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Influence of sand granulometry on electrical characteristics, temperature and

electron density during high-voltage fuse arc extinction

Article in Journal of Physics D Applied Physics · March 2001

DOI: 10.1088/0022-3727/34/6/314

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Influence of sand granulometry on electrical characteristics, temperature and electron
density during high-voltage fuse arc extinction

W. Bussière

Laboratoire Arc Electrique et Plasmas Thermiques (LAEPT) – CNRS

Université Blaise-Pascal, 24 Avenue des Landais, F 63177 Aubière Cedex, France
E-mail: wibussie@laposte.univ-bpclermont.fr

Short title : Sand granulometry influence in fuse arc extinction

Abstract. Emission spectroscopy and the recording of the electrical characteristics are used
to study the influence of the granulometric composition of the arc-quenching material. Six
adjacent intervals of grain size are studied: each of them is 50 µm wide, and the upper limit
of the global interval is lower than 1000 µm. The final dimensions of the fulgurite are found
to be proportional to the granulometry. Concerning the electrical parameters, two groups are
pointed out : the extinction time constant, the dissipated energy and the I 2 . t value decrease
with the granulometry, whereas the maximum value of the arc voltage increases with the
granulometry. The rate of decrease of the temperature depends on the time interval observed:
at the beginning of the arcing period, the decrease is fastest for the smallest granulometric
parameters; and during the last part of the arcing period the trend is reversed. At the beginning
of the arcing period, the electron number density increase varies between 1019 and 1020 cm-
3
.ms-1. When the electric current decreases, the electron number density decreases
exponentially with a time constant value ranging from 0.40 ms to 0.25 ms.

1. Introduction

High Breaking Capacity fuses (H.B.C.) comprise : an insulating cartridge (usually

ceramic), two metal electrodes, a fuse element (usually silver) and the arc quenching material
(usually silica sand). Although the basic role of the filler is understood [1], the influence of
the granulometric properties of the sand has not been fully investigated. In order to build up
an accurate model of the fuse working, it is necessary to take into account the influence of the
granulometric composition and of the packing density of the sand over the mechanisms
responsible for the heat transfer from the arc column [2].
The fuse operation is as [3]: the flow of electric current produces the heating of the fuse
element, especially around any constriction because the electrical resistivity is the highest at
these points. The fusion of any constriction in the fuse element opens a gap in which the arc is
immediately initiated. The melting and vaporisation of the metal continues until the circuit
voltage is not high enough to maintain it. The energy released by the arc spreads towards the
fuse filler whose main role is to dissipate it. The fuse filler must satisfy several properties in
order to improve the speed of the extinction of the arc. The silica sand is used because of its
ability to withdraw the energy from the arc, mainly by fusion. The first goal of this study is
thus to quantify the effect of the sand properties on the arc extinction.
The investigation process is of two types: firstly, the electrical parameters are monitored
by means of oscilloscopes; secondly, the physical parameters such as temperature and
electron density are estimated using a spectroscopic apparatus: the time-resolved spectroscopy
enables us to assess the radiation emitted from the centre of the plasma created during the
extinction. Thus we can evaluate the variations of the temperature and the electron density
throughout the phenomenon duration. Many studies have been carried out using a
spectroscopic way of investigation [4-7]. The disparities in the temperature and the electron
density results ensue from several differences: the way of collection of the radiation, the
values of the prospective current, the characteristics of the different fuse units (shape of the
constrictions; nature, granulometry and packing density of the fuse filler) are some of them.
There are two opposite trends:
• Chikata et al [4] on the one hand, and Cheim and Howe [7] on the other hand
conclude that the temperature remains constant throughout the whole phenomenon around 2.0
× 104 K and 2.4 × 104 K respectively. The electron density given by Chikata et al [4] is about
1018cm-3. The spectroscopic techniques used differ. Chikata et al [4] use a time-resolved
spectroscopic technique and the relative intensity calibrations of the arc spectrum is
performed by taking photographs of the spectrum through neutral filters of four different
optical densities. The prospective short circuit current is 1 kA (peak value) and the test
voltage is 1.3 kV. Cheim and Howe [7] also use a time-resolved technique, and very narrow
bandwidth interferential filters to isolate the spectral lines used in the spectroscopic
evaluations. The prospective symmetrical current is 600 A and the voltage is 250 V ac. The
radiation is collected via an optical fibre inserted very closely to the notch: the optical probes
are thus in contact with the plasma in the arc column during the whole phenomenon.
• Saquib et al [5-6] obtain spectra at different times during the arcing period. The
radiation emitted is focussed on an intensified photodiode array. By varying the timing of the
gate pulse the whole arc spectrum (from 350 nm to 700 nm) is obtained at any desired time
during the arcing period. The temperature decreases from 22000 K at an arcing time of 0.09
ms, to 15000 K around 4.10 ms; the total pre-arcing time is about 4.5 ms. The authors point
out the fact that the temperature slowly decreases since a value of about 18000 K is obtained
for an arcing time of around 2.6 ms. The maximum of the electron density is found to be
about 2×1018cm-3 and the variation during the extinction is weak.
The second aim of this study is to confirm the evolution of the two physical parameters during
the fuse arc extinction, because they are also necessary to establish reliable simulations.

2. Fuse working and the arc-quenching material functions

The fuses of industrial type consist of a fuse element up to 1.20 m long ; there are a large
number of constrictions in series along the length of the element ; the number, the shape and
the dimensions of these constrictions depend on the fuse rating current. Several elements can
be placed in parallel according to the current limit required. So the phenomenon, as a whole,
is the sum of elementary phenomena. Thus to reproduce the fuse operation, we only use a
single fuse element with a single row of notches.
The fuse operation has been described in the previous section. Once the fault current
has been cut off, the molten silica cools down and the material heated during the phenomenon
solidifies in the form of a dense aggregate: the fulgurite ; this aggregate joins the two unfused
parts of the element. The inside of the fulgurite consists of a cavity whose volume is about
that of the element.
The global action of the filler can be divided into five main points [9]:
• most of the energy of the arc spreads towards the fuse filler leading to the fusion of
the silica sand grains;
• this leads to the formation of a molten shield on the edges of the arc which is
insulated from the others because of the solid silica sand and thus it prevents the merging of
the arcs created along the element;
• the presence of the molten shield surrounded by the silica sand leads to the increase
in the pressure which contribute to the extinction of the arc;
 • it provides conductance when very hot, which has a damping effect on transients;
• it provides insulation against the effects of the thermal and mechanical shock of
operation.
All the effects quoted above influence the efficiency of the cutting power of the fuse.

3. Experimental set-up

3.1 Experimental fuse

All the adaptations have been made so as to keep the same properties of the arc and the
fuse filler as in an industrial fuse. In such a fuse, the collection of the radiation is impossible
because of the scattering of the light by the sand grains and because of the enclosed cartridge.
Moreover, there may be several elements in parallel, each of them having a large number of
constrictions. In order to reproduce the elementary phenomenon, we only use one element
with a single row of notches as it can be seen in Figure 1.a.
The four constitutive elements of a fuse are present:
• the cartridge which is mechanically resistant and made of an insulator material;
• the high conductivity metal electrodes on both sides of the element;
• the fuse element is 99.99 % pure silver with a single row of notches punched in the
centre of the strip(Figure 1.b.) ;
• the arc-quenching material: it is silica sand of high purity described below.
To avoid the scattering of the light by the sand grains, one side of the experimental fuse
consists of a 4 mm-thick glass wall on which the element is directly put. Because of the
chemical nature of the glass, several impurities are present such as Na2O, CaO, K2O. These
chemical elements are present in the spectral acquisitions and alter the global shape of the
spectrum from 350 to 800 nm. To cut the radiation issued from these impurities, an additional
0.5 mm-thick pane of quartz is inserted between the glass wall and the fuse element.
The shape of the fulgurites obtained in the experimental fuse is slightly different from the one
obtained in an industrial fuse because of the presence of the glass wall. During the first arc
expansion, right after the melting of the notch, metallic vapours spread between the sand
grains; shortly after, molten silica spreads between the sand which contributes to the radial
expansion of the ionised channel. In the case of our experimental fuse, this expansion takes
place on the opposite side of the glass wall, together with a shifting on the glass wall. In the
same way, the molten silica does not have the same thermal characteristics as the glass wall
(heat conduction, heat radiation, transfer of matter). This can lead to some temperature
gradients in the arc which are different from those in classical fuses. To partially compensate
this difference, we have used two configurations of the fuse element: in the first case, the fuse
element is directly put on the glass wall; in the second case, it is the edge of the fuse element
which is in contact with the glass wall [11]. The tests show that the shifting is strongly
reduced when using the second configuration which is actually used in these experiments. The
reproducibility of the packing density is improved by the cylindrical shape of the internal part
of the cartridge.
To reproduce such arcs as in classical fuses, a capacitor bank is used. It is composed of
a capacitor bank of 16 mF placed in series with an inductance of 0.173 mH which can supply
4000 A, 540 V and an energy of 2100 J. The experimental current increase is found to be
about 2.1 × 106 A.s-1. A typical current-voltage characteristic obtained in tests can be seen in
the Figure 2. The electrical parameters are stored by means of a Tektronix TDS 340 A
oscilloscope.
 The reproducibility of the tests is checked by comparing the values of the pre-arcing
time: with the silver fuse element, the value is about 0.85 ms. The duration of the whole
phenomenon (pre-arcing period plus arcing period) is 4 ms.

3.2 Fuse filler

Several studies have showed the need for a precise quantification of the filler grain
shape and size to study the arcing and pre-arcing phenomena [3][10].
The main characteristics of the silica sand we use are listed in Table 1. The silica sand is of
high purity (99.98 %) and 90 % of the particles are sizes spread over 300 µm. To take the
shape of the grains into account, we can use the form factor as mentioned in [10]:

Vp
f = (1)
D3

where Vp is the particle volume, and D is the grain mean size. The form factor is a good
indication of the number of inter-grain contacts. For each granulometric interval, the silica
sand has the same origin. Furthermore, there is no evident difference in the form of the
particles between the granulometric interval and the next. Thus considering that the particles
are comparable to spheres, we get a value of about 0.524. Considering the results given in [9]
for the same packing density, we can conclude that the thermal conductivity of the silica sand
we use is quite good and that the transfer of the heat through the fuse filler is efficient.
As it can be seen on Figure 3, the packing density varies in a linear way with the size
of the grains up to the value corresponding to F. For the value corresponding to G, there is a
break in the linearity which indicates a decrease in the packing density when using grains
whose diameter is larger.

3.3 Spectroscopic apparatus

The experimental set-up and the use of the CCD matrix of the spectroscope has been
described in detail in [8] ; they have been designed so as to obtain the highest reproducibility
possible. The light coming from the glass wall is accurately collected via an optical fibre at
the entrance of the spectroscope. The exact location of viewing is determined by means of a
laser beam. The spectroscope used is a Chromex 500 IS whose focal length is 0.5 m. Two
diffraction gratings are used: a 1200 and a 1800 lines/mm. The bandwidths are respectively
about 45 and 25 nm. The size of the CCD matrix is 1242 × 1152 pixels.
The spectroscope is used in a streak mode: the parameters of the acquisitions are
optimised so as to obtain as small a time step as possible; the sample of the couple charge
device (CCD) matrix is thus designed so as to observe small variations in the emission of the
radiation throughout the whole phenomenon duration. The control of the CCD matrix is
optimised in order to get the maximum number of tracks (Table 2): the time exposure of each
track and the shifting of each of the 1152 lines are fitted according to the duration and the
brightness of the phenomenon.
An electronic circuit simultaneously monitors the start of the power supply and the
shifting of the matrix, together with the storage of the current flowing across the fuse and the
voltage drop.
The absolute intensity measurements of the spectra are calibrated by means of a tungsten
ribbon lamp for the spectral range from 350 nm to 800 nm.
4. Evolution of the fulgurite and the electric parameters according to the fuse filler

4.1. Arcing time

To test the influence of the granulometry on the arcing time, two time intervals have
been observed: during the pre-arcing period, and during the decrease of the electrical current.
The current increase is found experimentally to be about 2.10 × 106 A.s-1 for each experiment.
During the arcing time, the electric current varies according to an exponential law for the time
interval from 2 ms to the end of the phenomenon:

⎛ t − t0 ⎞
i(t ) = it 0 × exp⎜ − ⎟ (2)
⎝ τ ⎠

where it0 is the current value at t0 = 2.00 ms and τ is the extinction time constant. It is found
that the extinction time constant depends at the same time on the mean size of the grains and
on the packing density (Figure 4). Firstly, the upper values of τ are obtained with the
smallest sand grains and there is a nearly linear decrease while the size increases. The
discontinuity found for F is reproducible. Secondly, τ uniformly decreases with increasing
packing density and is minimum for the highest value.

4.2. Pre-arcing and arcing I2.t

The I².t is one of the most important parameters in the design of fuses. It consists of
the integral with respect to time of the square of the instantaneous current:

∫
t2
I 2 .t = i 2 . dt (3)
t1

where (t1,t2) = (0,0.85) for the pre-arcing value, and (t1,t2) = (0,4) for the whole
phenomenon.
As seen in Figure 4, the pre-arcing I².t value increases in accordance with the mean
size of the grains and the packing density. During the pre-arcing time, the fuse element is
heated by the current flowing through it, and the temperature of the notches increases
significantly. The time required to initiate the arc strongly depends on the value of the
electrical current and on the possibility that heat movements occur within or from the fuse
element. The properties of the fuse filler impact the heat transfer through the number of
contacts between the sand grains. Thus the possibility of heat exchange depends on the
number and the size of the grains. With increasing grain size, the number of contacts
decreases but the area of intergrain contacts increases and the heat transfer by radial
conduction is accordingly higher As the quartz thermal conductivity is over forty times the air
thermal conductivity, we can suppose that the filler is the main heat transfer support and we
conclude that the heat transfer via the filler implies a longer heating time to initiate the arc.
The evolution of the I².t value is different if we consider the whole of the phenomenon. The
value of I².t decreases with increasing particle size and increasing packing density.
4.3. Arcing energy

Figure 4 shows a decreasing evolution of the arc energy with increasing packing
density and particle size until granulometric interval F.
During the earlier part of the arcing period, most of the energy is retained within the arc
column. That part of the energy is responsible for the increase in the dimensions and the
temperature of the arc column surrounded by the molten shield. Next, the accumulated energy
is dissipated in the direction of the arc-quenching material. Three types of transport can be
taken into account:
• the heat transfer by radiation: it is usually disregarded because of the complex nature
of this transfer and the small value which is supposed to be dissipated. Moreover, it is quite
difficult to give a rough estimate of this parameter ;
• the heat transfer by diffusion: during the first part of the arcing time, most of the
energy is dissipated within the arc channel together with the fast increase in the pressure due
to the initiation of the arc. This energy is used to produce molten silica within the arc channel
which is ejected towards the interstices between the silica sand grains because of the
overpressure. The efficiency of the heat transfer by diffusion increases with the volume of the
interstices, hence the low values of the energy obtained for the highest granulometries ;
• the heat transfer by conduction : as the mean size of the grains increases, so do the
intergrain contacts; as the area of exchange is bigger, the quantity of dissipated energy rises
and the part of the energy trapped within the arc column is of lesser importance.

4.4. Fulgurite structure

The mass, the length and the thickness of the fulgurite are directly proportional to the
mean size of the sand grains (Figure 5). The discontinuity observed for the evolution of the
arc energy between F and G justifies that of the three parameters.
The final structure of the external part of the fulgurite is related to the total energy dissipated
[3] and the rate of the dissipation. It has been showed in the previous paragraph that the arc
energy decreases with increasing grain sizes and packing density, and that the heat transfer
from the arc column to the surrounding silica grains is also more efficient and more
significant. For those reasons, the dimensions and the weight of the fulgurite are higher.
The inner part of the fulgurite consists of a cavity whose cross-sectional area at any point
depends on the energy dissipated by the arc into this region. In our tests these cavities are
rather large because of the strong current carried.

4.5. Maximum voltage drop across the fuse

To characterise the voltage drop across the fuse, we have observed the maximum value
obtained for each granulometric interval and each packing density. The results (Figure 4)
show a linear increase up to a value of about 560 V. Taking the error on the points into
consideration, this value appears to be the upper limit on the voltage drop accessible in our
conditions of tests. The moment corresponding to the maximum voltage also depends on the
type of filler: there is a linear decrease from 2.2 ms with increasing particle sizes and
increasing packing density. The decrease is about 0.2 ms.

5. Temperature evolution during the arc extinction

About thirty spectral lines have been recognised and mentioned in [8]. The atomic
spectroscopy is used in order to evaluate the influence of the sand properties on the evolution
of the temperature and the electron density of the inner part of the arc during the fuse
extinction. Thus, to obtain the most reliable estimations, we only use the ionised silicon
spectral lines whose spectroscopic data are given in the Table 3. The temperature is evaluated
from the ratio of two spectral line intensities of the same ion species using the Boltzmann
distribution: this method is valid if the difference in energy between the upper energy levels
of the two lines is higher than 2 eV.
In the previous paper [8], the same method was used with the maximum intensities of the
Si II multiplets (1) and (3). Here, the exploitation of the profile line shape is improved so as
to take into account the broadening of the lines induced by the collisions between the particles
(atom, ion, electron). The profile line shapes have been isolated from the continuum, and they
have been fitted using a lorentzian profile: each component of a multiplet is fitted together
with the next component in order to take the partial overlapping into account. The silicon
lines are the only ones studied as the metallic transitions spread towards the external part of
the arc: thus the silver lines are disregarded because they are not representative of the
temperature in the inner part of the column.
The temperature decreases with increasing size of grains and increasing packing
density (Figure 6). On one side the energy stored is more important in the case of small
particle size, and on the other side the dissipation of the energy is more efficient with the
highest grain sizes. Thus, the temperature is lower when using high granulometry.
The results obtained for the interval corresponding to B have to be disregarded. Because of
the small size of the grains, some of them have splitted in the space between the glass wall
and the element and this layer of sand has reduced the transmission of the intensity of the
radiation. The evolution of the temperature for each granulometric interval clearly shows two
steps depending on the time interval: from 0.85 ms to 2.25 ms, and from 2.25 ms to the end of
the phenomenon. To quantify the decrease in the temperature for each case of granulometry
and time interval, the slope of the linear decrease in each time interval has been expressed in
function of the granulometric parameters. Figure 7 clearly suggests two remarks:
• firstly, at the beginning of the arcing time, the temperature decrease is higher for the
smallest granulometries: there is a ratio of 2.7 between the values obtained for D and G ;
• secondly, for the time interval from 2.25 ms to the end of the phenomenon, the
coefficient of the temperature decrease increases with the granulometry and the packing
density: the maximum is obtained for the granulometric interval corresponding to E.

6. Electron density estimation

In plasmas such as the fuse arc plasma, which is moderately ionised, strong interactions
exist between the radiating species (atom or ion) and the surrounding charged particles. This
effect, classically called pressure broadening, is the main process in the broadening of the
profile line shapes in fuse tests. That is why, in order to estimate the electron density during
the fuse extinction, we assume that the Stark effect is the main process responsible for the
broadening of the Si II lines. The broadening of the Si II lines induced by natural broadening
and Doppler broadening is completely negligible compared with the Stark broadening. The
multiplet Si II (2) is selected for three reasons: the silicon ionised once is representative of the
physical parameters of the inner part of the arc. This Si II spectral lines are visible throughout
the whole of the phenomenon. The amplitudes of the variations of the total intensities of the
two components are sufficiently large to allow a good estimation of the electron density
during the extinction.
Electron densities are obtained in the following way: from the spectral acquisitions of
silicon lines, we observe the half-intensity width of each component of the multiplet (2). The
instrumental width induced by the monochromator is deduced from the experimental value of
the level broadening and electron densities are deduced from the data given by Griem [12].
The author gives values for the electron impact widths and shifts of isolated lines of singly
charged ions at an electron density equal to 1017 cm-3 and four temperatures: 5 000, 10 000, 20
000 and 30 000 K. In view of the fact that the electron impact widths and shifts are linear with
electron density as long as the lines are isolated, and non linear with the temperature, we
deduced the values of the electron density during the arc extinction. The number of points
given for each test depends on the control of the spectroscope in the streak mode. This control
allows to obtain a great number of evaluations in time, so as to observe the possible
fluctuations accurately. The error bars are deduced from spectra observations: we consider
that the experimental uncertainty is the value of the electron density corresponding to two
pixels for any given temperature. The fluctuations observed at the latter end of the
phenomenon are due to the weak intensity of the discrete radiation: the determination of the
half-intensity width is then unreliable.
Results (Figure 8) clearly show discrepancies between the granulometric intervals and
packing densities. For the smallest sizes and packing densities the observations are quite
difficult because of the assymmetrical profile line shapes and because of the non accurate
limit between discrete and continuous radiation.
There is no significant difference in the earlier part of the arcing period. The electron density
increases from about 5.6 × 1018 cm-3 at 0.85 ms to about 2.9 × 1019 cm-3 0.60 ms after, in the
case of granulometric interval F. The values are similar with the other granulometric intervals,
but the comparison is impossible after 1.0 ms because of the lack of useable spectra. To
quantify the growth of the electron density on the time interval accessible, we define K ne
which is the slope of the variation of the electron density with the time. Figure 9 shows that
K ne increases with the packing density and the size of grains until granulometric interval F.
The main differences appear at the decrease stage. From 2.50 ms, the electron density varies
according to an exponential law of the following type:

⎛ t − t0 ⎞
ne (t ) = ne ,t 0 × exp⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ (4)
⎝ τ ne ⎠

where ne ,t0 is the electron density at t0 (defined as the first point of observation during the arc
extinction), and τ ne is the extinction time constant concerning the electron density. The value
obtained for the interval corresponding to B has to be disregarded for the same reason as for
the temperature. The values decrease as the value of the granulometric parameters increases.
There is a ratio of about 1.7 showing that the extinction is clearly faster with high grain size
and packing density. The highest grain sizes imply values of τ ne of about 0.25 ms which
seems to be closed to the lowest limit possible in our case.

7. Conclusion

Concerning the evaluation of the temperature, the results show a clear decrease during
the arc extinction which is in accordance with the results given by Saquib et al [5]. The values
of the temperature are similar at the very beginning of the phenomenon : we find a value of
about 21000 K at 0.9 ms. The amplitude of the decrease over the whole phenomenon is higher
than the one given by Saquib et al [5]. At the end of the phenomenon, the temperature is
about 11000 K, whereas Saquib et al [5] obtain a value of about 15000 K. These
discrepancies are partially due to the geometry of the fuse element which is a 0.55 mm
diameter uniform silver wire. This discrepancy can also be due to the contact between the fuse
element and the quartz pane: so the dissipation of the heat must differ from the one in a real
fuse. Moreover, the temperatures are evaluated by means of the Boltzmann plot: the results
are thus less sensitive to the intensity fluctuations because of the use of the logarithmic
function. Finally, the global decrease in the temperature is consistent with the dissipation of
the energy, which is the main role of the fuse.
The electron density estimations differ from the values given by Chikata et al [4] and
Saquib et al [6] : the maximum value they mention is about 2×1018cm-3. The trends we find
are different and the discrepancies are significant: the maximum value obtained is about
2×1019 cm-3 and the electron density decreases until the extinction to values of about 1017cm-3.
Unlike the results quoted above, we observe a clear decrease over the whole phenomenon,
and the amplitude of the decrease is similar to the one corresponding to the electrical power.
Varying the granulometric properties of the sand, it is possible to improve the
efficiency of the arc extinction. The packing densities symbolized by e and f, and the
granulometries symbolized by F and G are quite appropriate to further the properties of the
filler. These parameters allow to control the way of dissipation of the energy and the quantity
of the energy dissipated from the arc column. The variations of the time constants τ and
τ ne clearly show that the extinction is faster with the parameters quoted above : the gain is
about 35%. Moreover, because of the increase in the maximum voltage, the mobility of the
electric charge is improved. Finally, the density of the dissipation of the energy through the
filler is also improved: as the diffusion between the sand grains increases, the energy retained
within the arc column decreases, and the weight of the fulgurite increases. Thus the
temperature and the electron density are globally smaller over the whole phenomenon, and the
rate of decrease is improved.

Acknowledgements

We thank, both for their financial support and for their help through many discussions, M.R.
Barrault of Schneider Electric, R. Dides and S. Melquiond of Alstom, M.R. Rambaud of
Ferraz S.A., J.C. Vérité of Electricity of France.

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Radiat. Transfer 18 425-431

[16] N. Konjevic, J. Puric, LJ. Cirkovic, Labat J 1970 Measurements of the Stark broadening
parameters of several Si II lines J. Phys. B: Atom. Molec. Phys. 3 999-1003
 Characterization factor Silica sand

Shape of the grains Identical for each granulometric interval

Chemical composition Element %

SiO2 99.80 mini

Fe2O3 0.02 maxi

Al2O3 0.20 maxi

TiO2 0.02 maxi

CaO 0.02 maxi

K2O 0.02 maxi

Real density (g.cm-3) 2.65

Apparent density (g.cm-3) 1.50

A, B, C, D, E, F, G
Granulometric intervals
Each of these intervals is 50 µm wide.
The letters represent the low limit of the interval.
a, b, c, d, e, f
Packing density (g.cm-3) Each of these intervals represents 0.04 g.cm-3.
The letters represent the central value of the interval.

Table 1. Characterization of the fuse silica sand filler

 Time Total duration
Number of Shifting Number of Total time
exposure of a track
lines (µs) tracks (ms)
(µs) (ms)

12 1.5 20 0.038 94 3.572

8 1.5 10 0.022 143 3.124

Table 2. Example of the use of the matrix in a kinetic mode. Each configuration is used
according to the total duration of the light emitted by a studied spectral transition.
 Theoretical Upper Statistical Transition Theoretical intensity
Multiplet wavelength energy level weights probability ratios within multiplets
(nm) (eV) (108 s-1) (LS coupling)
1 385.602 10.073883 4 0.25
1.78
386.259 10.066447 2 0.28
2 634.711 10.073883 4 0.70
2.00
637.137 10.066447 2 0.69
3 413.089 12.839316 8 1.32
1.43
412.805 12.839332 6 1.42

Table 3. Spectroscopic properties of the ionised silicon lines studied for the evaluation of the
temperature (Si II multiplets (1) and (3)) and the electron density (Si II multiplet (2)) [13]. In
the last column, the calculated intensity ratios according to LS coupling are given [14].
 1
2
4
3

5
6

Figure 1.a. Experimental fuse. The edge of the fuse element is in contact with the quartz
window. 1 : cartridge ; 2 : electrodes ; 3 : cavity filled with silica sand ; 4 : silver fuse element
; 5 : glass wall ; 6 : quartz window. The arrow symbolizes the point from which the light is
integrated.
Figure 1.b. Dimensions of the silver fuse element and the notches.
 3500

3000

Electric current (A) / Voltage (V) 2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Time (ms)

Figure 2. Example of the fuse cutting: ------- prospective current, ⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅⋅ current across the
fuse, ⎯⎯⎯ voltage drop during the extinction.
 f
e
Packing density
d
c
b
a

A B C D E F G
Size of the sand grains

Figure 3. Apparent density of the silica sand versus granulometry. The capital letters
represent the lower limit of the 50 µm-wide granulometric intervals. The lower-case letters
are equivalent to the 0.04 g.cm-3-wide packing density intervals.
 7500 1200 7500 1200

7000 7000
1100 1100

6500 6500

I .t PRE-ARCING (A .s)
2

I .t PRE-ARCING (A .s)
2
1000 1000
6000 6000

I .t (A .s)
I .t (A .s)

2
2

5500 5500
900 900

2
2

2
5000 5000

800 800
4500 4500

4000 700 4000 700

a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

1100 11.5 1100 11.5

1080 11.0 1080 11.0

1060
1060 10.5 10.5

Pre-arcing energy (J)

Pre-arcing energy (J)

1040
1040 10.0 10.0
1020

Energy (J)
Energy (J)

1020 9.5 9.5

1000
1000 9.0 9.0
980
980 8.5 8.5
960

960 8.0 8.0

940

940 7.5 920 7.5

920 7.0 900 7.0

a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

600 600

575 575
Maximum voltage (V)
Maximum voltage (V)

550 550

525 525

500 500

475 475

450 450
a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

0.80 0.80

0.75 0.75

0.70 0.70

0.65 0.65
τ (ms)

τ (ms)

0.60 0.60

0.55 0.55

0.50 0.50

0.45 0.45

0.40 0.40
a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

Figure 4. Influence of the grain mean size and the packing density on the electrical
parameters. Results are given for: the time constant τ of the cutting current; the integral with
respect to time of the square of the instantaneous current : ------ I 2 . t P R E − A R C IN G = ∫
0 .85 m s
i 2 . dt ,
0ms

⎯⎯ I . t = ∫ i . dt ; the dissipated energy : ------ pre-arcing energy, ⎯⎯ pre-arcing plus

4ms
2 2
0ms

arcing energy; and the maximum of the voltage drop value across the fuse during extinction.
 21.0
21.0
20.5
20.5
20.0
20.0
19.5
19.5

Length (mm)
19.0
Length (mm)

19.0
18.5
18.5
18.0
18.0
17.5

17.5 17.0

17.0 16.5

16.5 16.0
a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

7.5 7.5

7.0 7.0

6.5
6.5
Thisckness (mm)
Thickness (mm)

6.0 6.0

5.5 5.5

5.0 5.0

4.5 4.5
a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

0.85 0.85

0.80 0.80

0.75 0.75
Weight (g)

0.70
Weight (g)

0.70

0.65 0.65

0.60 0.60

0.55 0.55

0.50 0.50
a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

Figure 5. Fulgurite structure: length, thickness and weight versus the particle size and the
packing density. Each point is the mean of five values at least, and the error bars represent the
deviation.
 26000 26000
GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : B GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : C
24000 24000

22000 22000

Temperature (ms)
20000 20000
Temperature (K)

18000 18000

16000 16000

14000 14000

12000 12000

10000 10000

8000 8000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (ms) Time (ms)

26000
26000
GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : D GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : E
24000 24000

22000 22000

20000
Temperature (K)

20000

18000 Temperature (K) 18000

16000 16000

14000 14000

12000 12000

10000 10000

8000 8000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (ms) Time (ms)

26000 26000
GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : F GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : G
24000 24000

22000 22000

20000 20000
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

18000 18000

16000 16000

14000 14000

12000 12000

10000 10000

8000 8000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (ms) Time (ms)

Figure 6. Evolution of the temperature during the arc extinction. Results are given for the six
granulometric intervals: B, C, D, E, F, G.
 7000
t < 2.25 ms

Coefficient of temperature decrease (K.ms )

t > 2.25 ms

-1
6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000
a b c d e f
Packing density

7000
t < 2.25 ms
Coefficient of temperature decrease (K.ms )
-1

t > 2.25 ms
6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000
A B C D E F G
Size of the sand grains

Figure 7. Temperature decrease during the arc extinction according to the time interval.
Results are given in the form of coefficients resulting from the linear dependence betwen the
temperature and the time intervals : [0.80-2.25] ms and [2.25-4.00] ms.
 1E20 1E20
GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : B GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : C

1E19 1E19
ne (cm )

ne (cm )
-3

-3
1E18 1E18

1E17 1E17

1E16 1E16
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (ms) Time (ms)

1E20
1E20
GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : D GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : E

1E19 1E19

ne (cm )
-3
ne (cm )
-3

1E18 1E18

1E17 1E17

1E16 1E16
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

Time (ms) Time (ms)

1E20 1E20
GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : F GRANULOMETRIC INTERVAL : G

1E19 1E19
ne (cm )

ne (cm )
-3

-3

1E18 1E18

1E17 1E17

1E16 1E16
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Time (ms) Time (ms)

Figure 8. Electron densities during the arc extinction for the six granulometric intervals: B,
C, D, E, F, G. The points are the electron densities deduced from the profile line shape of the
multiplet Si II (2): λ = 634.7 nm ; λ = 637.1 nm.
 12
12

10 10

8
Kn (10 cm .ms )

Kn (10 cm .ms )
-1

-1
-3

-3
6 6
19

19
4 4
e

e
2 2

0 0
a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

1.0
1.0

0.9
0.9

0.8
0.8

0.7
0.7
τn (ms)

τn (ms)

0.6
0.6
e

0.5
0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2
a b c d e f A B C D E F G
Packing density Size of the sand grains

Figure 9. Electron density establisment and electron density decrease for the six
granulometric intervals. K ne is the slope deduced from the electron density versus time at the
very beginning of the arc ; τ ne is the electron density time constant deduced at the end of the
phenomenon.

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