Heat Generation in Electron Beam Welding

Introduction:
Electron Beam Welding is a welding process utilizing heat generated by a beam of high-energy
electrons. The electrons strike the workpiece and their kinetic energy converts into thermal energy
heating the metal so that the edges of the workpiece are fused and joined together forming a weld
after Solidification.
Electron-beam welding was developed by the German physicist Karl-Heinz Steigerwald in 1949, who
was at the time working on various electron-beam applications. Steigerwald conceived and developed
the first practical electron-beam welding machine, which began operation in 1958. American
inventor James T. Russell has also been credited with designing and building the first electron-beam
welder.

The process is carried out in a vacuum chamber at a pressure of about 2*10-7 to 2*10-6 psi (0.00013 to
0.0013 Pa). Such a high vacuum is required to prevent the loss of the energy of the electron in
collisions with air molecules. The electrons are emitted by a cathode (electron gun). Due to a high
voltage (about 150 kV) applied between the cathode and the anode the electrons are accelerated up to
30% - 60% of the speed of light. The kinetic energy of the electrons becomes sufficient for melting
the targeted weld. Some of the electron’s energy transforms into X-ray irradiation.

Electrons accelerated by an electric field are then focused into a thin beam in the focusing coil. The
deflection coil moves the electron beam along the weld. Electron Beam is capable of welding
workpieces with thicknesses from 0.0004” (0.01 mm) up to 6” (150 mm) of steel and up to 20” (500
mm) of aluminum. Electron Beam Welding may be used for joining any metals including metals,
which are hardly weldable by other welding methods: refractory metals (tungsten, molybdenum,
niobium) and chemically active metals (titanium, zirconium, beryllium). Electron Beam Welding is
also able to join dissimilar metals.

Characteristics of Electron Beam Welding:

The principle of Electron Beam Welding is very similar to that of Electron Beam Machining. The
Electron Beam Machine is made up of three major components that may have separate vacuum
chambers. They are as follows:

 Beam Generation
 Beam Manipulation
 Forming and Working Chamber

Beam Generation
In this procedure, the electrons are produced by passing current to the electron gun (Cathode) and
heating it to 2000℃ in a vacuum chamber. The electron gun operates at high voltages in the order of
60kV to 150kV to accelerate the electrons. The electrodes geometry here within the inter-electrode
space defines the electron trajectory. In between the cathode and the anode is a modulating electrode
known as the Wehnelt cylinder, which regulates the electron flow. As the electrons pass through the
anode, the electron beam converges and continues to move by inertia as it slowly diverges. In this
manner, the anode forms the electron jet by accelerating the electrons.

Beam Manipulation
The necessary power density is obtained by the electron beam for welding by passing it through the
adjacent alignment and focusing system. The alignment and focusing system consist of a deflection
coil and a stigmata coil. The deflection coil facilitates maintaining the oscillating motion of the
electron beam. The deflecting coils are then used to focus the electron beam at the required spot. This
unit directs a high-velocity electron beam to the weld cavity where its kinetic energy converts into
high energy due to collision. The stigmata coil helps rectify any aberrations of the magnetic lenses.
The electron beam is then directed towards the magnetic lenses. These are a series of lenses that are
used to absorb a series of electrons and also do not allow a divergent electron to pass through it.

Forming and Working Chamber

Each accelerated electron in an electron beam stores kinetic energy. While the kinetic energy stored in
an individual electron is not very significant, in mass they can contribute to a very large amount of
kinetic energy. Since electrons transfer their energy into a very thin layer of solid, the power density
of the electron beam can be very high in the order of 104 to 107 W/mm2. When the electron beam
strikes the workpiece, the huge amount of kinetic energy developed within the accelerating electrons
is converted into heat energy of the order of 105 to 107 W/mm2. It has been identified that the heat
energy produced from the kinetic energy of the fast-moving electrons is sufficient to melt the
workpiece metals at the joint and fuse them as shown below.

Schematic Diagram of Electron Beam Welding

One of the most incisive characteristics of the Electron Beam Welding process is its operating
environment in vacuum. There are majorly three reasons as to why the Electron Beam Welding
process must be conducted in a High-Vacuum environment. The First reason is rust. Many metals will
oxidize, rust or even burn when heated to a higher temperature in a normal atmosphere. The oxygen
from the air reacts with the metal to form oxides. This weakens the weld and possibly damages the
base metal. In the case of other welding techniques such as the TIG welding process or MIG welding
process, an inert gas generally argon is used to shield the weld until it cools to prevent this problem.
The Second reason is due to the presence of atmosphere particles. The electron beam is made up of
millions of fast-moving electrons. Each electron weighs less than one ten-thousandth of what a
Nitrogen or an Oxygen atom weigh. If an electron were to strike any of these atoms, it would result in
a deviation from its path and thus a loss in energy due to collision. Hence, the electron beam will no
longer be localized but rather scattered. The Third reason is lightning. The electric gun works by
accelerating electrons to obscenely fast speeds. It does this by pulling the electrons using a strong
electric charge measured in thousands of volts. This electric potential is so high that it will create
electrical arcs between the electron emitter and the acceleration grid. These arcs can pose a high risk
of safety to the welder or the operator. As a result, the Electron Beam Welding process is conducted
in High-Vacuum to prevent arcing. There are majorly three vacuum levels in Electron Beam Welding.
They are as follows.
a) High-Vacuum welding – Here welding occurs in the same vacuum chamber as Beam Generation to
produce the highest quality welds. These are extremely expensive mainly due to operating and
maintenance costs.
b) Medium-Vacuum welding – The idea of this welding is to reduce pump down time by welding in a
separate chamber.
c) Non-Vacuum welding – Welding is conducted at near atmospheric pressures. Here, the quality of
the weld is lowest. When pertaining to the Electron Beam Welding process, whenever an electron
beam is stopped by the workpiece, X-rays are generated. The power density of the electron beam is
inversely proportional to the beam diameter squared and directly proportional to the Beam Voltage
and Current. The X-rays are proportional to the power density of the electron beam. Also, it has been
determined that penetration is directly proportional to the power density. However, the total energy
converted by the electron beam upon bombardment with the workpiece to X-rays is only a few
percent of the total electron beam energy.

D  VI/d2 
Where, V = Beam Voltage
I = Beam Current
d = Beam Diameter

XD
Where, X = Depth of Penetration
D = Power Density
According to reference all the electrons in the electron beam has nearly the same amount of energy
and hence will produce a significant number of X-ray photons having energies equal to the
accelerating voltage. The energy of these X-rays is given as follows.

Em = hc/ = h
Where Em = Maximum photon energy
h = Planck’s constant
c = Speed of light
Em = eV
Where, e = Electron charge
V = Accelerating voltage
While the operators are generally protected from the minuscule amounts of radiation during the
Electron Beam Welding process due to the presence of a High-Vacuum chamber, the X-rays offers a
means of measuring the operating voltage of an electron beam by using an energy dispersive
spectrometer to measure the X-ray spectrum generated by an electron beam and determining the
voltage from the high energy cut-off.

The Electron Beam Welding process is a versatile technology wherein for each joint, material and
geometry, there should be several standards developed. These parameters can be classified in notably
3 categories. They are as follows.
 The parameters characteristic to the Electron Beam are Accelerating Voltage (Ua), Beam
Current (If), Focusing Current (F), Depth of Penetration (H) and Beam Focal Diameter (df0).
 The parameters characteristic to the Welding Joint Features are Welding Speed (), Welding
Width (B), Focal Distance (dt), Vacuum Pressure (Ps) and Preheating Temperature (Tpr)
 Other parameters involve Material Type, Thermo-physical and Chemical features of the
material and Workpiece Thickness. These parameters do not constitute as being a part of
Process Parameters.

Accelerating Voltage (Ua) in this process refers to the potential difference that accelerates charge
particles, in this case electrons from the electron gun. Maxwell’s equation states that IV
accelerates an electron by 1eV kinetic energy.

𝟐𝒆𝒗
=
𝒎

Where,  = Charge particle non-relativistic velocity

e = 1.6 x10-19C, Electron Charge
V = 1V, Voltage
m = 9.1 x 10-31kg, Electron Mass
It can be observed that with just 1V we are able to accelerate the speed of an electron by almost
600km/s. With Accelerating Voltage (Ua) as 150kV we can accelerate the electrons present in the
electron gun at approximately 76.6% the speed of light. Accelerating the charge particles is one of the
most elementary requirements in producing a high energy beam to be used for welding material. For
majority of the welding operations, the Accelerating Voltage (Ua) is kept constant, which depending
on the high voltage generator and electron beam gun is set at either 60kV or 150kV. The graph shown
in Figure 4 depicts the relation of the Accelerating Voltage (Ua) as a function of Beam Current (If) and
Beam Focal Diameter (df0). It can be observed here that as the Beam Current (If) increases, the rate of
increase of Beam Focal Diameter (df0) reduces with increasing Accelerating Voltage (Ua). Hence, we
interpret that for a more refined control on the Beam Focal Diameter (df0), we need to increase the
Accelerating Voltage (Ua) with minute adjustments made to the Beam Current (If).
 Beam Current (If) versus Beam Focal Diameter (df0) characteristics.

Accelerating Voltage (Ua) also has an interesting relationship with the Focal Distance (dt).
Accelerating Voltages (Ua) of 60kV and 150kV are taken along with Focal Distances (dt) of 350mm
and 1200mm. Figure 5 represents four experimental cases from a-d.

Depth of Penetration (H) and Welding Width (B) Analysis.

Keeping the Focal Distance (dt) constant and varying the Accelerating Voltage (Ua), it can be
observed that the greater the Accelerating Voltage (Ua), greater the Depth of Penetration (H) or
Fusion Zone depth. This can be inferred by comparing experimental cases a & b and cases c & d.
However, if we were to keep the Accelerating Voltage (Ua) constant and vary the Focal Distance (dt),
we can observe that the greater the Focal Distance (dt), wider the weld seam. Hence, the Electron
Beam becomes less focused which results in a wider weld seam in the workpiece. This can be inferred
by comparing experimental cases a & c and cases b & d. By analyzing the surface tension of the
molten metal at the weld pool, we observe that there is no risk of discharge of metal to the Weld Root
as long as the surface tension forces are greater than the gravitational forces at the section of the weld
where its width is maximum. Otherwise, the liquid metal starts to move at a higher speed from top to
bottom in the vertical direction. Considering the fact that the temperature and the width of the weld
pool in each successive section decrease with increase in the distance from the heat source, then at a
specific moment the surface tension forces acting on the weld pool with a width 2r becomes equal to
the gravitational force and the liquid metal stops flowing. At that specific moment, it is assumed that
the radius of curvature of the root in the longitudinal direction is infinitely large. This means that the
Weld Root will assume a nearly flat surface. This equilibrium condition can be described by the
below equation.
𝝈
𝝆𝒈𝒉 =
𝒓
Where,  = Density of the liquid metal at the melting point

g = Freefall Acceleration

h = Thickness of welded metal

 = Surface Tension coefficient

r = Radius of Curvature of Weld Root

Here, gℎ represents the Hydrostatic Pressure of the molten weld material. Hence, slower the Welding
Speed (), the rate of heat transfer to the bottom of the workpiece increases, enabling the workpiece to
melt at the Weld Joint all the way up till the root position. If the surface tension becomes lesser than
the force of gravity, the root of the Weld Joint will result in a depression convex surface which is
undesirable as shown in Figure 6. At the same time high speed welding can result in the formation of
concave depression surface in the Weld Root which is again undesirable due to the surface tension
being greater than the force of gravity. Hence it is necessary to identify to suitable Welding Speed ()
range such that both melting and solidification rates are desirable as well as the surface tension forces
is equal to the force of gravity at the root of the Weld Joint in order to produce a near flat surface.

Hydrostatic Pressure acting on the Weld Root pool

In an experiment to identify the effect of Welding Speed () on the Electron Beam Welding process,
three Welding Speeds ()were chosen to identify the effect it had on the nature of the weld pool and
the Weld Root of a 32mm Titanium Plate. They are 30m/s, 60m/s and 90m/s respectively.
 External appearance of the Weld Joint and Weld pool for Welding Speed ()
of 30 m/s, 60 m/s and 90 m/s

Weld Joint Analysis

It can be seen from the above figure that when the Electron Beam Welding process was conducted at
a Welding Speed () of 30m/s a large depression is observed at the tip of the weld pool and Weld
Joint. In order to achieve a near flat surface, one would have to make a second pass with a filler wire.
This is however unacceptable. At a Welding Speed () of 60m/s however, it is observed that Weld
Joint at the tip suffers from undercutting, a variation of the large depression seen when the Electron
Beam Welding process is conducted at a Welding Speed () of 30m/s. This can be removed by a
defocused beam by means of a cosmetic pass. The need for a second pass makes this Welding Speed
() not economical and hence undesirable, although it results in the desired Weld Joint. At a Welding
Speed () of 90m/s it is observed that we obtain a Weld Joint without any defect, and as a result a
guaranteed convexity at the tip of the weld. Hence, here the formation of the Weld Joint is satisfactory
and can therefore be chosen as a suitable Welding Speed () for the material.

Weld Root Analysis

At a speed of 30m/s the Electron Beam Welding process produces a Weld Root of width 2.8mm. This
is mainly due to persisting electron beam energy present within one section of the workpiece for a
longer duration of time. This results in a higher amount of heat transfer from the top to the bottom of
the workpiece than the Electron Beam Welding process when conducted at 60m/s and 90m/s
respectively. The faster rate of heat transfer results in the elongation of the Weld Root at its molten
phase due to the force of gravity being greater than the surface tension forces of the molten material.
As a result, it can be observed that the Weld Root width of the Electron Beam Welding process when
conducted at Welding Speeds () of 60m/s and 90m/s are 2mm and 1.7mm respectively. While the
excess elongation of the Weld Root can be removed by further machining process, it is generally
undesirable as it results in increased costs in the machining process of the workpiece.
The presence of vacuum environment in the Electron Beam Welding process helps prevent the
accelerated and focused electron beam particles from colliding with the atmospheric particles. As we
know, the weight of an electron particle is determined to be less than one ten-thousandth of a Nitrogen
or Oxygen atom. As a result, when a fast-moving electron collides with an atmospheric atom it can
result in the dispersion of its kinetic energy. Due to the presence of large number of atmospheric
atoms colliding with fast-moving electrons, it results in the spread of the electron beam and hence in
the presence of atmospheric pressure, the electron beam scatters, and is no longer focused. Above
figure shows the effect of Vacuum Pressure (Ps) on the Electron Beam. 5 experimental cases were
considered, where the Vacuum Pressure (Ps) is varied. The five different pressures analyzed are
760torr, 500torr, 250torr, 50torr and 5torr respectively. The common trend that can be observed from
the figure is that with decreasing Vacuum Pressure (Ps), the tendency of the electron beam to scatter
reduces. This is of course in line with the need for a vacuum chamber in an Electron Beam machinery.

Effect of vacuum on Electron Beam Welding

This nature of the Electron Beam is very useful in also understanding the effect that the Vacuum
Pressure (Ps) has on the Depth of Penetration (H) of the weld material. From Figure 9 it can be
understood that the general trend observed is that at HighVacuum Pressure (Ps), the Depth of
Penetration (H) of the electron beam in the weld material is quite high at around 90% in most cases.
Whereas at MediumVacuum Pressure (Ps), the Depth of Penetration (H)is relatively lower than that
achieved at HighVacuum Pressure (Ps), ranging from 50% to 80% in most cases. Finally, at
LowVacuum Pressure (Ps), the Depth of Penetration (H)is the lowest and the most undesirable, as not
only does its range vary from 0% to 60% but the quality of the weld penetration is poor. The Depth of
Penetration (H)of the electron beam can also be affected by another parameter, which is the Beam
Focal Diameter (df0).

FIGURE

The greater the Beam Focal Diameter (df0), the lesser focused is the kinetic energy of the beam on the
surface area of contact and therefore, resulting in reduced Depth of Penetration (H). However, this
does not mean that the Depth of Penetration (H) is solely dependent on the Vacuum Pressure (Ps).
Quite the contrary. The Vacuum Pressure (Ps) can be said to be a disturbing factor rather than a more
precise controlling factor of the Depth of Penetration (H). The Depth of Penetration (H)is an
important factor that is critical for determining the quality of the Weld Joint. It can be given by the
mathematical model as follows.

H = −144.143 + 0.137If − 26.346 + 0.218F

Similarly, for the Welding Width (B), the mathematical model is as follows.

B = −57.17 + 0.0135If − 6.731 + 0.092F

It can be observed very clearly that both the Depth of Penetration (H)and the Welding Width (B)is a
function of Beam Current (If), Focusing Current (F,) and Welding Speed ().

Some materials, before welding, such as low-alloy steels are generally required to be preheated to a
specific temperature known as the Preheating Temperature (Tpr). For any particular steel that has to be
welded by any fusion welding process, the Preheating Temperature (Tpr) has been determined to be
about 50℉ above the Martensite Start Temperature (Ms). However, most low-alloy steels have fairly
high Martensite Start Temperature (Ms), making welding uncomfortable and thus can potentially
compromise the weld quality. For this specific reason, industries generally preheat such material in
the order of 200-600℉ below the Martensite Start Temperature (Ms). Most low-alloy steels that are
susceptible to Hydrogen-induced cracking, transform from Austenite when cooling through the 1470-
930℉ temperature range. The amount of time, 8/5 (seconds), steel spends in this temperature range
during cooling, will determine its microstructure and hence, its susceptibility to cold cracking. A
microstructure that is free of untampered Martensite is desired to maximize cracking resistance. The
Austenite, therefore, is transformed to ferrite + carbide so that no Austenite would be available to
transform to Martensite upon reaching the Martensite Start Temperature (Ms).

A relationship has been formulated to establish the Critical Time, 8/5, for a Martensite-free HAZ in
low-carbon alloy steel. This relationship is termed the Carbon Equivalent, CE* and it is defined as
follows.

CE* = %C* + %Mn/3.6 + %Ni/9 + %Cu/20 + %Cr/5 + %Mo/4

Where, %C* = %C for C <= 0.3% and %C* = %C/6 + 0.25 for %C > 0.3%

The Critical Time 8/5, is computed from the equation as follows.

𝟖
log 𝟓
= 𝟐. 𝟔𝟗CE ∗ + 0.321

Electron-beam welding equipment

Since the publication of the first practical electron-beam welding equipment by Steigerwald in 1958,
electron-beam welding has spread rapidly in all branches of engineering where welding can be
applied. To cover the various requirements, countless welder types have been designed, differing in
construction, working space volume, workpiece manipulators and beam power. Electron-beam
generators (electron guns) designed for welding applications can supply beams with power ranging
from a few watts up to about one hundred kilowatts. "Micro-welds" of tiny components can be
realized, as well as deep welds up to 300 mm (or even more if needed). Vacuum working chambers of
various design may have a volume of only a few liters, but vacuum chambers with the volume of
several hundreds cubic meters have also been built.
Specifically, the equipment comprises:
1. Electron gun, generating the electron beam,
2. Working chamber, mostly evacuated to "low" or "high" vacuum,
3. Workpiece manipulator (positioning mechanism),
4. Power supply and control and monitoring electronics.

 Electron gun
In the electron gun, the free electrons are gained by thermo-emission from a hot metal strap (or wire).
They are then accelerated and formed into a narrow convergent beam by an electric field produced by
three electrodes: the electron emitting strap, the cathode connected to the negative pole of the high
(accelerating) voltage power supply (30 - 200 kV) and the positive high voltage electrode, the anode.
There is a third electrode charged negatively with respect to the cathode, called the Wehnelt or control
electrode. Its negative potential controls the portion of emitted electrons entering into the accelerating
field, i.e., the electron-beam current.
After passing the anode opening, the electrons move with constant speed in a slightly divergent cone.
For technological applications the divergent beam has to be focused, which is realized by the
magnetic field of a coil, the magnetic focusing lens.
For proper functioning of the electron gun, it is necessary that the beam be perfectly adjusted with
respect to the optical axes of the accelerating electrical lens and the magnetic focusing lens. This can
be done by applying a magnetic field of some specific radial direction and strength perpendicular to
the optical axis before the focusing lens. This is usually realized by a simple correction system
consisting of two pairs of coils. By adjusting the currents in these coils any required correcting field
can be produced.
After passing the focusing lens, the beam can be applied for welding, either directly or after being
deflected by a deflection system. This consists of two pairs of coils, one for each X and Y direction.
These can be used for "static" or "dynamic" deflection. Static deflection is useful for exact positioning
of the beam by welding. Dynamic deflection is realized by supplying the deflection coils with currents
which can be controlled by the computer. This opens new possibilities for electron-beam applications,
like surface hardening or annealing, exact beam positioning, etc.
The fast deflection system can also be applied (if provided with appropriate electronics) for imaging
and engraving. In this case the equipment is operated like a scanning electron microscope, with a
resolution of about 0,1 mm (limited by the beam diameter). In a similar mode the fine computer-
controlled beam can "write" or "draw" a picture on the metal surface by melting a thin surface layer.

Working chamber
Since the appearance of the first electron-beam welding machines at the end of the 1950s, the
application of electron-beam welding spread rapidly into industry and research in all highly developed
countries. Up to now, uncountable numbers of various types of electron-beam equipment have been
designed and realized. In most of them the welding takes place in a working vacuum chamber in a
high or low vacuum environment.
The vacuum working chamber may have any desired volume, from a few liters up to hundreds of
cubic meters. They can be provided with electron guns supplying an electron beam with any required
power up to 100 kW, or even more if needed. In micro-electron beam devices, components are with
dimensions in tenths of a millimeter can be precisely welded. In welders with electron beams of high
enough power, welds up to 300 mm deep can be realized.
There also welding machines in which the electron beam is brought out of vacuum into the
atmosphere. With such equipment very large objects can be welded without huge working chambers.

Workpiece manipulators
Electron-beam welding can never be "hand-manipulated", even if not realized in vacuum, as there is
always strong X-radiation. The relative motion of the beam and the workpiece is most often achieved
by rotation or linear travel of the workpiece. In some cases, the welding is realized by moving the
beam with the help of a computer-controlled deflection system. Workpiece manipulators are mostly
designed individually to meet the specific requirements of the welding equipment.
Power supply and control and monitoring electronics
Electron-beam equipment must be provided with an appropriate power supply for the beam generator.
The accelerating voltage may be chosen between 30 and 200 kV. Usually, it is about 60 or 150 kV,
depending on various conditions. With rising voltage, the technical problems and the price of the
equipment rapidly increase, hence, whenever it is possible a lower voltage of about 60 kV is to be
chosen. The maximum power of the high voltage supply depends on the maximum depth of weld
required.
The high-voltage equipment must also supply the low voltage, above 5 V, for the cathode heating, and
negative voltage up to about 1000 V for the control electrode.

The electron gun also needs low-voltage supplies for the correction system, the focusing lens, and the
deflection system. The last mentioned may be very complex if it is to provide computer-controlled
imaging, engraving, or similar beam applications. Complex electronics may also be needed to control the
workpiece manipulator.
Advantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW):
Some of the major advantages of EBW are as follows-
 Tight continuous weld;
 Low distortion;
 Narrow weld and narrow zone;
 Filler metal is not required.

The electron beam welding process is a very precise technique and is highly repeatable due to the
required automation. This welding technology also creates strong and pure joins that can be used
across several high-end applications for a wide range of industries. Electron beam welding also offers
precise weld penetration control from a depth as small as 0.0001 inches.
The EB process also provides a small heat-affected zone due to the high depth-to-width ratio, which
minimizes distortion and material shrinkage while allowing welds to be performed near heat-sensitive
components.
Electron beam welding also shows high strength properties, maintaining up to 95% of the strength of
the base materials.
As the technique is performed in a vacuum environment, no impurities are left by the process. Oxides
and nitrides are eliminated while impurities in the materials themselves are vaporized.
EB welding is also highly automated and thereby controllable, while also being excellent for joining
materials, such as refractory or dissimilar metals, that are not weldable with conventional processes.

Disadvantages of Electron Beam Welding (EBW):

The main disadvantage of this process is that the electron beam welder technology is expensive and
requires frequent maintenance to ensure the equipment is functioning correctly. As a result, the support
required to maintain this high-energy vacuum welding technology can be demanding.
 Expensive equipment;
 High production expenses;
 X-ray irradiation.

REFERENCES:
https://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=electron_beam_welding_ebw#:~:text=Electron%2
0Beam%20Welding%20is%20a,forming%20a%20weld%20after%20Solidification.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347857576_A_review_on_Electron_Beam_Welding_proces
s

https://modeling.matse.psu.edu/research_files/papers/2009JPD_Rai.pdf
https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/45/089/45089381.pdf