to analyze the impact on the packing’s heat and
speed and water drenching density that are appropriate for the mass transfer characteristics under various operating situations and
conditions. identify the ideal parameter ratios.
As seen in Fig. 7, the temperature distribution at the X = 25 mm
3.5.2. Heat transfer characteristics in the packing at different parameters interface is roughly the same, with the temperature of the liquid phase
The packing layer is the central equipment of heat exchange, and its decreasing from the top to the bottom and the temperature of the gas
performance is directly related to the cooling performance of the cooling phase increasing from the bottom to the top. Condition 3 had the best
tower. The figure below depicts the temperature distribution of the overall heat transfer effect, while cases 1 and 5 performed less satis
packing channel in each direction under working condition 1. factorily. Because Condition 3 has the highest air volume, air speed, and
As depicted in Fig. 6(a), the temperature distribution at the two gas-liquid ratio of any condition, the middle region’s gas phase is less
distinct interfaces coincides in general, with the upper portion being likely to be saturated and is able to conduct more evaporative and
warmer than the lower. At the X = 25 mm interface, as the cold air convective heat transfer with the surrounding liquid phase, removing
travels up the channel, it exchanges heat and mass with the liquid film
on the wall, causing the temperature of the liquid phase on the wall to
decrease. The liquid phase temperature stays high because the gas phase
is nearly saturated as it reaches the liquid phase inlet. The gas and liquid
phase temperatures in the disturbed flow region are both lower than the
initial temperature of the liquid phase because of the significant
disturbance of the gas and liquid in this area, the heat and mass ex
change is adequate, and the proximity to the gas phase inlet makes it
easier to cool down. The liquid phase is easily deposited at the Y = 0 mm
interface, which is the connecting portion of the adjacent channels. The
contact area with the cold air is tiny and the contact period is brief, thus
the temperature will be higher than in the intermediate area. However,
under the action of gravity this part of the accumulated liquid will move
downwards and converge in the disturbed flow zone. The gas-liquid
phase in the disturbed zone is then able to exchange sufficient heat
and mass again, achieving the purpose of cooling.
Once the working circumstances stabilize, the liquid phase in the
film distribution zone at the Z = − 50 mm interface accelerates under
gravity as droplets or flows slowly as a liquid film on the wall. The gas
and liquid phases will violently collide as a result of the shift in tube
diameter, with some droplets hitting the wall and others getting caught
in the gas phase. This is why there is a break in the liquid phase in the
upper part of the packing zone, but of course most of the liquid phase
falls quickly into the zone.
The gas-liquid phase in the packing channel has undergone consid
Fig. 7. Temperature distribution clouds on X = 25 mm sections in the basin at
erable heat and mass exchange, as evidenced by the temperature dis
different operating conditions.
tribution at the Z = − 610 mm interface, where the liquid phase’s outlet
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution clouds atlas for different sections of condition 1.
8
more heat from the liquid phase and having the best cooling effect. In
condition 1, the gas-water ratio is the smallest under this condition.
Under the same water volume, the air volume is the smallest, and a small
amount of evaporation in the liquid phase will cause the gas phase to
become saturated. Therefore, the temperature of the gas phase in the
basin is more likely to rise, which is not conducive to the heat dissipation
of the liquid phase. Similar to this, it can be seen from the temperature
cloud diagram that the gas-liquid ratio is also smaller in working con
dition 5, the air volume underneath its water volume is the largest, and a
thicker water film has formed. Since too much liquid phase makes it
difficult to evaporate heat, this has an unfavorable impact on the heat
transfer effect. Furthermore, the gas-liquid ratio of the five working
conditions is first increased, then reduced, and its heat exchange effect is
almost the same as the trend of change in the gas-liquid ratio, so the
increase in the gas-liquid ratio is conducive to strengthening the heat
and mass exchange between the two phases of gas and liquid.
Based on the outcomes of numerical calculations, a graph showing
the fluctuation of cooling efficiency at various gas-liquid ratios was
created, as shown in Fig. 8, to demonstrate the link between the gas-
liquid ratio and the heat and mass transfer characteristics of the cool Fig. 9. Diagram of resistance versus gas-liquid ratio.
ing tower.
Fig. 8 demonstrates that the gas-liquid ratio and cooling tower effi
resistance, though height will also have an impact. Therefore, a suitable
ciency are positively correlated. When the gas-liquid ratio is between 0.3
air volume, water volume, and packing height can significantly reduce
and 0.55, the change in cooling efficiency is not significant. However,
the ventilation resistance in the packaging area of the tower, which has a
when the gas-liquid ratio is higher than 0.55, the cooling efficiency in
significant impact on the cooling tower’s energy consumption.
creases linearly. For example, when the gas-liquid ratio increases from
0.342 to 0.855, the cooling effect increases by 13.66%.
4. Experimental research
3.5.3. Resistance characteristics in the packing at different parameters
4.1. Experimental systems
It is also vital to investigate packing resistance since a packing with a
low coefficient of resistance lowers a significant amount of wasteful
Fig. 10 depicts a test system designed to investigate the heat and
energy use. As noted in Fig. 9, the resistance fluctuates more subtly
mass transfer characteristics of a cooling tower. This experimental
between 0.55 and 0.85, with a minimum resistance of 13.3 Pa and a high
platform’s primary structure is comprised of four key elements: the
of 32.6 Pa, a difference of 19.3 Pa, whereas the gas-liquid ratio varies
tower, the water circulation system, the air circulation system, and the
dramatically between 0.3 and 0.55. There are two peaks in the five sets
data acquisition system.
of conditions, condition 3 and condition 5. Maximum wind speed at the
The parameters of the measuring instruments involved in the
cross-section corresponding to condition 3 causes increased turbulence
experimental study of the heat and mass transfer characteristics of
between the gas and liquid phases and, consequently, increased internal
cooling towers are listed in Table 4:
resistance. Condition 5 has a higher resistance due to the excessive water
drenching density, which makes it easier for the liquid phase to build up
in the disturbed flow area, where the stagnation of the liquid phase 4.2. Experimental methods
impedes the flow of upstream air.
As can be seen from the preceding analysis, the change in air volume 4.2.1. Data processing
and circulating water volume has the greatest impact on the change in The following assumptions need to be made due to the complexity of
heat and mass transfer mechanisms in cooling towers:
(1) The heat and mass transfer process in the cooling tower does not
account for radiation heat transfer; only evaporative and
convective heat transfer are considered;
(2) Consider only the vertical upward motion of the gas phase, which
also undergoes only vertical heat exchange;
(3) Only the surface of the packing layer is sprayed with water, and
the film is distributed uniformly;
(4) All sections of the packing layer are flat and equal in area, and the
temperature is equal everywhere at the same section.
Based on the aforementioned assumptions, it was possible to derive a

heat and mass transmission model for the cooling tower, the details of
which are presented in Fig. 11:
In a thermal stability experiment, the heat and mass transfer mech
anism within the cooling tower can be expressed as:
Qw,con + Qw,ev = Qa,con + Qa,ev (36)
In the equation: Qw,con, Qa,con-Convective heat exchange in the liquid

and gas phases, kJ/h; Qw,ev, Qa,ev-Evaporation heat exchange of liquid
Fig. 8. Graph of gas-liquid ratio versus cooling efficiency. and gas phases, kJ/h.
9
Fig. 10. Comprehensive performance test rig for cooling towers.
contact;dA—Gas-liquid two-phase contact area micro-element，m2;γ—

Table 4
Heat of vaporization in the gas phase，kJ/kg; pTw—Water vapor partial
Parameters of cooling tower measuring instruments.
pressure，Pa;p’’Tw—Saturated partial pressure of water vapor，Pa;
Measurement parameters Measuring Instruments Error Measuring xTa—Moisture content in the gas phase，kg/kg;x”Ta—Saturated moisture
range
content in the gas phase，kg/kg;βx，βp—Proportionality coefficient for
Temperature Temperature probes 0.5% 0–80 ◦ C evaporative heat transfer between gas and liquid phases。
(PT100)
Temperature data Temperature Patrol (TJU) 0.5% 0–400 ◦ C
acquisition 4.2.2. Systematic error analysis
Circulating water flow Ultrasonic flow meters 1.0% 0–1000 m3/h The experimental platform described in this paper has minor errors
(FUP1010) in some experimental apparatus, necessitating error analysis for them.
Pressure drops Bi Trusteeship (TPL-06- 1% 0–500Pa Based on Moffat theory [42], we can first assume a function ξ which has
500 L)
variables set to x1, x2, x3, …, xn. Then it can be defined as follows:
Pressure drops data Micro piezometers 2% 0–1000Pa
acquisition (MP120) ξ = f (x1 , x2 , x3 …xn ) (38)
The error of the system can be set to be u1, u2, u3, …, un, for each
device involved. Thus, uξ can be defined as [43,44]:
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√{( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 }
√ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ ∂ξ
uξ = √ u1 + u2 + u3 + … + un (39)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂xn
Equation (5) can then be utilised to calculate the systematic error:

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√{( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 }
uξ √ 1 ∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 1 ∂ξ 1 ∂ξ
=√ u1 + u2 + u3 + … + un
ξ ξ ∂x1 ξ ∂x2 ξ ∂x3 ξ ∂xn
(40)
The parameters of the measuring instruments involved in the
experimental study of the heat and mass transfer characteristics of
cooling towers in this section are listed in Table 5:
The error of each measurement unit in the experimental system is
expressed by the following equation:
up = 0.1⋅ΔP; uMw = 0.1Mw ; uT = 0.05⋅T (41)
Equation (41) enables the total error in the measurement of the

system for different parameters to be deduced, the expression of which is
Table 5
Measuring instrument parameters for cooling towers.
Measurement parameters Measuring Instruments Error Measuring
range
Fig. 11. Model of cooling tower heat and mass transfer.
Temperature Temperature probes 0.5% 0–80 ◦ C
(PT100)
A detailed calculation of each of these terms yields the following Temperature data Temperature Patrol (TJU) 0.5% 0–400 ◦ C
form of Equation (1) [40,41],: acquisition
( ) Circulating water flow Ultrasonic flow meters 1.0% 0–1000 m3/h
( ) ( ) (FUP1010)
α Tw,out − Ta,in dA + γβp p″Tw − pTw dA = α Tw,in − Ta,out dA
Pressure drops Bi Trusteeship (TPL-06- 1% 0–500 Pa
( ) 500 L)
+ γβx x″Ta − xTa dA (37)
Pressure drops data Micro piezometers 2% 0–1000 Pa
In the equation: α—Heat transfer coefficient for gas-liquid two-phase acquisition (MP120)
10
shown in Equation (42):

uMe / Me = 0.05; uQw / Qw = 0.0612; uη / η = 0.0612 (42)
The analysis of the calculations indicates that all system errors are
less than 6.12%, so the experimental system’s reliability can be assured.
4.3. Experimental results and analysis
4.3.1. Airflow calibration and air-water heat exchange balance results

Before experimenting with the heat and mass transfer characteristics
of cooling towers, the air volume must be calibrated. Only then can
experiments be conducted under varying operating conditions. Fig. 12
depicts the specific data for the cooling tower airflow calibration:
As shown in Fig. 12, the fan frequency is positively and linearly
correlated with the airflow, with a maximum error of 9%, which is
within the error tolerance, so the airflow calibration is adequate for the
experiment.
After the ventilation calibration has been completed, it is still
necessary to evaluate the system’s stability, so the gas-to-water heat
exchange balance ratio must be determined. Fig. 13 illustrates the field- Fig. 13. Gas to water heat transfer equilibrium ratio scatter diagram.
measured data:
As shown in Fig. 13, the experimentally determined gas-liquid phase the wind speed into the tower is greater than 2 m/s. Nevertheless, too
heat exchange is nearly identical, its distribution range is all between 0.8 fast air flow results in wind blowing loss and resistance increase, which
and 1.2, and the error is all less than 9%. Consequently, the experi lowers cooling efficiency; too slow air flow results in insufficient liquid
mental system is able to operate reliably, and the test results are phase heat dissipation, which lowers cooling effectiveness. So, a cooling
credible. tower’s operation can be more economically efficient when the air speed
is at the proper level. This also reduces the burden on the fan and un
4.3.2. Effect of inlet air velocity on heat and mass transfer performance of necessary energy consumption.
cooling towers Fig. 14© demonstrates that the resistance within both packing types
Among the operational parameters of a cooling tower, the cross- is positively correlated with the speed of the incoming tower wind.
sectional air velocity of the packing section initiates changes in the Comparatively, the internal resistance of the conventional packing in
heat transfer performance of the entire tower. Thus, the heat transfer creases by 24.1 Pa when the wind speed is increased from 1.5 m/s to 3.5
performance of the cooling tower must be investigated experimentally. m/s, which is only 1.5 times the resistance at the initial wind speed. The
With inlet wind speed settings of 1.5 m/s, 2.0 m/s, 2.5 m/s, 3.0 m/s, and new packing has a narrower internal flow path and the air stays in the
3.5 m/s, respectively, and a drench area of 12 m3/(m2⋅h), the thermal wider disturbance zone for a while, so the resistance rises faster. The
performance of the cooling tower was investigated in this study. The internal resistance rises by 46.2 Pa, or as much as 3.5 times greater than
performance curves are then plotted as is shown below in accordance at the initial wind speed, when the wind speed is increased from 1.5 m/s
with the experimental data. to 3.5 m/s. The two-packing resistance gap is therefore more noticeable
From Fig. 14(a), it can be seen that the approach of installing two when the wind speed into the tower is more than 2.5 m/s due to the new
types of packed cooling towers is negatively correlated with the packing’s greater resistance growth rate than the traditional packing. In
incoming air velocity; from Fig. 14(b), it can be seen that the increase in conclusion, a wind speed of 2.5 m/s into the tower should be selected as
the incoming air velocity strengthens the heat transfer in the tower, being more suitable.
which makes the heat transfer efficiency of the cooling tower improve.
Moreover, the cooling performance of the new packing is better when 4.3.3. Impact of water drenching density on cooling tower heat and mass
transfer performance
The water drenching density is one of the cooling tower’s operating
characteristics that affects the performance of the entire tower’s heat
transfer, thus it is necessary to experiment with that performance as
well. Through the first two sections of the study, the packing height was
set at 1.525 m and the incoming tower wind speed was 2.5 m/s. At water
drenching density of 12m3/(m2⋅h), 15m3/(m2⋅h), 18m3/(m2⋅h), 20m3/
(m2⋅h), and 25m3/(m2⋅h), respectively, cooling tower thermal resistance
performance was investigated.
As evaporative heat transfer in cooling towers is intimately con
nected to their approach, it is vital to first understand the law of change
in the approach of cooling towers before examining the heat transfer
characteristics to assess the cooling effectiveness of cooling towers.
Fig. 16 depicts the performance curve of the cooling tower for different
water drenching density.
Fig. 15(a) and (b) show that when the water drenching density in
creases, the water circulation increases, the contact between the gas and
liquid phases reduces, the heat exchange effect declines, and the liquid
phase cooling becomes more difficult. It is important to note that the
new kind of packing performs much better while cooling at various
water spraying densities, particularly at 12m3/(m2 h), where there is a
Fig. 12. Curve of cooling tower airflow calibration.
11
Fig. 14. Cooling tower performance curves for various inlet wind speed.
Fig. 15. Performance curves of cooling towers at different water drenching density.
noticeable performance difference. gas phase’s resistance. It is thus more reasonable to choose a water
As observed in Fig. 15, when water drenching density increases, drenching density of 12m3/(m2 h) when combined with the examination
there is a large rise in the quantity of water circulating within the of heat transmission performance mentioned above.
packing, which causes gas and liquid to stagnate in the packing’s in
ternal channels and prevents timely air discharge from the tower. In
addition to decreasing cooling effectiveness, this significantly raises the
12
Fig. 17. Scatter plot of the effect of gas-liquid ratio on cooling numbers.
Fig. 16. Graph of the effect of circulating water and air intake on the cool convective heat exchange between gas and liquid phases, thereby
ing number. reducing the water vapor content per unit of gas phase. This will prevent
the hot and humid air in the tower from becoming easily saturated,
4.3.4. Effect of gas to water mass ratio on heat and mass transfer thereby accelerating the evaporation of circulating water and enhancing
performance of cooling towers the evaporative heat exchange in the tower.
The incoming air velocity and water drenching density have a sig
nificant impact on the cooling tower’s mass and heat transfer properties, 4.3.5. Effect of packing height on heat and mass transfer performance of
according to the research mentioned above. The air volume of the cooling towers
cooling tower and the circulating water volume, or the air to water mass In addition to the aforementioned operational factors, the heat
ratio, frequently combine action in the actual operation of cooling transfer efficacy of the cooling tower is also connection with the height
towers. Therefore, it is essential to consider their impact on the heat and of the packing layer arrangement.
mass transfer characteristics of the cooling tower. As depicted in Fig. 18, an increase in the gas-liquid ratio increases the
The cooling number is a more precise method for evaluating the heat amount of air in the tower, thereby increasing the air velocity in the
and mass transfer characteristics of a cooling tower than the approach tower to the extent that the gas and liquid phases can fully contact each
and cooling efficiency, as demonstrated in Fig. 16, which depicts the other for heat exchange within the packing layer, significantly
effect of air volume and circulating water volume on the cooling enhancing its convective and evaporative heat transfer.
number. In addition, the increase in packing height will extend the residence
As shown in Fig. 16, the increase in the liquid phase intensifies the time of the liquid phase within the packing, and in the process of falling,
evaporative heat exchange between the gas and liquid phases, but in the the liquid film will be fractured and broken, which significantly in
absence of sufficient ventilation, the gas phase is more likely to become creases the heat exchange ratio area of gas and liquid, thereby
saturated. Cooling tower to achieve cooling is primarily dependent on enhancing the cooling effect of the cooling tower. However, excessively
the evaporation of the liquid phase, the gas phase is easy to saturate is high packing is prone to clogging and the resistance will increase. To
not conducive to the evaporation of the liquid phase, the tower of heat
and mass exchange will progressively weaken, causing the cooling tower
cooling number to progressively decrease.
In addition, when the state of the gas phase in the cooling tower
increases, the cooling number at varying quantities of the liquid phase
also increases to a degree. The reason for this is that the increase in air
volume will also result in a more intense evaporative heat transfer be
tween the two phases of the gas and liquid, and the increase in air
volume will also strengthen the convective heat transfer between the gas
and liquid. Since the gas phase, which is not readily saturated, can
transport away more heat, increasing the gas-liquid ratio will signifi
cantly enhance the cooling tower’s heat and mass transfer performance.
Fig. 17 depicts a scatter diagram of the effect of the gas-to-water mass
ratio on the cooling number.
According to Fig. 17, the cooling figures are 1.11, 1.70, and 2.02
when the gas-liquid ratio is correspondingly 0.428, 0.846, and 1.402.
The cooling tower’s chilling number is proportional to the gas-liquid
ratio. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that when the
gas-liquid ratio increases, there is greater contact between the gas and
liquid phases in the rain area and the packing layer, and the heat and
mass exchange is more sufficient.
In addition, as the ratio of gas to water increases, the increase of gas Fig. 18. Variation curves of heat and mass transfer in cooling towers with
velocity during the same heat exchange time will strengthen the different packing heights.
13
accomplish the optimal cooling effect, the height of the packing can be
chosen based on the actual cooling requirements.
As depicted in Fig. 19, the resistance of the packing layer in the
cooling tower rises as wind speed, water drenching density, and packing
height increase. The increase in wind speed will result in an increase in
ventilation resistance, and the increase in water drenching density will
also result in a sharp deterioration in gas-liquid blockage and increased
resistance. Moreover, as the packing height increases, it will lengthen
the flow of the gas-liquid phase, making it impossible to discharge out of
the tower in a short amount of time, thereby exacerbating the increase in
resistance.
Moreover, when the incoming wind velocity and water drenching
density are small, the packing height exerts less influence on the tower’s
interior. When the wind speed into the tower is 1.0 m/s and the density
of the drench is 12 m3/(m2⋅h), the difference between the maximum and
minimum pressure decrease of the four packing heights is only 3.41 Pa.
Consequently, when the incoming air velocity and water drenching
density are low, a higher packing height makes it simpler to complete
the chilling task and reduce energy consumption.
Fig. 20. Comparison of experimental values and numerical simulation results.
4.4. Comparative analysis of numerical computations and experimental

outcomes transferred through evaporative heat transfer per unit volume of pack
ing in a unit of time. The empirical equation is usually expressed as:
Fig. 20 depicts the comparison between the results of numerical Ka = Bqm gn (43)
calculations and experimental findings for various water drenching
density. In the equation: Ka—Volume dispersion constants; B,m,
As depicted in Fig. 20, the trends of the numerical calculations and n—Experimental constants; g—Air quality flow, t/(m2⋅h).
the experimentally derived results are essentially identical, and the er The derivation of the empirical equation for the volumetric disper
rors of both are less than 5.4%; therefore, the calculations of the nu sion coefficient is based on the calculation of experimental data. Using
merical study are more accurate. the experimental data for the 1.525 m height packing, the equation for
the volumetric dispersion coefficient of the packing under this condition
can be found by calculating B = 1422, m = 0.3 and n = 0.64 as follows:
4.5. Empirical equation fitting
Ka = 1422q0.3 g0.64 (44)
4.5.1. Empirical equation fitting of the volumetric dispersion coefficient
The empirical formula for the volumetric dispersion coefficient
The volumetric dispersion coefficient Ka is often used to characterize
corresponding to the four height packings is shown in Table 6.
the thermal performance of the packing. It reflects the mass of water
Fig. 19. Packing resistance characteristic curves at different packing heights.
14
4.5.2. Resistance empirical equation fitting Table 7

A commonly used empirical expression for the air resistance of the Empirical equation for resistance.
packing layer is expressed as equation (45): Packing height Resistance ΔP
(m)
ΔP
= Ava n (45) 1.525 ΔP − 4 2 − 2
ra = (7 × 10− 4 q2 + 9 × 10− 3 q + 0.32)va − 2×10 q − 1.5×10 q+2
ra
In the equation: ΔP—Resistance values, Pa; ra—Air specific gravity, 1.830 ΔP − 4 2 − 3
= (7 × 10− 4 q2 + 9 × 10− 3 q + 0.41)va − 4×10 q − 9×10 q+1.99
ra
N/m3; va—Windward velocity of packing section, m/s.
2.135 ΔP
The constant in equation (45) can be found by calculating it as shown = (6 × 10− 4 q2 + 1.3 × 10− 2 q + 0.47)
ra
in equation (46): − 4 2 − 3
va − 5×10 q − 1.4×10 q+1.96
2.440 ΔP
A = aq2 + bq + c, n = dq2 + eq + f (46) = (3 × 10− 4 q2 + 1.9 × 10− 2 q + 0.65)
ra
− 2×10− 4 q2 − 4.1×10− 3 )q+1.92
va
Choose 1.525 m height packing experimental operation to do the
selected the density of drench water q = 12, 15, 18 m3/(m2⋅h)
substituted into equation (46), to find a = 7.0 × 10− 4, b = 9.0 × 10− 3, c
t0—Water temperature entering the packing during the experiment,
= 0.32, d = − 2.0 × 10− 4, e = − 1.5 × 10− 2, f = 2. ◦
C
Thus, equation (45) can be expressed as follows:
p = 0.4–0.6.
ΔP ( ) Taking a k value of 0.9, a p value of 0.5 and a kt value calculated to be
= 7 × 10− 4 q2 + 9 × 10− 3 q + 0.32 va − 2×10− 4 q2 − 1.5×10− 2 q+2
(47)
ra 0.96, the corrected characteristic number curve for the cooling tower is
The empirical equations were compared with the experimental re shown in Fig. 21.
sults and the maximum difference in resistance was 0.5 Pa, all with an As shown in Fig. 21, the optimal working point of the cooling tower is
error rate of less than 2.7%. the air-water ratio corresponding to the intersection of the packing
The empirical equations for the resistance corresponding to the four characteristics (cooling tower characteristics) curves, so the appropriate
heights of packing are shown in Table 7: air-water ratio for a packing of 1.525 m height is 0.58, for a packing of
1.830 m height it is 0.52, for a packing of 2.135 m height it is 0.43, and
for a packing of 2.440 m height it is 0.41.
5. Predicted heat and mass transfer performance of counterflow
The ratio of gas to water is computed as follows:
wet cooling towers
ma
λ= (51)
This paper uses a cooling tower in actual operation as an illustration, Mw
in which it is intended to cold water from 42 ◦ C to 27 ◦ C at a water In the equation: ma—Air mass flow rate, t/(m2⋅h); Mw—Water mass
drenching density of 12 m3/(m2⋅h). A reasonable operating condition for flow rate, t/(m2⋅h); The air density is set to 1.14 kg/m3 and the wind
this packing was determined through specific calculations, and an eco ward section of the tower packing air velocity is calculated using the
nomic analysis was conducted. following equation.
5.1. Cooling tower operating conditions assessment va =

1000ma
(52)
3600ρa
Set the initial packing height to 1.525 m and the water drenching Table 8 shows the operating parameters corresponding to the four
density to 12 m3/(m2⋅h). As the packing’s characteristic number is heights of packing:
affected by multiple factors, it is necessary to incorporate a correction As shown in Table 8, the greater the packing height, the simpler it is
factor k (approximately 0.90–1.0) to enhance its accuracy [45], as to satisfy the cooling requirements. Under the same drench conditions,
shown below: the air volume required decreases substantially as the packing height
increases, with a packing height of 2.440 m requiring only 70% of the air
N′ = kAλb (48)
volume required at a packing height of 1.525 m.
In the equation: A, b—Experimental constants.
In addition, if the error with the actual is greater, it is necessary to
rectify again based on equation (8), as illustrated by equation (49):
N′ = kkt Aλb (49)

In the equation: k—Test tower and real tower correction factors;
kt—Water temperature correction factor.
The correction factor for water temperature in equation (49) is
computed as follows:
( )− p
t1
kt = (50)
t0
In the equation: t1—Actual water temperature into the tower, ◦ C;
Table 6
Empirical formula for volumetric dispersion coefficient.
Packing height (m) Volumetric dispersion factor Ka
1.525 Ka = 1422q0.3g0.64
1.830 Ka = 1311q0.3g0.63
2.135 Ka = 1449q0.28g0.64
2.440 Ka = 1519q0.19g0.7
Fig. 21. Cooling number versus gas-liquid ratio graph.
15
Table 8 Table 10
Reasonable operating conditions parameters. Local drag coefficient and wind speed.
Packing Gas-liquid Air quality flow ma Wind speed at windward Part name Local resistance factor Wind speed
height (m) ratio λ t/(m2⋅h) section va (m/s) (m/s)
1.525 0.58 6.96 1.696 Air inlet ζ1 = 0.55 2va = 3.392

1.830 0.52 6.24 1.520 Air guides ζ2 = (0.1 + 0.000025mw )l = 0.33 va = 1.696
2.135 0.43 5.16 1.257 Turning point of the airflow ζ3 = 0.5 va = 1.696
2.440 0.41 4.92 1.199 before entering the packing
Water distribution units
[ ( Ach 2
) ] As
ζ4 = 0.5 + 1.3 1 − va =
As
⋅ Ach
5.2. Cooling tower operating energy assessment ( A )2 1.785
s
= 0.56
Ach
After obtaining the experimental data for the counterflow damp Water Receiver
[ ( An )2
] As
ζ5 = 0.5 + 2 1 − va =
As
⋅ An
cooling tower, the resistance of the components can be calculated and 2.827
(A )2
the energy consumption of the entire tower can be evaluated. The n
= 0.468
As
relevant parameters for the cooling tower are listed in Table 9 and the As
Duct inlet ζ6 = 0.22
resistance coefficients for each component are listed in Table 10 [46]. va =
Af
The resistance coefficients for each part are often engineered using test 3.392
values or using empirical equations. Duct outlet ζ7 = 1.0 As
va =
Ak
The packing section’s resistance is derived from an empirical for 2.423
mula. By calculation, the air resistance of the packing layer at a height of
1.525 m with a reasonable wind speed is 18.51 Pa, and the resistance in
addition to the packing is 23.88 Pa, which results in a cooling tower
resistance of 42.39 Pa. Table 11
The above resistance calculation is based on independent compo Cooling tower fan calculated power and actual power.
nents, disregarding their relationship, but the actual operation of Packing height Motor theoretical power Actual theoretical power
resistance is often large, the fan will overload, so the air volume safety (m) (kW) (kW)
factor must be added, the usual range of choice is 0.05–0.1, but also add 1.525 0.525 0.583
the motor safety factor, consult the literature [47], to determine the 1.830 0.436 0.484
1.15, so the output power of the fan can be expressed as follows: 2.135 0.304 0.338
2.440 0.328 0.364
1.05 × 1.15 × (ΔPS + ΔPE )ma
E= (53)
η1 η2
(1) The new straight wave packing has been optimized for traditional
In the equation: ΔPs—Fan static pressure, Pa; ΔPE—Wind and motor packing and has greatly improved in performance. The cooling
pressure, Pa; ma—Air mass flow rate, t/(m2⋅h); ƞ1—Fan efficiency, taken efficiency is increased by up to 14.23% at the same inlet air speed
as 0.8; ƞ2—The drive efficiency of the fan is taken as 0.98 for direct and by up to 14.4% at the same water drenching density.
coupling drive. (2) Increasing the inlet wind speed and water drenching density will
Theoretical and actual motor power for various packing heights strengthen the evaporation of the liquid phase in the tower,
under reasonable working conditions are enumerated in Table 11. increasing the inlet wind speed will reduce the approach of the
Calculations and experiments indicate that the motor output of the cooling tower, respectively from 17.3 ◦ C at 1.5 m/s to 9.8 ◦ C at
packing with a height of 2135.0 mm is 0.304 kW, which is 0.221 kW less 3.5 m/s, making the cooling effect of the cooling tower more
than the packing with the greatest energy consumption, assuming the significant.
same cooling mission is accomplished. (3) The velocity and temperature distribution in the packing axes
vary, and the gas-liquid heat and mass exchange is enhanced by
6. Conclusion the increased gas-liquid ratio, resulting in an increase in cooling
efficiency of up to 13.66%.
To improve the heat and mass transfer characteristics of counterflow (4) Through analysis of the actual tower’s operating conditions, it
wet cooling towers, this paper analyses and optimizes the conventional was determined that the higher the packing height, the simpler it
straight wave packing, designs a new straight wave packing, conducts is to meet the cooling task, and the smaller the reasonable gas-
numerical and experimental studies on its heat and mass transfer char liquid ratio and air volume required, with a maximum air vol
acteristics, and predicts the heat and mass transfer performance of ume reduction of 30%. The motor output of the packing with a
cooling towers based on the results of the study. The key findings are as height of 2.135 m is smaller and there is a difference of as much as
follows: 0.221 kW between the highest and lowest packing, provided that
the cooling task is met, so that a reasonably economical packing is
selected for the cooling task.
Declaration of competing interest

Table 9
Related parameters of cooling towers.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
Name Parameters interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Tower height 6.5 m the work reported in this paper.
Total drenching area As = 4m2
Length of inlet air guide l = 3.25 m Data availability
Effective area through which the water distribution unit passes Ach = 3.8m2
Effective area of the water receiver section An = 2.4m2
Area of the shrinkage section of the duct Af = 2m2 No data was used for the research described in the article.
Blower outlet area Ak = 2.8m2
16
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International Journal of Thermal Sciences 193 (2023) 108540

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Thermal Sciences

Research on heat and mass transfer characteristics of a counterflow wet

Value（mm） 630 300 240 10 10 10 40 16 26 42 53◦

contact, W/(m2⋅K);Tw—Cooling water temperature, K; T—Wet air

In the equation: v—Flow rate, m/s; cp—Constant pressure specific

Intake temperature（K） 289.15 289.15 289.15 289.15 289.15

Based on Colburn’s research, the following correlation equation can

3.2.2. Gas-liquid two-phase flow model

3.3. Cooling tower performance evaluation indicators [ { ( )} { ( )}]

3.3.1. Approximation [ { ( )} { ( )}]

3.3.3. Cooling number 3.5. Calculation results and analysis

wind force continually increases, in conjunction with the viscous force

Fig. 6. Temperature distribution clouds atlas for different sections of condition 1.

Based on the aforementioned assumptions, it was possible to derive a

In the equation: Qw,con, Qa,con-Convective heat exchange in the liquid

Fig. 10. Comprehensive performance test rig for cooling towers.

contact;dA—Gas-liquid two-phase contact area micro-element，m2;γ—

Equation (5) can then be utilised to calculate the systematic error:

Equation (41) enables the total error in the measurement of the

shown in Equation (42):

4.3. Experimental results and analysis

4.3.1. Airflow calibration and air-water heat exchange balance results

4.4. Comparative analysis of numerical computations and experimental

Fig. 19. Packing resistance characteristic curves at different packing heights.

4.5.2. Resistance empirical equation fitting Table 7

5.1. Cooling tower operating conditions assessment va =

N′ = kkt Aλb (49)

1.525 0.58 6.96 1.696 Air inlet ζ1 = 0.55 2va = 3.392

Declaration of competing interest

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