Professional Documents
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Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Insta
Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Insta
Instability
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
Editor
123
Editor
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
Department of Orthopedic Surgery
Hospital Arnau de Vilanova
Valencia, Spain
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my mother, my maternal aunt and my little sister
with all my love
In memoriam (†)
It has been a great pleasure to witness the development of this book over
these past few years. This book is much improved over previous editions as
Vicente has incorporated many new ideas and concepts. Moreover, as in
previous editions, he has been able to gather a group of extremely talented
experts to help him write this book. This edition will establish him as the
unchallenged leader in understanding the workings of the Patellofemoral
Joint, why it fails, how it fails, and what we now think are the best
approaches to treatment.
I call him a leader. But what constitutes a leader? For Warren Bennis, an
American academic who focused his entire life on the study of leadership, it
is clear. Returning from World War II to enter university eventually with a
Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, he studied leadership
in all its facets. He wrote 30 books and left behind a legacy of an almost
17-meter-long shelf of published and working papers in the archives of the
University of Southern California. Once when asked in an interview to say
what it takes to be a great leader, he replied “That’s easy! A great leader has a
vision for accomplishment and a particular passion for a profession and for
persisting in pursuit of his vision in spite of failures. Integrity is imperative
and a leader never lies…about anything. Equally necessary he is curious and
daring. A true leader wonders about everything, wants to learn as much as he
can, experiments and takes risks” (The New York Times, Warren G. Bennis
Obituary, August 1, 2014). Leaders possessing these attributes are indeed
uncommon. Communicating with Vicente, it is clear he possesses vision,
passion, integrity, curiosity, and daring. A vision to understand the Patello-
femoral Joint and the passion to follow that dream and deliver perfection for
his patients. Integrity and curiosity, he listens intensely to his patients,
examines them carefully. Moreover, he questions his poor results. Although
he may be quiet, he is daring and courageous to enter uncharted areas per-
forming seemingly foolish complex surgeries. However, only after intense
vii
viii Foreword to the Third Edition
and deep study has he rejected standard approaches and revealed that the
indications are not so foolish as our conventional treatments. With these
attributes, he is indeed a leader, and this brilliant book should lead us all
forward.
ix
x Foreword to the Second Edition
Anterior knee pain is one of the really big problems in my specialty, sports
orthopedic surgery, but also in all other types of orthopedic surgery. Many
years ago Sakkari Orava in Finland showed that among some 1311 Finnish
runners, anterior knee pain was the second most common complaint. In
young school girls around 15 years of age, anterior knee pain is a common
complaint. In ballet classes of the same age as much as 60–70% of the
students complain of anterior knee pain. It is therefore an excellent idea of
Dr. Sanchis-Alfonso to publish a book about anterior knee pain and patel-
lofemoral instability in the active young.
He has been able to gather a group of extremely talented experts to help
him write this book. I am particularly happy that he has devoted so much
space to the non-operative treatment of anterior knee pain. During my active
years as a knee surgeon, one of my worst problems was young girls referred
to me for surgery of anterior knee pain. Girls that already had had 8–12
surgeries for their knee problem–surgeries that had rendered them more and
more incapacitated after each operation. They now came to me for another
operation. In all these cases, I referred them to our pain clinic for careful
analysis, pain treatment followed by physical therapy. All recovered but had
been the victims of lots of unnecessary knee surgery before they came to me.
I am also happy that Suzanne Werner in her chapter refers to our study on
the personality of these anterior knee pain patients. She found that the
patients differ from a normal control group of the same age. I think this is
very important to keep in mind when you treat young patients with anterior
knee pain.
In my mind physical therapy should always be the first choice of treat-
ment. Not until this treatment has completely failed and a pain clinic rec-
ommends surgery, do I think surgery should be considered.
In patellofemoral instability the situation is different. When young patients
suffer from frank dislocations of the patella, surgery should be considered.
From my many years of treating this type of patients, I recommend that the
patients undergo an arthroscopy before any attempts to treat the instability
begins. The reason is that I have seen so many cases with normal X-rays that
have 10–15 loose bodies in their knees. If these pieces consist of just car-
tilage, they cannot be seen on X-ray. When a dislocated patella jumps back, it
often hits the lateral femoral condyle with considerable force. Small cartilage
pieces are blasted away as well from femur as from the patella. If they are
overlooked they will eventually lead to blockings of the knee in the future.
xi
xii Foreword to the First Edition
The role of the medial patellofemoral ligament can also not be over-
stressed. When I was taught to operate on these cases, this ligament was not
even known.
I also feel that when patellar instability is going to be operated on, it is
extremely important that the surgeon carefully controls in what direction the
instability takes place. All instability is not in lateral direction. Some patellae
have medial instability. If someone performs a routine lateral release in a case
of medial instability, he will end up having to repair the lateral retinaculum in
order to treat the medial dislocation that eventually occurs. Hughston and
also Teitge have warned against this in the past.
It is a pleasure for me to recommend this excellent textbook by
Dr. Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso.
xiii
xiv Preface
Part IV, new frontiers in anterior knee pain, patellar instability, and patel-
lofemoral osteoarthritis evaluation and treatment are analyzed.
The first objective I have laid out in this book is to highlight the soaring
incidence of this pathology and its impact on young people, athletes,
workers, and the economy. The second goal is to improve prevention and
diagnosis to reduce the economic and social costs of this condition. The final
objective is to improve health care for these patients.
“Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability” is addressed to orthopedic
surgeons (both general and those specialized in knee surgery), specialists in
sports medicine, rehabilitation specialist MDs, and physiotherapists.
Thus, we feel that this monograph will fill an important gap in the liter-
ature about the pathology of the extensor mechanism of the knee with this
approach. However, we do not intend to substitute any books on patellofe-
moral pathology but rather to complement them (“All in all, you’re just
another brick in the wall”, Pink Floyd, The Wall). Although the information
contained herein will evidently require future revision, it serves as an
authoritative reference on one of the most problematic entities in the
pathology of the knee at this time. We hope this book will be a reference in
the future from our youngest to our oldest colleagues. We trust that the reader
will find this book useful and, consequently, be indirectly valuable for
patients.
xvii
xviii Acknowledgments
person. Thank you, Maria Jose, for being the way you are, marvelous, keep it
up. I also want to commend my colleague at the Knee Unit of my hospital,
Alejandro Roselló-Añón. Undoubtedly, he has a bright future ahead of him.
All of you are, in part, responsible for this book.
My gratitude also goes out to my friends Jack Andrish, Roland Biedert,
Antonio Darder-Prats, David Dejour, Scott F. Dye, João Espregueira-Mendes,
Jack Farr, Christian Fink, Ronald Grelsamer, Laura López-Company, Luis
Martí-Bonmatí, Al Merchant, Joan Carles Monllau, James Selfe and to all the
members of the International Patellofemoral Study Group for their constant
encouragement and inspiration.
Furthermore, I have had the privilege and honor to count on the partici-
pation of outstanding specialists who have lent prestige to this monograph.
I thank all of them for their time, effort, dedication, kindness, as well as for
the excellent quality of their contributing chapters. They all have demon-
strated generosity in sharing their great clinical experience in a clear and
concise way. I am in debt to you all. Personally, and on behalf of those
patients who will undoubtedly benefit from this work, thank you.
My sincere gratitude to Eric L. Goode and Justyna Mazurek for their
inestimable collaboration.
Last but not least, I am extremely grateful to both Springer London and to
the production team for the confidence shown in this project and for com-
pleting this project with excellence from the time the cover is opened until
the final chapter is presented.
Spring 1993, photograph at the Albufera Natural Park (Valencia, Spain). Donald Fithian (right),
his wife M.E. (left), and the editor of this book, Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso (in the middle)
Acknowledgments xix
Mount Sinai Medical Center, New York City, NY, USA, 2009. Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
(right), Ronald Grelsamer (left), and John Fulkerson (in the middle)
xxi
xxii Contents
Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Contributors
xxvii
xxviii Contributors
That those who know her, know her less, the nearer her they get.
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson
2 The Problem. Anterior Knee that 40% of AKP patients had a less-than-
Pain—A Paradigm of Aversion favorable recovery at 12 months from the time
Towards a Diagnosis of diagnosis. AKP negatively influences the
quality of life of the patient in the same way as
Implicated factors in AKP include the loss of knee OA, another affection that is considered
homeostasis as well as functional, mechanical more serious. However, since AKP affects
and structural alterations (see chapters “Patho- younger populations, it can have a greater impact
physiology of Anterior Knee Pain”, “Femoral on their lives than knee OA [9]. The World
and Tibial Rotational Abnormalities are the Most Health Organization (WHO) defines disability as
Ignored Factors in the Diagnosis and Treatment “a limitation of function that compromises an
of Anterior Knee Pain Patients. A Critical Ana- individual’s ability to perform an activity within
lysis Review” and “Why is Torsion Important in the range considered normal”. Because AKP
the Genesis of Anterior Knee Pain?”). The eti- frequently occurs in young working adults, it has
ology of AKP is multifactorial with not only an important societal impact due to absenteeism
local (e.g., knee) factors but also proximal (e.g., from work and lowered productivity as well as
hip and trunk) and distal ones (e.g., foot and the economic expense of treating these patients
ankle). In fact, the primary cause of AKP in [10]. Moreover, people including friends and
many patients does not lie within the PFJ. There family might consider AKP patients to be
are several subgroups within the AKP popula- malingering, which only makes things worse.
tion. Therefore, the optimum treatment must be Furthermore, making this worse, we must
tailored to the individual patient (see chapter point out that it is a source of iatrogenic pathol-
“Targeted Treatment in Anterior Knee Pain ogy (e.g., medial patellar instability) [11]. We
Patients According to Subgroups Versus Multi- must be very cautious when recommending sur-
modal Treatment”). gical treatment for AKP patients (see chapter
Among all the subsets of patients with AKP, “The Failed Patella. What Can We Do?”). This
the most challenging type of AKP, from a ther- caution is particularly directed to those “well-
apeutic point of view, is neuropathic. Rathleff meaning trigger-happy orthopedic surgeons” (a
and colleagues [6] have shown that young female term coined by Scott F. Dye, MD) educated in a
adults with long-standing AKP demonstrated purely structural/biomechanical view of this
impaired conditioned pain modulation, meaning pathology. These surgeons base their surgical
that AKP might have important central compo- decisions solely on Computed tomography
nents that need to be further studied. (CT) or Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Another challenge we face is patellar findings. This approach is misguided. The
nomenclature. The study of the PFJ is compli- patient who began with just mild, intermittent
cated by the use of terms that have different symptoms may get even worse. We must note
meanings depending on who reads them (The that the vast majority of AKP patients only need
Tower of Babel) [7]. There are terms that must be non-operative treatment. The current best
clarified such as the terms patellar malalignment evidence-based non-surgical treatment for AKP
and skeletal malalignment of the lower limb. is multimodal therapy. The core components of
There are other terms that should be abandoned, this approach include a diverse mix of exercise
such as “chondromalacia patellae” and “patello- therapies (e.g., strengthening, stretching), patellar
femoral pain syndrome.” taping or bracing and foot orthoses depending on
AKP is a nemesis to both the patient and the the sub-group that the patient falls into. There is
treating physician, creating chronic disability, limited evidence supporting the long-term out-
limited participation in sports, diminished quality comes of any single approach. Over the years,
of life, psychological impairment, and the basis there have been many attempts to define sub-
for sick leave. Collins and colleagues [8] showed groups within the AKP population. Despite these
Patellofemoral Pain: An Overview 5
efforts, there is currently no consensus on what with the MRI or CT alone. This can be prob-
the optimal treatments are for the various sub- lematic when no adequate physical examination
groups. Nonetheless, there is emerging evidence has been performed. The malalignment theory,
that tailoring treatments to each subgroup can which is strongly supported by many orthopedic
improve the treatment outcomes when compared surgeons, has enormously damaged many AKP
to currently common multimodal approaches (see patients and has given this pathology a bad rep-
chapter “Targeted Treatment in Anterior Knee utation. Of course, a structural anomaly can be
Pain Patients According to Subgroups Versus responsible for AKP. For example, a rotational
Multimodal Treatment”). Finally, we are con- osteotomy ought to be considered for that AKP
vinced that the so-called biopsychosocial model patient with a significant torsional deformity
currently used in chronic lumbar pain will soon (transverse plane) of the limb (see chapters
be applied to AKP patients. According to this “Femoral and Tibial Rotational Abnormalities are
model, anatomic, biological and biomechanical the Most Ignored Factors in the Diagnosis and
factors as well as psychological and social factors Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain Patients.
must be considered (see chapter “Evaluation of A Critical Analysis Review”, “Why is Torsion
Psychological Factors Affecting Anterior Knee Important in the Genesis of Anterior Knee Pain?”,
Pain Patients: The Implications for Clinicians “Surgical Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain.
Who Treat These Patients”). Among all the When is Surgery Needed?” and “Rotational
psychological factors that have been analyzed in Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique, Out-
the AKP patient, the most relevant one is catas- comes and Complications”). We must note that
trophizing (exaggerated worrying), which relates this biomechanical approach is compatible with
to pain and disability (see chapter “Evaluation of the biological perspective (“Tissue Homeostasis
Psychological Factors Affecting Anterior Knee Theory”) (see chapter “Pathophysiology of
Pain Patients: The Implications for Clinicians Anterior Knee Pain”). We should not be dis-
Who Treat these Patients”). Consequently, cog- tracted by structural findings manifested on an
nitive behavioral interventions that have brought MRI—but neither should we ignore them. Van
on a reduction of catastrophizing pain in patients der Heijden and colleagues [12] have shown that
with arthritis or lumbar pain may also be helpful the structural abnormalities of the PFJ seen on
in patients suffering from AKP (see chapter MRIs are not automatically associated with
“Evaluation of Psychological Factors Affecting AKP. Thus, AKP patients often undergo treat-
Anterior Knee Pain Patients: The Implications ments with little scientific basis. A number of
for Clinicians Who Treat these Patients”). patients receive intra-articular injections of
Therefore, treatments for this should be incor- platelet-rich-plasma (PRP). A plethora of treat-
porated into conventional approaches. Of course, ment options with different levels of agreement
catastrophizing can come from repeated doctors’ have been described. The great number of vari-
failures to diagnose and treat (see chapter “Eva- ables associated with AKP, most of which lack
luation of Psychological Factors Affecting valid measurement tools, can explain this
Anterior Knee Pain Patients: The Implications confusion.
for Clinicians Who Treat these Patients”). All of this makes this pathology an urgent
Unfortunately, the criteria for proper treatment research priority. Moreover, this all explains why
of the AKP patient have largely been anecdotal. many orthopedic surgeons have an aversion to
More studies with a high level of evidence are treating AKP patients. Doctors do not want to
needed. These patients bring to the office “a bag spend the time evaluating these patients—it’s just
full of MRIs or CTs” in which the radiologist not cost-effective. They order an MRI and read
reports a patellar subluxation or a patellar tilt. As the report. Moreover, in some parts of the world,
a last resort, they have been advised to undergo radiologists do not appreciate patellar pathology
surgery to correct a supposed “lateral displace- unless it is extreme; therefore, orthopedists
ment of the patella” or the “lateral tilt” diagnosed relying completely on the MRI report also miss
6 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. P. Grelsamer
structural issues. Not uncommonly, AKP patients that it is not a self-limited condition. In other
are quickly shunted off to orthopedic surgeons words, early detection and treatment are advis-
with a particular interest in the topic. able. In addition, when possible it is essential to
implement prevention measures during adoles-
cence. This will help us prevent years of pain and
3 Patellofemoral Pain—A functional impairment as well as considerable
Pathologic Condition with Many health care expenditures. Given the importance
Clichés and False Beliefs we attach to prevention, we dedicate four chapters
in the first section of this book to this topic
There are many myths surrounding this condi- (chapters “Risk Factors for Patellofemoral Pain.
tion, false collective beliefs that are transmitted Prevention Programs”, “Anterior Knee Pain After
from generation to generation. One of these Arthroscopic Meniscectomy. Risk Factors, Pre-
myths is that the AKP patient is a person with vention and Treatment”, “Anterior Knee Pain
peculiar psychological traits that are responsible Prevalence After Anterior Cruciate Ligament
for the genesis of pain. This belief is reinforced Reconstruction. Risk Factors and Prevention” and
by the fact that many patients have very disabling “Patellar Tendinopathy. Risk Factors, Prevention,
pain but insignificant radiological findings and and Treatment”). Furthermore, AKP in an ado-
unremarkable physical signs. The psychological lescent has a high potential for becoming chronic.
explanation as the cause of pain could not be Between 70 and 90% of individuals with AKP
further from the truth. Psychological factors in have recurrent or chronic pain [14]. Conchie and
AKP patients are only modulators of pain and colleagues [15] brought into question the tradi-
disability and should be addressed in combina- tional belief that AKP in adolescence is a benign
tion with the search for structural causes (see pathology by showing that it is associated with
chapter “Evaluation of Psychological Factors patellofemoral osteoarthritis (PFOA) in adult-
Affecting Anterior Knee Pain Patients: The hood. An individual is 7.5 times more likely to
Implications for Clinicians Who Treat these develop PFOA if they have suffered from ado-
Patients”). lescent AKP. The results of this study are perhaps
Another misconception is that AKP is always debatable, as it was a retrospective study rather
a self-limiting and benign condition, which is than a longitudinal one. Moreover, the follow-up
why some physicians believe that an active time for a longitudinal study of this type should
treatment is unnecessary. It is frequently said to be 50 years and this is impossible. Furthermore,
that AKP is related to growth. Therefore, symp- the diagnosis of AKP was based on mailed
toms will disappear once the patient reaches questionnaires with all their limitations. The
adulthood. For this reason, some physicians rec- paper by Conchie and colleagues [15] neverthe-
ommend “expectation”. That approach is a great less questions the traditional belief that adolescent
mistake. Collins and colleagues [8] have shown AKP is a benign pathology. Thus, AKP and
that success in treating the AKP patient depends PFOA may form a continuum of disease. Sadly,
on how early the treatment starts. Patients with many orthopedic surgeons do not focus enough
pain of less than 2 months duration have a better attention on this pathology, which reflects their
prognosis than those who have had pain for more limited understanding.
than 2 months. Rathleff and colleagues [13] have A very common symptom of great concern to
shown that AKP is not a self-limiting knee con- AKP patients is patellofemoral crepitation (a.k.a.
dition. Those authors observed that adolescents crepitus). Johnson and colleagues [16] published
with PFP were more likely to reduce or stop a paper in Arthroscopy in 1998 on the assess-
participation in sports compared to adolescents ment of asymptomatic knees. Indeed, patellofe-
with other types of knee pain. They also found moral crepitation has a high incidence rate in
that a majority of their AKP patients had been asymptomatic women (94% in females vs. 45%
symptomatic for more than two years, suggesting in males). Patellofemoral crepitation has been
Patellofemoral Pain: An Overview 7
associated with the lateral subluxation of the Classification of Diseases and Related Health
patella. However, Johnson and colleagues [16] Problems (ICD-10, Version 2019)”, its code
have observed that lateral subluxation of the M23.9 [19]. The expression “internal derange-
patella (radiographic finding) in asymptomatic ment of the knee” was coined in 1784 by the
people is more common in males than in females British surgeon from Leeds, William Hey [20].
(35% and 19%, respectively). It leads some to This term was later discredited by the German
think that crepitus is not of major importance. school surgeon Konrad Büdinger, Dr Billroth’s
We currently know that this is not the case. assistant in Vienna. It was he who described
Crepitus is an important symptom: Women with fissuring and degeneration of the patellar articu-
AKP and pain-free controls with knee crepitus lar cartilage of spontaneous origin in 1906 and
had lower functional performance compared to similar lesions of traumatic origin in another
pain-free controls without knee crepitus. This is paper in 1908 [21, 22]. Büdinger considered that
an indication that both pain and crepitus may the expression “internal derangement of the
negatively influence function [17]. Crepitus is a knee” was a “wastebasket” term. He was right
poorly understood sign and symptom that creates since the expression lacks any etiological, ther-
negative emotions (no one likes a noisy joint), apeutic or prognostic significance.
inaccurate etiological theories, and ultimately Until the end of the 1960s, AKP was attributed
leads to fear-avoidance behaviors (see chapter to chondromalacia patellae. However, not all the
“Evaluation of Psychological Factors Affecting patients with AKP suffer from “chondromalacia
Anterior Knee Pain Patients: The Implications patellae”, and at the same time many patients with
for Clinicians Who Treat these Patients”) [18]. “chondromalacia patellae” do not have AKP. In
1978, Leslie and Bentley [23] reported that only
51% of patients with a clinical diagnosis of
4 Chondromalacia Patellae. “chondromalacia” had changes on the patellar
A Symbol of Our Helplessness surface when examined by means of arthroscopy.
in Regards to a Diagnosis In 1991, Royle and colleagues [24] published a
and Our Ignorance on AKP study in Arthroscopy, with special reference
made to the PFJ, in which they analysed 500
Proof that AKP is not well understood is that an arthroscopies performed over a 2- period. In those
obsolete diagnosis like chondromalacia is still patients with pain thought to have its origin in this
used by many doctors and physical therapists joint, 63% had “chondromalacia patellae” com-
today for any pain in the anterior aspect of the pared with a 45% incidence in those with
knee. More than a century (116 years) has passed meniscal pathological findings at arthroscopy.
since the term chondromalacia was coined, and They concluded that AKP patients do not always
this term is still used by clinicians, by the staff in have patellar articular changes, and patellar
charge of codifying the different pathologies for pathology is often asymptomatic. Consistent with
our hospital databases, as well as on private this, Scott F. Dye did not feel any pain during
health insurers’ lists of covered services. The arthroscopic palpation of his extensive lesion of
term “Chondromalacia Patellae” continues in use the patellar cartilage without intraarticular anes-
in the “International Statistical Classification of thesia [25]. In this regard, it should be remem-
Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10, bered that the articular cartilage is devoid of nerve
Version 2019)”, its code being M22.4 (Table 1) fibres and, therefore, cannot cause pain. Van der
[19]. Heijden and colleagues [26] have not detected
AKP has historically been associated with the any differences in the composition of the patel-
terms “internal derangement of the knee” and lofemoral cartilage between AKP patients and
“chondromalacia patellae”. Surprisingly, the healthy controls. Moreover, even patients with
term “internal derangement of the knee” also severe patellofemoral chondropathy may not
continues in use in the “International Statistical suffer from AKP (Fig. 1).
8 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. P. Grelsamer
A B
Fig. 1 The intensity of preoperative pain is not related to (A). Chondral lesion of the patella with fragmentation and
the severity or the extension of the chondral lesion found fissuring of the cartilage in a patient with AKP (B).
during surgery. The most serious cases of chondromalacia (Reprinted by permission from Springer Nature, Anterior
arise in patients with a recurrent patellar dislocation who Knee Pain and Patellar Instability by Vicente Sanchis-
feel little or no pain between their dislocation episodes Alfonso, 2011)
Fig. 2 CT at 0º of a patient with AKP and functional symmetric in both knees. (Reprinted by permission from
patellofemoral instability in the right knee. However, the Springer Nature, Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Insta-
left knee was completely asymptomatic. The PM was bility by Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso, 2011)
10 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. P. Grelsamer
Fig. 4 John Fulkerson (left) and Alan C Merchant (right), IPSG Meeting, Boston, MA, USA, 2006
Patellofemoral Pain: An Overview 11
sequencing of motor units, spinal reflex mecha- informally to take stock of their patellofemoral
nisms, and muscle strength and motor control); opinions. Dr. Fulkerson served as the first sec-
(3) physiological factors (the genetically deter- retary and organizer of the study group and set
mined mechanisms of molecular and cellular up an initial meeting in Orlando, Florida on
homeostasis that determine the quality and rate of February 17, 1995. Thus was born the Interna-
repair of damaged tissues); and (4) treatment tional Patellofemoral Study Group (IPSG). The
factors (type of rehabilitation or surgery second meeting of the IPSG was held near
received). Dupont’s home in beautiful Benodet in Brittany
According to Dye, the loss of both osseous and (France) in the fall of 1995 (Fig. 8). Each par-
soft tissue homeostasis is more important in the ticipant was encouraged to speak on a patello-
genesis of AKP than structural characteristics. To femoral topic of his choice, and the group was
him, it matters little which specific structural encouraged to discuss, debate, and critique.
factors may be present (i.e., patellar cartilage Around this time, Joan and Al Merchant
lesions, PM, etc.) if the joint is being loaded designed the logo for the IPSG. Patellofemoral
within its Envelope of Function and is therefore pain is of such complexity that even within this
asymptomatic. He suggests that patients with group there are opposing approaches and theories
AKP are often symptomatic due to supra- with surgeons, therapists and engineers often
physiological loading of anatomically normal holding dogmatic positions. Perhaps less dog-
knee components [47]. In fact, AKP patients matic over time.
often lack an easily identifiable structural abnor- Moreover, in 2003, John Fulkerson created
mality to account for the symptoms. The Envel- with the help of Eric Dahlinger, Dr. Peter Jokl,
ope of Function frequently diminishes after an and tennis legend Ivan Lendl, the Patellofemoral
episode of injury to the point where previously Foundation (www.patellofemoral.org). to stimu-
well-tolerated activities of daily living (e.g., stair late research efforts, education, and fundraising.
climbing, sitting down in and arising out of The Patellofemoral Foundation sponsors the
chairs, pushing the clutch of a car) become supra- “Patellofemoral Research Excellence Award” to
physiological loads for that patient, leading to encourage outstanding PF research. Moreover,
ineffective tissue healing and continued symp- this foundation sponsors the “Patellofemoral
toms. Bringing loads down within the newly Traveling Fellowship” to stimulate global patel-
diminished Envelope of Function allows for the lofemoral communication. Finally, the Patello-
normal tissue healing processes to go forward. femoral Foundation awards the “Patellofemoral
Lifetime Achievement Award” every year in
recognition of those surgeons who have dedi-
7 Creation of Study Groups: cated their career to the understanding and
An Inflection Point treatment of patients with patellofemoral disor-
in the Knowledge ders along with organizing the “Comprehensive
of Patellofemoral Pain Patellofemoral Online Education Course.”
In 2009, the International Patellofemoral
We are therefore faced with a very prevalent Research Network (iPFRN), a group of
symptom with multiple possible etiologies. This researchers and clinicians with a specific interest
is fertile ground for a study group. in patellofemoral pain, was founded. The iPFRN
In 1994, Jean Yves Dupont from France, was established by five global leaders in patel-
travelled to Farmington, Connecticut in the USA lofemoral pain research. They are Irene Davis,
to visit John Fulkerson. They decided to gather Chris Powers, Kay Crossley, Jenny McConnell
“a group of friends” from different countries with and Erik Witvrouw. This group has published 7
a proven interest in the academic study of consensus statements in high impact journals
patellofemoral problems. They would meet since 2009 [1, 14, 48–52].
14 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. P. Grelsamer
Fig. 8 IPSG Meeting, Benodet, France, Fall 1995. (Courtesy of Ronald P. Grelsamer, MD)
kinematics of the PFJ. In addition, normalizing 2. Crossley KM, Callaghan MJ, van Linschoten R.
femoral rotation can affect the tension of peri- Patellofemoral pain. Br J Sports Med. 2016;50
(4):247–50.
patellar soft structures, including the lateral reti- 3. Smith BE, Selfe J, Thacker D, et al. Incidence and
naculum, and can also affect patellofemoral prevalence of patellofemoral pain: a systematic
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of the patella (i.e., lateral PFJ during internal incidence of low back pain among runners: a
rotation of the femur and vice versa). Using a systematic review. BMC Musculoskelet Disord.
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5. Wallace IJ, Worthington S, Felson DT, et al. Knee
have demonstrated that internal rotation of the osteoarthritis has doubled in prevalence since the
femur provokes an increment in PFJ stress. mid-20th century. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA.
We are thus facing a paradigm shift. It has 2017;114(35):9332–6.
been shown that excessive internal rotation of the 6. Rathleff MS, Petersen KK, Arendt-Nielsen L, et al.
Impaired conditioned pain modulation in young
femur can cause (1) a decrease in the patellofe- female adults with long-standing patellofemoral pain:
moral contact area and therefore an increase in a single blinded cross-sectional study. Pain Med.
patellofemoral pressure and (2) tightness of the 2016;17(5):980–8.
lateral retinaculum. Thus, a new concept was 7. Grelsamer RP. Patellar nomenclature. The tower of
babel revisited. Clin Orthop. 2005;436:60–65.
born: the “proximal control” concept that is 8. Collins NJ, Bierma-Zeinstra SM, Crossley KM, et al.
currently fundamental to understanding the Prognostic factors for patellofemoral pain: a multi-
physiotherapeutic treatment of an important centre observational analysis. Br J Sports Med.
2013;47(4):227–33.
subgroup of AKP patients. Therefore, a treatment
9. Reijnders L, van de Groes SA. The quality of life of
that addresses the control of femoral motion may patients with patellofemoral pain—a systematic
play a crucial role in the treatment of some AKP review. Acta Orthop Belg. 2020;86(4):678–87.
patients. This way of thinking is diametrically 10. Tan SS, van Linschoten RL, van Middelkoop M,
et al. Cost-utility of exercise therapy in adolescents
opposed to the one that had been maintained
and young adults suffering from the patellofemoral
until this moment, which was to consider patella pain syndrome. Scand J Med Sci Sports.
tracking as the relative motion of the patella on a 2010;20:568–79.
fixed femur. 11. Sanchis-Alfonso V, Merchant AC. Iatrogenic medial
patellar instability: an avoidable injury. Arthroscopy.
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12. van der Heijden RA, de Kanter JL, Bierma-Zeinstra
9 Take Home Message SM, et al. Structural abnormalities on magnetic
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To summarize, the high incidence and prevalence
Sports Med. 2016. pii: 0363546516646107.
of AKP along with its high associated disability, 13. Rathleff MS, Rathleff CR, Olesen JL, et al. Is knee
its high potential for becoming chronic, and its pain during adolescence a self-limiting condition?
association with PFOA in adulthood makes PFP Prognosis of patellofemoral pain and other types of
knee pain. Am J Sports Med. 2016;44(5):1165–71.
an urgent research priority.
14. Powers CM, Bolgla LA, Callaghan MJ, et al.
Patellofemoral pain: proximal, distal, and local
factors, 2nd International Research Retreat.
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Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee
Pain
Fig. 1 Disabling AKP and patellar instability of the left (A-Reused with permission from Thieme. From: Sanchis-
knee. The right knee was asymptomatic in spite of the fact Alfonso V. American Journal of Knee Surgery. Volume
that PM was symmetric in both knees. A Preop CT at 0°, 7, Issue 2. Usefulness of computed tomography in
B Postop CT at 6 months of proximal realignment evaluating the patellofemoral joint before and after
surgery, C CT of the right knee, D CT of the left knee Insall’s realignment. Thieme: New York. 1994, www.
at 13 years of follow-up—the patient is completely thieme.com)
asymptomatic in spite of the presence of a visible PM.
planes [9]. Therefore, a radiographical PM may In the 1990s, Scott F. Dye and his research
not be real, and realignment surgery to correct group at the University of California, San Fran-
the nonexistent problem could lead to a wors- cisco, proposed the tissue homeostasis theory
ening of preoperative symptoms. [14, 15]. According to this theory, joints are not
At the end of 1970s, skeletal malalignment simply mechanical structures; they are systems
of the limb was suggested as the genesis of AKP that are alive and metabolically active [14]. Pain
in some cases [10]. Skeletal malalignment, which arises from a physiopathological mosaic of cau-
is not the same as PM, is the malalignment of the ses, including increased osseous remodeling,
limb measured in the transverse, coronal, and increased intraosseous pressure, or peripatellar
sagittal planes. The presence of excessive synovitis leading to a reduced “envelope of
femoral anteversion, excessive external tibial function” (or “envelope of load acceptance”)
torsion, or increased varus or valgus abnormali- (Fig. 2) [2, 14, 15]. This envelope of function is
ties has a definite effect on the PFJ [11]. James in defined by the range of loading and energy
1979 presented a comprehensive review of AKP absorption that coexists with normal tissue
in which he described the condition of “miser- healing and maintenance (i.e., tissue homeosta-
able malalignment”, that is, increased femoral sis). According to Dye, in the vast majority of
anteversion and increased external tibial torsion AKP cases, the loss of homeostasis of both oss-
[10]. In 1995 he reported on seven patients with eous (Fig. 3) and soft tissue in the peripatellar
miserable malalignment who had been treated region is more important than biomechanical/
with internal rotational tibial osteotomy during structural issues in the genesis of AKP. He sug-
an 18-year period [12]. Several years earlier, gests that AKP patients are often symptomatic
Cooke and colleagues [13] described internal because of supraphysiologic loading of anatom-
rotational proximal tibial osteotomy in seven ically normal knee components [2, 14, 15]. In
patients presenting with AKP and drew attention fact, patients with AKP often lack an easily
to the inwardly pointing knee as an unrecognized identifiable structural abnormality to account for
cause of AKP. Unlike the concept of PM, how- their symptoms. According to Dye’s theory of
ever, the concept of skeletal malalignment was envelope of load acceptance, overuse or cyclical
almost unnoticed and has had very low influence overload of soft tissue or bone areas may explain
on orthopedic surgeons. In fact, very few publi- AKP in many patients. However, it should be
cations refer to skeletal malalignment as a cause noted that this biological perspective is compat-
of AKP. ible with the biomechanical approach. The
Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee Pain 21
Fig. 2 The envelope of function theory. (Reused with permission from SAGE. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, Dye SF.
“How to Deal with Anterior Knee Pain in the Active Young Patient” Sports Health. 2017; 9(4):346–351)
colleagues [19] retrospectively evaluated 40 unilateral pain, but we did not find a relationship
Insall’s proximal realignments (IPRs) performed between the lateral dominance and the affected
on 29 patients, with an average postsurgical side in cases with unilateral pain [21]. Further, in
follow-up of 8 years (range: 5–13 years). One of six patients with bilateral symptoms who
the objectives of this study was to analyze received surgery on the knee with the most
whether a relationship existed between the pres- severe symptoms, the contralateral knee was
ence of PM and that of AKP. In this study, IPR pain-free at follow-up. Therefore, if the presence
was found to provide a satisfactory centralization of PM is crucial in the genesis of AKP, why do
of the patella into the femoral trochlea in the symptoms disappear without any change in the
short-term follow-up and the surgery was asso- patellofemoral alignment? Loss of both tissue
ciated with resolution of AKP [19, 20]. This and bone homeostasis may be more important
outcome appears to support the PM theory; than structural characteristics in the genesis of
however, the success of realignment surgery may AKP.
have been due to factors independent of the rel- Viewing AKP as being necessarily tied to PM
ative patellofemoral position, such as denerva- is an oversimplification that has impeded pro-
tion of the patella, extensive postoperative rest gress toward better diagnosis and treatment. The
(unload), and postoperative physical therapy. great danger in using PM as a diagnosis is that
Unfortunately, the satisfactory centralization of the unsophisticated or unwary orthopedic sur-
the patella observed at the short-term follow-up geon may think that he or she can correct it with
was lost by the long-term follow-up in almost surgical procedures. Pursuing this misguided
57% of the cases, based on CT scans [19]. That path very often makes the patients’ pain worse.
is, IPR did not provide a permanent correction of The worst cases of AKP, at least in my series (V.
patellofemoral congruence in all cases. S-A), occur in patients that have had multiple
Nonetheless, this loss of centralization did not PM-oriented operative procedures for symptoms
correlate with a worsening of clinical results. In that initially were only mild and intermittent. We
short, a relation between the result (satisfactory have observed that not all patellofemoral mala-
versus non-satisfactory) and the presence or ligned knees show symptoms, which is not sur-
absence of postoperative PM was not found in prising, because asymptomatic anatomic
the long term [19]. variations are not uncommon. Moreover, we
Out of 29 patients in the study, 12 presented have demonstrated that PM is not a sufficient
with unilateral symptoms. In nine of these condition for the onset of symptoms, given that
patients, the contralateral asymptomatic knee many patients with AKP do not have PM. We
presented a PM, and there was a satisfactory can conclude that the pain does not arise from the
centralization of the patella into the femoral tro- PM. That is, pain does not arise from the mal-
chlea in only three cases [19]. If the presence of position of the patella on the trochlea. Thus, no
PM is crucial in the genesis of AKP, how can we imaging study should give us an indication for
account for unilateral symptoms in patients with surgery. PM diagnosed with plain x-ray, CT or
similar morphologic characteristics between both MRI is only an instant in time and does not
patellofemoral joints? With regard to unilateral describe the dynamics of motion. Moreover, we
pain in the presence of bilateral PM, patients are do not have adequate proof of the definition of
known to preferentially load one limb more than normal alignment. History, physical exam, and
the other (usually the dominant limb) in highly differential injection must point towards surgery,
demanding activities, such as sports. This load- with imaging only being used to confirm clinical
ing difference could be enough to cause impression.
Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee Pain 23
into consideration, which represents another asymptomatic. Moreover, the lack of symptoms
weak point in the PM theory. on one side may be relative. In some cases,
Limb alignment appears to very strongly patients have asked for surgery on the asymp-
influence the quadriceps vector [33, 34]. An tomatic side after the symptomatic side has been
abnormal quadriceps vector is an important corrected because “they never knew what it was
contributor to AKP, and abnormal limb align- like to feel normal”.
ment is the underlying cause of the incorrect In short, according to Robert A. Teitge, it is
quadriceps vector [33, 34]. The direction of the the excess of force in the PFJ that exceeds tissue
quadriceps vector is likely more important than homeostasis which is responsible for
its magnitude [33, 34]. It should be noted that AKP. However, the problem is not a question of
skeletal malalignment is not an abnormal Q- leaving the load acceptance envelope, but rather
angle or an increased TT-TG distance, nor is it an knowing what the envelope size limits are and
increased tilt or increased shift of the patella. It why the excess force is excessive. If this is true,
instead involves the alignment of the limb in all then the problem in diagnosing AKP is deter-
three spatial planes—coronal, sagittal, and mining the source of the excess force. Robert A.
transverse. During a normal gait, the knee joint Teitge puts forward a simile to understand the
axis moves straight forward with minimal etiopathogenesis of AKP. To build a bridge, one
amounts of internal or external rotation, and the must be knowledgeable of several factors. They
quadriceps force is directed posteriorly, com- include: (a) the required load limit, meaning the
pressing the patella into the trochlea. With envelope; (b) the design of the bridge parts,
abnormal limb torsion, the knee joint axis often which is the skeletal alignment; and (c) what
moves forward in a manner that is oblique to the materials the bridge is made of, connoting the
direction of motion. Such movement generates response of those materials to the load. In the
abnormal shear forces between the patella and following sections, we will look at the biological
the femur that will eventually cause tissue failure. response to a mechanical stimulus. The question
If the force is not perfectly aligned, it can lead to we must ask ourselves is whether it is possible
an unbalanced distortion of the soft tissues sur- that all the neuroanatomical factors that we are
rounding the patella. It is very likely that one of going to discuss below are secondary to an
the sources of AKP is in the peripatellar soft excess of force. In other words, is the excess
tissues due to the stress that the soft tissues force the precipitating event? We do not have an
undergo. However, we do not know the strain answer to these questions.
levels that must be reached to trigger the pain.
Some patients with torsional deformities have
unilateral AKP, despite the deformity being 5 Neuroanatomical Bases for AKP
symmetric. Why one side is symptomatic and the in the Young Patient: Neural
other is not remains an enigma. It is probable that Model
most people limit their activity to avoid overuse
or injury to the PFJ and thus AKP. Many of these Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues have developed
patients are symptomatic only when they attempt the neural model as an explanation for the gen-
an activity that causes increased loading; there- esis of AKP in young patients [36]. The origin of
fore, many select their activities based on what is AKP can be in the lateral retinaculum (LR),
comfortable. Once an injury (soft tissue lesion) medial retinaculum, infrapatellar fat pad, syn-
or overuse (soft tissue strain) develops, quick ovium, or subchondral bone [37–39]. Studies by
recovery does not occur because of the under- Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues on AKP patho-
lying mechanical inefficiency. This situation may physiology have mainly focused on the LR
explain why disabling pain may occur on one retrieved during patellofemoral realignment sur-
side, while the opposite side remains gery in patients with a diagnosis of PM [40–43].
Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee Pain 25
5.1 Morphologic Neural Changes myxoid degeneration and pain has not been
in the Lateral Retinaculum found [43].
Nerve damage occurs diffusely in the affected
Some studies have implicated neural damage in LR, and one must therefore consider the possi-
the LR as a possible source of AKP in the young bility of multiple neurologic sequelae in the
patient. In 1985, Fulkerson and colleagues peripatellar region. A possible consequence of
described for the first time, nerve damage (de- such damage could be an altered proprioceptive
myelination and fibrosis) in the LR of patients innervation [43]. For example, Baker and col-
with intractable patellofemoral pain requiring leagues observed an abnormal sense of the knee
lateral retinacular release or realignment of the joint position (proprioception) in subjects with
PFJ [44]. The changes in the retinacular nerves AKP [46]. Current research shows the impor-
observed by these authors resembled the tance of proprioceptive information from joint
histopathologic picture of Morton's interdigital mechanoreceptors for proper knee function.
neuroma. Later, in 1991, Mori and colleagues Connective tissues, in addition to their mechan-
found degenerative neuropathy in the LR in AKP ical function, play an important role in trans-
patients [45]. mitting specific somatosensory afferent signals to
Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues have also the spinal and cerebral regulatory systems. Thus,
observed nonspecific, chronic degenerative the giving-way in AKP patients can be
changes in nerve fibers, including myxoid explained, at least in part, by the alteration or loss
degeneration of the endoneurium, retraction of of joint afferent information with regard to pro-
the axonal component, and perineural fibrosis, in prioception due to nerve damage in the ascendant
the LR in many cases (Fig. 4A) [42, 43]. More- proprioception pathway or a decrease of healthy
over, Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues have found nerve fibers capable of transmitting propriocep-
that a smaller group of specimens presented tory stimuli. It seems likely that, to a certain
nerve fibers mimicking amputation neuromas degree, the instability of the PFJ in patients with
seen elsewhere in the body (Fig. 4B) [42, 43]. AKP arises not only from mechanical factors but
A clear relationship has been demonstrated also neural factors [47, 48]. Such factors center
between the presence of neuromas and AKP; on a proprioceptive deficit both in the sense of
however, a similar relationship between neural position and in the slowing or diminution of
Fig. 4 A Myxoid degeneration in the nerve fibers. No the lateral retinaculum in patients with isolated symp-
inflammatory cells are seen, B Microneuroma next to a tomatic patellofemoral malalignment” Am J Sports Med.
rich vascular area (HE). (B-Reused with permission from 1998; 26:703–709)
SAGE. From: “Quantitative analysis of nerve changes in
26 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
stabilizing and protective reflexes. In addition, unmyelinated nerve fibers with a predominant
Jensen and colleagues reported abnormal sensory nociceptive component (Fig. 5) [40].
function in the painful and nonpainful knee in The nociceptive properties of at least some of
some subjects with long-term unilateral AKP these nerves were shown by their substance P
[49]. (SP) immunoreactivity (Fig. 6) [40]. SP, which is
found in primary sensory neurons and C fibers
(slow-chronic pain pathway), is involved in the
5.2 Hyperinnervation into the Lateral neurotransmission pathways of nociceptive sig-
Retinaculum and AKP nals [50–62]. SP was detected in the axons of big
nerve fibers, in free nerve endings, and in the
Several studies have implicated hyperinnervation vessel walls in some patients with pain as the
of the LR as a possible source of AKP in the predominant symptom [40]. Nociceptive fibers
young patient, with higher innervation in those (i.e., neural fibers with intraaxonal SP) were
with severe pain compared with those with fewer in number than NF fibers, indicating that
moderate or mild pain [43]. Moreover, the LR of not all the tiny perivascular or interstitial nerves
patients with pain as the predominant symptom were nociceptive [40]. Interestingly, the finding
has been shown to have a higher innervation that SP fibers are more abundant in the LR than
pattern than the medial retinaculum or the LR of in its medial counterpart reinforces the role of the
patients with patellar instability [43]. This nerve LR as the main source of pain in some AKP
ingrowth consisted of myelinated and patients. Moreover, the number of these
Fig. 7 Lateral retinaculum vessels are richly innervated From: “Quantitative analysis of nerve changes in the
in some of our patients. The myelinated innervation enters lateral retinaculum in patients with isolated symptomatic
the muscular wall from the adventitial tissue, forming a patellofemoral malalignment” Am J Sports Med. 1998;
necklace. (S-100). (Reused with permission from SAGE. 26:703–709)
Fig. 8 Immunoblotting
detection of NGF showing a
thicker band in cases with
AKP (4,5,6,7) compared with
cases of instability without
pain (1,2,3)
In short, in symptomatic PM patients with Consequently, there must be some factors acting
pain as the main symptom, there are detectable on a PM that make the patient has pain or
levels of NGF that cause hyperinnervation and instability as the main symptom. PM may in fact
stimulate SP release, whereas in patients with not have anything to do with the presence of
instability as the predominant symptom, there are pain. In other words, symptoms appear to be
lower levels of local NGF release, less neural related to multiple factors with variable clinical
proliferation, and less nociceptive stimulus [41]. expression, and our imperfect understanding of
Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee Pain 29
these factors may explain the all-too-frequent related with anoxia (degenerated fibroblasts with
failure to achieve adequate symptom relief with autophagic intracytoplasmic vacuoles, endothe-
the use of realignment procedures. The question lial cells with reduplication of the basal lamina,
is, what are the mechanisms that stimulate NGF young vessels with endothelial cells containing
release in these patients? We hypothesize that active nuclei and conspicuous nucleoli, and
periodic short episodes of ischemia could be the neural sprouting) (Fig. 9) [75].
primary mechanism of NGF release and hyper- Another phenomenon related to ischemia is
innervation, and therefore could be implicated in angiogenesis. Chronic ischemia leads to release
pain, at least in a subgroup of AKP patients. of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), a
potent hypoxia-inducible angiogenic factor that
causes hypervascularization [76]. This hyper-
5.3 Role of Ischemia in the Genesis vascularization creates blood vessels to supply
of AKP: Loss of Vascular the nutrient needs of the tissue. Sanchis-Alfonso
Homeostasis and colleagues have performed a quantitative
analysis of vascularization in the LR excised
Despite numerous publications on AKP, the during surgical patellofemoral realignments,
mechanism underlying the pain is controversial. using a pan-vascular marker, anti-Factor VIII-
The loss of vascular homeostasis has been pro- related antigen [42]. They have found an increase
posed as an intrinsic pain mechanism in a sub- in the number of blood vessels in the LR of
group of AKP patients. patients with painful PM, with the severe pain
group having greater numbers compared with
5.3.1 Basic Science those of moderate or mild pain group [42].
According to some authors, ischemia can induce Moreover, as expected, they found a positive
NGF synthesis [70–72]. Moreover, NGF has linear correlation between the number of blood
been shown to stimulate neural sprouting and vessels and number of nerves [42]. Tissular
hasten neural proliferation in blood vessel walls ischemia induces VEGF release by fibroblasts,
[73, 74], which is the same pattern of hyperin- synovial cells, mast cells, or even endothelial
nervation that is seen in the LR of some AKP cells [77–80]. Based on these principles,
patients [40, 42, 43]. Similar changes have been Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues performed a
studied in animal models and are present in the study of VEGF expression in the LR of patients
coronary innervation of patients with myocardial with PM, using immunohistochemistry and
infarcts and brain ischemia [71, 72, 74]. Thus, immunoblot analysis [42]. VEGF release begins
short episodes of tissular ischemia due to vas- 8 h after hypoxia, and the peptide disappears in
cular torsion or vascular bending have been 24 h if the ischemic crisis has ended [42].
hypothesized as the main problem in painful Therefore, VEGF positivity reflects the presence
patellofemoral imbalance [40, 42]. Vascular of an ischemic process, or better said, 8–24 h has
bending could be induced mechanically by elapsed since the onset of the transitory ischemic
medial traction over the retracted LR with knee episode. However, given that the average dura-
flexion [38]. tion of VEGF is very short, its absence has no
Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues have significance regarding whether a transitory
demonstrated histologic retinacular changes ischemic process is occurring. Although this
associated with hypoxia in painful PM [42]. process has been well documented in joints
They have found lesions that can lead to tissular affected by rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis
anoxia, such as arterial vessels with obliterated [79–81], it has never been documented in AKP
lumina and thick muscular walls, and other until the study by Sanchis-Alfonso and col-
lesions that can arise from ischemia, such as leagues [42]. They have shown VEGF produc-
infarcted foci of the connective tissue, myxoid tion in stromal fibroblasts, vessel walls, certain
stromal degeneration, and ultrastructural findings endothelial cells, and even nerve fibers, including
30 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B
C D
E F G
Fig. 9 A Arterial vessel in the retinacular tissue can show degeneration in the middle of the fibrous retinacular
a prominent and irregular endothelium and thick muscular tissue (Hematoxylin–Eosin stain). D Degenerative
walls or even an irregular reduction of the vascular lumen. changes in fibroblasts (increased autophagic vacuoles—
(Hematoxylin–Eosin stain). B Infarcted foci in the asterisk–) secondary to hypoxia (TEM). E Young vessels
connective tissue showing a degenerative pattern of the with endothelial cells containing active nuclei and con-
collagen fibers, with loss of the fibrillar component and spicuous nucleoli. F Neural sprouting is detected ultra-
accumulation of myxoid material in the interstitium, structurally as a bunch of tiny axons immersed in the
(Masson’s Trichrome stain). C Myxoid stromal Schwann cell cytoplasm. G Neural sprouting detail
similar levels in axons as in perineurium pain than in those with mild to moderate pain; the
(Fig. 10) [42]. Their immunohistochemical find- protein was barely detectable in two cases with
ings were confirmed by immunoblot analysis. mild pain (Fig. 11) [42]. VEGF expression is
VEGF levels were higher in patients with severe absent in normal joints, although inflammatory
Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee Pain 31
Fig. 10 A VEGF, the factor promoting vascular proliferation, is present in smalls vessels (wall and endothelium) and
in perivascular fibroblasts. B Some cases have VEGF expression in the perineural shift and inside the axons (VEGF)
blood flow in the patellar bone) is involved in the As we will see in chapter “Evaluation of
pathogenesis of AKP [88]. Moreover, in half of Psychological Factors Affecting Anterior Knee
the AKP studied patients, Naslund observed Pain Patients: The Implications for Clinicians
accelerated bone remodeling in bony compart- Who Treat these Patients”, AKP patients have a
ments of the knee joint, which may have been due high incidence of anxiety, depression, kinesio-
to a dysfunctioning sympathetic nervous system phobia (the belief that movement will create
and caused intermittent ischemia and pain. Selfe additional injury or re-injury and pain) and
and colleagues [85] classified AKP patients into catastrophizing (the belief that pain will worsen,
three groups: hypoxic, inflammatory, and and one is helpless to deal with it) [93–95].
mechanical. However, ischemia may be the pain- Psychological factors play an important role as
provoking factor in all three groups, given that pain modulators. Even in cases with clear struc-
inflammatory changes can develop not only after tural findings that justify pain, psychological
ischemia but also after mechanical damage to the factors influence and modify pain sensation as
vascular system. Ischemia could be caused by well as subsequent impairment. Therefore, they
higher intraosseous pressure, redundant axial can be barriers to recovery after the appropriate
loading, or decreased arterial blood flow. surgical treatment. Catastrophizing is not only
responsible for the chronification of pain due to a
psychological mechanism but may also influence
6 The Role of the Peripheral the neurophysiology of pain modulation. In a
and/or Central Nervous System functional MRI study of patients with chronic
in the Pathophysiology of pain, Gracely and colleagues [96] showed that
AKP—“Central catastrophizing ideas were associated with a
Sensitization”—“The higher degree of brain activity not only in the
Neuromatrix Model” pain regions but also in the cortical regions
associated with attention, anticipation of pain and
AKP is a paradigm of chronic pain. Chronic pain is emotional aspects of pain. Catastrophizing may
a multidimensional phenomenon composed of play a role as a facilitator of the pain perception
sensitive, cognitive-evaluative and affective- process. It also has been suggested that pain
motivational domains. The central nervous sys- catastrophizing interfere with descending pain-
tem, both the brain and spinal cord, is where pain is inhibitory systems and may facilitate neuroplas-
produced and modulated. Several brain and spinal tic changes in the spinal cord during repeated
cord areas work together (the pain neuromatrix) in painful stimulation, thereby promoting sensiti-
response to corporal stimuli to create the multidi- zation in the central nervous system.
mensional experience of pain. Interestingly, Impaired “conditioned pain modulation,”
Damasio and colleagues [89] observed an overlap defined as the endogenous pain inhibition ability
between the cerebral activity areas related to of a subject, has been demonstrated in young
chronic pain and those related to cognition and women with long-standing AKP [97]. Central
emotions. This finding suggests that chronic pain, sensitization (CS) has been defined by the
cognition, and emotions are interrelated. More- International Association for the Study of Pain
over, it has been shown that AKP is not only related (IASP) as “increased responsiveness of noci-
to structural anomalies but also to altered central ceptive neurons in the central nervous system to
neural processes along with alterations in central their normal or subthreshold input” [98]. In other
nociceptive processing [90, 91]. Slutsky-Ganesh words, there is ineffective pain modulation-
and colleagues [92] indicate that the posterior inhibition in the central nervous system. That is
cerebellum could be a key modulator in cognitive to say, there is a process of amplification of the
assessment of pain in patellofemoral pain across afferent signal that arrives from the periphery.
the cortico-cerebellar loops, possibly leading to For all that, the malfunctioning of the descending
consequences on motor function downstream. pain-inhibiting mechanisms is another of the
Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee Pain 33
mechanisms involved in CS. From a clinical modulation. This widespread impact on overall
standpoint, we can suspect that there is CS when brain function could play an important role in
the patient presents with allodynia or hyperal- explaining the magnitude, experience and per-
gesia. A significant number AKP patients present sistence of pain after suitable conservative or
more signs of CS when compared to healthy surgical treatment.
pain-free individuals. Interestingly, it has been
demonstrated that pain sensitization may be
amenable to treatment through exercises, phar- 7 Authors’ Proposed AKP
macological therapy, and surgery [99]. In AKP Pathophysiology
patients, there is “central sensitization,” meaning
an increased responsiveness of the central ner- A subgroup of patients with AKP have a skeletal
vous system to a variety of stimuli [100–102]. malalignment of the limb, especially in the
Rathleff and colleagues [101] suggested that transverse plane (femoral and/or tibial rotational
adolescent females with AKP have both local- malalignment) [33, 34]. This malalignment of the
ized and distal hyperalgesia (a reduced pressure lower limb could provoke pain due to the
pain threshold), which can be determined abnormal stress on tissue which is not of suffi-
through pressure algometry. This hyperalgesia cient magnitude or direction to result in insta-
may signal altered central processing of noci- bility. It is likely that nerve changes or ischemia
ceptive information. may be due to chronic repetitive stretch of soft
Jensen and colleagues [49] have shown that tissue (retinaculum). Moreover, skeletal
some patients with unilateral AKP have neuro- malalignment could provoke patellofemoral
pathic pain, which suggests damage in the instability due to a failure of the ligaments that
peripheral and/or central nervous system that stabilize the PFJ, and it will also lead to the
causes pain signals without a specific cause. In development of patellofemoral cartilage lesions
this way, many AKP patients have alterations in due to the increased patellofemoral compression
the central nervous system that might play an forces (Fig. 12). However, in most cases, the
important role both in the magnitude and per- abnormal femoral rotation is functional due to a
sistence of pain after suitable conservative or deficit of the proximal control [105]. This situa-
surgical treatment. Lefaucheur and colleagues tion will lead to a patellofemoral imbalance as it
[103] found a link between chronic neuropathic occurs in the structural skeletal malalignment of
pain and motor cortex disinhibition. The current the lower limb.
data suggest that repetitive transcranial magnetic We hypothesize that short and repetitive epi-
stimulation of the motor cortex corresponding to sodes of tissular ischemia, potentially due vas-
the patient’s site of pain may be a complemen- cular torsion or vascular bending induced by a
tary treatment modality for patients with chronic patellofemoral imbalance, could trigger release
neuropathic AKP [104]. Motor cortex stimula- of NGF and VEGF in the peripatellar soft tissues.
tion may produce analgesic effects by restoring Once NGF is present in the tissues, it induces
missing or impaired intracortical inhibitory pro- hyperinnervation, attracts mastocytes, and trig-
cesses [103]. gers substance P release by free nerve endings
As we can see in chapter “Brain Network (Fig. 13) [70]. In addition, VEGF induces
Functional Connectivity Clinical Relevance and hypervascularization and plays a role in
Predictive Diagnostic Models in Anterior Knee increasing neural proliferation.
Pain Patients”, AKP patients have brain func- Free nerve endings, slowly adapting receptors
tional connectivity changes compared to healthy that mediate nociception, are activated in
controls. That is especially the case between the response to deformation of tissues. In the knee,
brain areas involved in cognitive stimulus pro- such deformation results from abnormal tensile
cessing and the regions involved in pain and compressive forces generated during flexo-
34 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 12 Pathways to pain in patients with torsional abnormalities. Force out of balance is the culprit, and force out of
the balance is due to the limb out of alignment
Fig. 13 Pathophysiology of
AKP
extension of the joint or in response to chemical degranulation process that can liberate histamine,
agents such as histamine, bradykinin, pros- another non-neurogenic pain mediator (Fig. 14)
taglandins, and leukotrienes [57, 106, 107]. [56]. Numerous mast cells have been identified in
Therefore, SP is released from peripheral endings the LR of AKP patients [19]. Mast cells are also
of nociceptive afferents as a result of noxious associated with the release of NGF [40, 108],
chemical or mechanical stimulation. The noci- contributing to the hyperinnervation and indi-
ceptive information relayed by these free nerve rectly provoking more pain. Furthermore, SP has
endings is responsible, at least in part, for the been shown to induce the release of collagenase,
pain. interleukin-1, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha
Once SP is liberated in the connective tissue, (TNF-a) from synoviocytes, fibroblasts, and
it induces the release of prostaglandin E2, one of macrophages [50, 52]. These factors could con-
the biochemical agents known to stimulate tribute to the genesis of patellar instability
nociceptors (Fig. 13) [50]. The activation of through degradation of soft tissues. SP, NGF and
nociceptive pathways by prostaglandins could be mast cells have also recently been implicated in
one of the many mechanisms involved in the bone resorption in both in vitro and in vivo
transmission of pain in AKP patients. Moreover, experiments, which could explain, at least in part,
SP stimulates mast cells, facilitating a the osteoporosis found in many cases of AKP
Pathophysiology of Anterior Knee Pain 35
A B
Fig. 14 Mast cells are abundant in the stroma (arrow), granules, (TEM) (B). (A)-(Reused with permission from
mainly in a perivascular disposition. Some of them show a SAGE. From: “Immunohistochemical analysis for neural
degranulation process (activated mast cells) (A), (Giemsa markers of the lateral retinaculum in patients with isolated
stain). Ultrastructural image of a mast cell of the lateral symptomatic patellofemoral malalignment” Am J Sports
retinaculum with its cytoplasm full of chemotactic Med. 2000; 28: 725–731)
[109]. Finally, SP and VEGF stimulate orthopedic pathologies from a clinical point of
endothelial cell proliferation and migration [53], view.
which are essential to the development of a new – AKP obliges us to “think out of the box”, to
vascular network that may promote tissue repair, look deeper into the anatomy, biomechanics,
but indirectly maintain a vicious cycle. biology, anatomic pathology, physiopathol-
Woolf [110] described four types of pain from ogy, and psychology. AKP is a great stimulus
a clinical point of view: (1) nociceptive pain, for orthopedic intellectual development.
which is transient pain in response to noxious – Chondromalacia patellae is not synonymous
stimulus; (2) homeostatic pain, which is pain that with AKP. It is not the underlying problem.
promotes the healing of injured tissue (i.e., the – Very often, patellofemoral malalignment
cascade of events toward re-establishing home- (patellar tilt/lateral patellar subluxation) is not
ostasis); (3) neuropathic pain, which is sponta- the problem.
neous pain and hypersensitivity to stimulus in – In a subgroup of AKP patients, skeletal
association with damage to the nervous system; malalignment of the limb is responsible for
and (4) functional pain, which is pain resulting disabling AKP due to both patellofemoral
from abnormal central processing of normal overload and patellofemoral imbalance.
input. All these mechanisms appear to be Understanding the biomechanics is crucial—
involved in the pathophysiology of pain in AKP orthopedic surgery is very much a mechanical
patients. engineering discipline. At this time, from the
biomechanical viewpoint, the most powerful
treatment effect in treating AKP comes from
8 Take Home Messagess limb re-alignment.
– In the vast majority of AKP cases, the loss of
– Currently, much remains to be learned about both soft tissue (peripatellar synovitis and
the cause of AKP. Our understanding is lim- others soft tissue impingements such as syn-
ited. AKP is one of the most intriguing ovial hypertrophy around the inferior pole of
36 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
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Femoral and Tibial Rotational
Abnormalities Are the Most Ignored
Factors in the Diagnosis
and Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain
Patients. A Critical Analysis Review
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
and Robert A. Teitge
this problem in the specialized medical literature. in the orthopedic surgeon who is going to treat
Why do we ignore torsional abnormalities in the those patients. This is especially true when it
diagnosis and especially in the treatment of the comes to femoral anteversion or femoral torsion.
AKP patient? It is a fundamental question to Currently, there are 28 methods to measure
delve into. We will attempt to answer it. femoral neck anteversion [7]. Figure 1 shows the
case of a patient with a pathological left femoral
anteversion in which the CT study using the
2 There is no Agreement on How Jeanmart's method [10] (classic method), which
to Measure Torsion is the most widespread, reveals a value of 20°
that can be considered as normal. Therefore,
We fully understand the scarce interest knee there is a contradiction between the physical
surgeons have in rotational osteotomies. The examination and the image in this case. How is it
main reason is the diagnostic uncertainty. Limb possible that the imaging shows a normal value?
alignment on the transverse plane is hard to see Without a doubt, something does not work here.
and difficult to measure. Currently, there is no This something is the fact that the radiological
consensus on how to measure torsion [7–9]. method used to evaluate femoral anteversion is
Obviously, accurate measurement of torsion is not adequate.
essential to diagnosing, correct surgical decision- Murphy and colleagues have shown that the
making and the preoperative planning of a rota- traditional methods may underestimate the actual
tional osteotomy (i.e., the amount of correction femoral anteversion by a mean 13° and as much
needed). as 18° [11]. In the same way, Kaiser and col-
The first problem that is faced when we see a leagues have shown a significant difference in
patient with a torsional abnormality is to objec- measurement techniques of even up to 11° [12].
tify and quantify the magnitude of the torsion and Unfortunately, the current tendency is to trust the
therefore determine whether it is pathological or images more and more and devalue or mistrust
not. Many times, the values the radiologist pro- the physical examination. It is a big mistake.
vides do not match with the clinical findings. The CT method that we use to evaluate
This mismatch generates doubt and uncertainty femoral anteversion is the one described by
A B
C D
Fig. 2 A, B Measurement of femoral anteversion using defines the femoral neck axis on the transverse plane.
the Jeanmart's method (classic method). C, D Measurement Next, draw a line tangent to the posterior aspect of the
of femoral anteversion according to the technique femoral condyles (posterior condylar line). The angle
described by Murphy. Draw a circle on the femoral head between these two lines represents the femoral antever-
(red circle) and another circle centered in the femoral shaft sion. The line that is used as the axis of the femoral neck in
below the lesser trochanter (green circle). Then, draw a the method described by Jeanmart is not the true axis of the
line connecting the center of these two circles. This line femoral neck
Murphy in 1987 (Fig. 2) [11]. Murphy’s method Interestingly, Schmaranzer and colleagues
comes closest to defining the reality as it started [13] have observed that the differences between
with the physical measurement of anatomic the classic and Murphy’s method become more
specimens. His method of anteversion measure- evident in patients with a clinical diagnosis of
ment correlates well with the physical examina- femoral torsional abnormality. It has been shown
tion. In the patient in Fig. 1, the measurement of that the difference in femoral torsion between the
femoral anteversion with Murphy’s method classic method and Murphy’s method increased
reveals a value of 39°, which is clearly patho- from 3° in a patient with normal femoral torsion
logical and coincides with what the physical to 17° in a patient with excessive femoral torsion
examination reveals. upon physical examination [14]. Furthermore,
44 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. A. Teitge
the more significant the increase in femoral tor- osteological collection. They have shown that
sion, the greater the differences between the two both the femoral neck and femoral shaft sub-
methods was also observed [14]. In other words, stantially contribute to femoral version. Kim and
the differences between the two methods increase colleagues [16] showed that femoral torsion
progressively with the increase in femoral tor- could occur in the supratrochanteric, infra-
sion, the relationship between the two methods trochanteric region, or in both sites. Seitlinger
being trigonometric and not linear [14]. This and colleagues [17] have demonstrated that the
must be considered especially when planning a neck, mid and distal femur contribute to the total
rotational osteotomy in patients with severe femoral torsion. Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues
femoral torsional abnormalities to avoid mistakes [20] have shown that pathological FAV in the
in preoperative planning. AKP patient depends on both the neck and the
Once it is known that there is a pathological shaft. However, Waisbrod and colleagues [18]
torsional abnormality that must be corrected, the have proposed that femoral torsion is a sub-
next step is to determine at what level the cor- trochanteric deformity. Ferràs-Tarragó and col-
rection must be made. It may be at the proximal, leagues [21, 22] have used three-dimensional
mid-diaphysis or distal level. In theory, the ideal (3D) technology and advanced techniques to
would be to perform the osteotomy at the site assess similarities between volumetric structures
where the deformity originates. If we do it at in order to evaluate the site where the deformity
another level, we can create a new deformity on originates. It might be a good method for plan-
the coronal or sagittal plane even though the total ning rotational femoral osteotomy in patients
angle is going to be corrected adequately [15]. with unilateral torsional femur abnormalities
Some authors [16–18] have used conventional (Fig. 3) (See Videos 1 and 2). In short, there is
imaging studies in an attempt to define where the no universally accepted method that allows us to
torsion occurs along the length of the femur. determine the origin of the deformity. Therefore,
Femoral anteversion is defined by the angle it is difficult to decide at what level to perform
formed by the intersection of 2 reference lines: the rotational osteotomy.
one proximal that represents the axis of the In summary, the fact that there is no consen-
femoral neck, and one distal that is tangential to sus as to how to measure torsion leaves the
the posterior aspect of the femoral condyles and orthopedic surgeon in doubt about the confir-
approximates the knee joint axis. Since this angle mation of the diagnosis and, more importantly, in
of torsion is defined between these 2 lines, it is doubt about the surgical planning. The easiest
not possible to specify the level of this torsional thing to do in this situation is not to recommend
alteration. Defining the location of a torsional surgical treatment. If we do not correct the tor-
abnormality between these 2 primary lines will sion enough, the pain will persist and the pain
require creation of an additional 3 or 4 references will persist if we correct more than necessary. It
lines. Herzberg and colleagues [19] measured the has been shown that a difference of 10° during
anteversion angle of the femoral neck and the rotational osteotomy causes a considerable
“retrotorsion” angle of the lesser trochanter in 52 increase in PFJ pressure (Fig. 4) [23]. In the
female and 34 male femora taken from 46 human same way, Karaman and colleagues [24] showed
cadavers (age at death 80.3 ± 8.67 years). These that both external and internal rotational
authors showed that the lesser trochanter is a malalignment greater than or equal to 10° after
well-defined landmark between the proximal and closed intramedullary nailing of femoral shaft
distal femur, and its location follows a linear fractures provoked AKP while climbing stairs.
correlation with femoral anteversion. Therefore, Finally, Yildirim and colleagues [25] observed
the lesser trochanter is a landmark for separating that an external rotation deformity of the femur
proximal version and distal femoral torsion. greater than 10° could cause a deterioration in the
Archibald and colleagues [15] evaluated 1210 patellofemoral scores and provoke AKP. Con-
paired adult femora from a well-preserved sidering the possible iatrogenesis that we can
Femoral and Tibial Rotational Abnormalities … 45
Fig. 3 3D technology and advanced techniques to assess the degree of similarity between them. That is, we overlap
similarities between volumetric structures in order to both femurs. The differences between both femurs are
evaluate the site where the deformity originates. In this represented in a color code. The intensity of the blue and
case, the right femur (yellow femur) has an excessive red colors represents the magnitude of the positive and
femoral anteversion (39°). However, the left femur (blue negative differences between both femurs. The green color
femur) has a normal femoral anteversion. In this patient, represents the absence of differences. In this case, there is a
there is severe right hip pain and disabling right high similarity in all the femur except in the proximal
AKP. However, the lower left limb is completely asymp- part. Thus, we can conclude that the torsional deformity in
tomatic. The left femur is reverted as it was a mirror vision. this particular case originates in the proximal part of the
Then we place the blue femur over the yellow femur to see femur
Fig. 4 Finite elements analysis in the preop and after intertrochanteric external rotational femoral osteotomy of 5° and
15° (From reference 23). (Courtesy of M.A. Perez, PhD)
46 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. A. Teitge
malalignment, especially the torsional [3]. When release, fibular osteotomy vs non-osteotomy).
the skeleton is not normal, the quadriceps force This would leave an inexperienced surgeon
acting on the PFJ is not normal either. A change rather confused.
in the quadriceps lateral vector may result from There are a few unanswered questions in
an increase in femoral anteversion or an increase osteotomy surgery. One is about knowing how
in limb valgus. Additionally, it may just as well much to correct. From a practical point of view,
be due to an increase in the external rotation of we always prefer undercorrecting to overcor-
the tibia on the femur or an actual lateral place- recting when performing rotational osteotomy.
ment of the tibial tuberosity (TT) on the proximal Another debatable issue is the level of osteot-
tibia that will provoke an increment of the TT- omy. For example, our proposal in rotational
TG distance. Of all the factors influencing the tibial osteotomy is an osteotomy distal to the TT.
lateral vector, the most important is femoral However, other orthopedic surgeons suggest a
anteversion. For example, the lateral vector supra-tuberosity osteotomy. Then again, there are
increases more than 112% if a person has an others who are inclined toward a mid-shaft or
internal torsion of the femur of 30° above the distal (supramalleolar) osteotomy. Recently,
normal value. Maltorsion may cause a mal- Winkler and colleagues [29] have shown that
distribution of force on the PFJ which probably increased external tibial torsion is an
acts on both the subchondral bone and all sur- infratuberositary deformity and is not correlated
rounding ligaments. Bone overload is detectable with a lateralized position of the tibial tuberosity.
using SPECT-CT. In some patients with torsional Regarding the surgical technique, take note
abnormalities, the SPECT-CT study reveals an that it is difficult to achieve a highly precise
uptake increment in the lateral aspect of the PFJ osteotomy and keep it perfectly in place during
that allows us to justify the pain in these patients. healing. With a fracture or an osteotomy, the
Therefore, SPECT-CT helps to make a correct stress of moving the limb does not reach the
surgical indication. But in other cases, the bone ends but it does concentrate at the
SPECT-CT is negative in spite of the presence of fracture/osteotomy site as strain (displacement)
a symptomatic torsional abnormality. This raises [30]. Relative to a fracture, the more comminuted
uncertainty when it comes to blaming torsional it is, the less strain is concentrated at the fracture
abnormality for the pain. This fact discourages line. This is because it is divided between the
the surgeons from putting forward a rotational number of fracture segments and the length of the
osteotomy. fracture. On the contrary, a straight transverse
osteotomy causes the greatest strain concentra-
tion. Thus, the internal fixation must be more
4 Lack of Agreement Regarding rigid to share the stress and reduce strain to an
Surgical Technique. Fear acceptable level. Greater stability results from the
of Internal Fixation Failure increased compression of fragments. If there is
and Other Complications no motion at the osteotomy site and the gap
between fragments is less than 0.5 mm, then
Another reason for the scarce interest knee sur- bone cutting cones pass across the gap and new
geons have shown in rotational osteotomies is the osteons are produced without the need for a
lack of agreement when it comes to the choice of callus. If the gap is 0.5 mm and there is
surgical technique. This means that if five dif- motion, the motion of the bone ends up crushes
ferent surgeons were asked about the best way to the cutting cones and primary bone healing will
proceed, it is highly probable each of them would not occur. It is well known that if you see a callus
come up with a totally different solution developing after internal fixation, you know the
(osteotomy level, open vs percutaneous osteot- fixation is unstable. IM nails do not normally
omy, type of osteotomy fixation, combined pro- provide sufficient rigid fixation. Therefore, they
cedures: release of the peroneal nerve vs. non- are classified as “internal splints”. Inadequate
48 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. A. Teitge
stabilization by means of internal fixation results followed the same definition as Payne and col-
in failure when the strain is too great: plates leagues [35] to compare the total percentage of
break, screws bend or pull out or delayed heal- major complications in rotational osteotomy
ing. Without a doubt, the fear of internal fixation surgery and TT osteotomy surgery. Major com-
failure might be another reason for the scarce plications were defined as non-union, fracture,
interest knee surgeons have shown in rotational infections and wound complications requiring
osteotomies. return to the operating room, and DVT or PE.
A more widespread surgical technique for Payne and colleagues [35], in a systematic
treating AKP patients is the TT osteotomy, which review, found an overall risk of major compli-
has undoubtedly overshadowed the rotational cations after TT osteotomy of 3.0%. In our sys-
osteotomy. We do not intend to deny the validity tematic review, the overall risk of major
of this technique, but rather to broaden our complications after rotational osteotomy was of
horizon in order to treat AKP patients. At this 3.3% [6].
point, it would be interesting to make some
observations on the surgery of the TT in the
patient with torsional abnormality. Mani and 5 “Orthopedics is All About
colleagues [31] have demonstrated that TT Anatomy … Plus A Little Bit
medialization increases tibial external rotation. of Common Sense”
Therefore, greater AKP could triggered if we
perform a medialization of the TT in a patient We believe that a logical approach to surgical
with excessive external tibial torsion. Moreover, treatment should be based on restoring native
Tensho and colleagues [32] have shown that TT- anatomy and repairing what is damaged. This
TG distance is affected more by knee rotation was clearly reflected by Jack Hughston in his
than by tubercle malposition. For that reason, the well-known sentence: “Orthopedics is all about
measurement of the TT-TG distance in patients anatomy … plus a little bit of common sense”.
with torsional abnormalities is not reliable. Therefore, it would be logical to correct them
Franciozi and colleagues [33] have seen dimin- surgically if we observe an obvious pathological
ished results from TT osteotomies in patients torsional alteration in the femur or tibia. You
with increased femoral anteversion. In the same should strive to restore normal anatomy, because
way, Zhang and colleagues [34] evaluated 144 that will create a better biomechanical environ-
consecutive patients with recurrent patellar ment for the tissue. If you repair a failed tissue
instability. Patients were assigned into three that can be bone, ligament or cartilage and ignore
groups: group A (femoral anteversion <20°), the mechanics that caused the tissue failure, you
group B (femoral anteversion 20°–30°) and will usually have a failed result.
group C (femoral anteversion >30°). They have In cases of combined femoral anteversion and
demonstrated that patients with an increased excessive external tibial torsion, there is a ques-
femoral anteversion angle (>30°) had inferior tion. What is more important in the genesis of
postoperative clinical outcomes and a higher rate AKP, femoral anteversion or external tibial tor-
of residual J-sign after medial patellofemoral sion? From an anatomical standpoint, the best
ligament reconstruction combined with TT option to treat a patient with combined excessive
osteotomy. That is, the TT osteotomy does not femoral internal torsion and excessive external
prevent the negative effect of femoral anteversion tibial torsion would be a combination of a rota-
on PFJ. Therefore, the best available evidence tional femoral and a tibial osteotomy. Another
supports not performing TT osteotomy in option would be to operate on the bone with the
patients with torsional abnormalities. On the greatest variance from normal, the femoral
other hand, the frequency and types of compli- anteversion in the case of Fig. 6. In the case of
cations seen in rotational osteotomy surgery are Fig. 6, we performed a 25° proximal femoral
similar to those of the TT osteotomy. We have external rotational osteotomy with a good result
Femoral and Tibial Rotational Abnormalities … 49
Fig. 7 SPECT/CT in an AKP patient with right external was asymptomatic in spite of the fact that external tibial
tibial torsion. The scintigraphic uptake is markedly high torsion was symmetric in both knees
in the right patella. Disabling right AKP. The left knee
Fig. 8 Femoral anteversion measurement. Left: Trans- neck (red). The plane tangent to the posterior condyles
parency has been added to the proximal femur to identify and posterior region of the greater trochanter is the
landmarks for the center of the femoral head and the base femoral bearing plane (purple). Right: Femoral antever-
of the femoral neck. The junction of the center of the ball sion measurement based on Murphy’s method, between
of the femoral head and the center of the circumference at the neck inclination plane (red) and the femoral support
the base of the neck define the plane of inclination of the plane (purple)
risk of severe complications. It seems overly 9. Snow M. Tibial torsion and patellofemoral pain and
aggressive to cut the femur or the tibia of a instability in the adult population: current concept
review. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med. 2021;14
young “healthy” person that only “complains (1):67–75.
of pain”. Nothing could be further from the 10. Jeanmart L, Baert AL, Wackenheim A. Computer
truth. Rotational osteotomy is a very well- tomography of neck, chest, spine and limbs. Atlas of
tolerated surgery with a low complication rate pathologic computer tomography, vol 3. Springer,
Berlin Heidelberg New York, 1983; pp 171–177.
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relative to eliminating pain. anteversion. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1987;69
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Why is Torsion Important
in the Genesis of Anterior Knee Pain?
Robert A. Teitge
Femoral Anteversion and Tibial Torsion are lis- to 30° and creating an abnormal quadriceps pull.
ted in many of the patellofemoral publications I left Dr. Kerlan and moved to Seattle where
over the past 60–80 years as risk factors or Sigvard (Ted) Hansen, Jr. M.D. said “Bob, You
associated factors for anterior knee pain, but have to get to know Stan Newell, D.P.M.” Stan
discussion stops after making the list and is Newell was the artist who had produced all of the
almost never to be reconsidered. Why? I believe drawings for The Running Foot Doctor. Stan was
this is because we don’t know why torsion making all the orthotics for the professional ath-
should matter, we don’t know why it there, we letes in Seattle skirting around the orthopaedic
don’t know how to measure it, we don’t know community. Stan told me “Bob, I can cure more
how to fix it and even those intrepid surgeons than 50% of all athletic knee pain with orthotics,
who are willing to operate to alter it, have really even though I have no idea why.” An interesting
no guide as where they are starting and where thought. The recreational running craze was just
they are going. It is a daunting challenge to know beginning, Nike was just starting and Stan Newell
nothing. I wish here to present how interest in and Stan James, M.D. in Eugene, Oregon became
these questions grew and propose a rationale for the consultants to Nike Shoes as the orthopaedic
why it matters to anterior knee pain. world became interested in running and anterior
A challenge to me came from Robert Ker- knee pain. Stan James was working with many
lan MD in 1976 who said to me “Bob, no one has world-class runners in Eugene and being asked to
studied foot problems in professional athletes, lecture on “Runner’s Knee” at various profes-
why don’t you see what you can learn.” The sional society meetings. In 1979 he contributed a
podiatrists were known to be providing “ortho- chapter “Chondromalacia of the Patella in the
tics” but that was almost the limit of studies. Adolescent” to Jack Kennedy’s book The Injured
I stumbled across The Running Foot Doctor [1] Adolescent Knee [2]. This chapter almost sum-
by Steven Subotnick D.P.M. and in it I discov- marizes what we know today and contains the
ered a drawing of a limb with Chondromalacia of brilliant description of Miserable Malalignment.
the Knee which was said to result from a pronated So, beginning in 1980 and using what I learned
foot which was increasing the Q-Angle from 15° from the two Stans, I have examined every knee
patient with both the standard knee examination
and the runner’s exam and concluded torsion is
important.
R. A. Teitge (&) The correlation of physical examination with
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wayne State clinical assessment of femoral or tibial torsion is
University, Detroit, MI, USA
e-mail: rteitge@med.wayne.edu
modest to poor. Consequently, awareness of
torsional excess is often overlooked. Special and even these selected lines may have nothing
imaging is mandatory. To understand lower to do with joint motion.
extremity kinematics requires knowing where the The action of a muscle in moving a joint is
axis of motion is for all the joints in the chain most efficient when it’s line of action is perpen-
including hip, knee, ankle and subtalar joint. dicular to the joint axis. The quadriceps controls
Variations in joint geometry will change the axis knee flexion. It is most efficient when working in
of a particular joint, which will change the the sagittal plane with the knee axis ⊥ to the
kinematics of that limb. Correlating anatomic sagittal plane and with the knee joint moving
landmarks with imaging is not standardized and straight forward in the direction the body mass is
despite modern imaging there is still controversy moving. Levens et al. [4] as long ago as 1948,
in locating with precision the axes of these 4 reported the knee joint axis normally moves
joints. It may not be possible to define an axis of directly forward during gait in line of the body
joint motion by studying a single bone. Two motion with only a minimal amount of rotation in
points near the ends of the bones are selected and the transverse plane (Fig. 1).
lines between the two points are used to define Anterior knee pain is usually the result of an
the axis. Different investigators have selected abnormal force. A knee joint in which no force is
different points, thus different lines are proposed acting is seldom painful. The abnormal force
to reflect the same axes. It is common that axes may be an excessive force or a mal-directed
from different investigators may vary by 100% force. A reduction in force generally results
for the hip, knee, ankle and subtalar joint. Kaiser in reduction of pain, but usually with some
et al. [3] found the difference between the mean associated loss of function. Most of the quadri-
of 2 commonly used measurement techniques ceps muscle force is exerted as a vector in the
was 97% and in one single specimen the differ- sagittal plane pushing the patella against the
ence was 140%. These variations in measure- trochlea to maintain of control knee flexion–ex-
ment technique makes comparing studies difficult tension. (Fig. 2).
But the knee joint is unusual because it must The femur and tibia are both normally twisted.
have a tibio-femoral valgus. The tibio-femoral The biomechanical purpose of the twist is
valgus is needed to move the knee joint closer to unclear. It is an assumption that “normal” twist is
the midline under the center of mass. Placing the optimal for “normal” function such as walking.
knee joint closer to the center of body mass Femoral twist is measured as the angle in the
reduces bending forces in the femur and tibia and transverse plane between the axis of the hip and
allows us to balance on one foot, a requirement knee.
for bipedal gait. If there is an abnormal inward twist in femur
The tibiofemoral angle, however, means the so the knee joint points medially, the knee joint
quadriceps does not act perpendicular to the knee can be placed facing forward only by external
joint axis, but is deviated in the lateral direction, rotation of the hip joint. The acetabulum may
thus in addition to the major posterior vector limit the degree of external rotation needed to
component, there is a lateral component (Fig. 3). place the knee axis forward, or it may place the
It is assumed that the lateral vector is counter- external rotators of the hip in such a shortened
balanced by the lateral trochlear inclination. As position they cannot provide stability. It is
the knee internally rotates during flexion the common in such cases, that fatigue of the hip
tibial tuberosity moves medially so the direc- rotators allows the femur to rotate inward so the
tion of the quadriceps force is more medial and knee joint axis faces medially. If the patella is
the lateral vector of this quadriceps force pointing medially the quadriceps force will be
decreases. more in the lateral direction and the lateral
56 R. A. Teitge
A B
Fig. 4 The Quadriceps direction is changed with a stability. The black arrows represent the quadriceps force
change in limb torsion. The quadriceps force is generally and its posterior and lateral vectors. The quadriceps force
in line with the femur. A with normal anteversion the knee is normally in line with the femur, the posterior force
joint faces forward and the majority of the quadriceps is vector is indicated on the left and the lateral force vector is
posterior which produces the PF Joint reaction force. B If indicated on the right. A medial pointing knee may occur
the knee points inward, the quadriceps pulls more laterally if there is increased femoral anteversion, if there is more
so the lateral vector is increased while the posterior vector internal rotation of the hip joint or if there is more external
is decreased. The reduction in posterior force means the tibial torsion and the foot is then placed facing forward
total quadriceps force must increase to control knee
of 30° excess femoral anteversion may reduce must include the changing of force provided by
the lateral quadriceps vector by 112%. altered skeletal geometry, contracting muscles,
Precise biomechanical studies investigating body weight, limb length, hip, and foot and ankle
the effect of changing skeletal geometry on force positions. Until then we can only assume that the
transmission are needed to estimate when population normal is a reasonable goal for tor-
pathologic values are reached. These studies sion correction.
58 R. A. Teitge
References
osteochondral or chondral lesions or synovial like climbing and descending stairs, squatting,
pathology). Nevertheless, a small effusion may using the clutch when driving a vehicle with
be present in AKP patients. However, pol- manual transmission (left AKP), wearing high-
yarthralgia is not a part of the pathology we are heeled shoes. It is also worsened after prolonged
now dealing with. sitting with knee flexion, for instance during a
Generally, the onset of symptoms is insidious. long trip by car or prolonged sitting in a cinema
It reflects an overuse condition or an underlying (“movie sign” or “theater sign”). It improves by
malalignment. Overuse can be the result of a new extending the knee. A constant and severe pain
activity or of the increase in the time, frequency way out of proportion to physical findings that
or intensity of a previous work or sports activity. has a sudden onset after a knee injury or surgery
In these cases, getting the history should be ori- should make us think of psychological issues or
ented to determining which supraphysiologic Reflex sympathetic dystrophy (RSD) or Complex
loading activity or activities are of importance in regional pain syndrome (CRPS). This is true
the origin of AKP. The identification and rigor- even when the classic vasomotor findings are
ous control of the activities associated with the absent. It is classified as neuropathic pain.
initiation and persistence of symptoms is crucial Finally, constant burning pain indicates a neu-
for treatment success. For example, patients with romatous origin. To quantify the pain, we use the
left AKP should avoid driving a car with a clutch Visual analogue scale (VAS). It is a sensitive
for prolonged periods of time because it aggra- outcome measure for AKP, with a difference of
vates the symptoms. In these cases, patient edu- 2 cm being considered clinically relevant [3]. To
cation is crucial to preventing recurrence. In screen for neuropathic pain, we advocate for the
other cases, the symptoms can be secondary to a use of the Douleur Neuropathique 4 scale (DN4)
direct knee trauma (e.g., automobile accident in [4]. The sensitivity and specificity of the DN4
which the anterior knee strikes the dashboard stands at around 95% and 97% [4].
[“dashboard knee”]) or an indirect knee trauma. Other symptoms of AKP are a giving-way
One must not forget the possibility of AKP sensation and crepitus. Determining whether the
secondary to a posterior cruciate ligament patient’s pain is associated with a lateral patellar
(PCL) deficiency when there has been a knee instability is very important because both the
trauma. This is a well-known cause for AKP treatment and the prognosis are very different in
given that PCL tears increase patellofemoral joint patients with AKP secondary to patellar insta-
(PFJ) reaction force through posterior displace- bility when compared to those without patellar
ment of the tibial tuberosity [2]. It is also instability. “Giving-way” episodes due to ACL
important to examine the integrity of the anterior deficiency are brought on by rotational activities.
cruciate ligament (ACL) as AKP is present in On the other hand, “giving-way” episodes related
20–27% of patients with a chronic ACL insuffi- to patellofemoral problems are associated with
ciency [2]. activities that do not imply rotational strains. It is
The main symptom AKP patients experience a consequence of a sudden reflex inhibition
is pain. That pain can be retropatellar or peri- and/or atrophy of the quadriceps muscle. Patients
patellar. The pain is often described as dull with sometimes report locking of the knee, which is
occasional sudden episodes of sharp pain. When usually only a catching sensation. However, they
asked to locate the pain, it is often difficult for the can actively unlock the knee. Therefore, this type
patient to pinpoint the area of pain while placing of locking should not be confused with the one
his or her hand over the anterior aspect of the experienced by patients with meniscal lesions.
knee. However, the pain can also be medial, Finally, another symptom is crepitus. It should
lateral or popliteal. Generally, patients have not be mistaken for the snapping sensation more
multiple painful sites with different degrees of consistent with a pathological plica. Crepitus is
pain intensity. Pain related to the extensor common but is clinically irrelevant in most cases.
mechanism is typically aggravated by activities However, crepitus creates negative emotions,
Clinical and Radiological Assessment … 61
inaccurate etiological beliefs and finally leads to disabling AKP after surgery is iatrogenic medial
fear-avoidance behavior and lower functional patellar instability (IMPI) secondary to an “ex-
performance [5]. tensive” lateral retinacular release. Inappropriate
Apart from pain, AKP patients present dis- physiotherapy could also be responsible for
ability to a great or lesser degree. The World iatrogenic AKP. Therefore, it is essential that the
Health Organization defines disability as “a patient describe exercises that are being or have
limitation of function that compromises an indi- been done with the physiotherapist or in the gym.
vidual’s ability to perform an activity within the
range considered normal”. Regardless of how
intense the pain is, AKP patients show different 3 Physical Examination
degrees of disability in their everyday life. A way
to objectify and quantifying disability is by The second diagnostic step is a thorough and
means of self-administered scales like the Inter- careful physical examination. It is essential. Its
national Knee Documentation Committee evalu- primary goal is to locate the painful zone and to
ation (IKDC) and the Kujala score. It is also reproduce the symptoms. The location of the
important to know the patient’s activity level pain can indicate which structure is injured. This
prior to the treatment and what he or she wants to is extremely helpful to making the diagnosis and
achieve through treatment to be able to offer to planning the treatment. The most important
realistic goals. diagnostic tool is the “finger”.
Patients with AKP have a high incidence of
anxiety, depression, kinesiophobia (the fear that
physical activity will cause more injury or a re- 3.1 Tests to Locate the Painful Zone
injury and subsequent pain) and catastrophizing and Reproduce the Pain
(the belief that pain will worsen and cannot be
relieved) [6]. Over half of people living with The lateral retinaculum should be felt and
AKP experience anxiety and/or depressive assessed carefully. Tenderness anywhere over
symptoms. The levels of anxiety and depressive the lateral retinaculum, especially where the
symptoms in AKP patients are much higher than retinaculum inserts into the patella, is a very
those found in the general population (anxiety frequent finding (90%) in AKP patients [10]. We
symptoms: 49.5% vs. 5.9–7.8%, respectively; perform the patellar glide test to evaluate lateral
depressive symptoms: 20.8 vs. 3.3–7.8%, retinacular tightness. This test is performed with
respectively) [7, 8]. Therefore, recognizing and the knee flexed at 30º and the quadriceps relaxed.
quantifying the presence of these psychological The patella is divided into four longitudinal
factors are important to getting a whole picture of quadrants and is displaced medially (Fig. 1).
the patient and to planning the best treatment. A medial translation of one quadrant or less is
Self-administered screening tests for anxiety and suggestive of excessive lateral tightness [2]. With
depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression this test, pain is elicited over the lateral retinac-
Scale), catastrophizing (Pain Catastrophizing ulum. The patellar tilt test can also detect a tight
Scale), and kinesiophobia (Tampa Scale for lateral retinaculum. It should always be done. In
Kinesiophobia) should be incorporated into the a normal knee, the patella can be lifted from its
clinical history in all the cases [6]. Moreover, lateral edge farther than the transepicondylar
signs of central sensitization are present in AKP axis, with a fully extended knee. On the contrary,
patients in a high percentage of cases [9]. a patellar tilt of 0º or less indicates a tight lateral
Therefore, it would be very interesting to rec- retinaculum. Lateral retinacular tightness is very
ognize and quantify it using a self-administered common in AKP patients. Furthermore, it is the
Central sensitization score. hallmark of the excessive lateral pressure syn-
Finally, we must ask about previous knee drome described by Ficat [11]. In those cases
surgeries. For example, one of the causes of with AKP after ACL reconstruction, we
62 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 3 Palpation on the distal pole of the patella and the proximal patellar tendon
Fig. 5 Evaluation of knee extension. (Table from Dale Daniel et al. Raven Press, 1990) [15]
B C
Fig. 6 Evaluation of the flexibility of anterior hip structures. A, B Normal subject. C Shortening of the iliopsoas
Clinical and Radiological Assessment … 65
To test quadriceps flexibility, the patient lies gastrocnemius, in the same way as hamstrings
prone, and the knee is passively flexed with one tightness, increases the PFJ reaction force,
hand while stabilizing the pelvis with the other keeping the knee in a flexed position. Moreover,
hand to prevent compensatory hip flexion limited ankle dorsiflexion results in increased
(Fig. 7). We can measure quadriceps tightness as subtalar joint pronation. It causes an increment of
degrees of prone knee flexion. Suggestions for tibial internal rotation with deleterious effects on
quadriceps retraction are: (1) asymmetry, a dif- PFJ biomechanics [2].
ferent flexion of one knee compared to the other, The iliotibial band (ITB) is often tight in AKP
(2) the feeling of tightness in the anterior aspect patients. This causes lateral patellar displacement
of the thigh, and (3) elevation of the pelvis due to and tilt as well as weakness of the medial patellar
flexion of the hip. It is important to assess retinaculum. We use Ober’s test to assess ITB
quadriceps contracture as this can increase the flexibility. To perform this test, the patient lies
contact pressure between patella and femur in a on the side opposite the affected leg with the hip
direct way. and knee of the bottom leg fully flexed to elim-
To test hamstring flexibility, the patient lies inate the lumbar lordosis. Then, the examiner
supine with the hip at 90º of flexion. The patient flexes the affected knee and hip at 90º. After that,
is then asked to straighten his or her knee he/she passively abducts the affected hip as far as
(Fig. 8). If complete extension is not possible, possible and extends the thigh so that it is in line
there is a hamstring contracture, and its amount is with the rest of the body (neutral position), which
measured by the popliteal angle. Most young places the ITB on maximal stretch. Palpation of
athletic individuals have popliteal angles the ITB just proximal to the lateral femoral
between 160º and 180º [2]. Hamstring tightness condyle during maximal stretch will cause severe
implies an increase in the quadriceps force nec- pain in patients who have excessive ITB tight-
essary to extend the knee, which augments the ness. At this position, the patient is told to relax,
PFJ reaction force. and then the thigh is adducted passively. If the
Gastrocnemius and soleus flexibility is thigh remains suspended off the table, the test is
evaluated by measuring the amount of active positive (shortened ITB). If the thigh drops into
ankle dorsiflexion while the physical therapist an adducted position, the test is negative (normal
stabilizes the subtalar joint. Gastrocnemius flex- ITB).
ibility is evaluated with the knee extended and Finally, Thomas’s test (Figs. 10 and 11) is a
we evaluate soleus flexibility with the knee good method to evaluate both the iliopsoas and
flexed at 90º (Fig. 9). Tightness of the iliotibial band tightness. The patient holds the
non-test limb with the hip at 90° of flexion while
the physician stabilizes the pelvis of the test limb
from the anterior superior iliac spine. The free leg
is allowed to fall in the extension direction to the
point where the pelvis begins to move.
Fig. 8 Evaluation of hamstrings flexibility. (Republished patient: clinical and radiological assessment including
with permission of AME Publishing Company. From psychological factors. Ann Joint, 3:26, 2018; permission
Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Evaluation of anterior knee pain conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.)
A B
Fig. 9 Evaluation of grastrocnemius (A) and soleus radiological assessment including psychological factors.
(B) flexibility. (Republished with permission of AME Ann Joint, 3:26, 2018; permission conveyed through
Publishing Company. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.)
Evaluation of anterior knee pain patient: clinical and
A B C
Fig. 11 Thomas’s test in a pathological case. A Shortening of the iliotibial band. Hip abduction occurs when the hip
goes in extension. B Shortening of the iliopsoas. C Shortening of the rectus femoris
68 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 12 A Hip abductor strength measurement. B Hip clinical and radiological assessment including psycholog-
external rotator strength measurement. (Republished with ical factors. Ann Joint, 3:26, 2018; permission conveyed
permission of AME Publishing Company. From Sanchis- through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.)
Alfonso V, et al. Evaluation of anterior knee pain patient:
Fig. 13 External tibial torsion (right limb). Pseudo-varus (right limb). Squinting patella (right knee)
Clinical and Radiological Assessment … 69
on the coronal plane (valgus/varus), (2) patella impingement (FAI) and AKP [22]. Therefore, an
orientation (neutral, squinting patella), and evaluation of Cam FAI should be performed
(3) the morphology of the forefeet (pronatus, during the physical examination of AKP patients,
hallux valgus). From the back, we evaluate: especially in patients with normal knee imaging
(1) the varus or valgus alignment of the knee and studies when the pain continues after appropriate
(2) a varus or valgus alignment of the calcaneus. conservative treatment. In this case, AKP is
Finally, we evaluate genu recurvatum or flexum secondary to functional femoral external rotation
of the knees from the side. When the patient as a defense mechanism to avoid hip pain.
stands with the feet parallel, the patella should be Finally, examination of the feet is essential as
facing forward. In patients with excessive exter- pronated feet play an important role in the origin
nal tibial torsion, a squinting patella and a genu of AKP. A functional hallux limitus may be a
varum can be seen. The varus in patients with predisposing factor for AKP [23]. Functional
external tibial rotation may be real, or it may be a hallux limitus consists of a loss of dorsal flexion
reflection of the tibial torsion (thus pseudo- of the first metatarsophalangeal joint with the
varus). The combination of increased femoral ankle in dorsal flexion. Limited ankle dorsiflex-
anteversion and increased external tibial torsion ion range-of-motion has been linked with AKP
has been termed miserable malalignment syn- and has also been related to altered kinematics of
drome that includes the squinting patella, genu the knee. The implication is that this may be
varum, genu recurvatum and the pronated foot. involved in the pathogenesis of AKP. Therefore,
In the prone position, the proportion of internal ankle dorsiflexion should be evaluated in all
to external rotation of the hips in extension must AKP patients (Fig. 15) [24].
be measured. If internal rotation exceeds external
rotation by more than 30º, there is increased
femoral anteversion (Fig. 14). In cases with iso- 3.6 Functional Tests
lated excessive external tibial torsion, internal
and external rotation are similar. The current trend in evaluating AKP patients is
In a previous study, we observed that there is using functional tests to detect inapt body
an association between Cam femoroacetabular movement patterns that might be responsible for
70 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B
Fig. 17 Step-down test. During this test, the limb going down only brushes the floor with the heel and then goes back
to full knee extension. A Correct neuromuscular control. B Poor neuromuscular control
the hip external rotators, (3) internal rotation of other knee conditions that could simulate patel-
the tibia, and (4) tibial abduction secondary to lofemoral pathology.
(5) excessive pronation of the foot. We must note There are three categories of imaging studies
that a lack of dynamic control of the lower limb in patellofemoral pathology: (1) structural
does not depend on the degree of physical imaging (radiographs, computed tomography
activity of the patient [25]. That is, most physi- [CT], magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]),
cally active adolescents do not necessarily have (2) metabolic imaging (technetium scintigraphy),
better lower limb control [25]. and (3) a combination of both.
Imaging studies are the second diagnostic step The majority of patients with patellofemoral pain
and cannot replace the first step. Overlooking this will only require standard radiography (standing
rule can lead to diagnostic errors that is followed anteroposterior view, a true lateral view, and the
by failed treatment and iatrogenic morbidity. low flexion angle axial view [Merchant]). Gen-
A surgical indication should never be based erally, imaging studies beyond standard radiog-
solely on imaging techniques since the correla- raphy are not indicated.
tion between clinical and image data is not good. The weight-bearing whole-limb anteroposte-
The history and physical examination are the rior view radiograph allow us to evaluate limb
fundamental elements in the evaluation of the alignment on the coronal plane (varus, valgus),
AKP patient. Nothing can replace the history and and joint space narrowing (Fig. 19). The lateral
clinical examination. The aim of the imaging view allows one to evaluate the recurvatum and
studies is to quantify the pathology and rule out flexion contracture. It also aids in evaluating the
72 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B C
Fig. 18 A, B, C Hop down test. B Correct neuromus- adduction and tibial abduction are contributing to this
cular control. C Poor neuromuscular control. Excessive knee position. Knee valgus increases lateral compressive
knee valgus when landing from a drop. Femoral forces in the PFJ
which medial patellar instability is suspected, the 4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
stress axial radiography is essential to identifying
and quantifying medial patellar instability [26]. MRI is useful for evaluating intraosseous edema
When the patient response to conservative (Fig. 22), soft tissue impingement (Figs. 23 and
treatment is not adequate, other imaging tech- 24), Hoffa fat pad edema (Fig. 25), and patellar
niques such as computed tomography (CT), cartilage damage even though this structural
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and single- damage may not necessarily be the cause of
photon emission computed tomography AKP. In addition, it also detects possible con-
(SPECT)-CT are indicated. comitant lesions. Moreover, MRI often shows
low-grade effusions associated with symptomatic
peripatellar synovitis, which is an underdiag-
4.2 Computed Tomography nosed pathological condition of the knee.
Fig. 21 CT evaluation of femoral anteversion (A, B, C, aspect of the femoral condyles (posterior condylar line)
D) and external tibial torsion (E). Measurement of femoral (A). The angle between these two lines represents the
anteversion. Technique described by Murphy (A, B, C). femoral anteversion. (D) Commonly used method
Draw a circle on the femoral head (B) and another circle described by Jeanmart (classic method). The line that is
centered in the femoral shaft below the lesser trochanter used as the axis of the femoral neck (yellow line) is not
(C). Then, draw a line connecting the center of these two the true axis of the femoral neck connection to the femoral
circles (A). This line defines the femoral neck axis on the shaft
transverse plane. Next, draw a line tangent to the posterior
A B
Fig. 23 A Peripatellar synovitis in a patient with AKP Holistic approach to understanding anterior knee pain,
(white arrow). B Quadriceps fat pad impingement Sanchis-Alfonso V, Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
syndrome in a patient with AKP (white arrow). (“Repub- Arthrosc, 22, 2275–2285, 2014; permission conveyed
lished with permission of Springer Nature BV, from through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
A B C
Fig. 24 A, B 25-year-old woman with AKP. Morpho- clefts. Moreover, we can see a patellar intraosseous
logic changes of the fat pad observed frequently in edema. C Normal knee. (“Republished with permission of
patients with Hoffa’s fat pad impingement: edema local- Springer Nature BV, from Holistic approach to under-
ized in the superior and posterior part of the fat pad, deep standing anterior knee pain, Sanchis-Alfonso V, Knee
infrapatellar bursitis (directly posterior to the distal part of Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 22, 2275–2285, 2014;
the patellar tendon, just proximal to its insertion on the permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Cen-
tibial tubercle) and non-visualization of intrahoffatic ter, Inc.”)
(Figs. 26, 27 and 28). Dye and Boll [35] bone scan commonly reverted to normal at an
observed that about one-half of their patients average time of 6.2 months (range, 3–
with AKP presented increased patellar uptake in 14 months), which is interpreted as restoration of
comparison with 4% of the control group. Biopsy osseous homeostasis. Naslund and colleagues
demonstrated that this increased patellar uptake [36] showed that nearly 50% of AKP patients
was secondary to the increased remodelling show diffuse bone uptake in one or more com-
activity of the bone. Bone scintigraphy can detect partments of the knee (Fig. 28). Not only has a
loss of osseous homeostasis, and often correlates relationship between hyper-uptake and pain been
well with the presence of patellar pain and its demonstrated, but also between pain intensity
resolution. According to Dye and Boll [35] the and greater uptake (Fig. 28) [37, 38]. Ro and
76 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 26 SPECT-CT overcomes the limitations of the CT and SPECT as separate techniques. It reveals the metabolic
and geographic pattern of bone homeostasis. That is, it correlates bone activity with the specifics of anatomy
Clinical and Radiological Assessment … 77
A B C
Fig. 27 SPECT/CT in an AKP patient with right femoral anteversion and external tibial torsion. A Fused SPECT/CT
MIP, B, C fused axials. The scintigraphic uptake is markedly high in the patella’s articular face
Fig. 28 SPECT-CT in a symptomatic patient with anterior knee pain patient: clinical and radiological
bilateral AKP with much more pain in the left knee. assessment including psychological factors. Ann Joint,
(Republished with permission of AME Publishing Com- 3:26, 2018; permission conveyed through Copyright
pany. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Evaluation of Clearance Center, Inc.)
78 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 29 Value of SPECT-CT in the differential diagnosis Company. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Evaluation of
of knee pain. This patient came to our office with severe anterior knee pain patient: clinical and radiological
AKP. In this case, the patient presented a type I assessment including psychological factors. Ann Joint,
epiphysiolysis of the distal femoral physis that was 3:26, 2018; permission conveyed through Copyright
responsible for pain (Courtesy of A. Darder, MD). Clearance Center, Inc.)
(Republished with permission of AME Publishing
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Evaluation of Psychological Factors
Affecting Anterior Knee Pain
Patients: The Implications
for Clinicians Who Treat These
Patients
will worsen and cannot be relieved) [4]. How- a direct and sequential relation between tissue
ever, ascribing AKP only to psychological damage and pain, and between pain and dis-
problems is a crude excuse to hide our ignorance ability. Therefore, the doctor’s task would be to
as to the cause of pain in these patients. What it is repair the damaged tissue and eradicate the pain,
true is that psychological disorders are the result making the functional impairment and disability
of the pain severity but not the cause of the pain disappear. This model has worked well for some
and disability. We have all seen AKP patients conditions (e.g., meniscal tears). However, for
that have been operated on several times with some conditions that develop with chronic pain
completely inappropriate surgical indications and such as AKP, which is a paradigm of chronic
that were obviously quite affected with pain- pain, this classic biomedical model is not enough
related fear. to understand the pathophysiology of the pain
AKP is usually considered a biomechanical and determine adequate treatment. Regardless of
paradigm hence the literature is dominated by how intense the pain is, patients with AKP show
biomechanical studies that overlook social and different degrees of disability in their everyday
psychological factors. Until recently, the role of life. Furthermore, no significant correlation
psychological factors involved in AKP have between structural alterations of the patellofe-
received little attention. Even so, psychological moral joint and disability have been observed. In
factors are increasingly recognized for their role fact, some cases with important anatomic alter-
in chronic pain conditions. Most of the papers in ations (patellar subluxation, patellar tilt, patho-
which AKP is analyzed from a psychological logic external tibial torsion, and severe patellar
perspective (the human side of the patellofemoral and/or trochlear chondropathy) are painless [5–
pain) have been published in the last 5 years. The 8]. Therefore, not only must we consider ana-
objective of this chapter in to analyze the psy- tomic, biological and biomechanical factors to
chological factors affecting AKP patients in understand AKP, but also the psychological and
depth. Moreover, we are going to review the social ones. This approach was proposed by the
experience of living with AKP. This chapter is American pathologist and psychiatrist George
about expanding our horizons, that is, the options Engel. In 1977, the Journal “Science” published
for treating AKP patients. What this chapter is his paper “The need for a new medical model: A
not about is negating any other existing paradigm challenge for biomedicine”, introducing the term
(the homeostasis paradigm and structural/ “Biopsychosocial Model” (Fig. 1) [9]. This
anatomic/biomechanical paradigm). From a model allows for the development of more ade-
biopsychosocial perspective, psychological fac- quate therapeutic strategies than the biomedical
tors are not an isolated cause of pain, but rather model. However, very few studies currently
interact with biological and structural factors. focus on the patient with AKP from a psycho-
The key message of this chapter is that psycho- logical and social perspective in comparison with
logical factors are modulators of pain and dis- other conditions such as low back pain (LBP),
ability. Throughout this chapter, we will work to knee osteoarthritis, fibromyalgia or rheumatoid
justify this statement. arthritis.
“Confrontation” and “avoidance” are the two (LBP) [15–18]. Also, in LBP longitudinal stud-
opposite responses to this fear. The former ies, changes in fear-avoidance beliefs were good
response leads to a reduction of fear over time predictors of disability [19–24]. The fear of pain
with the patient being able to cope with it satis- and the catastrophic vision of pain also occur in
factorily, continue their usual activities and pain free people. Therefore, these beliefs can
achieve full recovery. On the other hand, patients play an important role in the development of new
who interpret pain in an exaggerated or catas- episodes of pain. In studies performed on sub-
trophic way, develop fear of pain and associated jects without LBP [25–28], it was observed that
behaviors like hypervigilance and avoidance in fear of pain increased the risk of suffering epi-
search of security. Although these behaviors can sodes of LBP, and so the risk of disability was
be adaptive when coping with acute pain, they increased. Picavet and colleagues [29], in 2002,
can worsen the patient’s condition if the pain is studied whether pain catastrophizing and fear of
chronic, because they favor disuse, depression movement/(re)injury (kinesiophobia) are impor-
and increased disability. The fear-avoidance tant in the etiology of chronic LBP and the
model is framed within the biopsychosocial dis- associated disability. For patients with LBP at
ease model, the patient being trapped in a vicious baseline, a high level of catastrophizing predicted
circle of pain, disability and suffering (Fig. 2). chronic LBP, in particular severe LBP and LBP
Asmudson and colleagues [12] added the pain with disability. Moreover, a high level of kine-
anxiety component to this model as an aggra- siophobia showed similar associations. For those
vating factor in the avoidance behavior generat- subjects without LBP at baseline, a high level of
ing circuit (Fig. 2). Avoidance behavior not only catastrophizing or kinesiophobia predicted LBP
includes limiting one’s movements, but also with disability during follow-up. They concluded
avoiding social interactions and recreational that catastrophizing and kinesiophobia were
activities, which increase the pain and suffering good predictors for the chronification of pain and
in these patients. Crombez and colleagues [13] disability. In another study, Carragee and col-
have even stated that “the fear of pain is more leagues [19] performed a five-year follow-up
disabling that pain itself”. study on a group of 100 subjects with mild LBP
In many studies, fear and avoidance behaviors by means of MRI and a discography, measuring
have been strongly associated with the disability their fear-avoidance beliefs with a FABQ (Fear-
present in patients with low back pain Avoidance Beliefs Questionnaire). Surprisingly,
84 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 2 The fear-avoidance model of chronic pain based on the fear-avoidance model of Vlaeyen and Linton [14] and
the fear-anxiety-avoidance model of Asmudson and colleagues [12]
the severe LBP cases and disabilities had no fear and avoidance of physical activity and work
relation with structural anomalies found in the saw decreased levels of pain and disability at the
MRI or discography. It was the presence of fear end of the treatment. Jensen and colleagues [31]
and avoidance behaviors that turned out to be the studied a group of AKP patients by measuring
strongest predictor in LBP and disability. the degree of pain with the VAS scale and dis-
AKP shares with non-specific LBP a low ability with the Cincinnati Knee Rating System
correlation between the symptoms and structural (CKRS) questionnaire and found a weak corre-
anomalies found in imaging studies. Moreover, lation between the level of pain and disability,
both conditions tend to become chronic and one that was not statistically significant. There-
cause disability. The World Health Organization fore, we can reason that AKP causes pain on one
defines disability as “a limitation of function that hand and disability on the other, being both
compromises an individual’s ability to perform independent dimensions with a poor correlation.
an activity within the range considered normal”. Domenech and colleagues [4] evaluated the
AKP patients show different degrees of disability ideas of fear and avoidance with the Tampa
in their everyday life, regardless of how intense Kinesiophobia Scale (TSK) and have found a
the pain is. In some cases, there is severe pain moderate statistically significant correlation with
and little disability. In other cases, the pain is the patient’s referred disability measured with the
severe and the disability, too. Piva and col- Lysholm Score (Table 1) [4]. The greater the fear
leagues [30] studied whether changes in fear- and avoidance beliefs, the greater the disability
avoidance behaviors (measured with the FABQ perceived by the patient. It is interesting to
modified for the knee) influenced disability in a highlight that the correlation between kinesio-
group of patients with AKP undergoing con- phobia and disability was higher than the one
ventional physical therapy treatment. They found between pain and disability (Table 1) [4]. Obvi-
that those patients who lowered their levels of ously, not all the AKP patients have
Evaluation of Psychological Factors … 85
Table 1 Spearman
correlation between pain, Pain (VAS) Disability (Lysholm)
disability and the Pain (VAS) a
0.49**
psychological variables.
(“Republished with Coping Strategies (CSQ)
permission of Springer Diverting attention 0.21 −0.01
Nature BV, from Influence Reinterpreting pain sensation 0.18 −0.16
of kinesiophobia and
catastrophizing on pain and Ignoring pain sensations 0.08 0.06
disability in anterior knee Coping self-statements 0.08 −0.01
pain patients, Domenech J
et al., Knee Surg Sports Praying or hoping 0.35* −0.38**
Traumatol Arthrosc, 21, Catastrophizing 0.48** −0.59**
1562–1568, 2013; Increasing activity level 0.01 0.15
permission conveyed
through Copyright Anxiety (HAD) 0.46** 0.57**
Clearance Center, Inc.”) Depression (HAD) 0.44** −0.61**
Kinesiophobia (TSK) 0.26* −0.53**
Catastrophizing (PCS) 0.43** −0.53**
Subscale PCS rumination 0.39** −0.49**
Subscale PCS magnification 0.41** −0.47**
Subscale PCS hopelessness 0.46** −0.56**
VAS (Visual Analogue Scale), CSQ (Coping Strategies Questionnaire), HAD (Hospital
Anxiety and Depression inventory), TSK (Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia), and PCS
(Pain Catastrophizing Scale)
* p < 0.01; ** p < 0.001
a
Correlation between pain and disability was performed after deleting the subscale pain
of the Lysholm questionnaire to avoid colinearity
kinesiophobia. However, its presence is very and depression account for 56% of the variance
important because it has clinical relevance. If in disability [4]. There are other factors besides
kinesiophobia is present, then the levels of the pain that contribute to disability. It seems plau-
pain and the disability soar (Table 2). In many sible that psychological factors contribute to it.
cases, AKP patients also exhibit catastrophizing. There are complex cultural beliefs about many
Domenech and colleagues [4] evaluated catas- aspects of health including the potential iatro-
trophizing through the Catastrophizing Coping genic effect of healthcare itself. The pain expe-
Scale Questionnaire (CSQ) and through the Pain rience is a good example where there is great
Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) and found a mod- cultural complexity for example the fear-
erate statistically significant correlation with the avoidance model of pain cautions against exer-
patient’s disability (Table 1). When the percep- cise and activity, which in an acute injury state
tion of pain is more catastrophic, the patients may be helpful and common sense but in a
perceive greater disability. Moreover, pain and chronic pain state has a negative impact on out-
disability show a moderate but significant cor- comes [32]. Crepitus is another example where
relation even though it is lower than that painless noises from the knee can create negative
observed with catastrophizing or kinesiophobia emotions, inaccurate etiological beliefs and
[4]. Therefore, there are other factors besides finally leads to fear-avoidance behavior and
pain that contribute to disability. It has been lower functional performance [33].
shown that what is mainly responsible for dis- Maclachlan and colleagues [34] showed that
ability is not the pain, but the associated psy- there were no significant differences in TSK,
chological factors. Pain explains only 24% of the PCS or HADS between less-severe pain patients
variance in disability whereas catastrophizing and controls. However, more severe AKP
86 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Table 2 T test comparison of mean values in pain and disability between patients with high or low levels of anxiety,
depression, kinesiophobia and catastrophizing. (“Republished with permission of Springer Nature BV, from Influence
of kinesiophobia and catastrophizing on pain and disability in anterior knee pain patients, Domenech J et al., Knee Surg
Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 21, 1562–1568, 2013; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
Pain Disability
Anxiety
High level ( 11) n = 29 8.2 (1.1) P < 0.0001 30.3 (17.0) P < 0.0001
Low level (<11) n = 68 6.9 (1.7) 53.8 (18.5)
Depression
High level ( 11) n = 16 8.3 (1.4) P = 0.009 23.0 (11.3) P < 0.0001
Low level (<11) n = 81 6.8 (1.7) 51.1 (19.4)
Kinesiophobia
High level ( 40) n = 80 7.2 (1.6) P = 0.009 44.7 (20.0) P = 0.002
Low level (<40) n = 17 5.8 (2.2) 61.6 (16.6)
Catastrophizing
High level ( 24) n = 35 7.7 (1.5) P = 0.001 35.1 (16.2) P < 0.0001
Low level (<24) n = 62 6.5 (1.8) 54.8 (19.1)
patients had significantly higher HADS-D and of objective function such as quadriceps strength,
PCS scores than the controls. Moreover, the hip abduction and single leg hop distance.
more severe AKP group also had significantly
worse scores for the TSK, HADS-D and PCS
than the less severe AKP group [34]. Among all 4 Relationship Between Cognitions
the factors, the greatest difference in prevalence and Anterior Knee Pain.
was observed for kinesiophobia, which was 27% Catastrophizing
more prevalent in the more-severe AKP group
[34]. This means kinesiophobia seems to be an 4.1 Coping Strategies
important factor in the experience of AKP,
because it was elevated in the AKP group, sig- Understanding individual pain coping strategies
nificantly differed between the AKP sub-groups is one of the most important aspects in compre-
(more-severe vs. less-severe) and contributed to hending the consequences of chronic pain on
explaining disability [34]. Curiously, Maclachlan patient health. Patients see their pain as a source
and colleagues [35] emphasize that clinicians of stress for which they develop cognitive and
should not assume that kinesiophobia is always behavioral strategies that are constantly changing
linked to avoidance behaviors and disability. to minimize the impact of pain and disability. On
Therefore, reported high levels of activity should certain occasions, these coping strategies are
not preclude the evaluation of kinesiophobia. positive, improving tolerance to reduce the per-
Selhorst and colleagues [36] found a signifi- ception of pain and disability. Then, on other
cant and negative association between psycho- occasions, these coping strategies are mal-
logical impairment in adolescents with AKP and adaptative and worsen the clinical course of the
the self-reported function, being the fear- disease.
avoidance beliefs the most associated variable. The Coping Strategies Questionnaire
Pain related fear and non pain catastrophizing (CSQ) [37] measures the frequency with which
were significantly associated with some aspects patients use different coping strategies. It is
Evaluation of Psychological Factors … 87
comprised of seven subscales, six cognitive patients catastrophize. However, its presence is
(distraction, reinterpreting pain sensation, ignor- very important because it has clinical relevance. If
ing pain sensation, coping self-assertion, prayer or catastrophizing is present, then the levels of pain
hope, and catastrophizing), and a behavioral sub- and disability increase dramatically [4].
scale (increase in the activity level and the Catastrophizing plays a key role in pain
behaviors that reduce the feeling of pain). Thomeé modulation. However, the exact mechanisms by
and colleagues [38] studied the coping strategies which catastrophizing affects the experience of
in a group of 50 Swedish patients with chronic pain is not well known. Goodin and colleagues
AKP using the CSQ and found that the scores in [39] have shown that the heightened pain
the different coping subscales where in accordance reported by individuals that exhibit extreme pain
with the results published in other patients with catastrophizing may be related to a disruption in
chronic pain. The most commonly used strategy the endogenous pain-inhibitory modulation pro-
was the coping self-statements and the least used cesses of pain. In a study using functional MRI in
was reinterpreting pain sensations [38]. patients with chronic pain, it was seen that
Domenech and colleagues [4], found similar catastrophizing was not only associated with a
results relative to the frequency with which the greater degree of activity in the brain’s pain
different coping strategies are used, regardless of processing areas but also in the cortical areas
the cultural differences between people in different related to attention, the anticipation of pain, and
studies. The most used strategies were the increase emotional aspects of pain [40]. In healthy sub-
in behavioral activities and the coping self- jects in whom pain was caused by heat, higher
statements [4]. The least used was reinterpreting levels of catastrophizing were related to a greater
pain sensations [4]. Domenech and colleagues [4] degree of pain as well as a longer duration of the
also analyzed the relationship between the pain heat related pain [41]. This suggests that catas-
coping subscales and pain and disability. Both trophizing plays a facilitating role in the pain
subscales, the catastrophic vision and prayer-hope, perception process.
showed significant correlation with the patient’s Catastrophizing in chronic pain and disability
disability [4]. Additionally, all of the coping has been widely studied in musculoskeletal
strategies except the prayer-hope one had a sig- conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, knee
nificant relationship with the hospital anxiety and osteoarthritis, or LBP [42–47]. There is growing
depression (HAD) scale [4]. However, none of the evidence that the catastrophic vision of pain is
coping strategies showed a significant relationship related not only to the pain patients report but
with the degree of pain [4]. also to other aspects that influence the course of
the illness. Some studies show that patients with
musculoskeletal pain with these ideas have a
4.2 The Role of Catastrophizing greater degree of disability [48], increased use of
health resources [49] and medication [50, 51],
Catastrophizing is the exaggerated interpretation and a worse recovery after knee arthroplasty
of the negative consequences of pain. It is a surgery [52]. Many studies confirm a strong
multidimensional construct with elements of association between catastrophizing and the
magnification (heightened perception of pain), patient’s disability in several conditions with
rumination (excessive focus on pain), and help- chronic pain, mainly in musculoskeletal pain
lessness (beliefs that the control of pain is beyond [53–56]. Besides the association with disability,
one’s ability). AKP patients have a high preva- catastrophizing has been related to the degree of
lence of catastrophizing. Obviously, not all AKP pain. Patients with significant catastrophizing
88 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
reported greater degrees of pain both in acute and behaviors and the catastrophizing may influence
chronic pain conditions [49, 54, 56, 57]. the clinical state of AKP patients in a positive
Thomeé and colleagues [58] studied pain manner.
coping strategies in a group of AKP patients. The
catastrophizing subscale showed a very high
score in the patients with AKP, more than double 5 Psychological Involvement
the score found in rheumatoid arthritis patients. in AKP Patients. Depression
Domenech and colleagues [4] studied the and Anxiety
relationship between catastrophizing, measured
on the catastrophizing subscale of the CSQ or by As measured by HADS over half of people living
means of the PCS, and disability in a group of with AKP experience anxiety and/or depressive
AKP patients. A statistically significant correla- symptoms. The levels of anxiety and depressive
tion was found between the disability, measured symptoms in AKP patients are much higher than
using the Lysholm scale score, and the score those found in the general population (anxiety
obtained from the PCS questionnaire [4]. How- symptoms: 49.5% vs. 5.9–7.8%; depressive
ever, there was a poorer correlation with the symptoms 20.8 vs. 3.3–7.8%) [60, 61]. Never-
degree of pain [4]. Catastrophizing was also theless, these figures must be viewed with caution
found to be a widely used coping strategy in due to the potential for the HADS to overestimate
chronic AKP patients [4]. anxiety and depression [62]. High levels of anxi-
There is controversy about whether catastro- ety and depression are found in several muscu-
phizing is a stable construct, like a personality loskeletal conditions. In a systematic review,
trait that predisposes a patient with AKP to the Stubbs and colleagues [63] found figures of
chronification of pain and disability, or whether it around 20% for both anxiety and depression in
is a dynamic attribute that can be modified. If the osteoarthritis. Similar figures have also been
first premise is correct, then catastrophizing reported in low back pain [64]. This suggests that
could be an obstacle to recovery. We believe that the figures in AKP are realistic, despite concerns
the second premise is correct since we have regarding the accuracy of the HADS as a mea-
observed that catastrophizing is reduced when surement tool. We have found similar rates of
patients feel a reduction in pain after a classic anxiety (30%) and depression (16%) in people
biomedical treatment (physical therapy) [59]. with AKP (n = 97) in a tertiary setting [4].
This finding is clinically important because it Obviously, not all AKP patients have pain-
contradicts the common belief that AKP patients related fear. However, the presence of pain-
are patients with pre-existing psychological related fear is very important because it has
problems that are responsible for pain. Another clinical relevance. For example, if depression is
relevant finding is that a change in catastrophiz- present, then the levels of the pain and disability
ing is the strongest predictor of changes in both soar [4]. The same goes for anxiety [4]. If there is
pain and disability after treatment (Table 3) [59]. psychological involvement, disability and pain
A reduction in catastrophizing explains by itself are greater (Fig. 3) [4].
the 48% of the variance of the changes in the
degree of pain (Table 4) [59]. The reduction of
catastrophizing and anxiety explains 56% of the 5.1 Relationship Between Anxiety
variance in disability (Table 4) [59]. and Anterior Knee Pain
What is very important is that catastrophizing
is a cognition and therefore it is a modifiable Anxiety and stress are normal emotional reac-
factor. Therefore, cognitive-behavioral therapy tions in certain situations. Both anxiety and stress
(CBT) focused on reducing fear-avoidance in a mild or moderate form are healthy and even
Table 3 Spearman correlation coefficients of pain intensity and disability level with the psychometric variables before and after treatment. (“Republished with permission of
Springer Nature BV, from Changes in catastrophizing and kinesiophobia are predictive of changes in disability and pain after treatment in patients with anterior knee pain,
Domenech J et al., Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 22, 2295–2300, 2014; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
Table 4 Hierarchical regression explaining pain and disability. (“Republished with permission of Springer Nature BV,
from Changes in catastrophizing and kinesiophobia are predictive of changes in disability and pain after treatment in
patients with anterior knee pain, Domenech J. et al., Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc, 22, 2295–2300, 2014;
permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
beneficial because they motivate a person to experience [66]. One of the most studied mecha-
prepare a response, either to remain vigilant or to nisms of the effects of maladaptative anxiety in
serve as a warning when in danger. However, it chronic pain patients is a tendency towards
occasionally becomes dysfunctional when anxi- hypervigilance and catastrophization [12]. These
ety levels are too high or it lasts too long, tendencies amplify the perception of pain and cause
becoming pathological. Anxiety expresses itself behaviors that lead to increased disability [67].
differently in patients, sometimes in emotional Clark and colleagues [68] performed a RCT to
and cognitive manners (tension, fear, edginess, determine the efficacy of physiotherapy for
discomfort, nervousness), behavioral or motor AKP. The four treatment groups were: (1) exer-
aspects (immobility, avoidance, restlessness). cise, taping and education; (2) taping and educa-
Anxiety is also accompanied by vegetative tion; (3) exercise and education; and (4) education
reactions such as perspiration, palpitations, dry alone. They found that 27% of patients with AKP
mouth, shaking, dizziness or nausea on occasion. showed anxiety symptoms measured with the
Patients with chronic pain perceive pain as a HAD questionnaire. After receiving treatment,
situation that generates prolonged stress. The those symptoms improved. Thomee and col-
presence of anxiety influences the symptoms in leagues [58] also found high levels of anxiety in a
these patients bidirectionally. High degrees of pain group of patients with AKP using the STAI
can sometimes predict anxiety symptoms [65] and questionnaire (State Trait Anxiety Inventory),
conversely, anxiety increases the painful finding similar scores to those published for
Evaluation of Psychological Factors … 91
rheumatoid arthritis. Carlsson and colleagues [69] AKP were different to control patients in that they
measured distress/anxiety using the Rorschach showed a higher depression index (DEPI > 4).
test in patients with AKP and in a control group of Comparison with a group of psychiatric outpa-
mainly physical therapy students and found that tients showed a higher depression rate in patients
patients had high anxiety levels but with no dif- with AKP. However, Witonski [77], using the
ference from the control group. That may have Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), found no dif-
been because the students also have a high level of ferences between a group of 20 AKP patients with
distress. Piva and colleagues [30] studied a group a mean age of 18 and a control group of similar
of AKP patients with at least 4 weeks pain and an age. It is possible that the difference in the results
average numeric pain rating scale score of 3.6. is because the last group was too young, a mean
They found a correlation between disability and age of 18, or because of the different type of
level of anxiety measured with the Beck ques- measurement tool. Clark and colleagues [68]
tionnaire, suggesting that patients with more lim- performed a clinical trial with 81 AKP patients,
itations in physical function had higher anxiety assigning them randomly to four types of physical
levels. Domenech and colleagues [4] have shown therapy treatments. Prior to this treatment, 15% of
that if anxiety is present in chronic AKP patients the patients had borderline depression symptoms
with important symptoms, then levels of pain and or a well-established depression measured with
disability increase (Table 2). the HAD questionnaire scale. Interestingly, the
levels of depression, pain and disability improved
after 3 months and after 12 months of treatment
5.2 Relationship Between Depression in the 4 groups. Domenech and colleagues [59]
and Anterior Knee Pain analyzed a sample of 54 patients with chronic
AKP. They measured the presence of depressive
The importance of this association lies in the symptoms with the HAD questionnaire. They
fact that both conditions, chronic pain and demonstrated that if anxiety is present, then levels
depression, can interact to intensify their effects. of pain and disability rise drastically (Table 2).
A meta-analysis of 83 studies has shown that the In conclusion, in a chronic AKP patient it is
severity of depression is related not only to the important to identify the presence of depression
presence of chronic pain, but also to its dura- for several reasons. The most important fact is
tion, the degree of pain and the number of that depression increases disability as well as
painful areas [70]. Regarding its influence on the degree of pain. Therefore, it prolongs the
disability, several studies show that depression condition. Another reason is that undiagnosed
reduces the functional capacity of patients with and untreated depression has been related to a
osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis [71–73]. poor response to physical therapy or surgery. It
Furthermore, in patients with depression and is essential to perform a special evaluation
chronic pain, the depression symptoms improve aimed at ruling out the coexistence of hidden
if the pain is reduced [70, 74, 75]. The rela- depression in these patients.
tionship between depression and pain is rein-
forced by the fact that antidepressant drugs have
an analgesic effect on musculoskeletal pain 6 The Experience of Living
patients even without depression [76]. with Anterior Knee Pain
Although the relationship between chronic
pain and depression has been widely studied in As has been discussed so far in this chapter, psy-
other musculoskeletal conditions, very few stud- chological factors, such as fear and catastrophiz-
ies analyze this relationship in AKP patients. ing, can modulate the pain response in people with
Carlsson and colleagues [69] used the Rorschach AKP. This in turn can act as a barrier to successful
test on a group of patients with AKP while rehabilitation and further modulate the physio-
comparing it to a control group. Patients with logical responses to pain with the development
92 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
eleven participants with a history of AKP, con- at 6-months follow in terms of the global rating
ducting interviews focusing on the participants’ of change (GROC), the visual analogue scale
joint noises. Both Smith and colleagues and (VAS) for pain, the Tampa Scale for Kinesio-
Robertson and colleagues identified that joint phobia (TSK), the ‘Pain Catastrophizing Scale’
noises were often accompanied by negative (PCS), the General Self Efficacy Scale (GSES),
emotions and inaccurate aetiological beliefs, such and the generic health outcome Euro-QOL (UK
as a sign of premature ageing or damage beliefs. dataset) (EQ-5D-5 L). However, there was some
This often led to fear-avoidance of the activities difference when analyzing the qualitative data.
the patients associated with the joint noises, such Self-efficacy and locus of control was a theme
as running, squatting, stairs, sitting, and kneel- discussed with all participants, however, patients
ing, with a negative cycle of fear of degenerative in the experimental intervention group described
changes and subsequent reduced physical activ- narratives that were conceptualized as greater
ity. A participant in Smith’s study described the self-efficacy and greater internal locus of control,
emotional anxiety associated with the joint compared with patients in the usual physiother-
noises, “It was the noise that was concerning me apy group. Locus of control and self-efficacy are
more than the pain.” Although crepitus seems inter-related psychological constructs related to
normal, time should be taken to explain this to the power of thinking in achieving treatment
patients carefully so that they can focus on their outcomes and goals [81]; to put it another way,
rehabilitation. it’s how much an individual believes that have
the capability to carry out a specific activity to
achieve their goals [82]. Smith and colleagues
6.3 Responding to Treatment suggested that improvements in pain and func-
tion may have been mediated, in some part, by
Following Smith’s initial qualitative study, the greater self-efficacy and locus of control.
research team conducted a feasibility RCT with In conclusion, quantitative methods dominate
60 participants investigating a biopsychosocial AKP research, and have focused on pain and
approach to physiotherapy (a holistic approach biomechanics. Qualitative research can offer an
that attempts to include patients’ behaviors, insight into the experience of individuals living
thoughts and feelings into a comprehensive with AKP that cannot be measured with num-
rehabilitation program) for AKP compared to bers. For example, this qualitative research sug-
usual physiotherapy, in a large UK based teach- gest future intervention development and
ing hospital [80]. The experimental exercise research is warranted into biopsychosocial tar-
program was a novel physiotherapy lead inter- geted interventions that are aimed to address the
vention based on pain education and exercise pain-related fear identified.
prescription, where a single exercise was
designed to gradually expose the participant to
the activities they had been avoiding, coupled 7 Implications of Psychological
with self-management strategies aiming to facil- Factors for Clinicians Who Are
itate improvements in physical activity levels. Treating AKP Patients
Further to this, the study team conducted inter-
views with a subset of ten patients (five from People with severe AKP and psychological
both intervention arms) to understand potential impairment may benefit from therapeutic strate-
barriers and facilitators to the implementation of gies that target both the physical and non-
the intervention [80]. physical aspects of this pathological condition.
The quantitative data collected with the fea- Selhorst and colleagues [83] have shown that
sibility RCT was not powered to detect any sta- better functional results and better reduction of
tistical significance in outcome data, and indeed pain compared to a traditional approach in the
there was no difference between the two groups short-term follow-up will occur if we address
94 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
psychosocial and physical impairments in the status of all patients with AKP, including
treatment algorithm of AKP patients. However, those with severe structural anomalies.
at six months follow-up, the majority of patients – Our data shows that the presence of psycho-
in both groups (sequential cognitive and physical logical factors is a limitation to recovery. That
approach group vs non-sequential physical is, psychological factors are barriers to recovery.
impairment-based approach group) reported high – Patients with high levels of pain-related fear
levels of function, but 43% of patients still with pathology get back to normal or are at
reported pain [83]. Moreover, we significantly least much better mentally after effective
reduce pain-related fear, pain catastrophizing, treatment. Therefore, we should not ignore
fear-avoidance beliefs, and improve function if them. We need to look hard for pathology and
we incorporate a brief one-time psychologically help them, even if it takes more patience and
informed video into the standard physical ther- tender loving care from the provider.
apy protocol [84, 85]. Priore and colleagues [86] – Cognitive-behavioral therapy focused on
have demonstrated that a knee brace is effective reducing fear-avoidance behaviors and catas-
at reducing kinesiophobia. Therefore, the use of a trophizing may influence the clinical state of
knee brace could be a good strategy to improve AKP patients in a positive manner. Therefore,
exercise compliance by reducing kinesiophobia. psychological therapies might be able to work
De Oliveira Silva and colleagues [87] have together with physical therapy and surgical
shown that kinesiophobia may be a potential therapies in the treatment of AKP patients.
psychological mediator of pain and disability – The change in catastrophizing is the strongest
outcomes in AKP patients. The moderate rela- predictor of changes in both pain and dis-
tionship of kinesiophobia with self-reported pain ability after treatment.
and disability indicates that addressing kinesio-
phobia during treatment may be important to
improve clinical outcomes. Kinesiophobia may
play a more important role in the self-reported 9 Key Message
pain and disability than PFJ loading during stair
ambulation. – Psychological factors in AKP patients are
Future research should try to determine whe- modulators of pain and disability and should
ther interventions targeting reductions in psy- be addressed in combination with the search
chologic factors can effectively optimize of structural causes.
rehabilitation and reduce the high rate of people
with AKP reporting unfavorable outcomes in the
long-term.
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Management of Anterior Knee Pain
from the Physical Therapist’s
Perspective
Jenny McConnell
Anterior knee pain is a complex and interesting around the knee, and the effect of pain on muscle
disorder for clinicians to manage. Various soft activation. This chapter will explore these issues
tissue structures of the knee can generate neu- to guide the clinician through an evidence based,
rosensory signals that result in conscious pain clinical reasoned management approach to
perception. It behooves the clinician to deter- empower the patient to self-manage their
mine, where possible, the source of the symp- symptoms.
toms and the underlying causative factors so the
patient receives appropriate management for their
anterior knee pain problem. Pain has biopsy- 1 Sources of Pain
chosocial components, so the clinician is in an
ideal position to determine how to effectively The tissue-based structures that can be a potential
help the patient improve and manage their source of knee pain are the synovium, lateral
symptoms. retinaculum, subchondral bone, and the infrap-
As the patellofemoral joint is essentially a soft atellar fat pad (IFP), with the articular cartilage
tissue joint, the clinician needs to examine the because it is aneural, providing only an indirect
complex interaction of the dynamic loading and source, perhaps either through synovial irritation
control of the lower limb, as well as the relative or increasing bone stress [1–3]. As histologic
flexibility of various soft tissue structures to changes in the synovium of patients with patel-
ascertain the appropriate management of the lofemoral (PF) are only moderate, peripatellar
anterior knee pain symptoms. This requires a synovitis is a possible but less likely source of
thorough understanding not only of the lower knee pain symptoms. Histologic changes have
limb anatomy and mechanics, but also the neural also been found in some patients with PF pain in
innervation of the various soft tissue structures the lateral retinaculum with an increased number
of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibres,
neuroma formation and nerve fibrosis, providing
evidence that in some individuals, a laterally
Supplementary Information The online version
contains supplementary material available at tilted patella compromising the lateral retinacular
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_7. structures, may be the source of the symptoms
[2]. Additionally, increased intraosseous pressure
J. McConnell (&) of the patella has been found in patients with PF
Private Practice, Sydney, NSW, Australia
e-mail: jenny@mcconnell-institute.com pain who complain of pain on prolonged sitting
(movie goers’ knee), possibly secondary to a
transient venous outflow obstruction [3]. But the VL activity, but when a painful electric shock is
structure which possibly has the greatest impact randomly and intermittently applied to the knee,
on pain around the knee is the infrapatellar fat mimicking the fear of pain state experienced by
pad (Hoffa’s pad). Superolateral fat pad oedema PF pain patients, only VMO activity is decreased
is a frequent finding with patellar mal-tracking [9]. Thus, pain is a cortical experience, where
and may precede clinically significant chondrosis extrinsic factors such as fear of pain, stress,
[1, 4, 5]. anxiety, and depression can amplify the pain
The IFP is a potent source of pain owing to its experience for the patient, so the contribution of
rich innervation and relationship with the highly these factors must be understood if we are to
innervated synovium [1, 5]. The IFP and the satisfactorily improve the rehabilitation of indi-
medial retinaculum of PF patients have a higher viduals with anterior knee pain.
number of substance P fibers than the same Depression typically affects 5% of the general
structures of individuals without PF pain [5]. population, but among patients with chronic
The IFP is a dynamic structure, displacing sig- pain, 30%–45% experience depression. Studies
nificantly during knee motion, which is, there- have shown that the relationship between
fore, vulnerable to interference from trauma or depression and pain is bidirectional: depression
repetitive overload [6]. The IFP stabilizes the is a positive predictor of the development of
patella in extremes of knee motion (that is less chronic pain, and chronic pain increases the risk
than 20° and greater than 100° of knee flexion), of developing depression [11]. Neuroimaging
increases tibial external rotation and facilitates suggests an anatomic overlap in the pathway of
the distribution of synovial fluid [7]. Experi- chronic pain and depression. Hence, positive
mentally inducing knee pain by injecting hypo- psychological factors, such as hope, optimism,
tonic saline into the fat pad of asymptomatic and pain acceptance may improve persistent and
individuals causes severe infrapatellar pain, as chronic pain [11]. In a study of 710 chronic low
well as retro patellar pain, with some experi- back pain sufferers, self-confidence to manage
encing medial thigh and even groin pain [8]. pain was the most commonly perceived self-
management barrier, with 40% of these individ-
uals feeling they were not involved as equal
2 Effect of Pain partners in decision making and goal setting
related to their care [12]. It is therefore essential
The presence of pain will certainly decrease for the clinician to develop a positive therapeutic
muscle activity, timing and endurance as well as relationship with the patient, so the pain
alter movement patterns [9]. Experimental vastus chronicity and intensity may diminish with the
medialis muscle pain has been found to reduce patient’s improved understanding of how to
the EMG activity in the VM and VL muscles as manage their knee symptoms. In a recent study
well as attenuate the loading response phase peak examining the psychological features of PF pain,
knee extensor moments in gait [9, 10]. The no difference was found between PFP and pain-
observed changes persist when the pain disap- free groups. However, when the PF groups were
pears. So, muscle pain modulates the function of sub-grouped into severe and less severe, there
the quadriceps muscle, resulting in impaired knee were higher levels of psychological impairment
joint control and joint instability during walking, in the more-severe PFP-related disability group
which is a similar finding to patients with knee compared with the less severe cases. Kinesio-
pain. This loss of joint control during and sub- phobia was the most significant psychological
sequent pain may leave the knee joint prone to factor followed by depression and catastrophiz-
injury and potentially participate in the chronicity ing [13].
of musculoskeletal problems [10]. Experimen- To help unpack the complexity of patellofe-
tally inducing pain in the IFP of asymptomatic moral pain and minimise the risk of established
individuals causes a decrease in both VMO and chronicity, an understanding of the knee joint
Management of Anterior Knee Pain from the Physical … 101
anatomy and the inter-relationship of the mean pennation angle, and smaller mean physi-
dynamic lower limb mechanics is required, so an ological cross-sectional area than VML. Sar-
individually tailored treatment can be designed comere lengths of VMO and VML are
for the patient. comparable. The VMO, being more obliquely
aligned (50 to 55° medially in the frontal plane)
than the VML (15 to 18° medially in the frontal
3 Anatomy and Biomechanics plane) [19], is more likely to contribute to medial
patellar stabilization, whereas VML, with a lar-
The patella articulates with the femoral trochlea ger relative excursion and force-generating
during knee flexion and extension. The lateral capability, to the extension of the knee [19,
aspect of the femoral trochlea extends further 20]. It has been found on ultrasonography that
anteriorly than the medial aspect to provide athletic individuals have an even higher VMO
inherent stability for the patella, once the patella fiber angle of 67.8°, providing a stronger medial
is within the confines of the trochlea (from 20- stabilizing force on the patella, than sedentary
30o− knee flexion). Prior to this point, there is no individuals where it was 53.6° [21].
bony support for the patella, and passive stability On the lateral side, the VL is oriented 12 to
is provided by the medial and lateral retinaculum 15° laterally in the frontal plane with the obliq-
and the joint capsule [14]. The stability of the uity of the distal fibres being greater. The VMO
patella is also affected by the starting position of opposes the lateral vector force of the VL,
the femur [15]. Femoral anteversion changes the allowing a more efficient extensor moment at the
interrelationship of the patella and the femur. knee. Senavongse and Amis found in a cadaver
Passive stability for the patella in the first 20° study that relaxation of VMO caused a 30%
of knee flexion is provided by the medial and reduction in lateral stability of the patella [14].
lateral retinaculum and the joint capsule. The This is supported by the work Sheehan et al.
lateral side of the knee is made up of various [22], who found in asymptomatic individuals
fibrous layers from the iliotibial band and vastus during a dynamic cine- phase contrast MRI that
lateralis to form the superficial and deep lateral after motor branch block to the VMO, there was
retinaculum [14]. As most of the lateral retinac- a lateral shift of the patella of up to 1.8 mm, a
ulum arises from the iliotibial band, tightness of tibiofemoral lateral shift of up to 2.1 mm, and a
the band, which has its greatest influence at 20° tibiofemoral external rotation 3.7°; concluding
of knee flexion, will contribute to lateral tracking that VMO weakness is a major factor in, but not
and tilt of the patella [15]. The retinacular sup- the sole source of, altered PF kinematics in PF
port is stronger on the lateral side than it is on the pain subjects.
medial side. VMO is active throughout knee extension to
Passive medial patellar stability is poor, so keep the patella centred in the trochlea of the
medial patellar stability needs to be achieved femur. Thus, the synergistic relationship between
actively, which occurs through the muscular the medial and lateral vastii is important in
attachment of the medial quadriceps into the maintaining the alignment of the patella within
patella. The vastus medialis is commonly divided the femoral trochlea. Electromyographic
into the oblique portion, the VMO, and the more (EMG) studies have demonstrated that the mus-
vertical component, the vastus medialis longus cle activity of VMO and VL in the general
(VML) [16, 17] While there is often difficulty asymptomatic population is relatively balanced
accurately distinguishing the VMO and VML as in terms of activation, magnitude, and timing in a
separate entities, most authors agree that they act wide variety of static, dynamic, weightbearing
as two distinct functional units due to their fibre and non-weightbearing activities [23, 24]. This
orientation and attachments, and thus angle of synergistic relationship between the VMO and
force on the patella [18]. The VMO has signifi- VL should maintain the alignment of the patella
cantly shorter mean fibre bundle length, greater in the femoral trochlea in the first 30° of knee
102 J. McConnell
flexion, before the patella is fully engaged in the concentrically and 52% eccentrically) [23]. So,
trochlea. It has been proposed that this balanced one could pose the hypothetical question, are
activation of the VMO and VL is disrupted in these individuals at risk of developing PF pain in
patients with PFPS. The issue of whether the the future, if their activity level changes? Only a
disruption could be a motor control dysfunction longitudinal study would determine the answer to
has been investigated by Mellor and Hodges [24, this hypothetical question. What is apparent from
25] who found that synchronization of motor unit the study by Cowan et al. [23] is the need for
action potentials, is reduced in PFP subjects subgrouping of patients with PF pain and tai-
(38%) compared with controls (90%). However, loring an individual program to their specific
the evidence to support an imbalance in the needs. If a delayed onset of VMO is detected, a
activation of the vastii (either decreased activa- treatment aim would be to facilitate a balance
tion of VMO or enhanced activation of VL) is between medial and lateral structures, so the load
contentious, as was examined in the systematic through the joint could be distributed as evenly
review by Smith et al. [26]. Differences in as possible.
methodology (particularly with respect to the use The control of the proximal segment by the
of EMG) and the inherent heterogeneity in the pelvic muscles, particularly the gluteals, is criti-
PFPS population may account for some of the cal for dynamically positioning the femur and
inconsistencies in study results. This prompted hence the orientation of the trochlea. However, a
an impassioned plea by Grant el [27] to establish recent systematic review to investigate the asso-
methodological uniformity in the PF field (albeit ciation between hip muscle strength and dynamic
in this paper the concern was about measurement knee valgus found the relationship between hip
of maltracking), with specific standards for ana- muscle strength, including abductors, extensors,
tomic and outcome measures, as the large and external rotators and dynamic knee valgus
methodological variability across the literature conflicting [28]. Some studies have concluded
not only hinders the generalization of results, but that men with PFP show muscular weakness of
it mitigates understanding of the underlying the hip [29], whereas others have found no dif-
mechanisms of PF pain. ference in hip strength in women between PFP
While there is inconclusive evidence to sup- sufferers and asymptomatic individuals [30].
port or refute an imbalance in the magnitude of Additionally, prospective studies indicate that
vastii activation in patients with PFPS, disrupted hip weakness is not a risk for development of
activation of the vastii may take the form of patellofemoral pain [31, 32]. In some clinical
delayed activation of the VMO relative to the trials strength training of the gluteal muscles
VL. It is hypothesized that the VMO, which has promotes improvement in symptoms in PF
a smaller cross-sectional area than the VL, must patients but does not alter the kinematics [33,
receive a feedforward enhancement of its exci- 34]. These findings demonstrate that not all
tation level to track the patellar optimally. Many individuals suffering from PFP present with
studies examining individuals with PFP have dynamic knee valgus and that perhaps only it is
supported this hypothesis, by demonstrating that only a subgroup of patients that require
the EMG activity and reflex onset time of the strengthening of the hip musculature [33] or
VMO relative to the VL is delayed, when com- perhaps the problem is more an issue of control,
pared with asymptomatic individuals [23–25]. It timing, and endurance rather than just strength.
seems that most PF sufferers have a delayed There is also evidence that restricted ankle
onset of VMO relative to VL on a stair stepping dorsiflexion range of motion may alter lower-
task (67% concentrically, 79% eccentrically), but extremity landing mechanics, whereby a smaller
it is apparent in some PFP patients there is no amount of ankle dorsiflexion displacement dur-
delay of VMO [23]. Additionally, in some ing landing is associated with less knee flexion
asymptomatic individuals there is a delay in displacement, greater ground reaction forces, and
onset of VMO relative to VL (46% greater knee valgus displacement [35]. A meta-
Management of Anterior Knee Pain from the Physical … 103
analysis by Lima et al. [36] confirms the rela- pain, exhibit less ankle dorsiflexion range of
tionship between reduced ankle dorsiflexion and motion, and report an immediate reduction in
increased dynamic knee valgus. These authors pain with foot orthoses [41, 42].
concluded that the assessment of dynamic ankle
dorsiflexion in the clinical setting was important.
It has been found during the step-down test, that 4 Load and Frequency
individuals who have 17° or less of ankle
dorsiflexion range of motion (ROM) display Forces in the PF joint are a function of the
significantly greater hip adduction ROM than quadriceps and patellar tendon forces, which
those with more than 17° of dorsiflexion [37]. compress the patella against the femur. The PFJ
When the heel is elevated in the step-down test, Reaction Force (PFJRF) is equal and opposite to
the same participants with limited dorsiflexion this resultant force and acts perpendicular to the
ROM showed a significant reduction in hip articular surfaces and increases with increasing
adduction ROM [37]. Thus, ankle dorsiflexion flexion, as the angle between the patellar tendon
and midfoot mobility should be considered when and the quadriceps becomes more acute. During
assessing patients with aberrant frontal plane normal daily activities the PFJ becomes exposed
lower limb alignment. to force values between 0.5 (walking) to 9.7
If ankle dorsiflexion is restricted then the (squatting and running) x body weight, whilst
subtalar and midfoot joints can compensate by sporting activities create force values that
pronating, provided the foot has sufficient approach up to 20 body weight [43].
mobility to allow this. The pronation allows It is apparent that not one factor is responsible
further movement to occur at the foot and can for anterior knee pain symptoms (Table 1), but it
cause an increase in dynamic knee valgus and hip is often the cumulative effect of too much load or
adduction. A meta-analysis on the relationship too great a frequency of load, as has been well
between foot posture as a risk factor for overuse described by Dye in his seminal 1996 paper ‘The
injuries showed very limited evidence that a knee as a biologic transmission with an envelope
pronated foot posture was a risk factor for of function: a theory’ [44], which hypothesizes
patellofemoral pain development [38]. Kedroff that anterior knee pain is a consequence of an
and Amis [39] have recently found no relation- individual being taken out of their envelope of
ship between foot posture and kinematics in PFP function (which differs from individual to indi-
participants, thus questioning the use of orthoses vidual), breaching their threshold, thus not being
to correct pronation. A recent study by Matthews maintained in homeostasis, so soft tissues are
et al. [40] confirmed there was no difference in overloaded and the individual experiences pain.
success rates between foot orthoses versus hip Once pain is provoked, the individual can do less
exercises in those with high or low midfoot and less. Dye has identified four factors that
width mobility. These authors concluded that influence an individual’s envelope of function.
there was no association between midfoot width These are: (1) anatomic factors which relate to an
mobility and treatment outcome, and in their individual’s inherent morphology, structural
randomised controlled trial, there was no differ- integrity & biomechanical characteristics (that is
ence in success rate between foot orthoses and the parents they chose!); (2) kinematic factors
hip exercises in patients with PF pain [40]. which signify the dynamic control of the joint,
However, some studies have indicated the benefit that is the cerebral sequencing of motor units,
of using orthoses in the management of indi- indicating neural control of the limb and seg-
viduals with PF pain, particularly those who wear ment; (3) physiological factors which are the
less supportive footwear, report lower levels of genetically determined mechanisms controlling
104 J. McConnell
training errors
quality and rate of repair and [4] the type of patellar pain. The patient with an irritated fat pad
rehabilitation or surgery, which can be either is aggravated by straight leg raise exercises
beneficial or detrimental to recovery [44]. (SLR), so it is essential the clinician recognises
the condition so appropriate management can be
implemented to enhance, rather than, impede
5 History recovery. The clinical diagnosis of fat pad irri-
tation may be confirmed on MRI on a T2
The initial part of the examination of the patient weighted image where inflammation of the fat
involves obtaining a detailed history, so a dif- pad may be visualised. Patellar tendinopathy can
ferential diagnosis can be proposed. The diag- be confirmed on diagnostic ultrasound, particu-
nosis is later confirmed or modified by the larly using colour doppler or with MRI.
physical findings. In the history, the clinician It is crucial as a treating clinician, once you
needs to elicit, the area of pain, the type of have listened to the patient’s history to give the
activity precipitating the pain, the history of the patient some knowledge about why they have
onset of the pain, the behaviour of the pain and pain, where their pain is coming from, and what
any associated clicking, giving way, or swelling is the expected length of time it may take for
[45]. This gives an indication of the structure/s recovery. Knowledge is power and it is the
involved and the likely diagnosis; for example, if clinician’s responsibility to empower the patient
the type of activity that precipitated the patient’s to manage their problem, and to emphasise that
pain is one that involves eccentric loading, such musculoskeletal problems are managed, not
as jumping in basketball or increased hill work cured [46]. The importance of education for
during running, patellar tendinopathy would be conceptual understanding (e.g., musculoskeletal
suspected. On the other hand, if the athlete diagnosis, pain), for physical performance (e.g.,
reports pain following tumble turning or vigor- rehabilitative exercise, postural correction), and
ous kicking in swimming, or on delivery of a fast for behavioural change (e.g., modifying load) in
ball in cricket on the landing leg, an irritated fat patient management is paramount [45]. By
pad would be suspected, as it is the rapid, enhancing the patient’s knowledge about their
forceful, end range extension of the knee, caus- problem(s) and how to ‘self-manage’ it, they are
ing the inferior pole of the patella to jam sud- empowered to increasingly take control of the
denly into the nociceptive IFP [1]. In both these situation and minimise the impact on their life-
conditions the athlete complains of inferior style. Education to improve understanding can
Management of Anterior Knee Pain from the Physical … 105
lead to a decrease in patient fear, greater com- Some patients may experience “giving way”
pliance, and a concurrent improvement in pain or a buckling sensation of their knee. This occurs
experienced and movement impairments [46]. during walking or stair climbing i.e., movements
This can be done by explaining Dye’s [44] model in a straight line, and is a reflex inhibition of the
of homeostasis and envelope of function (which quadriceps muscle. It must be differentiated from
should be drawn sitting next to the patient) to the giving way experienced when turning, which
help the patient have an idea as to why their knee is indicative of an anterior cruciate deficient knee
pain started. Informing the patient about the or patellofemoral instability. Locking is another
effect of loading the knee with activities is symptom, which must be differentiated from
important (such as 05 body weight goes intra-articular pathology. Patellofemoral locking
through the knee with level walking, this is usually only a catching sensation where the
increases to 3–4 body weight with stairs and patient can actively unlock the knee; unlike loose
8–10 with running). Additionally, discussing body or meniscal locking, where the patient is
with the patient the effect pain and fear of pain either, unable to unlock, or can only passively
has on quadriceps muscle activity enhances the unlock, the knee. Mild swelling due to synovial
understanding of their problem. This summary is irritation may also occur with patellofemoral
a helpful tool for the patient to take home and problems. Mild swelling causes an asymmetric
give them time to absorb the information. wasting of the quadriceps muscle, whereby the
Knee pain !# quads ! more knee pain ! VMO is inhibited before the VL and rectus
fear of pain !# VMO ! maltracking of patella femoris (RF) [48]. So, an individual, who has
! more knee pain !" hamstrings and gastrocs primary intra- articular pathology, such as a
activity !# ability to lengthen !" relative meniscal or ligamentous injury and is recovering
flexibility in lumbar spine and midfoot, when: from knee surgery where quadriceps wasting is
(i) lifting !# knee flexion !" flexion of spine common, may have great difficulty resolving the
!" stress on spine. subsequent secondary patellofemoral problem,
(ii) descending steps !# dorsiflexion !" particularly if it is not identified [49, 50].
pronation !" knee collapsing in !" knee When considering the possible differential
pain. diagnoses, the clinician must remember that the
lumbar spine and the hip can refer symptoms to
the knee. For example, the prepubescent male
with a slipped femoral epiphysis may present
6 Symptoms of Patellofemoral Pain with a limp and AKP so can initially be misdi-
agnosed as having PF pain.
The patient usually complains of a diffuse ache in Neural tissue may also be a source of symp-
the anterior knee, which is exacerbated by stair toms around the PF joint. Lack of mobility of the
climbing. For many, the knee will ache when L5 and S1 nerve roots and their derivatives can
they’re sitting for prolonged periods with the give rise to posterior or lateral thigh pain, and
knee flexed—the movie sign. However, patients dermatomal distribution of anterior thigh pain
with an irritated fat pad have pain with prolonged coming from the L3 nerve root. Symptoms from
standing rather than prolonged sitting. Some neural tissue can be relatively easily differenti-
patients will have crepitus, which is often a ated from PF symptoms because the pain will be
source of concern for them because they feel, that exacerbated in sitting, particularly when the leg
the crepitus is indicative of “arthritis”. This cre- is straight rather than in the classic movie sign
ates negative emotions, inaccurate etiological position of a flexed knee. The slump sitting test
beliefs and ultimately leads to altered behaviour or prone knee band will quickly verify the neural
[47]. However, the crepitus is mostly due to tight tissue as being a source of the symptoms. Simi-
deep lateral retinacular structures and can be larly, a peripheral nerve may scar down or
improved with treatment. become entrapped following arthroscopic
106 J. McConnell
surgery. The commonest example is the infrap- patellofemoral joint and foot position. In weight
atellar branch of the saphenous nerve. Symptoms bearing, if a pronated foot position is seen, this
are sharp pain inferomedially with/without could be due to the foot compensating for many
slightly altered sensation laterally. The symp- proximal deformities or the foot itself may have
toms can be reproduced on deep bend and intrinsic issues causing pronation. The static foot
jumping so they are frequently confused with position influences lower limb control and
patellar tendinopathy symptoms because of the dynamic knee valgus. Additionally, if the patient
proximity to the tendon. The clinician can usu- is standing with hyperextended or ‘locked back’
ally reproduce this pain with the patient prone, knees, this can irritate the IFP, a potential source
flexing the knee to 90° and externally rotating the of diffuse knee pain symptoms and be indicative
tibia, to put the nerve on stretch [45]. that inner range (0–20° flexion) quadriceps con-
trol of the knee is poor.
Once the clinician has examined the patient in
7 Physical Examination standing, the clinician then observes the patient
during dynamic activities, commencing with the
The physical examination confirms the diagnosis least stress activity of walking and progressing to
and helps determine the underlying causative stairs, squatting, and jumping if necessary. During
factors of the patient’s symptoms so the appro- this process, the clinician is evaluating the effect of
priate treatment can be implemented. By exam- muscle action on the limb mechanics. Table 2
ining the patient’s standing position, the clinician summarises the dynamic implications of the static
should have a fair indication of how the patient findings. However, the prime aim of the dynamic
will move. The clinician observes the patient examination is to reproduce the patient’s symp-
from the front, the side and from behind, noting toms, so if the symptoms are reproduced (>3 on
femoral orientation, foot posture, knee position visual analogue scale (VAS) with walking, there is
and muscle bulk. For example, femoral internal no need to do further strenuous dynamic testing,
rotation, a common finding in patients with but if the symptoms are not reproduced, then the
patellofemoral pain, is often associated with a clinician systematically increases the functional
tight iliotibial band and poor hip muscle control, load until they have a valid objective reassessment
which can adversely affect the articulation of the activity to determine the effectiveness of their
treatment. Table 3 describes the analysis the to allow the patient to have long term control
clinician performs before observing the patient’s over managing their symptoms; and to empower
gait. When examining athletes often these the patient to self-manage their condition,
dynamic activities are not strenuous enough to emphasising that the condition is managed not
reproduce their symptoms, as longer duration cured. If, in the first treatment, the clinician can
activities, such as running 15 kms, provoke decrease the patient’s symptoms by at least 50%,
symptoms. In this situation the clinician can the clinician has the patient’s buy-in, so com-
evaluate the control of the one leg squat to deter- pliance with treatment is almost always assured.
mine the effect of treatment outcome. Load modification, particularly for the athletic
On the examination table, the clinician aims to individual, may be necessary at the onset of
reproduce the patient’s symptoms by palpating symptoms to minimize pain flares. Table 4 pro-
the around knee, including joint lines IFP and vides a decision-making algorithm for treatment
patella, as well as passively flexing and extend- direction. For a more detailed picture of indi-
ing the knee with gentle overpressure. The clin- vidualized clinically reasoned patient manage-
ician then examines the passive position of the ment, the reader is referred to the chapter ‘A
patella relative to the femur, the flexibility of Multifaceted Presentation of Knee Pain in a
certain soft tissues such as anterior hip structures, Forty-Year-Old Woman’ in Clinical reasoning in
hamstrings, gastrocnemius, and iliotibial band, as musculoskeletal practice by Mark A Jones and
well as the relative strength of various muscles Darren A Rivett [46].
such as hip rotators, quadriceps, and tibialis
posterior. It has been found however, that tradi-
tional nonweight-bearing (NWB) hip-strength 8.1 Unloading Pain
assessments may not directly translate to func-
tional strength during weight-bearing (WB) ac- The immediate reduction in symptoms can be
tivity [51]. Thus, the clinician is advised to achieved by unloading the painful structures
examine these muscles in a weight bearing using tape (Fig. 1). Painful, inflamed tissue does
position, so they have an idea of the relative respond well to stretch, so the principle of
control the muscle has over the lower extremity. unloading painful tissue is to shorten the tissue,
so there is an opportunity for the inflammation to
decrease, promoting optimal repair. In this situ-
8 Treatment ation the most appropriate tape is a rigid non-
stretch tape, as it provides support to the tissue,
Most patellofemoral conditions are successfully but still allows knee joint movement. It has been
managed with non-operative treatment. The aims found in asymptomatic individuals, using elas-
of the treatment are to unload the painful struc- tography (supersonic shear imaging to measure
tures around the PF joint, so the patient realises muscle shear elastic modulus), that unloading
there is hope that their symptoms can be tape reduces stress in the region underlying the
improved; to improve the lower limb mechanics tape [52].
108 J. McConnell
A B
Fig. 1 Unloading the IFP. The patient is in supine with tissue on the medial side of the tibial tubercle, to the
the leg relaxed, if there is too much pain for the patient to medial epicondyle (A) lifting the soft tissue towards the
have their leg straight, then a small rolled up towel may be patella to shorten the tissues and on the lateral side to the
placed under the knee. After tilting the patella out of the lateral side of the joint, lifting the tissues towards the
IFP by commencing the tilt and glide tape half up on the patella. The clinician is aiming for a ‘muffin top’ effect
patella from the inferior pole. The clinician lifts the soft
Management of Anterior Knee Pain from the Physical … 109
Taping the patella should be individualised to rigid or elasticised tape [53]. However, taping is
each patient, so the optimal reduction in symp- a means to an end, and as such, is an adjunct to
toms can be achieved. In many cases the patient’s treatment. It was never meant to be used in iso-
IFP is inflamed, so the clinician needs to ensure lation; it is part of the symptom management
that the inferior pole of the patella is tilted away program. If the tape does not reduce the symp-
from the IFP so as not to further aggravate the toms by at least 50%, then the clinician needs to
symptoms. This component must always be consider whether: (1) the tape positioning was
identified and corrected first, usually with a correct—it could be too low on the patella,
correction of a lateral tilt tape, so the patient’s causing an irritation of the fat pad; (2) the tape
symptoms are not aggravated by positioning the application was poor—too much tension, result-
tape too low on the patella. If the patella is lat- ing in skin breakdown or not enough tension,
erally tilted then the patella won’t be able to resulting in taping that is ineffective and may as
engage well in the trochlea, so a lateral tilt cor- well not be there; (3) the tape was applied in too
rection must be performed before a glide cor- much knee flexion—if the knee is flexed >30°
rection. For effective sustained symptom then the patella is already lodged in the trochlea,
reduction, the tape needs to remain on the knee albeit not well aligned; (4) tape was not appro-
and changed when it loosens. If the patient is priate for that patient—you should not put tape
fairly sedentary, one taping application may last on the knee of anyone you suspect has complex
a week, even with showering. However, if the regional pain syndrome (CRPS), as it will make
patient is playing sport and the skin becomes them worse, or tape is inappropriate for someone
sweaty, the tape may only last until the end of a whose symptoms are only mild, and therefore,
run or the game before it needs to be reapplied. aren’t bad enough to warrant taping.
Thus, the patient needs to be taught how to tape An understanding of the effect of creep on
their own knee. This is done with the patient collagenous tissue helps explain some of the
sitting on the edge of a chair, leg extended and rationale behind certain taping techniques. Creep
relaxed, foot resting on the floor, so the patella is is the tendency of a viscoelastic material to
mobile and can be more easily moved (Fig. 2). elongate during a sustained low load. So, if the
The evidence in the literature about the lateral retinacular tissues are tight, causing a tilt
effectiveness of tape is mixed, whether using of the patella, tilt tape can be used to provide a
sustained low load on those tissues to progres- friction rub, which usually occurs on the medial
sively elongate them, while at the same time aspect of the knee, so even tension with the
shortening the medial structures to promote a application of tape and the careful removal of the
more effective VMO activation. Additionally, tape will minimize the risk; and (2) less com-
tape can be used to facilitate muscle activity by monly an allergic reaction where the use of
shortening the muscle and taping in the direction hypoallergenic creams or sprays to protect the
of the muscle fibres, as well as to minimise skin beneath the tape will decrease the possibility
excessive muscle activity, by taping firmly across of a skin rash.
the muscle belly. This can expedite symptom
improvement. Examples would be the use of tape
to facilitate external femoral rotation to decrease 8.2 Improving Dynamic Lower Limb
dynamic knee valgus, taping the gluteals to Loading
enhance gluteal activation, taping the mid foot to
facilitate tibialis posterior activity and taping Focussing on a quadriceps strategy, a hip strat-
firmly across the VL and TFL to encourage egy, or a foot strategy in rehabilitation is unre-
VMO and gluteal activity [54, 55]. Figure 3 alistic for the PF patient, as muscles work
demonstrates tape to minimise activity in TFL synergistically to control the limb in weight
and VL. bearing and it is this subtle muscle control that
The clinician needs to be aware that tape use the patient has lost that needs to be restored. The
can cause some skin problems: (1) namely patient needs to realise that they are requiring
A B
Fig. 3 A Inhibiting VL and distal ITB—firm tape across up the thigh, B Inhibiting TFL. On the muscle belly of
the VL, just above the lateral patella—from posterior to TFL, firmly taping across from anterior to posterior, again
anterior thigh, making a pucker in the skin to squash the making a pucker in the skin to squash the muscle
muscle. May do another tape in the same direction higher
Management of Anterior Knee Pain from the Physical … 111
subtle changes in the motor program (body up in the air (i.e., doing SLRs), often with a
management strategies) and as such it is not weight around the ankle.
necessarily strength changes, they need but the It has been found that WB or closed kinetic
right muscles at the right time. The clinician chain (CKC) training is more effective than open
needs to improve the synergistic patterning of the chain exercises (OKC), as it promotes a more
lower limb muscles, so these muscles respond simultaneous onset of EMG activity of the four
quickly and dynamically to a new motor pro- different muscle portions of the quadriceps
gram. In individuals with pain, particularly in the compared with OKC [58]. In OKC, RF activates
chronic situation, an abnormal motor pattern earliest, while the VMO is activated last with
becomes the normal, such that the strong muscles smaller amplitude than in CKC, so CKC exercise
become stronger, and the weak muscles stay promotes a more balanced initial quadriceps
weak, as the strong will overpower the weak, activation and increases the thickness of the
which will further enhance the imbalance and VMO, than OKC exercises [59]. Additionally,
increase the loading on the painful tissues. Hence CKC training allows simultaneous training not
the need for the clinician to implement subtle only of the vasti but also the gluteals and trunk
changes in the way the muscles are working muscles to control the limb position in WB [58].
dynamically i.e., brain training. Synergic control In performing CKC squat exercises, the range
can be learned and modified. When learning a should be restricted to the inner range, not greater
new skill or modifying a previously learned skill, than 45° of knee flexion to minimize PFJ stress
cognitive processes contribute to the planning of [60], but preferably only to 30° to enhance VMO
the movement performance; perception guides activation and improve the seating of the patella
the action; and synergies form between different in the trochlea. While performing these squats,
body components to allow flexible, yet stable the patient needs to concentrate on their limb
movement control [56]. It is only through alignment, as well as the control of the move-
extensive practice that goal- relevant movement ment concentrically and eccentrically.
solutions are established, so performance and Improving control of lower limb mechanics
learning improve. Therefore, new movement should therefore be individualised to each patient
patterns are shaped by practice, as well as by depending on what was found on assessment.
contextual factors where the practice takes place Barton el al. [61] concluded that ‘an individually
[57]. So, practicing motor skills needs to be in tailored multimodal intervention programme
the specific context in which the behaviour is including gluteal and quadriceps strengthening,
intended to apply. Perception develops differ- patellar taping and an emphasis on education and
ently depending on the contextual properties in activity modification should be prescribed for
which a motor skill is practiced, and generally patients with PFP’. This has been validated in a
motor skills learned in the laboratory or lying on study by Keays et al. [62] who found that indi-
the treatment table in a clinic transfer poorly to vidualized treatment supplementing local stan-
contexts outside the controlled environment of dard physiotherapy for PFP lead to greater
the lab or the clinic (i.e., the learned behaviour is improvement in symptoms. These authors felt
not functional to requirements outside the con- that recognition of different subgroups may guide
trolled environment) [58]. For example, for an treatment that should include both local and
individual with PFP who is experiencing pain on deficit-targeted global treatment. So, for example
load bearing in an upright position, the training if a patient exhibiting dynamic knee valgus on
needs to be performed in this context specific stair decent is given hip strengthening exercises
position to ensure a change in the synergistic without the clinician evaluating their dynamic
patterning of the lower limb muscles to allow the talocrural ROM, which if found to be restricted
appropriate muscles to be strengthened (Fig. 4), on knee to wall test, the patient’s symptoms on
rather than lying on the table and lifting their leg stairs will not change until the clinician mobilises
112 J. McConnell
A B C
Fig. 4 Training the standing leg to improve synergistic feel the standing leg gluteal is working. The patient holds
control for walking, stairs and running. A To commence this position for 15 s. B This exercise can be progressed
the patient stands 45o to the wall, the NWB leg is bent up by getting the patient to stand on a pillow, simulating an
with the knee touching the wall, for balance no pushing. unstable surface or rough ground, C The exercise can also
The patient’s weight is fully on the standing leg, with the be progressed by adding an elasticised band, knotted and
weight back through the heel, the knee slightly bent, and then jammed in the door, tying a loop around the other
the pelvis tucked under slightly. The patient stands tall end for the NWB (unaffected) ankle. The patient pulls the
and externally rotates the standing leg thigh slightly band forward and back, while maintaining the position
without moving the hip or the foot. The patient should described in 4a to simulate running
the talocrurual joint in weight bearing to increase the foot musculature makes the foot look differ-
the dynamic dorsiflexion range (Fig. 5). The ent to the ground. Each can be effective- one is
clinician can help the patient maintain the range dynamic control; the other is passively changing
by showing the patient how to self-mobilise the starting position.
using a seat belt and giving the patient foot Thus, an evidence-based, holistic approach
exercises to improve the control of the foot. should include a graded exposure to load with
Addition of an intervention program consisting the patient’s activities and exercise, as well as
of short foot exercises has been shown to have consider other factors such as diet to additionally
positive effects on knee pain, navicular position, decrease load, sleep quality and quantity, and
and rearfoot posture [63]. Kısacık et al. [63] external stressors (psychosocial factors). So per-
suggested that the increase in the strength of the haps, when clinicians are assessing who will
hip extensors could be associated with improved benefit from what strategy, clinicians also need to
stabilization afforded by the foot musculature. examine patient compliance and motivation to do
Alternatively, the clinician could give the patient the exercise program (daily strategies). Compli-
a heel raise to decrease the amount of dorsiflex- ance to exercise is poor, if the patient experiences
ion required, or an orthosis to decrease the increased pain during exercise therefore, strate-
compensatory pronation. In this case, the clini- gies to decrease initial pain are important. As
cian has made the ground different to the foot, some patients may not be as motivated as others,
whereas mobilising the talocrural joint or training perhaps they would do better in the longer term,
Management of Anterior Knee Pain from the Physical … 113
A B
Fig. 5 A Mobilising the talocrural joint in weight bearing with a seat belt. B Self mobilisation
with an orthosis rather than do foot exercises or a everyday life. This is why, in a maintenance
knee brace rather than do weight bearing func- program, the exercises must be easy to do, need
tional exercises, as using an external device is no equipment, not be too many (maximum of 4),
simple, taking little time or effort. However, taking no more than 5 min, so they can be
compliance can be an issue with orthotic use, incorporated into everyday life. Empowering the
with comfort of the orthotic a key factor in patient to self-manage and have control is critical
improving compliance. to the success of PFP management or any chronic
When examining the effectiveness of ran- musculoskeletal condition for that matter.
domized controlled trials, patients are most The most compliant patients want some fur-
compliant in the initial period, so effectiveness of ther input from the physiotherapist, rather than
physiotherapy intervention should be evaluated just being discharged (i.e., a body service every
at the end of the physio intervention [64]. At 6 months, just like a car service) [64]. A recent
follow up the majority of patients are partially study of a 6-week internet-based exercise pro-
compliant, but the treatment effect is diluted by gram for PF pain without seeing a clinician,
those who were not compliant [64]. Campbell resulted in only 8% of enrolled participants
et al. [64] suggest that clinicians should move completing the program (860 initially, 70 com-
away from viewing patients as either compliers pleted), highlighting the need for a therapist
or non-compliers with therapy, but to include involved approach for patients with PF pain [65].
them as partners in rational decisions about
therapy. This would be particularly true of the
adolescent age group, who are notoriously non- 8.3 Treatment Progression
compliant with exercise. Continued compliance
is an interplay between the condition (knee pain), Once the patient’s day to day symptoms are more
perception about the cause of the pain and the under control, the clinician needs to help the
underlying consequence of persistent chronic patient incorporate increased knee loading and
pain with catastrophizing, kinesiophobia, endurance into their activity program. This will
depression, and belief that the intervention could necessitate establishing what activities the patient
be effective, as well as the motivation, willing- likes to do, whether it be walking, running,
ness, and ability to incorporate the exercises into cycling, or swimming. Some patients enjoy and
114 J. McConnell
benefit from the routine and camaraderie of a be decreased, then as control and symptoms
group exercise class, whether it be aquarobics, improve built back up again.
Pilates, yoga, boxing or a spin or pump class. The aim of retraining is to make the transition
Participation in the class should be encouraged, from functional exercises to functional activities.
provided the patient can learn to pace themselves When advising about power walking or running,
i.e., don’t do too many classes in a week; and the clinician can suggest to the patient to imagine
learn to minimize the extremes of range and load that someone is pushing them forward in the
in the exercise, as well as to recognize the shoulder blade area. This results in a more mid to
warning signs of overdoing it, such as when the forefoot strike pattern, which should decrease PF
muscles are fatiguing. Organized exercises clas- joint stress [66]. Implementation of forefoot
ses have huge benefits for mental health, and as strike training programs has been found to be
such can help minimize some of the psychosocial helpful in the treatment of runners with patello-
effects of the patient’s symptoms. femoral pain [66]. However, it is suggested that
As many patients experience pain during stair the transition to a forefoot strike pattern should
ascent and descent, one of the aims of treatment is be completed in a graduated manner, as this
to improve the patient’s ability to negotiate stairs strike pattern can overload the Achilles tendon
without reproducing symptoms. The patients [66]. Training should also be applicable to the
need to practice stepping up and down, initially patient’s activities/sport, so that a jumping ath-
using a small step, perhaps with a forward trunk lete, for example, should have jumping incor-
lean and flexed hips to minimize the stress on the porated in the program. Plyometric routines such
PF joint, then they can progress to a more upright as bounding, jumping and turning, jumping off
position, practicing in front of a mirror so that boxes, are an important part of rehabilitation for
changes in limb alignment can be observed and the high-performance athlete before they return
deviations can be observed and corrected. Some to their sport.
patients may be able to do only a small number of Once a more balanced activation pattern of the
repetitions with correct lower limb alignment. quadriceps has been established, an extremely
Since inappropriate practice can be detrimental to beneficial method of improving quadriceps
learning, using a small number of exercises with strength is cycling, as this does not load the PF
correct alignment is sufficient until the patient can joint as much as running sports, particularly if the
perform larger numbers, pain-free and with cor- activity of the VL is minimized, so a more even
rect lower limb alignment. Initially, a small quadriceps loading can be attained. Quadriceps
number of exercises should be performed fre- strength deficits, particularly medial quadriceps,
quently throughout the day. The number of rep- have been implicated in the research on causes of
etitions should be increased as the symptoms PF pain [32, 48] and the development of knee
decrease, and the endurance improves. For further osteoarthritis [67].
progression, the patient can move to a larger step, Endurance training is also essential to ensure
initially decreasing the number of contractions more resilience for the patient. The number of
and then slowly increasing them again. As the repetitions performed by the patient at a training
control improves, the patient can alter the speed session depends upon the onset of muscle fatigue.
of their stepping activity and may vary the place Initially, it is important to emphasize quality and
on descent where they stop going down. To not quantity, progressing to increase the number
increase the load, the addition of weights in the of repetitions before the onset of fatigue. Patients
hands or in a backpack on the back may gradually should be taught to recognize muscle fatigue or
be introduced, but with the addition of increased quivering, so that they do not train through the
weight, repetitions and movement speed should fatigue and risk exacerbating their symptoms.
Management of Anterior Knee Pain from the Physical … 115
9 Conclusion
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quadriceps muscles. Arthritis Rheum. 2009;61:70–7.
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Targeted Treatment in Anterior Knee
Pain Patients According
to Subgroups Versus Multimodal
Treatment
James Selfe
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 119
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_8
120 J. Selfe
Table 1 Complex stratification frameworks containing multiple PFP subgroups (Adapted from Selfe et al. [10])
Author/s Groups and subgroups
Merchant [11] 5 major groups
• Trauma
• Patellofemoral dysplasia
• Idiopathic chondromalacia patellae
• Osteochondritis dissecans
• Synovial plicae
Subgroups described for each of these specific conditions
(Total = 38 subgroups)
Wilk et al. [12] 8 major groups
• Patellar compression syndromes
• Patellar instability
• Biomechanical dysfunction
• Direct patellar trauma
• Soft tissue lesions
• Overuse syndromes
• Osteochondritis diseases
• Neurologic disorders
Subgroups described for some of these specific conditions
Treatment suggestions for each of the 8 major groups briefly discussed
(Total = 26 subgroups)
Holmes and Clancy 3 Major groups
[9] • Patellofemoral instability
• PFP with malalignment but no episodes of instability
• PFP without malalignment
Subgroups described for each of these specific conditions
(Total = 60 subgroups)
Witvrouw et al. [13] 2 Major groups
5 Minor groups
• Malalignment
– Malalignment of entire leg
– Malalignment of Patellofemoral Joint (PFJ)
• Muscular dysfunction
– Strength deficit
– Neuromuscular dysfunction
–Flexibility
Subgroups described for some of these specific conditions
Evidence-based treatment recommendations presented
(Total = 13 subgroups)
Powers et al. [14] 3 Major groups
4 Minor groups
• Reduced cartilage thickness
• Decreased PFJ contact area
–Patella malalignment or tracking
• Increased PFJ reaction forces
– Altered tibiofemoral joint kinematics
– Muscle tightness
– Altered tibiofemoral joint kinetics
Literature review and international expert consensus statement on the evidence supporting
each subgroup
(Total = 15 subgroups)
Targeted Treatment in Anterior Knee Pain Patients According … 121
for PFP, have resulted in complex systems, identification of subgroups is to improve treat-
generating multiple subgroups that often rely on ment outcomes. Therefore, researchers need to
using specialist high-cost equipment for identi- consider the feasibility and acceptability of
fication. These complex stratification frameworks implementing the test and the treatment from
may be very useful in highly specialised clinical both patient and health professional perspectives.
settings and they may also be good for guiding This helps direct the choice of how many and
research activity but in routine clinical practice a which tests to use, test thresholds or cut point
stratification framework with a double-digit scores for allocation of patients to subgroups and
number of PFP subgroups is unlikely to be the overall number of subgroups. Table 1 high-
readily adopted. lighted one of the key limitations in the search
Recent methodological frameworks on for PFP subgroups to date i.e., each of these
designing subgrouping studies provide further stratification frameworks has generated a double-
understanding on why many of the attempts to digit number of subgroups the complexity of
subgroup patients in PFP have not translated well which limits their clinical utility.
into clinical practice, some of these are discussed
in the next section. The PROGRESS partnership
[15] provides some broad recommendations and 3 Simple PFP Stratification
the Medical Research Council (MRC) [16] pro- Frameworks
vides a framework on development, design and
analysis in stratification research (Fig. 1). Table 2 presents six PFP papers that have pro-
An important issue stressed in both the posed much simpler stratification frameworks
PROGRESS recommendations [15] and the resulting in either 3 or 4 subgroups.
MRC framework [16] is the consideration Although employing differing methodologies
throughout the research process of the clinical and including slightly different and heterogenous
relevance, especially if the purpose of the populations there are some notable areas of
Fig. 1 Key steps in stratification and subgrouping research based on PROGRESS partnership recommendations [15]
and MRC [16] framework
122 J. Selfe
overlap in the proposed subgroups in Table 2 The sophistication and complexity of the
with all papers suggesting a subgroup related to neurophysiological control mechanism that
abnormal muscle length/flexibility. The key enables this to occur is remarkable and so it is
muscles of interest are the lower limb biarticular therefore unsurprising that these muscles are
muscles. often implicated in PFP. With respect to the
PROGRESS recommendations [15] and
• Rectus femoris the MRC framework [16] (Fig. 1) muscle length
• Hamstrings group tests represent good candidates to include in a
• Gastrocnemius PFP subgrouping model. As described above
there is a strong mechanobiologic rational for
During gait there is a simultaneous concentric including them, there are objective data on
and eccentric contraction at the opposite ends of important clinimetric properties such as validity,
these biarticular muscles which is overlayed reliability and there are thresholds/cut points to
onto and coordinated with uniarticular muscle define excess tightness or excess flexibility
contraction to enable smooth locomotion. which could help guide subgroup allocation. In
Targeted Treatment in Anterior Knee Pain Patients According … 123
addition, from a clinical perspective muscle developed, and although there is promising work
length tests are feasible and acceptable to both around the use of mobile digital technology such
patients and clinicians, they are routine tests as phones and tablets [24, 25], these approaches
familiar to most clinicians, they are quickly have not yet been subjected to large scale testing.
performed and they require very low-cost mea- It is also important to consider what the interre-
surement tools such as goniometers or tape lationships may be between kiniesiophobia,
measures to collect the relevant data. faulty kinematics and muscle strength. For
Most of the papers in Table 2 also refer to a example it would be anticipated patients who are
muscle strength subgroup usually including the ‘weak’ would demonstrate poor kinematics but
quadriceps femoris and various combinations of equally in those patients who are strong it may be
the muscles around the hip that provide proximal important to remember the famous Pirelli tyre
control of the femur. The majority of the pre- advertisement that stated.
ceding points supporting the candidacy of muscle Power is nothing without control.
length as a potentially important clinical sub-
group of PFP also apply to muscle strength. The Virtually all the subgroups listed in Tables 1
main difference is that the tools for measuring and 2 are based on physical or biomechanical
muscle strength in clinical environments such as factors. Only one paper [18] lists a specific
hand-held dynamometers although overall not psychosocial subgroup and only one other [22]
high cost are more expensive than those required mentions that psychosocial factors should be
to measure muscle length and are therefore not as considered. It is also interesting to consider that
readily available in all clinical settings. no papers refer to any physiological subgroups,
The other main area of consensus is the only one paper [22] mentions that tissue irri-
emergence of a ‘kinematic’ subgroup, which is tability should be considered. In light of the well-
referred to by a variety of descriptive non- established Tissue Homeostasis Model [26, 27]
scientific names i.e. dynamic control [17], func- and its extension the Neural Model [28] it is
tional mal-alignment [18], faulty movement pat- perhaps surprising to see no potential physio-
tern [19], movement coordination [22]. As logical subgroups listed in either Table 1 or 2.
physiotherapy sits firmly within an exercise and Step 2 in Fig. 1 probably explains the reason for
movement paradigm it is not surprising to see the this, as defining specific relevant physiological
emergence of a kinematic subgroup and from a variables that would be relatively easy to mea-
clinical perspective many clinicians would sure from a clinical perspective is challenging.
expect to see a movement related subgroup of
PFP patients. However, whilst there may be a
high degree of ecological validity and clinical 4 Targeted Intervention
acceptability for a kinematic subgroup there are for Patellofemoral Pains (TIPPs)
currently a number of technical challenges to
establishing this as a viable PFP subgroup. These As previously stated few subgrouping studies in
relate mostly to Stage 3 in Fig. 1 which refers to PFP have followed the PROGRESS partnership
test measurement properties such as what is the [15] and the Medical Research Council
level of validity and reliability of the tests used to (MRC) [16] guidance on stratification research.
assess kinematic deficit? and what thresholds/cut Selfe et al. [20] and Drew et al. [21] are excep-
points should be used to define the extent of the tions to this, both studies based their approaches
deficit? In the field of measuring kinematics on rigorous statistical methods and adopted
complex and expensive three-dimensional hypothesis-driven approaches initially using data
motion analysis systems may provide some to identify clinically important subgroups and
answers [23] but these are unlikely to become then explored the prognostic effect attributed to
routinely used in clinical practice. Simple to use, subgroup membership [29]. The TIPPs pro-
low-cost clinical systems have yet to be well gramme of work [20, 30] has also in line with the
124 J. Selfe
Fig. 2 Process for identifying appropriate clinical tests and potential subgroups
MRC framework [16] adopted an iterative allocation might be within a UK population. Four
approach consisting of multiple phases (Fig. 1) National Health Service (NHS) physiotherapy
in order to identify and validate potential sub- clinics, serving the general population, in the UK
groups within the PFP population using readily recruited 130 people with PFP. Participants were
available, low cost, easy to use tools found in between 18 and 40 years old, experienced uni- or
routine clinical practice. bilateral PFP for at least three months, and had
We conducted a series of literature searches to not yet started physiotherapy treatment. Addi-
draw up an initial ‘long list’ of potential sub- tional study details and eligibility criteria are
groups. One of the key documents guiding this presented in Selfe et al. [20, 30].
phase of our work was the First International PFP Participants completed demographic, clinical,
Research Retreat [31]. This consensus proposed and psychosocial questionnaires related to
three subgroups based on the global anatomical aspects of PFP and were clinically assessed using
region thought to be responsible for the problem the seven tests. Baseline demographics, such as,
i.e., proximal, local, distal. In order to facilitate sex and age, were in line with those reported by
implementation into clinical settings, assess- others [36, 37]. A causal pathway diagram, based
ments were deemed appropriate when they were: on the broader literature review, specific con-
based on evidence of diagnostic performance; sensus documents and expert opinion around the
applicable to be used in a wide range of clinical proximal, local and distal subgroups informed
settings; easy to learn and administer; free to use the analytical approach. Both hierarchical
or available at a low cost; linked to reported agglomerative cluster analysis and latent profile
thresholds; matched to a credible evidence-based analysis were used to explore the existence of
treatment intervention (Fig. 2). Through this subgroups within the sample. Surprisingly, the
process, seven assessments were identified Hamstrings length test mean scores were similar
(Table 3). across all subgroups identified by preliminary
We then conducted a feasibility study to analyses and so this was excluded from further
investigate if these assessments could be per- analysis. Three subgroups were found and are
formed in routine clinical practice, if they could illustrated in Fig. 3.
identify clinically relevant subgroups and what Both weak subgroups were consistent with
the optimum test thresholds for subgroup expectations, however, the strong subgroup was
Table 3 Seven assessments mapped to the appropriate evidence-based matched treatment option (Adapted from Selfe
et al. [30])
Assessments Evidence based matched treatment option
Hand held dynamometry for hip abductor strength (Nm/kg) [32] Hip Abductor strengthening
Hand held dynamometry for quadriceps strength (Nm/kg) [32] Quadriceps strengthening
Medial–lateral patellar mobility test (mm) [33] Patella stabilisation or mobilisation
Foot Posture Index (FPI) [34] Foot orthotics
)
Rectus femoris length test (degrees) [33]
Hamstrings length test (degrees) [35] Muscle stretching
Gastrocnemius length test (degrees) [33]
Targeted Treatment in Anterior Knee Pain Patients According … 125
STRONG (22%) WEAK AND TIGHT (39%) PRONATED AND WEAK (39%)
Hypomobile patella
More females
a novel previously unrecognised group that fell assessed [39]. Females were significantly weaker
outside normal clinical expectation for PFP as no than males in normalised strength measures
weakness in muscle strength was identified. The (p < 0.001), and had lower FPI. Mean differ-
people in this subgroup reported high levels of ences between testers for all measures were small
function, therefore it is currently our hypothesis and not significant, except for FPI which had a
that this group could be overloading their patel- 2.0 point median difference (p = 0.021). Hébert-
lofemoral joint, this is in line with previous Losier et al. [39] concluded that sex is an
frameworks [12, 14, 22], which refer to an important factor worth considering within the
overload/overuse problem associated with the TIPPs subgrouping approach, more than ethnic-
patellofemoral joint. ity, especially for normalised strength measures;
the sub-optimal reliability of FPI may warrant
reconsideration of its inclusion within future
TIPPs studies. Greuel et al. [40] confirmed the
5 Verification of TIPPs Subgroups
existence of a strong group of PFP patients. They
The TIPPS classification system has yet to be reported that there were no differences in strength
applied to patients to determine its efficacy in
guiding treatment and improving outcomes [22].
between healthy subjects and a strong group of
PFP patients. However, they did report an
This is beginning to change and the following increased level of muscle inhibition in the strong
section provides a brief summary of TIPPs ver- PFP patients, suggestive of a motor control
ification papers (Stage 5 Fig. 1) and other papers problem. Drew et al. [41] recruited seventy PFP
that have explored the application of TIPPs in patients and identified 4 PFP subgroups that
patient populations. showed potentially different outcomes at
Normative test score results have been 12 months. They identified ‘Strong’, ‘Pronation
explored between ethnicities and sex from TIPPs & Malalignment’, ‘Weak’ and ‘Flexible’ sub-
clinical assessments conducted on 89 New groups. Furthermore, the natural prognosis of
Zealanders (34% Maori, 45% female), in addi- these subgroups was established. By adjusting
tion the inter-rater reliability of each test was for known covariates, they reported, compared to
126 J. Selfe
Physical Domain
Clinical assessment
Objecve Measure of
Cold subgroup?
TsK
described earlier, but also others for which there 4. Three overarching domains need considera-
may be emerging evidence of their prognostic tion within a subgrouping model for PFP:
impact, e.g., psychosocial factors [57] and a core Physical; Psychosocial; Physiological.
set of outcome measures. While progress is being 5. Within the Physical domain consensus
made on the latter with the development of the appears to emerging around the importance
KOOS-PF [58] there remains a bewildering of: Muscle strength, Muscle length, Foot
variety of different tests used to measure the Posture, Kinematics. The Psychosocial and
same clinical phenomenon; some are more Physiological domains are under investigated.
practical to use than others. The recently pub- 6. Candidature for subgroups requires
lished Report PF [59] which is hosted on the a. a strong mechanobiologic rational
Equator Network provides a clearly defined, and b. objective data on test measurement prop-
widely accepted set of agreed standards for erties such as validity and reliability
reporting of quantitative PFP research and rep- c. thresholds/cut points to define subgroup
resents a useful step forwards in terms of stan- allocation
dardisation. It consists of 31 items (11 strongly d. tests that are feasible and acceptable to
recommended, 20 recommended), covering both patients and clinicians (e.g. quickly
(i) demographics; (ii) baseline symptoms and performed and requiring low cost mea-
previous treatments; (iii) outcome measures; surement tools to collect relevant data).
(iv) outcomes measure description; (v) clinical
trial methodology and (vi) reporting study
results. Finally, we also need carefully collected
normative data on key measures to allow for 9 Key-Message
appropriate interpretation of comparative test
data in PFP patients. Despite an emerging evi- There have been many attempts at defining
dence base and some consensus, to date no subgroups within the PFP population, despite
definitive RCTs have been conducted to evaluate these efforts, currently there is no consensus on
the potential benefits of matched interventions the optimal subgroups, however there is emerg-
for PFP subgroups in terms of improved patient ing evidence that a subgrouping approach may
outcomes so this continues to warrant further improve patients outcomes compared to a mul-
research. timodal approach to treatment.
1. There is limited evidence supporting the 1. Barton CJ, Lack S, Hemmings S, et al. The ‘best
practice guide to conservative management of
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Surgical Treatment of Anterior Knee
Pain. When is Surgery Needed?
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
and Robert A. Teitge
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 133
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_9
134 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. A. Teitge
complete physical examination and the use of 2.2 Treat Patients, Not Images
imaging must be included. The surgeon must
determine which surgical procedure, if any, has Unfortunately, many orthopedic surgeons oper-
the potential to improve the patient´s condition ate based on what computed tomography (CT) or
and, most importantly, does them no harm. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows. That
might be chondropathy, lateral patellar subluxa-
tion, patellar tilt, or an increment in the tibial
2.1 A Right Diagnosis is Paramount— tuberosity-trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance. It
Listen to the Patient seems as though they are operating on an image
instead of a person. Using this information as the
Conversation with the patient and a complete basis for surgery is a critical error—and it is
physical examination are fundamental, but are responsible for the poor reputation of AKP sur-
too often neglected. This, in turn, triggers a failed gery. In the hands of the wrong orthopedic sur-
patellofemoral surgery. We must listen very geon, the MRI becomes a license to operate.
carefully to our patients because they will usually The MRI does not tell us what hurts.
tell us what is wrong in their own words. It is our Poor results of surgery in AKP patients may
mistake if we fail to understand them and assume arise either because the diagnosis is inaccurate or
we somehow know better than what they are because of physio-pathological premises on
trying to tell us. To reiterate, a complete physical which surgery are based (i.e., “pathological” TT-
examination is prerequisite. This is an attempt to TG distance) are incorrect. Therefore, the treat-
uncover all of the anatomic abnormalities, of ment is also incorrect. Many orthopedic sur-
which there are often many. When any abnormal geons base their surgical indication for
anatomy is uncovered then the following ques- patellofemoral surgery on a TT-TG distance
tion must be answered. How does this change the greater than 20 mm. The use of this parameter as
normal biomechanics? the deciding factor is a critical mistake because it
To arrive at a correct diagnosis, answers are can be a source of surgical failure and iatro-
also needed to the following questions: (1) Is genic conditions. We must not use imaging
AKP secondary to patellar instability, or does it numbers to treat a patient. Physical examination
arise from bone rubbing or tension in the soft is the key part of assessing AKP. Tensho
tissues?; (2) Does the patient have a neutral and colleagues [7] have proven that knee rotation
mechanical axis, or is varus or valgus present?; affects the TT-TG distance more than tubercle
(3) Does he or she have abnormal torsion (i.e., malposition does. For this reason, it should not be
considerable external tibial rotation or patholog- used as a surgical indicator for tibial tubercle
ical internal rotation of the femur)?; and (4) Is the transfer. However, the TT-TG distance is cur-
quadriceps too tight? A critical factor to consider rently widely used as an indicator for medializa-
when treating AKP patients is whether patello- tion of the tibial tubercle in the AKP patient.
femoral instability is present concurrently. Historically, great importance has been given
Treatment of underlying patellar instability in to the presence of a lateral patellar subluxation in
these patients should be undertaken with caution the CT or in the MRI, which is attributed to
and the patients must know that surgical patellar excessive traction of the lateral retinaculum
stabilization may not relieve AKP. Moreover, a (LR) in the AKP patient. However, the LR does
careful assessment of the limb alignment is an not pull the patella laterally—it prevents it from
essential part of the physical evaluation of the moving too far medially. Lateral patellar sub-
AKP patient. luxation may be due to inadequate lateral
Surgical Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain … 135
Fig. 1 SPECT-CT in an AKP patient with 40° of external left tibial rotation. External tibial rotation increases pressure
on the lateral side of the PFJ. This patient had disabling left AKP recalcitrant to conservative treatment
trochlear inclination, genu valgum, or abnormal A true skeletal malalignment of the lower
femoral anteversion. If lateral subluxation of limb might be responsible for focal overload in
the patella is present, the patellar tendon the PFJ [8–13]. In those cases, imaging studies
approaches the tibial tuberosity from a more like single-photon emission computed tomogra-
lateral direction. Specifically, most of its force phy (SPECT)-CT can reveal overloaded areas
through the patellar tendon is diverted into pull- (Fig. 1). We should strive to restore the normal
ing the tuberosity laterally when the quadriceps anatomy because that will create a better
contracts, causing the tibia to rotate more exter- biomechanical environment for the tissue. Rota-
nally on the femur. Therefore, using a lateral tional osteotomies may be used to unload bone
retinaculum release (LRR) to correct lateral and peripatellar soft tissue and create an adequate
patellar subluxation is inappropriate. We must environment for a return to homeostasis. As
treat the underlying cause, for example, exces- suggested by Post and Dye, “Think of surgery as
sive femoral anteversion. a tool used to create an environment in which
homeostasis may be restored” [1].
Osteotomy is quite able to change the direc- 2.5 Identify if There Are Associatted
tion of the force. This ability is particularly Psychological Factors
important when abnormal limb alignment and Central Sensitization
(transverse or coronal plane or combination) is
present. If the cartilage is repaired but the Our data shows that the presence of psycholog-
mechanics that caused its failure are ignored, ical factors is a limitation to recovery (see
failure is the likely outcome. chapter “Evaluation of Psychological Factors
It appears to be appropriate to place the tro- Affecting Anterior Knee Pain Patients: The
chlear groove under the patella instead of forcing Implications for Clinicians Who Treat these
the latter over the trochlear groove. In short, Patients”). Therefore, we should not ignore them.
think about limb alignment, not patellar align- However, the presence of psychological impair-
ment (Fig. 2). ment is not a contraindication for surgery.
A B
C D
Fig. 2 Normal knee (A). The rotating movement of the joint increases (4), inward twisting of the knee (5). The
femur underneath the patella in the transverse plane leads final result: ‘‘patellofemoral imbalance’’. (D) Patellar
to abnormal patellar tracking (lateral patellar subluxation maltracking after two previous failed distal femoral
and patellar tilt (1) and therefore patellofemoral imbal- osteotomies. (C) Postoperative CT. After external femoral
ance) (B). The patella maintains a horizontal position, rotational osteotomy, we achieve a greater surface of
while the femur internally rotates. Therefore, the patellar contact and therefore a decrease in patellofemoral joint
subluxation during weight-bearing conditions is not the pressure. (“Republished with permission of Springer
result of patella moving on the femur, but of the result of Nature BV, from Holistic approach to understanding
the femur rotating underneath the patella. It would be the anterior knee pain, Sanchis-Alfonso V, Knee Surg Sports
rationale for rotational osteotomy surgery. Retracted Traumatol Arthrosc, 22, 2275–2285, 2014; permission
lateral retinaculum (2), tension increases in the medial conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
retinaculum (3), compression in the lateral patellofemoral
Surgical Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain … 137
“Crazy” patients with a real pathology get back arthroscopic procedures. They showed a need for
to normal or are at least much better mentally revision surgery in 12% of the cases after a 52-
after effective treatment. A reduction in psycho- month follow-up. Then again, they did empha-
logical impairment after a correct surgical treat- size that the surgical procedure is necessary in
ment that has reduced or eliminated the pain has less than 15% of AKP patients. Nevertheless, the
been seen. What is more, we have observed a authors drew attention to the need for random-
reduction in central sensitization after successful ized clinical trials to assess the advantages of this
surgical treatment. In “crazy” patients, we need procedure when treating AKP.
to look hard for a real pathology and help them However, experienced knee surgeons with a
even if it takes more patience and tender loving special interest in the PFJ rarely perform isolated
care from the provider. LRR [16]. In a study [17] that analyzed the
current trends in LRR procedures from 2010
through 2017 using a large USA database, the
2.6 In Short … authors showed an incidence for LRR of 481.9
per 100,000 orthopedic surgeries in 2010 that
We must always evaluate the following: significantly decreased to 186.9 per 100,000
(1) skeletal limb alignment (including the tro- orthopedic surgeries in 2017. LRRs were more
chlea); (2) ligaments (i.e., the presence of commonly performed in younger female patients
hypermobility and its cause and location); for a diagnosis of pain with the most common
(3) articular cartilage (i.e., complete or partial concomitant procedure being meniscectomy,
loss, location of the loss, possibility to shift synovectomy, or a microfracture.
contact to intact cartilage); and (4) muscle (i.e., Iatrogenic medial patellar instability has been
symmetrical atrophy versus gross imbalance). described after excessive LRR or in the setting of
an LRR performed in cases of patellar tilt without
a tight LR or in patients with severe trochlear
3 Minimally Invasive Surgical dysplasia [18]. Lateral retinacular lengthening
Procedures has been reported as an alternative to LRR to
prevent its eventual complications [14].
Some orthopaedic surgeons consider minimally Moreover, releasing the painful retinaculum in
invasive surgical procedures like LRR and a limited way in a very selected group of AKP
arthroscopic focal synovectomy as minor risk- patients may relieve pain [19]. Finally, arthro-
free surgical procedures. However, we agree with scopic LRR of a symptomatic type III bipartite
Ronald Grelsamer in that “There is no such thing patella without excision of the accessory bone
as minor surgery—only minor surgeons”. fragment is related to excellent AKP relief and an
early return to sport activities [20].
Lee and colleagues [8, 9, 28] have demon- increased femoral anteversion and increased
strated that femoral rotation results in an increase external tibial torsion has been termed miserable
in PFJ contact pressures on the contralateral facet malalignment syndrome that includes squinting
of the patella (i.e., lateral PFJ during internal patella, genu varum, genu recurvatum and pro-
rotation of the femur and vice versa). Further- nated foot (Fig. 8).
more, tibial rotation results in an increase in PFJ In the prone position, the proportion of
contact pressures on the ipsilateral facet of the internal to external rotation of the hips in
patella. Lee and colleagues have demonstrated extension must be measured [30]. If internal
that tibial rotation not only has an influence on rotation exceeds external rotation by more than
PFJ contact pressures and areas but also on strain 30 degrees, there is increased femoral antever-
in the peripatellar retinaculum [28]. More sion (Fig. 9). In cases with isolated excessive
recently, Passmore and colleagues [10] have external tibial torsion, internal and external
shown that idiopathic lower-limb torsional rotation are similar (Fig. 10).
deformities of the femur and tibia in children and Furthermore, it is important to evaluate the
adolescents are associated with gait impairments foot progression angle. The “foot progression
as well as an increase in loading on the hip and angle” should be neutral when walking [31, 32].
PFJ. Thus, idiopathic lower-limb torsional Excessive femoral anteversion is manifested by a
deformities are not a purely cosmetic issue. gait pattern with an internal foot progression
Using a finite element model, Liao and col- angle (in-toeing) (Fig. 11) and external tibial
leagues [29] have demonstrated that internal torsion by out-toeing. However, if excessive
rotation of the femur provokes an increment in femoral anteversion is associated with excessive
PFJ stress. external tibial torsion (i.e., pan genu torsion or
miserable malalignment), the foot progression
4.1.2 Clinical Evaluation angle will be neutral, and this combined long-
Four types of torsional alteration of the lower bone deformity may be concealed to the unwary
limb are possible: (1) femoral anteversion, observer. It is therefore important to have a
(2) femoral retroversion, (3) excessive external patient appropriately unclad and note that the
tibial torsion, and (4) excessive femoral antev- knee progression angle is inward.
ersion associated with an increased external tibial
torsion.One of the questions yet to be answered, 4.1.3 Measuring Torsion
biomechanically, in the last type is whether In our clinical practice, we use the technique
excess tibial torsion and excess of femoral described by Murphy and colleagues in 1987 to
anteversion are of equal mechanical importance? measure femoral torsion [33]. This is the most
Then again, does tibial or femoral torsion have a anatomic, accurate and reproducible method for
greater negative mechanical influence? The evaluating femoral anteversion (high intra- [ICC:
importance of different maltorsions is unclear. 0.95–0.98] and inter-observer agreement [ICC:
When the patient stands with their feet par- 0.93]) [34]. Murphy and colleagues reported that
allel, the patella should be facing forward. In the common method of running a line along the
patients with excessive external tibial torsion, we femoral neck on a CT image underestimated the
can see a squinting patella and a genu varum actual anteversion by a mean 13° [33]. The line
(Figs. 5 and 6). The varus in patients with that is used in the most common method, like the
external tibial rotation may be real, or it may be a axis of the femoral neck, is not the true axis of
reflection of the tibial torsion (thus pseudo- the femoral neck. External tibial torsion is mea-
varus). In the same way, we can observe a sured as the angle between the posterior aspect of
“pseudo-valgus” in patients with pathological the tibial metaphysis and the ankle joint line. Our
femoral anteversion (Fig. 7). Evidently, we must normal reference values are femoral anterversion
only correct the transverse deformity in these of 13º for both sexes and external tibial torsion of
cases, not the coronal one. The combination of 21º in males and 27° in females [35, 36].
Surgical Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain … 141
A B C
Fig. 5 A, B Squinting patella in a patient with excessive Company. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Evaluation of
external tibial torsion. C Normal skeletal alignment in the anterior knee pain patient: clinical and radiological assess-
transverse plane. Female with femoral anteversion of 13º ment including psychological factors. Ann Joint, 3:26,
and external tibial torsion of 27º. D Female with an increase 2018. C, D—Republished with permission of Elsevier
in external tibial torsion. To keep the foot progression angle Science & Technology Journals. From Teitge RA. Patello-
normal, the knee joint points inward causing increased femoral Disorders Correction of Rotational Malalignment
strain on the knee. The hip appears internally rotated with of the Lower Extremity. In: Noyes´s Knee Disorders:
the greater trochanter pointing somewhat anteriorly. (A, B Surgery, Rehabilitation, Clinical Outcomes, 2017; permis-
—Republished with permission of AME Publishing sion conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
Fig. 7 “Pseudo-valgus” in a
patient with pathological
femoral anteversion. In this
case, the valgus was not real.
It was due to the inward
position of her flexed knee,
that is, in this case it was
secondary to a femoral
anteversio of 51º. (Courtesy
of Robert A. Teitge, MD)
Surgical Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain … 143
A B C D
Fig. 8 A, B, C Miserable malalignment syndrome. anterior than normal, and with the foot progression angle
D Female with 30º increase in femoral anteversion. The normal, the knee joint axis points markedly inward. (D, E
knee joint points in the same direction, slightly inward, as —Republished with permission of Elsevier Science &
in the normal female, but the greater trochanter points Technology Journals. From Teitge RA. Patellofemoral
posteriorly. At some point, the hip cannot externally rotate Disorders Correction of Rotational Malalignment of the
enough to keep the knee joint pointed forward. E Female Lower Extremity. In: Noyes´s Knee Disorders: Surgery,
with a 30º increase in both femoral anteversion and Rehabilitation, Clinical Outcomes, 2017; permission
external tibial torsion. Note the trochanter is pointed more conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
(Fig. 12) is more frequent than an isolated One of the most frequent symptoms of genu
femoral-based deformity (27% vs. 23.6%). The recurvatum is AKP. In these cases, continuous
clinical relevance of the paper by Eberbach and hyperextension of the knee will provoke a
colleagues [38] is that varus osteotomies to treat hyperpressure on the anterior cartilage of the
genu valgum must be performed at the proximal tibial plateau on the one hand and infrapatellar fat
tibial site in 41% of the cases or as a double-level pad impingement on the other [39]. Fat pad
osteotomy in a relevant number of patients impingement will cause chronic inflammation of
(45.5% of cases) to avoid an oblique joint line the infrapatellar fat pad through repetitive
(Fig. 12). The ideal osteotomy site was the distal microtrauma [39]. All of this will be accountable
femur in only 13.6% of cases. for the pain. When the angle of recurvatum is
greater than 15º, it is considered pathological
[40].
4.3 Osteotomies in the Sagittal Plane Non-operative treatment consisting of muscle
—Genu Recurvatum strength training and anti-hyperextension bracing
is the first step of treatment. After the failure of
The term genu recurvatum describes a knee with non-operative treatment, we must consider sur-
hyperextension of the tibia on the femur gical treatment. There are several options for
(Fig. 13). surgical treatment:
144 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. A. Teitge
Fig. 9 Evaluation of a
patient with excessive right
femoral anteversion in the
prone position
(1) Opening wedge osteotomy (Fig. 14). One The correction depends on the accuracy of
cut from anterior to posterior and then a planning and the removal of the wedge.
wedge of bone graft anteriorly with a plate Placing a sufficiently long plate on the
anteriorly with compression of the graft. posterior tibia is not so easy as the space is
Healing with the bone wedge is not so tight.
rapid, which is one complaint. With this (3) Philipp Lobenhoffer has proposed a cres-
osteotomy, we will gain length. centic osteotomy using the Synthes crescent
(2) Closing wedge posteriorly. This is a much saws usually used for veterinary cases
larger dissection and there is more risk of referred to as TPLO (tibial plateau leveling
moving the soft tissues away. The wedge osteotomy). There is minimal bone loss and
may be cut from the side rather than straight a very broad surface area. The trick is to
posteriorly. The leg is obviously shortened. locate the center of rotation and place a K-
Surgical Treatment of Anterior Knee Pain … 145
Fig. 11 The patients are always aware of what is wrong can clearly see how the patient rotates the limb internally
with them. The doctor only has to listen to what they say. during gait. An excessive femoral anteversion is mani-
Here, this girl was asked to walk as she normally walks fested by an in-toeing gait
and then to exaggerate the way she thinks she walks. We
146 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and R. A. Teitge
Fig. 12 Left valgus deformity (22º) in a patient with varus rotational osteotomy of the femur (7º of varus and
disabling AKP and lateral patellar instability. Left CD 35º of external femoral rotation) and a medial closed
index 1.5. This patient also had a left femoral anteversion wedge varus rotational osteotomy of the tibia below the
of 54º and a left external tibial torsion of 56º. Intraop- tibial tuberosity (15º varus and 30º internal rotation) was
erative X-rays after lateral supracondylar open wedge performed
27. Stevens PM, Gililland JM, Anderson LA, et al. 34. Kaiser P, Attal R, Kammerer M, et al. Significant
Success of torsional correction surgery after failed differences in femoral torsion values depending on
surgeries for patellofemoral pain and instability. the CT measurement technique. Arch Orthop Trauma
Strategies Trauma Limb Reconstr. 2014;9(1):5–12. Surg. 2016;136(9):1259–64.
28. Lee TQ, Yang BY, Sandusky MD, et al. The effects 35. Yoshioka Y, Cooke TD. Femoral anteversion:
of tibial rotation on the patellofemoral joint: assess- assessment based on function axes. J Orthop Res.
ment of the changes in in situ strain in the peripatellar 1987;5(1):86–91.
retinaculum and the patellofemoral contact pressures 36. Yoshioka Y, Siu DW, Scudamore RA, et al. Tibial
and areas. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2001;38:463–9. anatomy and functional axes. J Orthop Res. 1989;7
29. Liao TC, Yang N, Ho KY, et al. Femur rotation (1):132–7.
increases patella cartilage stress in females with 37. Winkler PhW, Lutz PM, Rupp MC, et al. Increased
patellofemoral pain. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2015;47 external tibial torsion is an infratuberositary defor-
(9):1775–80. mity and is not correlated with a lateralized position
30. Carson WG Jr, James SL, Larson RL, et al. of the tibial tuberosity. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
Patellofemoral disorders: physical and radiographic Arthroscopy. 2021;29:1678–85.
evaluation. Part I: Physical examination. Clin Orthop 38. Eberbach H, Mehl J, Feucht MJ, et al. Geometry of
Relat Res. 1984;(185):165–177. the valgus knee: Contradicting the dogma of a
31. Staheli LT. Torsion-treatment indications. Clin femoral-based deformity. Am J Sports Med. 2017;45
Orthop Relat Res. 1989;247:61–6. (4):909–14.
32. Staheli LT, Corbett M, Wyss C, et al. Lower- 39. van Raaij TM, de Waal MJ. Anterior opening wedge
extremity rotational problems in children. Normal osteotomy of the proximal tibia for anterior knee pain
values to guide management. J Bone Joint Surg Am. in idiopathic hyperextension knees. Int
1985;67(1):39–47. Orthop. 2006;30(4):248–52.
33. Murphy SB, Simon SR, Kijewski PK, et al. Femoral 40. Moroni A, Pezzuto V, Pompili M, et al. Proximal
anteversion. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1987;69 osteotomy of the tibia for the treatment of genu
(8):1169–76. recurvatum in adults. J Bone Joint Surg Am.
1992;74:577–86.
The Failed Patella. What Can We Do?
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 151
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_10
152 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
The phenomenon of pain centralization is the CSI scale correlated with the levels of anxiety
frequent in different musculoskeletal conditions and depression, as occurs in our sample of
that present with chronic pain [4, 5]. Thus, it has patients. Nevertheless, the CSI score did not
been estimated that centralization of pain occurs correlate with levels of catastrophizing and
in 30% of cases of osteoarthritis and in close to kinesiophobia, suggesting that they are indepen-
100% of patients with fibromyalgia and whiplash dent constructs. Catastrophizing and kinesio-
syndrome. It has been suggested that it appears in phobia are psychological variables that have
a third of patients with chronic low back pain and been shown to be associated with disability in
in all patients with failed back surgery syndrome. AKP patients [9, 10]. CS is a neurophysiological
The Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) is a phenomenon in which pain modulation is altered
self-report instrument designed to identify by its facilitatory and inhibitory mechanisms in
patients who have pain characteristics related to chronic pain conditions. In some AKP patients,
CS. This questionnaire is the most widely CS is revealed as an explaining factor that
method used in clinical setting. Patients are asked influences disability independently of catastro-
25 questions aimed at assessing CS symptoms. phizing and kinesiophobia.
The patient scores each answer on a Likert scale Further research is needed to evaluate the
from 0 (never) to 4 (always). A score of more prognostic capabilities of CS and its relationship
than 40 indicates the presence of CS [6]. with therapeutic management. However, we
Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues [7] studied believe that the presence of CS should not be the
the presence of CS using the CSI questionnaire. justification for not continuing to evaluate the
It was done with a sample of 44 patients with patient and send her to a “Pain Unit”. There are
chronic AKP that were compared to a group of patients with high values in the CS score who have
44 healthy subjects matched for age and sex. objective structural causes that provide an expla-
They found a prevalence of central pain sensiti- nation for the pain and that had gone undetected.
zation of 36% in AKP patients versus 4% in the Once that pain is treated to improve or eliminate it,
healthy population. The study also explored the it causes the CS score to drop drastically.
participation of CS in both pain and disability as
well as in a list of psychological variables that
earlier studies have demonstrated as having an 2.4 Do Not Forget the Psychological
influence on the clinical severity of AKP (i.e., Evaluation
depression, anxiety, kinesiophobia and catastro-
phizing). No differences were found in the level One must not forget the psychological evaluation
of pain measured with VAS between patients of the patient. Our data (see chapters “Evaluation
with or without centralized pain. Patients with of Psychological Factors Affecting Anterior Knee
pain centralization had the same intensity of pain Pain Patients: The Implications for Clinicians
as patients without centralization. However, AKP Who Treat these Patients”) shows that the pres-
patients with CS had significantly greater dis- ence of psychological factors in these patients is a
ability than patients without centralization as limitation to recovery. That is, psychological
measured with the Kujala scale (41.6 vs. 53.6, factors are barriers to recovery. Once again, the
respectively; p < 0,05). This difference coincides presence of those factors should not be the excuse
with the value of 12 that is considered Minimal for not continuing to study the patient and refer
clinically important differences (MCIDs) when him to the psychiatrist. “Crazy” patients with a real
using the Kujala scale [8]. These findings suggest pathology get back to normal or are at least much
that pain chronification in AKP patients that is better mentally after effective treatment. There-
mediated by the phenomenon of CS is more fore, they should not be ignored. We need to look
disabling even though their pain intensity may hard for a real pathology and try to help them, even
not be greater. In accordance with studies in if it takes more patience and tender loving care
other musculoskeletal pathologies, the values on from the provider.
154 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
2.5 Do Not Ignore the Mechanics must make the patients stop saying the typical: “I
Which Caused the Tissue wish I hadn’t been operated on.”
Failure, if so, Another We must note that a failed patella does not
Failed Result Ensues necessarily require more surgeries. In some
cases, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimula-
We must do a complete physical examination to tion, radiofrequency neurotomy, spinal cord
uncover all of the anatomic abnormalities, of stimulation or implantable pumps that supply
which there are often many. You should strive to medication to control the pain could be neces-
restore the normal anatomy, because that will sary. However, these techniques are beyond the
create a better biomechanical environment for the scope of this chapter.
tissue. When any abnormal anatomy is uncov- Confronting the failed patella of the patient
ered, a question must be answered. How does provides a great stimulus for intellectual activity.
this change the normal biomechanics? Biome- It provides an opportunity for new observations. It
chanics is crucial. Orthopedic surgery is a is an opportunity to learn something new each day.
mechanical engineering discipline. If you repair a
failed tissue (bone, ligament or cartilage) and
ignore the mechanics which caused the tissue 3 Iatrogenic Medial Patellar
failure, you will usually have a failed result. Instability and Multidirectional
Patellar Instability
follows: kinesiophobia (100% vs. 80%), catas- medial stress is applied to the patella; and (4) a
trophizing (41% vs. 37%), anxiety (59% vs. positive Fulkerson relocation test [13]. To per-
37%), and depression (24% vs. 11%) [12]. Fre- form this test, the patella is held slightly in a
quently, psychological involvement is over- medial direction with the knee extended. Then,
looked by the orthopedic surgeon. However, it is we flex the knee while letting go of the patella,
an important issue because psychological factors which causes the patella to go into the femoral
are barriers to recovery (See chapter “Evaluation trochlea. In patients with medial subluxation, this
of Psychological Factors Affecting Anterior test reproduces the patient’s symptom.
Knee Pain Patients: The Implications for Clin- In patients with IMPI, there is significant pain
icians Who Treat these Patients”). relief with a “reverse” McConnell taping
IMPI is more frequent than we had thought. It (Fig. 1). Similarly, the application of a patellar
might be underdiagnosed because it is still not a brace with the buttress pad or strap on the medial
well-known entity. Most of these patients go side will minimize or eliminate symptoms (e.g.,
from one doctor to another until they find a Trupull brace, DJ Orthopedics, Vista, California,
doctor who gives a correct diagnosis and an USA). This is a good way to confirm our diag-
appropriate solution to their problem. These nosis before indicating a surgical treatment.
patients have frequently visited several physi-
Multidirectional Patellar Instability
cians who had told them that there was nothing
that could be done to solve their problem. Then, On some occasions, IMPI is associated with
the patient comes to our office with a large folder lateral patellar instability due to a deficiency of
full of radiological studies (MRI, CT scan, X- the medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL). We
rays) that are identified as normal or as “lateral must remember that another restraint to medial
patellar subluxation” or “chondromalacia patel- patellar displacement, apart from the lateral reti-
lae”, at the most. There is question we should ask naculum, is the MPFL (Fig. 2). In these cases,
ourselves. Are these radiologically “normal” tests we are faced with a multidirectional instability of
enough to rule out an objective condition that patella.
justifies the severe pain the patients suffer? The Figure 3 Belongs to a patient operated on for
answer is an emphatic no. lateral patellar instability with an LRR. The
patient had severe trochlear dysplasia. The
Diagnosis of IMPI. Medial Patellar Instability
patient developed an IMPI that was associated
sees you. Do you see it?
with her previous situation of lateral patellar
The first step in diagnosing a pathological con- stability. We are therefore facing a typical case of
dition is to know that it exists. This was clearly multidirectional patellar instability in which a
stated by Jack Hughston in his well-known sen- sulcus sign similar to that seen in multidirectional
tence: “You may not have seen it, but maybe it has shoulder instabilities can be seen (Fig. 4).
seen you”. In our series, many patients have had
Evaluation of IMPI
to visit more than three doctors before obtaining a
diagnosis and an appropriate treatment. This Ideally, we should evaluate AKP patients, and
demonstrates that it is a clinical condition that IMPI should not be an exception, during dynamic
most orthopedic surgeons do not know about. activities that trigger or aggravate the symptoms.
Therefore, we believe that there is a need to This should be done under realistic loading con-
communicate the diagnostic procedures for rec- ditions, for example, the stair descending test. In
ognizing this clinical condition far and wide. patients with IMPI, kinematic analysis demon-
The most important findings for diagnosing strates a stair descending pattern with knee
IMPI are (1) pain and tenderness at the site of the extension (Fig. 5). The knee extension could be a
LR defect; (2) increased passive medial patellar strategy to avoid instability and therefore pain.
mobility when compared with the contralateral The patella goes from medial to lateral with knee
normal knee; (3) pain and apprehension when flexion. This provokes a sudden giving way that
156 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B
c d
Fig. 1 Technique for application of reverse McConnell Arthroscopy, 31(8): 1628–1632, 2015, Sanchis-Alfonso
taping on a patient’s right knee. A Protective tape. B, V and Merchant AC. Iatrogenic medial patellar instability:
C Application of tape. D Definitive tape in place. (L, An avoidable injury, with permission from Elsevier”
lateral; M, medial; P, patella). “Reprinted from
Table 1 Clinical outcome assessments after reconstruction of the deep transverse layer of the lateral retinaculum [12]
(Fig. 15) and not the lateral patellofemoral liga- symptoms of osteoarthritis or bony malalignment.
ment. The deep layer of the lateral patellar reti- Patients with symptomatic IMPI have chronic pain
naculum is reconstructed using a central strip of and the etiology of chronic pain is multifactorial
the iliotibial band leaving it attached proximally with a different pathoneurophysiology than acute
and attaching it to the midpoint of the patella [18]. pain, including psychological factors like pain
We must note that it is a “salvage” procedure. It modulators. The reconstruction of the LR is a good
does not address the original source of complaint. treatment for this difficult group of severely dis-
Moreover, it cannot improve or reverse the abled patients (Table 1 and Fig. 17) [12].
The Failed Patella. What Can We Do? 159
C D
Fig. 6 A 24-year-old woman with severe AKP (10/10— subluxation and patellar tilt (B). The Fulkerson relocation
VAS), a disabling disability (4/100—Kujala score), and test for medial subluxation was positive. An axial stress
patellar instability in the left knee distinct and much worse radiograph of the left knee allowed us to detect an
than the previous instability, anxiety, depression, catas- iatrogenic medial subluxation of the patella (medial
trophizing ideas with pain and kinesiophobia. Left knee displacement of 15 mm) (C). Axial stress radiograph of
was operated on 2 years ago, performing an Insall the asymptomatic right knee (D). Arrows represent the
proximal realignment and LRR due to lateral patellar force applied to displace the patella medially. The
instability. She came to our office with conventional symptoms disappeared after an isolated surgical correc-
radiographs, which were normal (A), and a CT at 0° that tion of the medial subluxation of the patella using
showed correct radiological patellofemoral congruence iliotibial band and patellar tendon for repairing the lateral
(B). The right knee was asymptomatic despite the patellar stabilizers of the patella
Fig. 7 A Axial stress CT of right knee. B An axial stress the patella medially. “Reprinted from Arthroscopy, 31(8):
CT of the left knee allows us to detect iatrogenic medial 1628–1632, 2015, Sanchis-Alfonso V and Merchant AC.
subluxation of the patella (medial displacement of Iatrogenic medial patellar instability: An avoidable injury,
13 mm). Arrows represent the force applied to displace with permission from Elsevier”
Fig. 8 IMPI after lateral partial patellar facetectomy. In this with a disabling pain and disability. A reconstruction of the
case, a patellofemoral prosthesis was put in place that did deep layer of the lateral retinaculum according to Andrish’s
away with the retropatellar pain but the patient continued tecnique was performed with a good result
Fig. 10 Frequently found in IMPI patients; a sectioned “Reprinted from Arthroscopy, 31(8): 1628–1632, 2015,
vastus lateralis tendon (red arrow) (A). B Reconstruction Sanchis-Alfonso V and Merchant AC. Iatrogenic medial
of lateral retinaculum with iliotibial band (black arrow) patellar instability: An avoidable injury, with permission
and reattachment of vastus lateralis (green arrow). from Elsevier”
have demonstrated that there is a one-degree of for patella instability in patients with patella alta
loss of knee flexion for each millimeter of patellar (Fig. 18). Other less frequent causes are patellar
tendon shortening. Moreover, if proper treatment tendon contracture after arthroscopic denervation
is delayed, early patellofemoral osteoarthritis of the inferior pole of the patella (Fig. 19) or
(PFOA) can present itself [20]. after tourniquet paralysis of the quadriceps
Patella infera may be a complication of (Fig. 20).
patellofemoral surgery or a consequence of a
How to Avoid a Patella Infera?
surgical planification technique mistake. It often
occurs in association with arthrofibrosis follow- Adequate preoperative planning is crucial.
ing knee surgery. However, it is secondary to Intraoperative visualization before tibial tubercle
distal realignment surgery in some cases. An fixation, and early restoration of quadriceps
example is the distal tubercle transfer procedure activation are mandatory.
162 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 12 Stress axial radiography showing medial left Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating complications of operative
patellar instability. The arrow indicates the direction of management for patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27,
the force that displaces the patella medially. (Republished 2018)
with permission of AME Publishing Company. From V
Fig. 13 Medial left patellar instability secondary to an sulcus angle. The intraoperative goal should be a tubercle
over-release of the LR (white arrow) associated with an sulcus angle of 0°. (Republished with permission of AME
over-medialization of the tibial tuberosity. Over- Publishing Company. From V Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating
medialization of the tibial tubercle can be avoided by complications of operative management for patellofe-
means of an intraoperative evaluation of the tubercle moral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27, 2018)
The Failed Patella. What Can We Do? 163
Fig. 14 In this case, we performed a reconstruction of of the knee. Therefore, a patellofemoral arthroplasty was
the deep layer of the lateral retinaculum and a lateral performed with a good clinical result. (Republished with
transfer of the tibial tubercle. Here you can see the correct permission of AME Publishing Company. From V
postop patellofemoral congruence. There was a severe Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating complications of operative
patellar chondropathy. Despite the correct congruence and management for patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27,
kinematics of the PFJ, pain persisted in the anterior aspect 2018)
Fig. 15 Anatomy of the lateral retinaculum. Patella (P), the superficial oblique and deep transverse retinacular
deep lateral retinaculum (DLR), superficial lateral reti- layers are more consistent. The superficial oblique
naculum (SLR), iliotibial band (ITB), and vastus lateralis retinaculum is quite thin. The deep transverse retinaculum
(VL). The true lateral patellofemoral ligaments are is stout, oriented in an optimal direction to restrain the
thickenings of the lateral capsule. There is a lateral patella and attached to the lateral boarder of the patella
epicondylopatellar ligament described and present in and the deep surface of the iliotibial band
some individuals, to varying degrees of frequency, but
164 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B
Fig. 16 Surgical technique. A The iliotibial band sutures are placed reattaching the posterior border of the
(ITB) is detached from Gerdy’s tubercle and B then transferred tendon to the anterior border of the remaining
reflected proximally beyond the lateral femoral epi- intact iliotibial band. “Reprinted from Arthroscopy, 31:
condyle to be attached to the lateral border of the junction 422–427, 2015, Sanchis-Alfonso V et al. Results of
of the middle and proximal thirds of the patella by isolated lateral retinacular reconstruction for iatrogenic
suturing to the remaining peripatellar retinacular tissue or medial patellar instability, with permission from Elsevier”
by using a suture anchor. To adjust tension, a series of
Fig. 17 A 25-year-old female came to our institution with Gait analysis was performed at this time to evaluate the
a history of chronic severe anterior right knee pain, severe effects of surgical reconstruction of the lateral retinaculum
disability, and patellofemoral instability refractory to on gait parameters. No significant differences were seen
conservative treatment, for about 5 years. The Kujala when compared to the contralateral limb, the gait pattern
preoperative score was 36 points. The patient underwent being normal (F). At the time of surgery, an arthroscopy of
an Insall’s proximal realignment with LRR procedure at the right knee was performed. All the intra-articular
the age of 18 due to recurrent lateral patellar dislocation. structures were intact, except for a patellar chondropathy
Computed tomography (CT) examination at 0° extension grade III, according to the Outerbridge classification,
and quadriceps contraction shows lateralization of the located medially and a peripatellar synovitis. We did not
patella (A). Documentation of medial patellar instability perform chondroplasty or peripatellar synovectomy. After
(B). Preoperative gait analysis revealed a significant the arthroscopy, we performed an open reconstruction of
increment of the vertical heel contact peak force as a the lateral patellotibial ligament according to the technique
result of a knee extension gait pattern (C). Follow-up CT described by Hughston using the iliotibial band and the
scan at 0° extension with quadriceps contraction demon- patellar tendon. “Reprinted from The Knee, 14: 484–488,
strates similar lateral displacement of the patella in both 2007, Sanchis-Alfonso V et al. Gait pattern normalization
knees (D), and stress CT revealed medial patellar stability after lateral retinaculum reconstruction for iatrogenic
(E). Four months after surgery, she was symptom free. medial patellar instability, with permission from Elsevier”
The Failed Patella. What Can We Do? 165
Fig. 18 This is the case of a PFOA in a patient with permission of AME Publishing Company. From V
severe iatrogenic patella infera after TT distalization Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating complications of operative
surgery. In this case, the patellar tendon is of normal management for patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27,
length. (Courtesy of JC Monllau, MD) (Republished with 2018)
Fig. 19 Patella infera following a patellar tendon contrac- denervation of the inferior pole of the patella. (Republished
ture after arthroscopic denervation of the inferior pole of the with permission of AME Publishing Company. From V
patella to treat disabling AKP. A Pre-operative MRI. Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating complications of operative man-
B Magnetic resonance image 1.5 years after arthroscopic agement for patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27, 2018)
166 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 20 24-year-old woman operated on for AKP (A) when compared with the height of the contralateral
recalcitrant to conservative treatment. An LRR was healthy limb patella (B). (Republished with permission of
performed. She presented a paralysis of the quadriceps AME Publishing Company. From V Sanchis-Alfonso,
as a consequence of femoral nerve damage by the Treating complications of operative management for
ischemia cuff. Note the lowering of the left patella patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27, 2018)
Fig. 21 Patella infera with a shortened patellar tendon. (Courtesy of JC Monllau, MD) (Republished with per-
Lengthening of the patellar tendon by means of a Z-plasty mission of AME Publishing Company. From V Sanchis-
associated with patellofemoral arthroplasty. A reconstruc- Alfonso, Treating complications of operative management
tion of the LR also was performed (white arrow). for patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27, 2018)
Fig. 22 Correction of the patella infera using an extensor mechanism allograft transplantation
168 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
has more severe pain than before surgery. If we congruence and smooth kinematics are much
study the patient in detail, an underlying patho- more important than normal articular cartilage.
logical torsion abnormality is detected in most of
Treating Failed Cartilage Surgery
the cases. In this case, the reason for the failure
of the surgery is a badly indicated surgery. The great problem after failed cartilage surgery
An inward pointing of the knee increases the lies not in the lesion itself but in the age of the
lateral direction of pull of the quadriceps. patients, who are too young for “metal and
Therefore, the pull on the MPFL and also medial plastic”. In these cases, fresh allograft trans-
retinaculum and medial meniscopatellar ligament plantation should be considered as a salvage
is increased and the direction of pressure on the treatment procedure (Figs. 25 and 26).
patella is altered. This causes an increased com- Before any resurfacing technique, the PFJ and
pression on the lateral facet and a decrease on the the skeletal mal-alignment of the extremity must
medial facet of the patella (Figs. 23 and 24). It be optimized to obtain satisfactory results.
may be what is behind the persistence of pain A resurfacing technique is not a substitute for
and the surgical failure of the cartilage surgery. skeletal realignment. In cases where the patellar
tracking and skeletal alignment of the extremity
How to Avoid Failed Cartilage Surgery?
are correct, an isolated resurfacing technique can
To avoid a cartilage surgery failure, the restora- be performed (Figs. 25 and 26).
tion of the normal anatomy is crucial as that will
create a better biomechanical environment for the
tissue. In this case, we are referring to the carti- 6 Rotational Osteotomy. A Game
lage. If you repair failed tissue and ignore the Changer in the Treatment
mechanics which caused the tissue failure, you of “Failed Patella”
will usually have a failed result.
Furthermore, only correcting the torsional What is a game changer? It might be a sudden
abnormality will make the pain disappear in many strategy that the usually winning opponent has
cases even if we do not treat the cartilage injury. never imagined being used by the underdog team
We must note that not all PFOA cases are asso- to win the game. We really believe that rotational
ciated with severe pain. In the PFJ, patellofemoral osteotomy is a game changer in the treatment of
Fig. 23 A If the knee joint moves forward, the compres- beneath the medial facet decreases. (Reused with permis-
sion on the PFJ and ligaments tensioned are balanced. B If sion from Elsevier. From Teitge RA. Patellofemoral
the knee joint twists inward from beneath the patella, the Disorders Correction of Rotational Malalignment of the
MPFL is placed under increased tension, the compression Lower Extremity. In: Noyes’s Knee Disorders: Surgery,
beneath the lateral facet increases, and the compression Rehabilitation, Clinical Outcomes, 2017)
The Failed Patella. What Can We Do? 169
Fig. 24 If the knee joint twists inward because the femur increase of inward pointing of the knee joint occurs in the
twists inward, the lateral displacement pull on the patella presence of excess external tibial torsion when the foot is
is increased, the strain on the MPFL is increased, the pointed forward. (Reused with permission from Elsevier.
compression on the lateral patellar facet is increased, and From Teitge RA. Patellofemoral Disorders Correction of
the compression on the medial patellar facet is decreased. Rotational Malalignment of the Lower Extremity. In:
The treatment must be to decrease the inward twist on the Noyes’s Knee Disorders: Surgery, Rehabilitation, Clinical
knee joint, not to move the tubercle medially. A similar Outcomes, 2017)
the “failed patella”. The patient in Fig. 27 had happier with her left knee than with her right one,
severe chronic patellofemoral pain with extensive which is now the bad knee for her (Fig. 28).
and severe involvement of the patellar cartilage in As far back as 1995, Flandry and Huhgston
both knees. In addition, she presented an external [25] showed that the most frequent cause of
tibial torsion of 49° in the left knee and 45° in the failure of an extensor mechanism realignment
right knee. A bipolar fresh patellofemoral allo- surgery was the existence of an underlying
graft procedure was performed on her right knee undiagnosed torsional alteration that, of course,
with a good result in the short term. Due to had gone untreated.
problems of availability of fresh allografts in the In 2009, Paulos and colleagues [26] compared
tissue bank, a decision was taken to perform an two surgical techniques in a cohort of patients
internal rotational tibial osteotomy on her left with patellar instability and limb malalignment.
knee. The results were very good. The patient is In one group, they performed a proximal
170 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 25 Severe diffuse patellar chondropathy in a 40- E Axial radiograph at the 5-year follow-up. (Republished
year-old woman with disabling AKP after two previous with permission of AME Publishing Company. From V
failed surgeries performed to treat AKP. A Surgical image Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating complications of operative
of the chondral lesion. B Patellar fresh allograft in situ. management for patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27,
C Anteroposterior radiograph D Lateral radiograph and 2018)
realignment associated with a rotational tibial previous knee surgeries for treating AKP and/or
osteotomy. In the other one, a Elmslie-Trillat- patellar instability.
Fulkerson proximal–distal realignment was done. Drexler and colleagues [28] evaluated 15
They concluded that rotational abnormality cor- knees (12 patients) in 2013 in which a rotational
rection produced significantly better results than tibial osteotomy proximal to the tibial tuberosity
conventional proximal–distal realignment. associated with a tibial tubercle transfer was per-
Stevens and colleagues [27], in 2014, analyzed formed based on a diagnosis of recurrent patella
16 consecutives patients (23 knees) with a failed subluxation secondary to excessive external tibial
knee surgery (tibial tubercle osteotomy in 12 torsion. The authors showed a satisfactory clinical
knees and arthroscopic debridement in 9) before outcome at a median follow-up of 84 months
which a femoral or tibial torsional abnormality (range 15–156). The high number of patients with
was recognized and subsequently treated by previous failed surgeries in this series provides
means of rotational osteotomy. They demon- some evidence that tibial tubercle medialization
strated clinical improvement after osteotomies of associated with soft tissue plication is not suffi-
the femur and/or tibia in these patients. Those cient to correct patellar instability in patients with
authors state that many orthopedic surgeons only excessive external tibial torsion.
focus on the knee when they see an AKP patient. Finally, Franciozi and colleagues [29] evalu-
Torsional abnormalities often go unrecognized. ated 48 patients who underwent an MPFLr
These authors observed that addressing rotational associated with a tibial tubercle osteotomy due to
abnormalities in the index surgery provides better recurrent patellar dislocation. They classified the
clinical results than osteotomies performed after patients in 2 groups. One was with excessive
The Failed Patella. What Can We Do? 171
Fig. 27 Patient with bilateral AKP and similar structural allograft procedure was done on the right knee. Some
changes in both knees including pathologic excessive 2 years later, a rotational tibial osteotomy was carried out
external tibial torsion. A bipolar patellofemoral fresh on the left knee
172 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 28 In these images of the same patient as in Fig. 27, therefore to a mechanical overload on the lateral aspect
the deterioration of the fresh bipolar allograft was of the patellofemoral joint with the ulterior development of
observed as the months went by. This deterioration was a severe patellofemoral chondropathy, as in fact is
due to the disadvantageous biomechanical environment observed on the CT images. It is absolutely essential to
into which the graft was implanted and which had not been correct the anomalous biomechanical environment in order
corrected. In other words, we did not correct the patho- to avoid the surgical failure performed on the cartilage. Do
logical external tibial torsion that this patient presents. The not ignore the mechanics which caused the tissue failure, if
external tibial torsion will lead to an augmentation of the so, another failed result ensues
lateral vector of the quadriceps femoris muscle and
femoral anteversion (FAV) and the other one – Ideally, treating a complication should
with normal FAV. The patients with increased address the problem that led to the primary
FAV had significantly lower functional scores surgery and the damage caused by the failed
than the patients without FAV. We can conclude surgical procedure.
that increased FAV can negatively affect the – A poorly indicated or poorly performed surgi-
postoperative prognosis. Femoral rotational cal treatment can be disastrous for the patient.
osteotomy combined with MPFLr should be Orthopedic surgeons must never forget the
considered for the treatment of recurrent patellar principles of Hippocratic medicine: “Primum
dislocation associated with FAV. non nocere”. We must not cause harm or make
an already bad situation much worse.
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Risk Factors for Patellofemoral Pain:
Prevention Programs
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 175
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_11
176 M. C. Boling and N. R. Glaviano
general population [3], adolescent population Noehren et al. [14] assessed gait mechanics in
[12] and military cadets [7]. The high prevalence female runners to determine if there were any
and incidence rates for PFP among various lower extremity kinematics during running gait
populations, and the increased risk among that increased the risk for the development of
females, highlight the need for clinicians to PFP. Based on their findings, female runners who
understand the risk factors for PFP to implement developed PFP displayed greater hip adduction
specific prevention programs to target those at throughout the stance phase of running when
the greatest risk for developing this chronic compared to those who did not develop
condition. PFP. Transverse plane motion at the hip and
rearfoot angles at the ankle were not found to be
risk factors for PFP in female runners.
2 Risk Factors Three prospective cohort investigations have
assessed lower extremity movement patterns
Patellofemoral pain is considered a multifactorial during a jump-landing task as risk factors for the
condition in which various intrinsic factors, such development of PFP [15–17]. In two of these
as altered movement patterns, muscle strength, studies (one study was a follow up investigation
and postural alignment could predispose an to the initial study), three-dimensional lower
individual to the development of PFP. It is extremity kinematics during a jump-landing task
important to consider extrinsic factors, (i.e. were evaluated in male and female military
training load) as well, and how this may lead to cadets. In the initial study, military cadets who
the development of PFP. Overall, factors that can displayed an increased hip internal rotation angle
influence loading of the patellofemoral joint have and decreased peak knee flexion angle during the
been investigated in prospective cohort studies, jump-landing task were at an increased risk for
as abnormal loading of the patellofemoral joint is developing PFP. In the follow up study, Boling
theorized to be the underlying cause of PFP [13]. et al. [15] analyzed risk factors separately for
The following paragraphs summarize risk factors male and female military cadets during the same
assessed in prospective cohort investigations. jump-landing task. In female military cadets,
decreased hip abduction angle and increased
knee internal rotation angle when landing from a
jump increased the risk for developing PFP. In
3 Intrinsic Risk Factors
male military cadets, decreased knee flexion
angle and increased hip external rotation angle
Altered Movement Patterns
increased the risk for developing PFP.
Prospective investigations have assessed lower In another prospective study, two-dimensional
extremity kinematics during various functional knee valgus displacement during a landing task
tasks as risk factors for the development of was assessed as a risk factor for the development
PFP. The influence of lower extremity joint of PFP in adolescent females. Increased two-
motion on patellofemoral joint contact forces and dimensional knee valgus angle displacement was
loading of the patellofemoral joint provides the associated with an increased risk of developing
theoretical foundation for the investigation of PFP in adolescent females [17]. Holden et al.
lower extremity kinematics as risk factors for the [17] reported knee valgus displacement 10.6°
development of PFP [13]. predicted PFP development in adolescent
Patellofemoral pain is a prevalent condition females with a sensitivity of 75% and specificity
among runners and therefore, this population is of 85%. It is important to note that frontal and
frequently included in prospective investigations. transverse plane motion at the hip likely
Risk Factors for Patellofemoral Pain: Prevention Programs 177
the risk of development PFP in male military associations were found between these measures
cadets [23] and female military recruits [24]. and risk of developing PFP [21].
When pooling the data from all studies assessing Static measures of foot posture have also been
strength of the quadriceps musculature, regard- investigated as risk factors for the development
less of cohort and type of measurement (iso- of PFP; however, no studies have used the same
metric or isokinetic), decreased strength of the measure. Witvrouw et al. [11] reported measures
quadriceps was found to be a risk factor for the of foot arch on a podograph, lower leg-heel
development of PFP [21]. alignment, and heel-forefoot alignment were not
risk factors for the development of PFP in
Postural Alignment
physical education students. Thijs et al. [30]
Q-angle is the angle formed by force vectors of investigated static foot posture using the foot
the quadriceps musculature and the patellar ten- posture index (FPI) in recreational runners. They
don [25]. A larger Q-angle is proposed to reported measurements of FPI were not associ-
increase the lateral force vector placed on the ated with the risk of developing PFP. Boling
patella by the quadriceps and therefore, cause et al. [16] investigated foot posture using the
lateral tracking of the patella [26]. Three navicular drop assessment. Increased navicular
prospective cohort investigations have assessed drop was identified as a risk factor for the
Q-angle in female and male military recruits [16], development of PFP. However, in a follow up
novice female runners [10], and male and female study on gender specific risk factor profiles in a
physical education students [11]. All three stud- larger cohort of military cadets, navicular drop
ies reported static Q-angle is not a risk factor for was not a risk factor for the development of PFP
the development of PFP. in males or females [15]. Based on the current
data available, foot posture does not appear to
Foot Posture
predispose individuals to the development of
Excessive pronation at the foot has been associ- PFP.
ated with increased frontal and transverse plane
motion up the kinetic chain [27, 28]. Because
motion at the foot and ankle may influence the
4 Extrinsic Risk Factors
mechanics at the patellofemoral joint, excessive
pronation has been theorized to predispose indi-
Overload/Overtraining
viduals to PFP.
Various plantar pressure measures during gait The envelope of function can be used to under-
have been assessed as risk factors for the devel- stand how excessive loading of the patellofe-
opment of PFP. During walking, a more laterally moral joint may lead to the development of PFP
directed pressure at initial contact, slower [31]. Dye et al. [32] describes how supraphysi-
movement of the center of pressure from lateral ologic loading of an otherwise normal patello-
to medial, and shortened time to maximal pres- femoral joint could cause the loss of homeostasis
sure on the fourth metatarsal were found to be within the joint tissues. This loss of tissue
associated with an increased risk of developing homeostasis can lead to pain and loss of function.
PFP in military cadets [29]. During running, Repetitive loading of the patellofemoral joint is
increased vertical peak force under the second common during military recruit training and thus,
metatarsals and a shortened time to peak vertical many prospective studies have investigated risk
force at the lateral heel were associated with an factors for PFP in this population. In two
increased risk for the development of PFP in prospective investigations conducted during
novice female runners [30]. In a systematic basic military training, the majority of cases of
review with meta-analysis, data for time to peak PFP were reported within the first four weeks of
force measures were pooled and no significant training [33, 34]. It may be speculated that the
Risk Factors for Patellofemoral Pain: Prevention Programs 179
individuals who developed PFP had lower levels model [35] to the Translating Research into
of physical activity prior to basic training and Injury Prevention Practice (TRIPP). The TRIPP
underwent a significant increase in training load model includes two additional steps, evaluating
in the first few weeks of training (operating the prevention measure in ideal scientific condi-
outside of the envelope of function) leading to a tions and evaluating the program’s feasibility in
loss of tissue homeostasis. When developing clinical practice by describing the intervention
prevention programs, it is important to consider context to inform implementation strategies
training load along with intrinsic risk factors for (Fig. 1). The two other steps recognize the value
the development of PFP. of implementation. They also demonstrate one of
the challenges of the current prevention programs
within the patellofemoral pain literature, as most
5 Prevention of PFP studies have been conducted within military
settings.
One of the most common injury prevention While many risk factors have been evaluated
models was developed by van Mechelen et al. in the PFP literature, altered movement patterns
[35]. This injury prevention model includes four and decreased knee extensor strength have
steps: establishing the incidence of an injury, emerged as specific intrinsic risk factors. There is
establishing the etiology of the injury, imple- limited evidence of implementing a prevention
menting a preventative program, and assessing the program to mitigate the risk of developing
effectiveness of the program. The injury incidence PFP. Foot orthoses and footwear, knee braces,
following the intervention is compared to the ini- and combined stretching and strengthening
tial injury incidence rate to determine the effec- exercises have been implemented to reduce the
tiveness. The model is continuous, as step four incidence of PFP, with most being conducted in a
leads into step one, repeating the process (Fig. 1). military population.
Optimizing injury prevention requires the
Muscle Strength
programs to be adopted into clinical practice,
placing a significant focus on implementation. Decreased isometric and isokinetic knee extensor
Finch [36] modified the initial van Mechelen strength is a risk factor for PFP, suggesting
Fig. 1 Comparison of van Mechelen injury prevention model [35] and translating research into injury prevention
practice framework [36]
180 M. C. Boling and N. R. Glaviano
strength-based interventions that focus on the The three randomized controlled trials inclu-
quadriceps would be a viable intervention. Three ded a wide range of exercises within the pre-
randomized control trials have evaluated the vention program, but all included a squat and
effect of a strength-focused program on pre- lunge task (Table 1). Brushoj et al. [33] included
venting PFP, two in military recruits [33, 37] and a squat and lunge task to target the quadriceps,
a third in elite volleyball players [38]. with both exercises being prescribed only in
A randomized controlled trial of 1020 Army weeks 5–8. Cumps et al. [38] included three
recruits was the first prevention program to exercises per week that targeted the quadriceps,
investigate an intervention with the goal of hamstrings, and gluteal muscles. Coppack et al.
reducing the occurrence of PFP [33]. A 12-week [37] included isometric hip abduction, lunge,
program that combined strengthening and step-down, and squatting tasks. With evidence
stretching was implemented three times a week, supporting knee extension strength as a risk
compared to a control group that completed factor for the development of PFP, each of these
upper extremity exercises. Those allocated to the studies likely targeted the quadriceps with the
prevention program had improvements in their prescribed exercises. However, none of the
running fitness assessment but the program did studies measured strength pre-and post-
not reduce the risk of developing PFP in the intervention. The inability to objectively assess
Army recruits. strength is essential to determine the prevention
The second randomized control trial was a 16- program’s effectiveness. Future randomized
week prevention program on an elite volleyball control trials are necessary to determine the
team over a single season [38]. The prevention prevention program’s effectiveness at improving
program included isometric open kinetic chain knee extension strength and reducing the risk of
exercises, isometric closed kinetic chain exer- PFP.
cises, sports specific or plyometric exercises, and
Altered Movement Patterns
eccentric exercises. The program was conducted
two times a week, with exercises adjusted Altered frontal and sagittal plane kinematics,
weekly, and integrated into the regular volleyball assessed in three-dimensional and two-
training. The control group maintained their dimensional motion analysis, increase the risk
regular training program, with no additional of developing PFP. Implementing an intervention
exercises. After the volleyball season, there was program to decrease hip adduction and internal
no reduction in PFP risk among those completing rotation, and increase knee flexion may reduce
the prevention program compared to the control the risk of developing PFP among physically
group. active individuals. Motor learning and gait
The third prevention program was a random- retraining have demonstrated promise at reducing
ized control trial of 1502 military recruits over frontal plane kinematics in females with PFP [39,
14-weeks [37]. Individuals in the prevention 40]; however, no studies have evaluated these
group completed four lower extremity strength- interventions to prevent the development of
ening exercises as a warm-up to military training PFP. There is a need for randomized controlled
and four lower extremity stretching exercises trials to determine if movement patterns can be
during the session warm-down. In contrast, the altered and if this reduces the risk for developing
control group completed their regular training. PFP.
The prevention program was completed on
Other Prevention Programs
average seven times per week, which was the
highest number of completed sessions in a week Previous studies have identified various foot
across the three randomized controlled trials. posture impairments in those with PFP, sup-
This prevention program effectively reduced the porting early prevention program interventions.
risk of developing PFP by 75% compared to the Three studies, ranging between 9 and 14 weeks,
control group. have evaluated the effect of orthoses and
Table 1 Summary of exercises included in injury prevention programs
Authors Population Duration/frequency Exercises with load
Brushoj Military 12-weeks • Squat/lunge: 3 10–20
et al. [33] cadets 15-min • Hip ABD/ER: 3 12–20
3x/week • Forefoot lift: 3 5–15
• Coordination: 3 10–15
• Quadriceps stretch: 3 15 s
Cumps Elite 16-weeks 2x/week Month 1: Month 2: Month 3: Sports specific & Month 4:
et al. [38] volleyball Isometric strength Isometric strength plyometric Eccentric load
players in OKC in CKC
Week 1 • Quad sets: • Oscillating • Oscillating squat: • Unilateral squat:
3 10 at 7 s squat: 3 20 s 3 20 s 3 10
• Oscillating quad: • SLS circles: • Oscillating hamstring: • Lateral step up
3 20 s 3 10 3 20 s & down:
• SLR: 3 10 at • Oscillating • Bilateral squat: 3 10 3 10
Risk Factors for Patellofemoral Pain: Prevention Programs
7s hamstrings: • Oscillating
3 20 s jump lunge:
3 20 s
Week 2 • Quad sets: • Quad sets: • Bilateral squat: 3 10 •Drop squat:
3 10 at 7 s 3 10 at 7 s Oscillating lunge: 3 12
• Co-Contraction: • Oscillating quad: 3 20 s •Shuffle
3 10 at 7 s 3 20 s • Lateral step up & down: sideways: 3 20
• SLR: 3 10 at • Oscillating 3 10 •Jump and reach:
7s lunge: 3 20 s 3 15
Week 3 • Quad sets: • Co-Contraction: • Drop squat 3 10 • Jump lunge
3 10 at 7 s 3 10 7 s • Front step up & down: 3 10
• Oscillating quad: • Oscillating 3 10 • Oscillating drop
3 20 s lunge: 3 20 s • Lunge: 3 10 jump: 3 30 s
• SLR abduction: • Oscillating • Bilateral squat:
3 10 at 7 s hamstrings: 3 20
3 20 s
(continued)
181
Table 1 (continued)
182
footwear in military recruits [41–43]. Prescribing past decade, additional research is needed to
orthoses and footwear did not reduce the risk of better understand how these risk factors may
developing PFP in any of these investigations. differ by gender and sampled population. Based
The use of knee braces with patellar support on the available evidence, increased frontal and
has also been investigated in reducing the risk of transverse plan motion of the lower extremity
developing PFP. Two studies, ranging from 6 to during dynamic tasks, asymmetry in the pos-
8 weeks, compared the use of a knee brace to no terolateral reach of the Y-balance test and
knee brace on PFP risk [44, 45]. When compared decreased strength of the quadriceps may be
to the individuals not wearing a brace, both considered intrinsic risk factors for the develop-
studies reported those wearing a knee brace had a ment of PFP. Gaining a better understanding of
reduced risk (ranging from 50 to 74%) of risk factors for PFP will help to inform future
developing PFP. The findings from these studies studies investigating the effectiveness of pre-
suggest the use of knee braces with patellar vention programs in reducing the risk for devel-
support may be effective in reducing the risk of oping PFP.
developing PFP.
Overload or Overtraining
7 Take-Home Messages
Prevention programs for PFP have primarily
targeted intrinsic risk factors; however, extrinsic • Patellofemoral pain is a prevalent condition
risk factors may be an additional avenue. among physically active individuals.
Increases in physical activity that exceed the • The incidence of patellofemoral pain is
envelope of function is likely a common occur- reported to be the highest among recreational
rence in military recruits as they initiate basic runners and military cadets.
training. Advancements in technology allow for • Altered lower extremity movement patterns in
quantification of external load with subjective the frontal and transverse planes during
measures, such as the rate of perceived exertion dynamic tasks, such as running and landing
scale, and objective measures with accelerome- from a jump, likely increase the risk for
ters or global positioning systems. Future studies developing patellofemoral pain.
could measure the external load of military • Decreased strength of the quadriceps muscu-
cadets before basic training and during the initial lature is a risk factor for the development of
few weeks to understand how this may play a patellofemoral pain.
role in the development of PFP among military • Increased levels of training leading to over-
cadets. Additionally, studies could investigate the loading of the patellofemoral joint likely
effects of altering external loading based on the increase the risk for developing patellofemoral
risk of developing PFP during the initial weeks pain.
of basic training. • There is limited evidence for effective injury
prevention programs targeting risk factors for
the development of patellofemoral pain.
6 Conclusions
during dynamic tasks and decreased knee 11. Witvrouw E, Lysens R, Bellemans J, Cambier D,
extensor strength. More research is needed to Vanderstraeten G. Intrinsic risk factors for the
development of anterior knee pain in an athletic
gain a better understanding of risk factors for population. A two-year prospective study. Am J
patellofemoral pain, which can then inform Sports Med. 2000;28(4):480–9.
the development effective injury prevention 12. Molgaard C, Rathleff MS, Simonsen O. Patellofe-
programs. moral pain syndrome and its association with hip,
ankle, and foot function in 16- to 18-year-old high
school students: a single-blind case-control study.
J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 2011;101(3):215–22.
13. Powers CM, Witvrouw E, Davis IS, Crossley KM.
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Anterior Knee Pain After
Arthroscopic Meniscectomy: Risk
Factors, Prevention and Treatment
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 187
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_12
188 J. Amestoy et al.
anterior to the knee. They will often place a hand VM/VL imbalance is not present in all patients
over the anterior knee when asked about the experiencing PFP [25]. They stated that some
location of their pain. They often complain with other agents must be causative.
anterior pain with prolonged sitting that it is Quadriceps muscle hypotrophy that occurs
usually relieved by passive extension as well as following knee surgery contributes to persistant
worsening pain when going downstairs. Noisy muscle weakness [26, 27] due to alterations in
knees are common and not necessarily a cause of muscle architecture [28], selective fibre atrophy
concern in the postoperative period [21]. Crepi- [29, 30], or even neural deficits like quadriceps
tus or a rubbing sensation under the kneecap that activation failure [31]. It might also cause post-
hurts could be pathological if associated with operative patellofemoral pain.
chondral lesions in the patellofemoral joint. Amestoy and colleagues studied 120 patients
However, the excess synovial fluid still present in who underwent arthroscopic partial meniscec-
the knee after arthroscopic meniscectomy may tomy. In the study, an MRI of the thigh, surface
also be the cause of this patellar crepitation. electromyography and isokinetic tests were per-
formed before and after surgery. They observed
that patients who developed PFP at 6 weeks after
2 Risk Factors for Patellofemoral the surgery showed a greater decrease in muscle
Pain After Knee Arthroscopy thickness (5.11 cm2 for VL15 cm, 6.80 cm2 for
VM15 cm, and 7.80 cm2 for VM3.75 cm or
The cause of anterior knee pain that has been VMO) with respect to patients who did not
extensively described in this book is likely to be develop this anterior knee pain (1.38, 2.28, and
multifactorial, which means a wide range of 2.69 cm2, respectively) at 6 weeks after surgery
factors are involved in its etiopathogenesis. (P < 0.001 for all) [16]. This decrease in muscle
Neuromuscular, anatomic, mechanical, and even thickness was much more noticeable in the VM
psychological factors have all been suggested as than in the VL muscle.
causative [22–24], which explains the unpre- The weakness of the hip abductor and external
dictable results of treatment. rotator muscles might also influence the appear-
In the case of patellofemoral pain that appears ance of this post-operative patellofemoral pain.
after arthroscopic partial meniscectomy, there are Weakness of said muscles allows the femur to
several specific risk factors that may influence abduct/internally rotate more than normal,
the development of this pain during the postop- thereby increasing lateral patellar contact pres-
erative period. sure and causing subsequent increased anterior
knee pain [32–35]. No study has evaluated the
atrophy of these muscles after knee arthroscopy.
2.1 Postoperative Quadriceps Muscle However, it is logical to think that arthrogenic
Atrophy inhibition after knee surgery will be more notable
in the quadriceps muscle group than in the glu-
Classically, one of the suggested etiopathogene- teal muscle group due to the greater proximity of
sis factors of anterior knee pain was a muscle the knee.
imbalance between the vastus medialis (VM) and
the vastus lateralis (VL) of the quadriceps
femoris muscle. It was assumed that hypotrophy 2.2 Delayed Quadriceps Activation
or lack of neuromuscular activity of the VM,
particularly its oblique fibers (VMO), caused a Activation failure is the inability to completely
lateral patellar tilt and abnormal patellofemoral volitionally contract the muscle due to alterations
tracking that led to excessive compressive stress in neural signalling. It is common following any
on the patellar facets and anterior knee pain. type of knee surgery [36, 37]. Quadriceps acti-
However, Chester et al. have found that the vation failure occurs due to alterations in neural
Anterior Knee Pain After Arthroscopic Meniscectomy … 189
signalling caused by a reduction in alpha motor Thus, this should be considered as an indepen-
neuron pool recruitment and/or the firing rate dent risk factor for the development of anterior
[38]. It is not simply an isolated local phe- knee pain after meniscus surgery.
nomenon related to atrophy. If left untreated, Some studies have demonstrated that tourni-
quadriceps activation failure can significantly quet use resulted in a significantly decreased
impede strength gains by only allowing portions thigh circumference as well as significant nega-
of the muscles to be volitionally utilized during tive electromyographic changes at 3 weeks after
active exercise [39]. In the same way as after ACL reconstruction [45]. In this sense, intraop-
knee arthroscopy, decreased quadriceps activa- erative tourniquet use may be detrimental to the
tion has also been observed in the acute stage of quadriceps femoris muscle after knee arthro-
an ACL injury and in patients with ACL- scopy. No significant differences were found in
deficient knees who experience instability (non- muscle strength or in the functional results
copers) [40, 41]. between patients on whom a tourniquet was used
In addition to muscle atrophy, delay in the and patients on whom it was not used.
activation of the quadriceps femoris muscle
could be another risk factor in the development
of patellofemoral pain after knee arthroscopy. 2.3 Postoperative Quadriceps Muscle
A deficiency of the VMO weakens the medial Weakness
quadriceps vector, thereby allowing greater
pulling of the lateral quadriceps vector with a In addition to quadriceps muscle hypotrophy and
resultant increase in the dynamic Q-angle. Due to quadriceps activation failure, postoperative
this loss of the medial force, the patella is pulled strength deficit has been identified as another
laterally out of its normal tracking. Additionally, independent risk factor in the development of
studies have shown more delayed activation of patellofemoral pain after arthroscopic partial
the VMO in comparison to the VL, at 15, 30, and meniscectomy.
45 degrees of knee extension, using elec- Amestoy and colleagues observed that patients
tromyography [42]. who developed anterior knee pain in the postop-
In their study, Amestoy and colleagues erative period of meniscal knee surgery had lower
observed that the electrical contractility of the quadriceps muscle strength than patients who did
queadriceps femoris muscle evaluated by means not develop this pain (12.27 kg vs. 20.02 kg
of surface electromyography (sEMG) decreased respectively, P < 0.001). Both groups started
to a greater extent in patients that developed from comparable levels of strength before surgery
patellofemoral pain at 6 weeks after the surgery [16]. To assess the muscle strength values, an
(804.25 mV in the VL and 1250.80 mV in the isokinetic test (Biodex dynamometer) was per-
VM) than in patients that did not develop this formed both pre-surgically and 6 weeks postsur-
pain (486.95 and 680.82 mV) (P = 0.036 and gically. It provided data on muscular strength
P < 0.001, respectively) [16]. This decrease in through range-of-motion at 60°/s.
muscle activation was again much more notice-
able in the VM than in the VL muscle (Fig. 2).
Briani and colleagues described similar differ- 2.4 Preoperative Quadriceps Muscle
ences in the activation of the quadriceps heads Thickness
during contraction among adolescent female
patients with anterior knee pain when compared Despite the important role that the quadriceps
with healthy controls [43, 44]. muscle plays in this pathology, no study had
Therefore, patients who develop PFP after studied the influence of preoperative quadriceps
APM not only have greater loss of muscle femoris muscle thickness on the development of
thickness but also a greater decrease in the patellofemoral pain after knee arthroscopy until
electrical contractility of the quadriceps femoris. now.
190 J. Amestoy et al.
In a recent study, the Monllau and colleagues NMES resulted in more strength recovery than
study group observed that there is a direct cor- low intensity or no application of NMES
relation between the preoperative muscle thick- 6 weeks following surgery (p < 0.05) [50].
ness of the quadriceps femoris muscle and its Eccentric exercise, whereby the muscle is
neuromuscular activation in the postoperative lengthened and an external force exceeds that
period of knee arthroscopy [18]. The results produced by the muscle, has been shown to be
suggest that patients who have less VL muscle more effective than traditional concentric
thickness and especially the VM preoperatively strengthening at minimizing muscle atrophy and
have a greater risk of developing patellofemoral improving muscle force production [51]. The
pain around the sixth week after APM. On the ability to eccentrically contract the quadriceps is
other hand, they also suggest that the delayed critical to optimal knee range-of-motion during
onset of electromyographic activity of the the weight-acceptance phase of gait [52, 53],
quadriceps femoris muscle, regardless of muscle which is necessary in the early phase of reha-
thickness prior to surgery, could be considered a bilitation after meniscal surgery [19, 54–56].
risk factor for the development of patellofemoral The combination of NMES with eccentric
pain. This is of great importance, because they exercises in the postoperative rehabilitation pro-
establish a direct relationship between preopera- tocol after meniscal surgery may improve early
tive muscle thickness, which is relatively easy to activation of the quadriceps femoris muscle.
assess and quantify clinically, and the risk of Therefore, they may aid in preventing the
developing patellofemoral pain in the arthro- development of anterior knee pain even in those
scopic meniscal surgery postoperative period. patients with poor quadriceps muscle thickness.
Based on the current evidence, sEMG appli-
cation should be considered in postoperative
3 Prevention protocols following arthroscopic surgery. Some
studies that assessed the effect of sEMG fol-
For all this, achieving early activation of the lowing arthroscopic knee surgery reported a
quadriceps femoris with an early recovery of its benefit in terms of quadriceps strength measured
muscle thickness and strength after arthroscopic by muscle force, knee range-of-motion and
partial meniscectomy would be beneficial in functional knee scores when compared to stan-
preventing postoperative anterior knee pain. In dard rehabilitation alone [57–59]. Among these
this way, monitoring the neuromuscular activa- studies, the sEMG group had greater VM and VL
tion of the quadriceps and its muscle thickness muscle activity and maximum contraction values
may facilitate the identification of patients at risk when compared to NMES or rehabilitation alone
of developing this postoperative complication. It (p < 0.05).
would also allow them to start an early treatment. It has recently been shown that there is a
Recently, research has focused on developing direct relationship between the preoperative
specific disinhibitory interventions to improve muscle thickness of the quadriceps femoris and
voluntary quadriceps activation. Neuromuscular neuromuscular activation and muscle strength at
electrical stimulation (NMES) has been shown to 6 weeks after arthroscopic partial meniscectomy
improve quadriceps function and strength, as [18]. Therefore, having the quadriceps femoris
well as decrease its atrophy in the ACL surgery muscle in a correct preoperative state might be
postoperative period [39, 46]. Five of the seven protective against the development of postoper-
studies included in a systematic review found a ative patellofemoral pain. In this sense, a pro-
significant improvement in quadriceps strength gressive rehabilitation program that is mainly
with the application of NMES following knee focused on strengthening the quadriceps femoris
arthroscopy [47–49]. Moreover, high intensity of subjects who have undergone meniscal
Anterior Knee Pain After Arthroscopic Meniscectomy … 191
surgery leads to improved knee function and problem [62]. This therapy results in the devel-
prevents the developement of PFP. Much the opment of an anaerobic environment along with
same happens in patients who have undergone the subsequent release of growth factors. It is the
ACL reconstruction [46, 60, 61]. release of these growth factors that promotes
muscle hypertrophy [64–66]. The beauty of
BFRT is that it can stimulate an anaerobic
4 Treatment environment using loads that are much lower
than the traditional 70–85% of the one repetition
An ideal meniscal rehabilitation protocol should maximum. According to a recent meta-analysis,
consider the size, tear pattern, location, quality of strength and muscle hypertrophy were signifi-
the repaired tissue and any concomitant proce- cantly greater in the groups performing exercise
dures. Proper postoperative rehabilitation of the with BFR 2–3 days per week when compared to
meniscetomized knee is essential, not only to those exercising 4–5 days per week without BFR
prevent the development of anterior knee pain [66]. The use of this therapy may be beneficial in
but specially to return to regular sports activities. those patients who developed PFP pain after
The return would also include running or jump- arthroscopic meniscal surgery because it would
ing at approximately 6 weeks [21, 62]. cause greater quadriceps muscle growth with
The mainstay of treatment for postoperative lower loads and less overload of the patellofe-
PFP after APM is currently the strengthening of moral joint.
the quadriceps femoris muscle, abductor and In recent years, the importance of hip abduc-
external rotator hip muscles and core muscles. tors and external rotators strengthening has been
Additional measures include gait retraining, the identified as an important pillar in the manage-
passive correction of patellar maltracking with ment of PFP. Two recent systematic reviews that
bracing and taping or hyaluronic acid or platelet- investigated the importance of hip and knee
rich plasma injections. strengthening as compared to knee strengthening
It is well known that knee pain and effusion alone. Both reviews found that the combination
can lead to quadriceps dysfunction and atrophy. therapy significantly reduced pain in patients
This is particularly true in the setting of a with PFP [67]. Core strengthening has also been
meniscal tear, both preoperatively and postoper- recently revealed to be an important component
atively [20]. Strengthening exercises for PFP to add to postoperative anterior knee pain treat-
management originally focused on strengthening ment regimens [68, 69]. In addition, they are
the knee via quadriceps strengthening as VM exercises that can be easily performed from the
weakness is a known factor in the etiology of first postoperative weeks after a simple knee
PFP. The return of full quadriceps function and arthroscopy [70].
strength is often hard won on the road to Patellar bracing has shown some short-term
recovery. So, it is prudent to have early benefit in PFP in small studies [71]. According to
strengthening included in a patient’s rehabilita- a systematic review by Saltychev, of the 37
tion protocol [21]. studies included in their review, only 7 demon-
The American College of Sports Medicine strate a significant benefit with patellar bracing
recommends a resistance training load of 70– [72]. Kinesio taping of the VMO has been shown
85% of the one repetition maximum to promote to decrease pain and improve quadriceps func-
muscle hypertrophy [63]. It is often challenging tion in athletes with PFP. However, these results
for postoperative patients to achieve these loads were seen among only 15 patients with PFP,
early in the recovery process after an arthro- limiting the power of the results [73]. Probably
scopic surgery. Blood flow restriction therapy knee taping and patellar bracing may be benefi-
(BFRT) has become a growing part of the pre- cial in reducing PFP after meniscus surgery, but
operative and postoperative rehabilitation regi- only as an adjunct to targeted strengthening
men of arthroscopy to combat this difficult therapy.
192 J. Amestoy et al.
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Anterior Knee Pain Prevalence After
Anterior Cruciate Ligament
Reconstruction: Risk Factors
and Prevention
1 Introduction 2 Prevalence
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears are There is an important variability in the literature
nowadays one of the most prevalent knee injuries when it comes to determine the exact prevalence
with an estimated incidence of 68.6 per 100,000 of AKP after an ACL reconstruction. The general
person-years [1]. Surgical treatment through estimation, rates the prevalence of AKP between
ligament reconstruction accounts approximately 5 and 40%. This variability may appear, on one
for 100,000 procedures each year in the United hand, due to the differences in the type of
States [2]. Although the results are considered patients, grafts or techniques used, and on the
satisfactory as 90% of the patients have a normal other hand, because some studies talk exclusively
knee function restored, ACL reconstructions about AKP while others refer to donor site
have been linked to various complications [3]. morbidity, a wider term, which includes other
Anterior knee pain (AKP) is one of the most symptoms such as numbness.
frequent postoperative complications in this type Some classic reviews estimate a prevalence of
of surgeries [4–6]. Several causes have been AKP ranging from 5 to 19% [10] while others
described to be responsible of AKP such us talk about 40–60% of patients experiencing
patellar tendinopathies, Hoffa´s disease, postop- AKP, disturbance in anterior knee sensitivity or
erative flexure contracture, quadriceps weakness inability to kneel [11]. In 2012, a retrospective
donor site morbidity or injuries to the infrap- comparative study on 171 patients, showed an
atellar branches of the saphenous nerves [7–9]. overall prevalence of 42% at 3 months which fall
However, the exact origin and pathophysiology to a 11% at 2 years postoperatively [7]. More-
is still unknown. over, according to the results, 95% of the patients
who presents AKP at 2 years also presented it at
3 months, meaning that the origin of AKP is
acute in the vast majority of cases.
Some years later, Kanamoto et al. conducted a
prospective study on 57 patients who underwent
A. Darder-Sanchez (&)
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hospital anatomic double bundle ACL reconstruction
Clínico Universitario, Valencia, Spain with hamstring tendon (HT) graft. Six months
e-mail: toni-9486@hotmail.com postoperatively, 32 out of 57 patients referred
A. Darder-Prats V. Sanchis-Alfonso anterior knee symptoms using the Kujala patel-
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Hospital Arnau lofemoral score, which reflects a total incidence
de Vilanova, Valencia, Spain
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 197
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_13
198 A. Darder-Sanchez et al.
of 56.1% [6]. More recently, Rousseau et al. Niki et al. concluded that different factors where
confirmed a 16% of AKP prevalence (130 of related to the time of appearance of AKP [7].
811) during the 2 years after the intervention of Donor site morbidity and knee extension deficits
ACL reconstruction [4]. According to this study, were related to early AKP whereas decreased
patellar tendinopathies represented 40% of these quadriceps strength and a poor Lysholm score
cases whereas the other 60% was due to non- associated with late AKP. On the other hand,
specific causes not linked to patellar tendino- flexion deficits generate controversy between
pathies [4]. Most of the study periods include the authors. While some older studies stated that the
first 2 years after surgery, and it is a frequent loss of flexion was related to AKP [15], recent
conclusion in the bibliography that AKP studies did not find statistical differences between
decreases within these 2 years. Corry et al. groups despite a 5°–15° flexion deficit [7].
demonstrated an important decrease of AKP over
time, detecting a 55% prevalence of AKP at
1 year whereas at 2 years the prevalence was 3.2 Type of Graft
31% [12]. In 2019, in the study mentioned
before, the prevalence reduced to a 2.7% after a Most of the studies about AKP stablish a relation
correct rehabilitation at the end of the 2-year between the type of graft used in the ACL
study period [4]. reconstruction and its prevalence. According to
the bibliography, donor site morbidity is a crucial
factor and it is directly related to the technique
3 Risk Factors for AKP After ACL and the type of graft chosen. Classically, bone
Reconstruction patellar tendon bone (BPTB) graft has been
known as a risk factor for AKP. But, does the
The origin of AKP after ACL reconstruction is evidence nowadays support this? How does the
multifactorial and a clear cause has not been appearance of new grafts affect the prevalence of
identified yet. Different aspects regarding range AKP? Do anatomical or double bundle tech-
of motion, type of graft or technical errors during niques decrease AKP?
surgery are involved in the appearance of AKP. It BPTB graft has been one of the most used and
is important to take into account this risk factors reliable techniques for ACL reconstruction
in order to reduce the incidence of AKP. despite some drawbacks such as postoperative
AKP, patellar fracture risk or patellar tendon
rupture [16, 17]. An important meta-analysis
3.1 Range of Motion (ROM) Deficits back in 2003, comparing BPTB grafts and
hamstring (HT) grafts concluded that although
Shelbourne and Trumper highlighted the impor- there were no statistically differences between
tance of regaining full hyperextension to avoid both groups in relation to loss of extension, there
the appearance of AKP, stablishing in their study was a slightly higher incidence of it in the BPTP
there was a relationship between AKP and group (1.9 vs. 0.7%) [18]. Moreover, this study
extension deficits [11]. Sachs et al., years before demonstrated that the BPTB group presented a
had stablished flexion contracture as an impor- higher rate of AKP compared to HT patients with
tant factor of AKP [13]. In 2001, Kartus et al., significant differences (17.4 vs. 11.5%).
reinforced this association, confirming there is According to Freedman et al., surgical damage to
consensus in literature about the importance of the extensor mechanism during graft harvest is
recovering hyperextension when it comes to the main responsible [18].
reducing AKP [9]. Recently, in 2020, da Silva Webster et al., in a randomized clinical trial
Marques et al. detected that the presence of knee with a 15 year follow up period described sig-
extension deficit increased the probability of nificant differences in AKP between both groups
suffering from AKP by 5.3 times [14]. Moreover, at 8 months postoperatively (BPTB group 73%
Anterior Knee Pain Prevalence After Anterior Cruciate … 199
vs. HT group 35%) and at 2 years postopera- According to the bibliography reviewed, AKP
tively (BPTB group 52% vs. HT group 17%) is generally more frequent in patients treated with
[19]. However, the study found out that at BPTB grafts, but the fact that some studies have
15 years postoperatively there were no signifi- not found difference, suggests that as we men-
cance differences between both groups (BPTB tioned before there are other factors affecting the
group 38% vs. HT group 27%). The authors appearance of AKP.
concluded that donor site morbidity differences Currently, single-bundle technique is the most
between both groups found after 3 years [19], frequently used in ACL reconstruction. How-
were not present in a 15 year follow up. More- ever, studies comparing it with a double-bundle
over, according to this study, although the inci- technique are frequent, due to the theoretical
dence of AKP was high, the severity of pain was advantage of the latter of reproducing more
low with a mean of 3 on the BPTB group and 2.3 exactly the ACL anatomy. Aga et al., studied
on the HT group on a 10-point scale. These quality of life parameters, including AKP, in
findings, are similar to those described in previ- double-bundle and single-bundle reconstructions
ous studies [20−21]. Recently, in a new meta- [24]. They found no differences between both
analysis, five studies reported results on anterior groups. In 2010, another study published similar
knee pain prevalence in BPTB and HT groups conclusions [25]. In cadaveric studies, the
[22]. The statistical results showed that HT group reconstruction of the posterolateral bundle
had advantages in AKP and kneeling pain on the (PLB) causes an increased control of rotational
short and medium-term postoperative period as stability [26]. Considering this, an excessive
the incidence of AKP in the BPTB group was tension of the PLB could generate too much
significantly higher. constrain on tibial rotation affecting negatively to
Da Silva Marques et al., who studied 438 the patellofemoral joint and consequently ante-
patients in order to predict the main variables rior knee pain. However, there are no studies to
causing AKP after ACL reconstruction, found a this day that conclude there is a higher incidence
higher incidence in the BPBT group compared to of anterior knee pain in double-bundle recon-
the HT group (9.7 vs. 2.7%) with a 3.4 odds ratio structions. Further studies, focusing of patello-
between both groups [14]. The authors refer that femoral tracking symptoms and anterior knee
this happens because closing the defect of the pain are needed.
patellar tendon can lower the patella leading to In the last years, with the desire to prevent
AKP and hypersensitivity specially when the some of the morbidities caused by the graft
patellofemoral joint suffers extra pressure, for harvest, alternative grafts are being used.
example during squatting. Quadricipital tendon (QT) was first introduced
All these findings lead us to the conception by Blauth et al. as it was thought it could reduce
that BPTB graft is related to a higher incidence in donor site morbidity caused by traditional grafts
AKP. Contrary to this general idea, in 2009, an [27]. Studies have demonstrated good clinical
important systematic review conducted by results with QT in ACL reconstruction when
Samuelsson et al. evaluated that, out of 16 arti- compared to BPBT showing less incidence of
cles analyzing AKP, 9 studies found no differ- pressure pain, pain associated to knee flexion or
ence between both graft groups [23]. The other 7 kneeling [28, 29]. Furthermore, a better exten-
articles found a higher incidence of AKP in the sion capacity has also been noticed. However, in
BPTB group between the third and eighth this study, the authors found a higher postoper-
months after surgery, but this difference ative level of activity in the BPTB group.
decreased thereafter. Another interesting fact In 2016, Jon Kyu Lee et al. compared the
analyzed was that there was no association functional outcomes of a bone QT graft and a
between different functional scores or clinical double-bundle HT graft [30]. The study proved
variables and a higher occurrence in AKP. that the BQT graft was not significantly different
200 A. Darder-Sanchez et al.
from the HT graft in terms of knee stability and 3.3 Intraoperative Technical Errors
functional outcomes. In order to evaluate AKP,
the Shelbourne and Trumper questionnaire [11] There is a wide variety of technical errors that
was analyzed, and no significant difference was can modify the normal biomechanics of the knee
found between both groups. There was not a causing patellofemoral symptoms. Arthrofibrosis
single item of the test were the BQT was superior and more specifically the well-known cyclops
to HT group. Furthermore, the BQT showed a syndrome (Fig. 1), are complications after ACL
better knee flexor muscle recovery, fact that has reconstruction which can limit the knee range of
also been reported in other studies [31]. motion, especially the knee hyperextension.
Regarding knee extensor recovery no differences Therefore, they can cause the appearance of
were detected. AKP. In a recent study, 9% of the patients after
Recently a meta-analysis comparing the three an ACL reconstruction presented an extension
main graft types was published [32]. When it deficit [4]. Half of this cases were caused by a
comes to AKP, six studies compared donor site cyclops syndrome. The authors found no signif-
pain between 439 patients in the QT graft group icant differences on the rate of cyclops syndrome
and 287 patients in the BPTB group. They found between the HT graft group and the BPTB group
a significant difference, as the QT graft group [4]. Cyclops syndrome has been related to a too
presented less incidence of AKP (risk ratio for anterior placement of the graft as well as to an
QT vs. BPTB group, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.18–0.36; insufficient resection of the native ACL possible
P < 0.00001). Besides that, four studies com- remnants [35]. The most accepted treatment in
pared AKP between 136 patients who underwent these cases is the arthroscopic resection of the
ACL reconstruction with QT graft and 135 anterior fibrosis. Another type of arthrofibrosis is
patients with HT grafts. No significance differ- the appearance of pretibial patellar tendon
ences were found between them. It has also been adhesions. According to Stedman et al., this
described that QT patients achieve similar levels scarring of the patellar tendon to the anterior face
of quadriceps isokinetic strength at 1-year post- of the tibia causes pain during the last degrees of
operatively [33]. Other advantages reported of extension, a reduced mobility of the patella and a
the QT autograft include less pain and analgesic patella infera due to traction of the tibial adhe-
use than with an HT reconstruction and the ear- sions [36]. This traction modifies the force vector
lier capacity to achieve complete knee extension and the angle between the quadriceps and the
and range of motion compared with BPTB patellar tendon, increasing the load to the patel-
reconstruction [34]. lofemoral joint, causing therefore AKP [36−37].
Taking into account the bibliography The treatment in this case, just as with the
reviewed, the type of graft used influences the cyclops syndrome, consists on arthroscopic
appearance of AKP. Nevertheless, it is not the resection.
only factor. Evidence nowadays support that A correct graft placement is vital in order to
BPBT is the graft associated with a higher inci- recover a full range of motion. When the tibial
dence of AKP. Although QT grafts, which are tunnel is done too anterior, it causes an
popular lately, present similar risk of AKP when impingement in the intercondylar notch in the
compared to HT grafts, more quality studies need last degrees of extension. Moreover, an anterior
to be conducted in order to evaluate all the femoral tunnel will also produce a lack of
clinical outcomes of this graft in an ACL extension and consequently AKP. Evidence
reconstruction compared to more traditional shows that transtibial techniques are related with
grafts. higher incidences of knee extension deficits
Anterior Knee Pain Prevalence After Anterior Cruciate … 201
harvest techniques using a double incision have graft availability [48]. Kato et al. who also
been proposed by some authors [42, 45]. Tsuda studied the use of BTCP concluded that the
et al. assert that the use of horizontal incisions protrusion of the BTCP graft had no adverse
reduces the possible damage to the nervous effects and still reduced AKP [49].
structures mentioned before and allows better Recently, a new graft harvesting incision has
access to the tibial tunnel and the graft width been exposed with encouraging results [50].
[45]. However, most of the authors use vertical Janani et al. described a small incision which
incisions just as exposed by Beaufils et al. [42]. allowed a mobile window to both harvest the
According to them, graft harvest is done with the graft and use it to drill the tibial tunnel. They use
knee at 90° of flexion. Two vertical incisions an oblique incision of about four to five cen-
each of approximately two centimeters are made. timeters done with the knee at 30° of flexion over
The distal one is done just on the anterior tibial the patellar tendon with the proximal border on
tubercle while the proximal incision is done just the lateral side with a distal and medial direction.
above the apex of the patella which allows not With the help of retractors, they create a rectan-
damaging neither the peritenon nor the nervous gular window. The patellar tendon is harvested
branches. In their study they observed a with the knee at 100–120° while the tibial
decreased sensory morbidity as well as a lower tuberosity bone plug is obtained with the knee at
incidence in anterior knee pain in the double 30º of flexion. Finally with the knee in complete
incision group with a significant difference (19 extension, the patellar bone plug is harvested. In
vs. 58%) [42]. Gaudot et al. found similar results this study, Janani compared the incidence of
in their study, strongly recommending this dou- AKP between patients who underwent this
ble incision harvesting technique [46]. technique and people who underwent ACL
Moreover, it has also been observed a reconstructions with HT grafts. They concluded
decrease in AKP with the filling of autologous there were no differences between both groups,
bone or beta-tricalcium phosphate (BTCP) to the incidence at 3 months was 28.9% and 25.5%
reduce the bone defect in the harvesting site. respectively while at 18 months was 6.59% and
Higuchi et al., observed morphologically and 6.05% respectively.
histologically that BTCP helped and accelerated The use of the contralateral autograft patellar
bone and patellar tendon remodeling [47]. One tendon is not common between surgeons due to
year later Argawalla et al., described this tech- the donor site morbidity caused in a completely
nique and exposed that the main advantages of healthy knee. Nevertheless, Shelbourne et al. a
using BTCP instead of autologous bone was the few years ago studied the IKDC and the
absence of donor site morbidity and a bigger quadriceps muscle strength using either
Anterior Knee Pain Prevalence After Anterior Cruciate … 203
ipsilateral or contralateral patellar tendon [51]. kneeling pain nor in AKP with the daily activities
After surgery, a rehabilitation protocol based on at 12 weeks and 6 months postoperatively.
antagonistic exercises on both knees was used: These results contradict a previous study which
rehabilitation on the donor site knee was focused confirmed a decrease in subjective pain at
on recovering strength while the main goal in the twelve-month follow-up in the group treated with
ACL reconstructed knee was gaining range of PRP [54]. Therefore, more studies must be con-
motion. The results showed that in the con- ducted in order to elucidate the real effect of PRP
tralateral knee group both knees showed signifi- in AKP. Seijas et al., carried a randomized
cantly more quadriceps strength than the ACL prospective trial, measuring with ultrasound if
reconstructed knee in the ipsilateral group after a PRGF accelerated maturity of the patellar tendon
2-year follow-up period. Although a better [55]. The results showed significant differences
quadriceps strength has been related to less AKP, exclusively in the fourth month of follow-up but
this study showed no differences on subjective not in the rest of follow-up times. However,
symptoms such as kneeling pain or range of studies investigating if there is a correlation
motion between groups. More studies correlating between a faster regeneration and a decrease in
contralateral patellar grafts with symptoms such the occurrence of AKP need to be conducted.
as AKP must be done to evaluate if there really To sum up, in order to prevent the appearance
exists any benefit. of AKP we can act both over rehabilitation and
The infrapatellar fat pad (IPFP) is known to technical aspects of the surgery. When it comes
have a relevant role in the patellofemoral to rehabilitation, gaining muscle strength as well
pathophysiology as it has a biomechanical as complete range of motion are key points,
function and it is responsible for modulating the especially early complete hyperextension. A del-
inflammatory response at this level. Therefore, it icate surgical technique is also fundamental. On
has been hypothesized it could be a source of one hand, a correct placement of the femoral
AKP. Kanamoto et al., added as an independent tunnel is vital to avoid notching and loss of
risk factor for AKP after an ACL reconstruction, extension. On the other hand, orthopedic sur-
the increased blood flow in the IPFP measured by geons must try to use harvesting techniques that
ultrasounds [6]. This finding took other authors reduce morbidity on the donor site.
to study if a smaller resection of the IFP in the
ACL footprint resulted in a decrease of
AKP. Recently, Asai et al. concluded that 5 Take Home Messages
removing the IFP had no effects on clinical out-
comes after ACL reconstruction including AKP • AKP is one of the most frequent complica-
[52]. Further studies may elucidate what is the tions after ACL reconstruction. Although the
exact role of the IPFP in the appearance of AKP. severity of the symptoms is usually not much,
In the last years, biological treatments such us its prevalence is really high specially during
platelet rich plasma (PRP) or plasma rich in the first two years after surgery.
growth factors (PRGF) have been used in a wide • The risk factors are multiple and the phi-
variety of pathologies in orthopedic surgery to siopathological mechanism is still unclear but
try to accelerate the maturation of different tis- literature agrees that a loss of range of motion,
sues. When it comes to ACL surgery, several the graft harvesting site and the surgical
studies have investigated its effects on the har- technique have a direct relation with the
vesting site, especially with the BPTB graft occurrence of AKP.
technique in order to reduce the AKP that • A loss of hyperextension and BPTB graft
appears due to the donor site gap. Walters et al., seem to be associated with a higher incidence
hypothesized that PRP in the donor site could of AKP. The popular QT graft has demon-
reduce AKP [53]. They concluded that there strated less donor site morbidity than the
were no differences between groups neither in BPBT and no differences when compared
204 A. Darder-Sanchez et al.
with HT graft, therefore it may be a good 10. Sachs RA, Daniel DM, Stone ML, et al. Patellofe-
alternative. moral problems after anterior cruciate ligament
reconstruction. Am J Sports Med. 1989;17:760–5.
• In order to prevent AKP different solutions 11. Shelbourne KD, Trumper RV. Preventing anterior
have been proposed: specified rehabilitation knee pain after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruc-
protocols, modifications of the graft harvest- tion. Am J Sports Med. 1997;25:41–7.
ing technique, the use of bone to fill de donor 12. Corry IS, Webb JM, Clingeleffer AJ, et al. Arthro-
scopic reconstruction of the anterior cruciate liga-
site gap or the possible effectiveness of ment: a comparison of patellar tendon autograft and
orthobiological techniques. four-strand hamstring tendon auto-graft. Am J Sports
• More studies need to be conducted in order to Med. 1999;27(4):444–54.
define what are the exact causes of AKP after 13. Sachs RA, Daniel DM, Stone ML, et al. Patellofe-
moral problems after anterior cruciate ligament
ACL reconstruction and consequently reduce reconstruction. Am J Sports Med. 1989;17:760–5.
both the incidence and prevalence of this 14. Marques F, Barbosa P, Alves P, et al. Anterior knee
frequent complication. pain after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.
Orthop J Sports Med. 2020;8(10):232596712096108.
15. Kartus J, Magnusson L, Stener S, et al. Complica-
tions following arthroscopic anterior cruciate liga-
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Patellar Tendinopathy: Risk Factors,
Prevention, and Treatment
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 207
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_14
208 R. Kennedy and J. Cook
patellofemoral joint pain [11]. Common diag- Tenocytes are upregulated, there is an increase
nostic criteria include palpation tenderness, in large proteoglycan content and bound water
reproduction of symptoms during pain provoca- infiltration, matrix changes, collagen disorgani-
tion testing and imaging abnormality [12]. sation and a progressive loss of hierarchical
However, these tests are non-specific and may structure [16]. As pathology becomes degenera-
aggravate other structures of the anterior knee tive, there may be vascular infiltration [16].
[12], and the prevalence of asymptomatic imag- These changes may be reversible with load
ing abnormalities is high [8]. Current evidence modification and exercise early in the continuum,
suggests the combination of pain provocation but as pathology progresses to the degenerative
tests with localised pain under load increases stage, changes become largely irreversible and
diagnostic accuracy [12]. A recent study of this region of the tendon is unlikely to be able to
anterior knee pain in basketball players found transmit tensile load [16]. Critically, these
that although diffuse anterior knee pain was very changes usually occur in a localised region
common, pain localised to the inferior pole of the within the tendon, and there is usually significant
patella, a key diagnostic criterion for patellar volume of normal tendon surrounding the
tendinopathy, was not [12]. degenerative area [17]. Therefore, despite
Additionally, the types of movements that degenerative changes being irreversible, there is
aggravate the patellar tendon may differ from still capacity to load the tendon and change
those that aggravate other structures of the symptoms [17]. Reactive on degenerative
anterior knee. The patellar tendon is exposed to pathology refers to reactive tendinopathy within
the highest magnitude of tensile load when being the normal part of a degenerative tendon [15]. As
used like a spring to store and release energy degenerative regions of a tendon are unable to
[13]. This movement must be fast, as the tendon transmit load due to the loss of matrix structure,
is viscoelastic, therefore slower movements do this may result in overload of the normal part
not result in energy storage [14]. In the case of of the tendon if loads are not managed appro-
the patellar tendon, tensile load is the primary priately [15]. As with reactive tendon
consideration, as there are no friction or com- pathology, this state is reversible if overload is
pressive loads on the patellar tendon. Clinicians addressed.
should pay close attention to the types of activ- The relationship between tendon pathology
ities that cause aggravation, and if these are of and pain is not absolute, however the presence of
low tensile load such as slow heavy resistance, pathology is a risk factor for an individual
this should raise suspicion of a non-tendon cause becoming symptomatic [18]. In professional
of pain. Therefore, it is important that both the football players, an association has been found
pain location and the type of provocative load is between ultrasound detected patellar tendon
considered during the clinical reasoning process. abnormalities at the beginning of the season and
Despite numerous hypotheses regarding the increased risk of developing symptoms
aetiology and pathogenesis of patellar tendon throughout the season [19]. Furthermore, a
pathology, the exact pathoaetiology remains cohort study of professional dancers showed that
unknown. The continuum model of tendon the presence of focal hypoechoic changes was
pathology is based on a cell-driven response and associated with the future development of
describes four primary states of pathology; tendon-related pain [20]. Conversely, in Aus-
reactive, dysrepair, degenerative and reactive on tralian football players, pre-season imaging was
degenerative [15]. It is important to note that not able to predict the development of symptoms
although the model is described in discrete in-season, whereas simply asking the players
stages, it is a continuum, and therefore there is whether they had experienced symptoms previ-
fluidity between the stages [15]. ously had greater predictive value [21]. This
Several changes occur within the tendon as tenuous relationship between pathology and
pathology progresses along the continuum. symptoms suggest that clinicians should be more
Patellar Tendinopathy: Risk Factors, Prevention, and Treatment 209
patella and does not move or spread with load [3]. conditions of the anterior knee such as patellofe-
It is important to ask the athlete to indicate the moral pain syndrome.
location of their pain under load, as opposed to The decline squat (Fig. 1) is a useful pain
tenderness on palpation, as palpation has been provocation test for diagnosing patellar
shown to have low clinical utility when diagnos- tendinopathy [37], and when combined with pain
ing patellar tendinopathy [36]. As normal tendons location [12], can be useful to differentiate it
may be tender to palpate, the absence of palpation from other conditions of the anterior knee. High
tenderness may be more useful clinically, as it may levels of pain will be experienced early in range,
indicate a non-tendon diagnosis [36]. and this can be used to assess the degree of
Patellar tendon pain should increase in a dose- tendon irritability. The knee flexion angle when
dependent manner in response to increases in pain is first experienced should be recorded, and
patellar tendon load. Examination should begin this can be used as an outcome measure
with low patellar tendon load activities and pro- throughout rehabilitation [38].
gress towards tasks requiring greater energy stor-
age and release in the patellar tendon (Table 2).
For example, assessment should commence with a 5 Differential Diagnosis
low load task such as a double leg squat, and
progress towards double and single leg jumps. Numerous conditions can cause anterior knee
Throughout this progressive loading test, the pain, and it can be a diagnostic challenge to
individual is asked to indicate the location of their distinguish between several pain-producing
pain under load, which should remain localised, structures (Table 3). These structures include
and rate the intensity of pain on a numerical pain the patellofemoral joint, fat pad, bursae, or plica.
rating scale. Pain consistent with patellar tendon
Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome
origin should increase in a dose-dependent man-
ner throughout the progressive loading test. It is The patellofemoral joint is a common source of
also important to be aware of any aberrant anterior knee pain [39]. It is primarily a diagnosis
movement patterns during assessment. For of exclusion, as there are no sensitive or specific
example, individuals with patellar tendinopathy clinical tests to confirm the diagnosis [39].
often demonstrate poorer lower leg power with Patellofemoral joint pain can be diffusely located
jumping and hopping tasks and avoid deeper around the patella including inferiorly over the
ranges of knee flexion when hopping. Hip tendon and is aggravated by tasks requiring
mechanics during hopping are often relatively weight-bearing knee flexion, such as running,
good, especially when compared with those squatting and stair-climbing [39]. In contrast to
commonly demonstrated by individuals with other those with patellar tendinopathy, individuals with
212 R. Kennedy and J. Cook
patellofemoral joint pain often demonstrate pain, whereas patellar tendon pain remains lar-
poorer hip control and greater knee flexion with gely unchanged.
hopping tasks [40] and will have lower levels of
pain deeper into range with the decline squat test Fat Pad Syndrome
[38]. Taping may reduce patellofemoral joint
pain during provocative manoeuvres such as the Hoffa’s fat pad can become painful and swollen
squat or lunge. The diamond taping method following an acute traumatic hyperextension
(Fig. 2) can be used clinically to assist in dif- injury to the knee or after repetitive, end of range
ferentiating patellofemoral joint pain from knee extension [41]. Pain is diffusely located
patellar tendinopathy. Pain during provocative around the anterior to inferior aspect of the knee
movements should significantly decrease with and is aggravated by knee hypertension or direct
the use of tape in cases of patellofemoral joint palpation of the fat pad [41].
Patellar Tendinopathy: Risk Factors, Prevention, and Treatment 213
voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC), with 2- a metronome to externally pace exercises may
min rest between repetitions to allow for muscle assist in modulating excitatory and inhibitory
and cortical recovery [28]. The aim of this stage control of the muscle [53]. The key exercises
of the 4-stage program is to provide sufficient during this phase include the leg extension, leg
pain-relief for the individual to commence heavy, press (Fig. 5), seated and standing and seated
slow resistance exercises. Therefore, this stage of calf raises (Figs. 6 and 7), all completed single
the program is the shortest in duration, and rarely leg. Calf strengthening is an essential and often
completed in isolation. Isometrics should be used overlooked component of this phase of rehabili-
to gain control of pain, reduce cortical inhibition, tation. The soleus muscle is a key contributor
and to allow the individual to commence their during both deceleration and change of direction
strength program. manoeuvres, as it decelerates the tibia and
The second stage of the program involves attenuates load through the anterior knee, while
heavy slow resistance exercises and should be gastrocnemius is important for both jumping and
commenced as soon as feasible. What constitutes sprinting. As all these movements are provoca-
a ‘heavy’ load is highly individual, however, as tive for patellar tendinopathy, targeted strength-
most people with patellar tendinopathy are ening of both gastrocnemius and soleus is
young, athletic men, it is likely that sufficient crucial. These exercises should be commenced at
loading will require weighted, gym-based exer- plantar-grade, and dorsiflexion range can be
cises. It is crucial that exercises are completed increased as strength improves. Sessions during
single leg, and that each muscle and leg is loaded this phase are ideally completed 2–3 times per
maximally and independently, so deficits are not week on non-consecutive days. Once a strength
hidden within the kinetic chain. Exercises should base has been established, a functional endurance
be completed on both sides, as the strength of the program including exercises such as stair
affected side can be enhanced by improvements climbing or walking lunges can be commenced.
of the unaffected side, a phenomenon known as The third phase of rehabilitation involves the
cross education [51, 52]. Loads for each side may re-introduction of energy storage and release
differ initially, with the aim of achieving sym- loads in the patellar tendon. This is the first time
metry by the end of rehabilitation. It is important the tendon is exposed to provocative load during
to target the affected musculotendinous unit in rehabilitation. The rate of loading is increased,
isolation initially, before introducing exercises to using exercises such as low-level skipping,
incorporate the rest of the kinetic chain. Exer- jumping, hopping and deceleration (Figs. 8, 9
cises should be completed slowly, and the use of and 10). These exercises should be completed
Fig. 8 Skipping
Fig. 9 Jumping
Fig. 10 Hopping
220 R. Kennedy and J. Cook
the use of focused or radial shockwave therapy, tendon interface and the anterior peritendon
found no significant difference between groups decreases nociception, and may enable an earlier
[56]. Interestingly, both of these groups return to sport [60]. Rehabilitation after surgery
improved significantly, but it was concluded that involves immediate weight-bearing, followed by
this change was unlikely to be clinically worth- a structured rehabilitation period, with return to
while [56]. The addition of ESWT to an eccentric play in 2–4 months [60].
exercise program has also been studied, finding
no additional benefit compared to eccentric
exercise alone [57]. 11 Prevention
The use of a patellar strap or sports tape has
also been investigated. Both patellar taping and a Many of the same principles apply for both the
patellar strap have been found to decrease pain in prevention and management of patellar
the short term, however neither method was more tendinopathy. These principles include appro-
effective than a placebo taping method [58]. priate load management, the maintenance of
Various injection therapies have been pro- sufficient strength and addressing individual risk
posed to be of benefit in patellar tendinopathy. and associated factors as required.
A systematic review of injection therapies found Appropriate load monitoring and management
that a steroid injection decreased pain in the is essential, as large fluctuations in load can be
short-term, however symptoms relapsed at provocative for the tendon especially in those
longer-term follow-up [59]. Various other injec- with a history of patellar tendinopathy. It is
tion therapies have also been studied, but insuf- particularly important to be cognisant of high
ficient evidence was available to determine patellar tendon load activities such as jumping,
superiority of one over the other, or over placebo deceleration and change of direction, and to
treatment [59]. As adjunct treatments do not monitor the volume of these activities. Recent
address muscle, tendon, or kinetic chain dys- decreases and subsequent increases in training
function, it is not recommended that they are load due to other injuries is also relevant, espe-
used in isolation. They may be considered in cially in the case of injuries that affect ankle
cases when the use of an adjunct treatment dorsiflexion range and calf strength such as
enables the athlete to complete their rehabilita- inversion ankle sprains, as this can increase
tion program and there is no evidence of poten- patellar tendon load.
tial harm. The maintenance of strength, particularly of
Surgery for resistant patellar tendinopathy the knee extensors and calf complex is crucial.
may be considered if pain persistently disrupts A formal gym program targeting these muscle
training and playing and when adequate conser- groups should be completed at least twice weekly
vative rehabilitation has failed. Traditional sur- as a key preventative strategy for athletes com-
gical treatment for patellar tendinopathy involves peting in sports requiring high patellar tendon
open patellar tenotomy and excision of the load. This program should consist of single leg
pathological region [60], and is associated with a press, single leg extension, seated and standing
prolonged recovery period and poorer outcomes single leg calf raises.
[61]. Surgical techniques that remain external to Pre-season screening for patellar tendinopathy
the tendon, such as arthroscopic shaving, are risk and associated factors may assist in pre-
recommended over more invasive procedures. venting the development of symptoms through-
Surgery is performed under ultrasound guidance out the season. Screening for previous self-
on the region of neovascular ingrowth on the reported patellar tendon pain is a stronger pre-
dorsal aspect of the tendon, adjacent to the dictor of in-season tendinopathy than ultrasound
pathological region, with minor resection of imaging findings [21], and this information may
Hoffa’s fat pad [60]. Disruption of the fat pad- be used to inform individualised training
Patellar Tendinopathy: Risk Factors, Prevention, and Treatment 221
program design with the aim of addressing any exercise program has been shown to be
relevant deficits or factors, such as lack of more effective than traditional eccentric
dorsiflexion range. loading protocols.
Finally, it is important to act early if the ten-
don becomes symptomatic. The early signs of
tendinopathy are often ignored, due to the warm- 13 Key Message
up phenomenon and the fact that many athletes
can often continue to train and play in the early – It is crucial to distinguish patellar tendinopa-
stages of tendinopathy. Addressing load early thy from other common conditions of the
often prevents the sequelae of pain and disability anterior knee. Patellar tendinopathy is found
associated with severe patellar tendinopathy. almost exclusively in young, athletic men
participating in sports that place significant
demands on the knee extensors. Pain is loca-
12 Take Home Messages lised to the inferior pole of the patellar and
does not move or spread. Pain increases in a
dose-dependent manner with increasing ten-
1. Patellar tendinopathy is characterised by sile load being transmitted by the patellar
localised pain at the inferior pole of the tendon. Diagnosis can be difficult due to sig-
patella, which increases in a dose-dependent nificant clinical overlap with other anterior
manner with increasing demand on the knee knee conditions, but the combination of pain
extensors. location and the use of common pain provo-
2. Patellar tendinopathy presents a significant cation tests may assist with the clinical rea-
diagnostic challenge, with much clinical soning process. A four-stage tendon loading
overlap with other conditions of the anterior exercise program is recommended for man-
knee. It is critical to determine the exact agement, with the aim of increasing the load
location of pain during pain provocation tests tolerance of the tendon itself, musculotendi-
to increase diagnostic accuracy. nous unit, and the rest of the kinetic chain.
3. The relationship between patellar tendon
pathology and pain is limited. The prevalence
of imaging abnormalities in sporting popula- References
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Krestin GP, et al. Effectiveness of progressive
Pathophysiology of Patellar
Instability
William R. Post
Effective and rational treatment depends upon a been well defined in multiple publications [4–8].
clear understanding of all the factors that go into The medial patellar restraints include the medial
patellofemoral instability. How can you solve a patellofemoral ligament which is a very impor-
problem without understanding the contributing tant structure extending from the medial femoral
factors? Some of these will be able to be modi- condyle to the upper third of the medial border of
fied surgically. Some cannot and depend on the patella. Although medial patellofemoral
muscle strength and control. Some pertinent ligament reconstruction is commonly discussed
morphological features such as rotational defor- as the treatment for patellar instability one must
mities and trochlear dysplasia are well known to realize that the medial patellofemoral ligament
be familial [1, 2]. complex includes much more than just the
Before we can meaningfully discuss the medial patellofemoral ligament alone. There is a
pathophysiology of patellofemoral instability, we proximal extension of the medial patellofemoral
must clearly define our understanding of patel- retinaculum into the distal quadriceps tendon and
lofemoral stability. the more distal portions of the medial patellofe-
moral complex include the medial patellotibial
Patellofemoral stability has previously been
and patellomeniscal ligaments [5]. The more
defined as “constraint by passive soft tissue
proximal portions of the medial soft tissue con-
tethers and chondral/bony geometry that, toge-
straints have more influence on patellar con-
ther with muscular forces, guide the patella into
straint early in knee flexion while the more distal
the trochlear groove and keep it engaged within
portions of the medial soft tissue constraints exert
the trochlear groove as the knee flexes and
more of their influence when the knee is in
extends” [3].
greater flexion [4]. As our understanding of the
Let us first consider each of these factors specific characteristics of each of these portions
separately of the medial soft tissues expands, we must take
this into consideration as we refine our under-
There are important soft tissue constraints on
standing of patellofemoral stability.
both the medial and lateral aspect of the patella.
Not only do the medial soft tissues contribute
The anatomy and function of these structures has
to constraint of the patella but the lateral soft
tissues also play a key role. The lateral tissues
certainly restrain the patella from displacement in
W. R. Post (&) the medial direction but they also contribute to
Mountaineer Orthopedic Specialists, LLC, preventing lateral displacement of the patella
Morgantown, WV, USA
e-mail: wpost@wvortho.com
with respect to the trochlea. This has been
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 225
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_15
226 W. R. Post
demonstrated in the laboratory [9] and also is increase patellar stability (Fig. 1B). We must
evident in clinical results reported for lateral consider how far proximally the trochlea itself
release which can exacerbate lateral instability in extends on the distal femur and also the relative
certain clinical situations [10–12]. When con- height of the patella itself when we consider at
sidering the true effects of the medial and lateral which degree of flexion engagement of the
soft tissue restraints, it is important to realize that patella within the trochlea begins [13]. This is an
there is a very significant posterior component to important source of variability among patients.
the anatomical position (Fig. 1A). Neither patella alta itself, nor trochlear mor-
The articular shape of the patella and the phology should be logically considered sepa-
trochlea also have a strong influence on stability. rately considering that the critical issue is the
The deeper the concavity of the trochlea is, the interaction and stability of the patella and the
more stable the patellofemoral articulation will trochlea in early flexion.
be. This is especially true in the proximal portion Axial and coronal plane skeletal alignment
of the trochlea where the patella enters the tro- also play crucial roles in patellofemoral biome-
chlea in early flexion. If the proximal portion of chanics. For example the lower extremity with a
the trochlea is flat or even convex it is more significant valgus alignment at the knee increases
difficult for the patella to be well-contained the lateral vector of quadriceps force, causing
within the trochlea. In this regard it is important lateral displacement of the patella unless it is
to consider not only how flat the proximal por- appropriately controlled by soft tissue constraints
tion of the trochlea is but to evaluate at which and the articular shape and alignment of the
degree of flexion the distal patella begins to enter patellofemoral articulation (Fig. 2). One factor
he proximal (hopefully concave) portion of the that can contribute to increasing the valgus angle
trochlea. Once the patella has entered the con- and resultant lateral vector of quadriceps force is
cave trochlea weightbearing and quadriceps force an abnormally lateral position of the tibial
Fig. 1 (continued)
B
tuberosity. It is for this reason historically that femoral anteversion as well as relative weakness
medial tuberosity transfer has been proposed of the hip external rotators producing dynamic
when the patellar tendon insertion at the tibial valgus. Since as a profession we have typically
tuberosity can be proven to be abnormally lateral. discussed patellofemoral tracking as keeping the
This is most commonly considered clinically patella over the trochlea we might misunderstand
when the excessive lateral quadriceps vector is this very important point. Sometimes it is just as
severe enough to result in lateral translation of important or even more important to consider
the patella on axial imaging studies. There are putting the trochlea back under the patella by
several methods of measuring this clinically by externally rotating the femur. In this case we are
comparing the axial position of the tibial not putting the train back on the track, but rather
tuberosity to either the center of the trochlear putting the track back underneath the train
groove (TT-TG distance) or the PCL insertion (Figs. 4A and B). Clinically it is not always
site (TT-PCL distance). Most commonly the purely one or the other.
depth of the trochlea is the reference point, Internal rotation of the trochlea away from the
although it still remains uncertain which mea- patella can result from bony rotational abnor-
surement is more clinically reproducible and malities of the femur with excessive femoral
important [14]. anteversion or from lack of strong hip external
Similarly rotational alignment of the extremity rotation and pelvic stability which can produce
plays a critical role in positioning the trochlea relative dynamic internal rotation of the trochlea
underneath the patella [15]. Excessive internal even in the absence of bony abnormality. It is
rotation of the femur relative to the patella this dynamic loss of control that is referred to as
essentially moves the trochlea anteromedially a functional valgus knee which can be easily
away from the patella (Fig. 3). Excessive internal diagnosed on physical examination. Hyper-
rotation of the femur can result from excessive pronation of the foot can also produce internal
228 W. R. Post
Fig. 4 A In a normally
aligned patellofemoral joint
A
with normal articular
congruity the train is on the
track. B. When there is
pathological bony deformity
causing femoral internal
rotation it makes more sense
to put the track back
underneath the train as
opposed to trying to move the
patella (the train) to the
trochlea (the track). In this
situation femoral osteotomy
should be considered
230 W. R. Post
Fig. 4 (continued)
B
B
232 W. R. Post
that this patient has patellofemoral instability this is far and away the most common type of
since instability itself is a symptom and not a patellofemoral instability, it is not the only type.
physical finding. Indeed the symptom of patel- Clinical studies have consistently revealed tro-
lofemoral instability is most often episodic even chlear dysplasia, patella alta and increased TT-
in the presence of severe patholaxity of the soft TG distance in patients with lateral instability to
tissue constraints. be factors which make recurrent dislocation more
To summarize, factors which cause displace- likely [21–23]. As such information evolves,
ment of the patella are a combination of muscle patient selection for treatment after primary dis-
forces, insufficient articular congruency, skeletal location will become more objective.
alignment variables, dynamic positioning of the Less common types of patellofemoral insta-
extremity as well as direct or indirect trauma. bility include lateral patellar instability with
Patellofemoral instability injuries most often flexion. In this situation referred to as obligate
result from non-contact injuries by excessive lateral dislocation the patella enters the trochlea
internal rotation of the femur relative to the normally but with further flexion suddenly dis-
patella with significant muscular forces causing locates lateral to the trochlea. This typically
lateral displacement resulting in failure of the occurs each time the patient goes from full
medial soft tissue constraints. If underlying laxity extension to full flexion. In order to understand
of the soft tissue constraints exists from either the situation we can apply the same principles
congenital hypermobility or previous injury, less addressed above. In this situation there is
force is required to produce the pathological excessive lateral tightness as well as concomitant
displacement. MRI studies have consistently relative deficiency of the lateral aspect of the
shown disruption of the medial soft tissues with trochlea. In some cases there may be shortening
acute dislocation [20]. of the extensor mechanism exacerbating the lat-
The key clinical question is to begin to under- eral tightness and contributing to obligate lateral
stand which of the variables must be addressed dislocation in flexion. Understanding these fac-
clinically by surgery or nonoperative management tors, lateral release with possible lengthening of
to assure normal function in the absence of the quadriceps mechanism is the mainstay of
recurrent instability episodes which can produce such treatment with elevation of the lateral tro-
severe articular injury resulting in posttraumatic chlea as an additional component of the repair.
osteoarthritis and recurrent disability. In addition to these 2 types of lateral patel-
lofemoral instability, medial patellar instability
also occurs. This problem is usually iatrogenic
1 Using Pathophysiology related to prior surgery with excessive lateral
to Understand Different Types release and sometimes surgical injury to the
of Patellofemoral Instability vastus lateralis tendon. In this case the root
causes are less than appropriate lateral soft tissue
Given our understanding of factors affecting the constraints as well as imbalance of the quadri-
pathophysiology of patellar instability, we can ceps related to the vastus lateralis weakness. One
now address different types of patellofemoral must also be aware when planning treatment for
instability. The most common type of patellofe- medial patellar instability that any pathologic
moral instability involves dislocation of the factors present contributing to the original lateral
patella laterally with respect to the trochlea in instability may still need to be effectively treated.
early flexion (<45°). This is essentially a failure Restoring medial and lateral soft tissue con-
of the patella under load to enter the trochlea and straints along with considering possible treatment
remain in the trochlea as the knee flexes. While of pre-existing issues such as trochlear dysplasia
Pathophysiology of Patellar Instability 233
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Harryman DT 2nd, Matsen FA 3rd. Glenohumeral
Evaluation of the Patient
with Patellar Instability: Clinical
and Radiological Assessment
2 History
A. E. Jimenez (&)
Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation,
Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA The history is the first component of any patient
presenting with patellar instability and often is
L. Pace
Children’s Health Andrews Institute, Plano, TX, the key component of establishing a diagnosis.
USA There are several ways in which a patient with
D. C. Fithian patellar instability can present. The classic sce-
Senta Clinic, San Diego, CA, USA nario in which a patient sustained a traumatic
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 235
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_16
236 A. E. Jimenez et al.
A B
C D
Fig. 3 (Reproduced with permission from Sanchis- (black arrow) is maintained B. In the second part of the
Alfonso V., Montesinos-Berry E., Serrano A., Martínez- test, the knee is started in full extension C, brought back
Sanjuan V. (2011) Evaluation of the Patient with Anterior to 90° of flexion D, and then brought back to full
Knee Pain and Patellar Instability. In: Sanchis-Alfonso V. extension while the index finger is used to translate the
(eds) Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability. patella medially (black arrow). For a positive test, in the
Springer, London) The moving patellar apprehension test first part, the patient expresses apprehension and may
begins with the knee held in full extension and the patella activate his or her quadriceps in response to the appre-
is manually translated laterally (black arrow) with the hension. However, in the second part of the test, the
thumb A. The knee is then flexed to 90° and then brought patient experiences no apprehension and allows free
back to full extension while the lateral force on the patella flexion and extension of the knee
patellar tendon is pathologically long. Ahmad the patella will be pushed lateral by the flat or
et al. described a variation of this evaluation convex trochlea as the knee is extended making
called the “moving patellar apprehension test” the shape of an inverted “J”. Conversely, as the
(Fig. 3) [9]. The moving patellar apprehension knee is flexed, the patella will move from lateral
test has demonstrated a sensitivity as high as to midline as it centers in the trochlear groove.
100%, specificity of 88.4%, a positive predictive A “lazy J” sign can be seen in the setting of low-
value of 89.2%, a negative predictive value of grade dysplasia and patella alta. A “jumping J
100%, and an accuracy of 94.1%. This dynamic sign” is usually found in patients with trochlear
provocative test is similar to the pivot shift test dysplasia and a large supratrochlear spur which
for the ACL-deficient knee. is often irritating to the patient [10].
The “J” sign is another exam observation that In addition to these focused exams, the knee
can be diagnostic for dysplasia. With the patient should be evaluated for range of motion, swel-
seated on the examination table and the legs ling, cruciate and collateral ligament integrity,
hanging over the side with the knees flexed 90˚, joint line tenderness and crepitus. Patients pre-
the patient is asked to extend the knee actively to senting with an acute dislocation often will have
a fully extended position (Fig. 4). Normally, the an effusion and tenderness over the medial reti-
patella follows a straight line as the knee is nacular structures and may not be amenable to
extended. In the setting of trochlear dysplasia, the entirety of the exam listed above.
Evaluation of the Patient with Patellar Instability … 239
A B C
Fig. 4 (Reproduced with permission from Sanchis- Springer, London) The “J” sign. When the knee is
Alfonso V., Montesinos-Berry E., Serrano A., Martínez- extended from 90° A to 0° C the patella outlines an
Sanjuan V. (2011) Evaluation of the Patient with Anterior inverted J-shaped course. Intermediate positions between
Knee Pain and Patellar Instability. In: Sanchis-Alfonso V. 90˚ and 0˚ B
(eds) Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability.
The Quadriceps angle or Q angle has been Referred pain from the hip should always be a
commonly referenced in the evaluation of consideration as well when evaluating these
patients with patellar instability. The Q-angle is patients and a basic hip examination for range of
described at the intersection of lines drawn from motion and anterior impingement is warranted.
the anterior superior iliac spine to the center of Hip pathologies in younger patients such as
the patella and from the center of the patella to Perthes disease, slipped capital femoral epiph-
the tibial tubercle. Normal values have been ysis, or femoroacetabular impingement syn-
reported 10° in men and 15° in women. The Q drome may uncommonly manifest as referred
angle is mainly of historical interest and is not knee pain.
routinely necessary to measure or evaluate in
modern day evaluation of patients with patella
instability as it does not provide any information 4 Evaluation of Failed Prior
that drives treatment. Stabilization Surgery
Patients with patellofemoral instability may
also demonstrate elements of hypermobility. It is Patients who have undergoing previous surgery
therefore important to evaluate the presence of and continue to have recurrent patellar instability
ligamentous laxity. Patellofemoral instability fall into one or more categories: improper sur-
patients are six times more likely to have gical indication, surgical technical error, or
hyperlaxity compared to age matched controls, incorrect assessment and treatment of risk factors
but outcomes of intervention as still promising in for instability (trochlear dysplasia, patella alta,
this patient population [11]. Hypermobile femoral anteversion, etc.) [13]. If the patient was
patients may demonstrate excessive skin laxity, properly indicated and continues to have insta-
and the presence of Ehlers-Danlos syndrome bility postoperatively, technical errors of the
should be evaluated especially given the signifi- index surgery or surgeries must be considered in
cant systemic pathologies which may be present. addition to failure to address other anatomic risk
In all patients, generalized ligamentous laxity factors of stability. Parikh et al. [14] reported that
should be quantified using the Beighton hyper- 47% of the complications that occurred after
mobility score [12]. MPFL reconstruction surgery were due to
240 A. E. Jimenez et al.
technical errors, the most common of which was patellar subluxation in 54 patients who had pre-
malposition of the femoral tunnel. The femoral viously undergone an overzealous lateral release
attachment is critical for the function and kine- [19]. Recent biomechanical finite element anal-
matics of the reconstructed MPFL graft. In the ysis has demonstrated that lateral retinacular
normal knee, the MPFL is tighter in extension release even in the setting of a tibial tuberosity
than in flexion. If the femoral attachment site of a transfer can result in multidirectional instability
reconstructed MPFL is placed too anterior, the [20]. Less commonly, hyperlaxity, trochlear
graft will tighten when the knee is flexed, and dysplasia, and deficient quadriceps can rarely be
patellofemoral overload can occur [15]. Similarly associated with medial patellar subluxation
even with a properly placed femoral tunnel, events. Bollier et al. detailed that patients with
excessive graft tension is another technical error medial patellar subluxation can occur in cases
that can lead to failure of reconstructive surgery with a malpositioned MPFL graft [21].
[16] and can manifest with a painful and rela- Patients with prior surgery should be carefully
tively immobile patella. examined as medial instability can sometimes be
Crepitus through a range of motion is impor- mistaken for lateral patellar instability. In the
tant to document. Most patients with patellar case of medial patellar instability, the patella is
instability will have some degree of cartilage subluxated medially in full extension and then as
damage. This damage can accelerate if an the knee flexes, it jumps laterally to center in the
improper surgery is performed and some patients trochlear groove. On exam, static medial patellar
in revision settings may require concomitant subluxation, vastus lateralis atrophy, or a lateral
chondral resurfacing. It is important to document patellar void may be seen. Our primary method
any surgical scars as it will need to be determined for diagnosis of medial patellar subluxation is
if they can be used for a revision surgery or if Fulkerson’s relocation test (Fig. 5). To perform
new ones need to be made. In particular, a history this test, we hold the patella slightly in a medial
of a prior lateral release reduces lateral restraint direction with the knee extended. Then, we flex
and may increase the risk of iatrogenic medial the knee while letting go of the patella, which
instability [17]. Lastly, a history of prior tibial causes the patella to go into the trochlea. In
tubercle osteotomy (TTO) can alter patellofe- patients with medial subluxation this test repro-
moral mechanics with over-distalization resulting duces the patient’s symptom. Further, the gravity
in loss of terminal flexion and over medialization subluxation test has also been described where
potentially contributing to medial instability [18]. the patient is placed in the lateral decubitus
position with the affected limb supported by the
examiner at the ankle and knee [22]. The knee is
5 Evaluation of Medial Patellar flexed from the extended position. If medial
Instability instability is present, the patient cannot tolerate
passive knee flexion without upward force on the
The direction of any instability is extremely patella, which reduces the patella and allows it to
important. Most of the time instability is in the enter the groove as the knee is flexed passively
lateral direction; however, some patients may by the examiner. A positive test is indicative of
have medial instability and some patients may medial instability and confirms deficiency of the
suffer from multidirectional instability. Medial lateral retinacular constraints. Further evaluation
patellar instability is much less frequent than on imaging should follow the standard proto-
lateral patellar instability, but should be sus- col for patients with lateral patellar instability,
pected, especially in patients who remain symp- but additional views such as stress radiographs of
tomatic after any lateral retinacular release the patellofemoral joint as described by Teitge
surgery. Medial instability was first described by et al. can be helpful in establishing a diagnosis
Hughston and Deese who reported on medial [23].
Evaluation of the Patient with Patellar Instability … 241
A 6 Imaging Studies
7 Radiographs
A perfect lateral view can evaluate for tro- inferior to superior is better at evaluating tro-
chlear dysplasia. Radiographic findings such as chlear morphology. However, this is still difficult
the crossing sign, trochlear spur, and double to obtain at times and a “normal” appearing axial
contour sign are pathognomonic for trochlear view does not rule out conditions such as tro-
dysplasia. The crossing sign is when the curve of chlear dysplasia.
the trochlear floor crosses the anterior contour of The axial radiograph can also be used for
the lateral femoral condyle, which represents stress images of the patella. In these images, axial
flattening of the trochlear groove and absence of radiographs are obtained while an examiner
trochlear constraint. A trochlear spur (also applies approximately constant pressure to the
described as a trochlear prominence, boss, bump, patella in either the medial or lateral direction.
or eminence) is when the proximal trochlea Relaxation of the quadriceps must be maintained
begins to elevate away from the distal femoral and the displacement can be measured on the
metadiaphysis and can become convex with lar- radiograph by a technique described by Laurin
ger spurs. The spur size can be quantified via the et al. [25]. Lastly, a long leg standing film, or AP
distance between the most anterior point of the hip to ankle x-ray, is ordered based on physical
spur and a line drawn along the distal aspect of exam concerns for coronal plane malalignment.
the anterior femoral cortex. The double contour This imaging study is crucial to quantify varus
sign is a double line at the anterior aspect of the and valgus alignment.
femoral condyles that represents the chondral
outline of a hypoplastic medial trochlea. The
Dejour classification is based on these lateral 8 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
radiographic and axial imaging findings [24]. (MRI)
Type A is characterized by a shallow trochlea,
with a crossing sign on the lateral view and a Advanced imaging with MRI is currently the
sulcus angle >145 on the axial view. Type B is gold standard to diagnose and quantify pathoa-
characterized by the appearance of a flat trochlea natomy and articular cartilage injuries in patients
on axial radiographs and a supratrochlear spur on with patellar instability. An MRI should be per-
lateral images. Type C has the presence of a formed before any surgical intervention for
crossing sign and a double contour sign in lateral patellar instability and the authors advocate for
radiographs combined with medial hypoplasia MRI examination of all acute, traumatic, first
and lateral convexity on axial radiographs. time dislocations to evaluate for osteochondral or
Type D dysplasia has asymmetry of the trochlear chondral injuries that may warrant surgical fixa-
facets and a cliff between the medial and lateral tion [26]. Axial MRI allows for thorough and
facets on the axial view [24]. A summary of quantitative evaluation of bony and cartilaginous
radiographic signs of trochlear dysplasia can be anatomy and injury as well as patellar height.
found in Fig. 6. In patients with a prior MPFL While evaluation of bony anatomic risk factors
reconstruction, the femoral tunnel position can be and chondral injuries are the primary concern,
evaluated on the lateral radiograph (Fig. 7). In MRI is also useful for viewing the status of the
addition, the lateral view can diagnose degener- MPFL [27].
ative changes in the patellofemoral joint. Axial MRI is key to quantifying trochlear
In a Merchant view of the knee in 45˚ of dysplasia. Given that trochlear dysplasia is the
flexion, patellofemoral pathoanatomy is often most common anatomic risk factor associated
overlooked because pathology at the proximal with patellar instability, it must be diagnosed and
part of the trochlear groove may not be readily assessed for in every patient. Historically, dys-
visible, and a supratrochlear spur may be missed. plasia has been categorized via the Dejour clas-
Alternatively, a Laurin radiograph with the knee sification scheme on axial MRI, however, there
flexed to 20° and the imaging beam directed from has been poor inter-rater reliability with this
Evaluation of the Patient with Patellar Instability … 243
Fig. 6 (Reproduced with permission from Dejour D, spur are visible on lateral imaging. On axial views the
Saggin PRF: Sulcus-deepening trochleoplasty in trochlea appears flat, with prominence of the entire
Scott WN, ed: Insall and Scott Surgery of the Knee, ed trochlea. C Dejour Type C, the crossing stign and
5. Philadelphia PA, Elsevier, 2012, pp 688−695) Illus- double-contour sign are visible on the lateral view, but
trations of the knee joint demonstrating the appearance of no prominence is visible. On the axial view, the lateral
various types of trochlear dysplasia on the lateral and facet appears convex and the medial facet is hypoplastic.
axial radiographic imaging. A Dejour Type A, the D Dejour Type D, the crossing sign, supratrochlear spur,
crossing sign is visible on lateral views and the trochlea and doubler-contour sign are visible. On the axial view,
appears shallower than normal but still symmetric and there is clear symmetry of the height of the facets, which
concave. B Dejour Type B, the crossing sign and trochlear is known as a cliff pattern
approach and better reliability has been shown by extensively to quantitatively evaluate trochlear
a binary classification of low-grade (Dejour A) dysplasia in the setting of patellar instability. LTI
and high-grade (Dejour B-D) dysplasia. as measured on MRI can better characterize the
Recent literature has documented the value of proximal trochlea than radiographic imaging
lateral trochlear inclination (LTI) to help quantify which has been traditionally used for the Dejour
trochlear morphology [28]. Currently, as descri- classification [29, 30]. Carrillon, et al. (using a
bed by Joseph et al. LTI is measured using a two- single image technique) have established that an
image technique on axial MRI sequences at the LTI <11° is associated with a 95% specificity of
levels of the most proximal extent of the tro- having patellar instability secondary to trochlear
chlear cartilaginous surface and the posterior dysplasia [31] although this number has not been
femoral condyles (Fig. 8). An LTI value that is reassessed since the advent of the two-image
positive denotes that there is some degree of a technique.
trochlear groove at the most proximal extent of Patellar height is also evaluated on MRI via
the trochlea. An LTI of 0° represents a flat sagittal imaging. MRI is currently considered to
proximal trochlea and a negative LTI represents a be more reliable than x-ray for measuring patellar
convex proximal trochlea. LTI has been used height due to inconsistencies in the angle of the
244 A. E. Jimenez et al.
Fig. 8 [28] (Reproduced from Joseph et al., Reprinted posterior condyles and a horizontal line represented by the
with permission from SAGE Publishing) Measurement red lines. This angle measured 2°. It was assigned a
technique for 2-image lateral trochlear inclination (LTI). positive value because the apex of the angle was medial.
A An angular measurement was taken on an axial MRI The 2-image LTI was determined by subtracting the angle
image between the most proximal aspect of the lateral of the posterior femoral condyles relative to the horizontal
trochlear cartilaginous surface and a horizontal reference from the angle of the proximal lateral trochlea relative to
line represented by the red lines. This angle measured 15°. the horizontal. In this example, the LTI calculation was
This angle’s apex was medial, so it was assigned a 15°−2° = 13°
positive value. B An angle was measured between the
Evaluation of the Patient with Patellar Instability … 245
A B
C D
E F
Fig. 10 (Reproduced with permission from Sanchis- patellofemoral joint. Axial plane showing degenerative
Alfonso V., Montesinos-Berry E., Serrano A., Martínez- changes of the articular cartilage of the medial patellar
Sanjuan V. (2011) Evaluation of the Patient with Anterior facet A, frontal plane B, and sagittal plane C. 3D-CT
Knee Pain and Patellar Instability. In: Sanchis-Alfonso V. shows great fidelity of the surface anatomy D, E, but it is
(eds) Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability. unable to show undersurface detail which is clearly shown
Springer, London) 3D-CT reconstruction of the by conventional CT scans F or MRI
Evaluation of the Patient with Patellar Instability … 247
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Evolving Management of Acute
Dislocations of the Patella
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 251
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_17
252 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B
Fig. 1 Evident MPFL disruption. MPFL injury pattern AME Publishing Company. From Sanchis-Alfonso V and
assessment by MRI. A Coronal view. B Axial view. Montesinos-Berry E. Acute dislocation of the patella:
Laterally subluxated patella. The contralateral patella has should these patients be operated on more often? Ann
a normal alignment. (Republished with permission of Joint, 3:20, 2018)
Currently, there is a controversy regarding the Interestingly, 84% of patellar avulsion fractures
best treatment for FTLPD despite the high inci- affect the inferomedial border of the patella,
dence of this pathological condition. Classically, which is the zone where the medial patellotibial
it was thought that these patients were candidates ligament and the medial patellomeniscal liga-
for non-surgical treatment in the majority of ment are attached [5]. The avulsion site is very
cases. The exceptions were when the dislocation important because 20% of patients with infero-
was irreducible, in cases with an evident dis- medial border fractures showed recurrence
ruption of the medial patellar stabilizers (Fig. 1), compared with 0% of superior patellar avulsion
in the presence of osteochondral fragments sec- fracture patients after acute surgical repair [5].
ondary to a dislocation that behave like intra- Therefore, fixation of the avulsion fracture may
articular loose bodies (Fig. 2), or when there is a not be sufficient in these cases, and some of these
large and displaced bone avulsion facture off the patients may require an MPFL reconstruction
medial aspect of the patella (Fig. 3). (MPFLr) [5].
A B C
Fig. 2 MRI signs of FTLPD: contusions of the anterior articular bodies (white thick arrow), and joint effusions
portion of the lateral femoral condyle and of the medial (asterisk). A & B Axial FSE PDW Fat Sat MR images.
patellae, osteochondral defects (black thick arrow), intra- C Coronal FSE PDW Fat Sat MR image
Evolving Management of Acute Dislocations of the Patella 253
Fig. 3 A large, displaced bone avulsion fracture of the Sanchis-Alfonso V and Montesinos-Berry E. Acute
MPFL. A Surgical image. B CT-3D image. (Republished dislocation of the patella: should these patients be
with permission of AME Publishing Company. From operated on more often? Ann Joint, 3:20, 2018)
The functional results were similar in both trial in which they compare the non-surgical
modalities of treatment in most of the studies, treatment of the FTLPD (knee brace for 4 weeks
suggesting that surgical treatment does not and physical therapy) with surgical treatment
improve the outcomes [8–17]. However, there (arthroscopic-assisted repair of the MPFL with
are several key issues to acknowledge if we anchors followed by 4 weeks of immobilization
analyze the above papers in-depth. The first is and physical therapy). The authors conclude that
that the follow-up times and ages are very the percentage of redislocations is significantly
heterogeneous, therefore, the recurrence rates as less in the surgical group than in the non-surgical
well as ages are not comparable in all the studies. group (22 vs. 43%), but the overall function was
The small number of patients in these papers is a not different between groups and the majority of
limiting factor that could lead to non-detection of patients in both groups were satisfied with the
statistically significant differences between the function of the knee. Although there are no dif-
groups. Finally, the conservative treatment pro- ferences with regard to patient function, the fact
tocol is not the same in all studies, and the types that the number of dislocations is reduced with
of surgical treatment are also different (realign- surgical treatment is clinically relevant because
ment surgery, MPFL repair and MPFLr). Con- the recurrence of dislocation is a factor that
sequently, it is difficult to draw conclusions when favors PFOA, as we have already stated. The
doing systematic reviews with a meta-analysis take-home message might be that surgical treat-
using these studies. ment has a lower recurrence rate and better short-
Pagliazzi and colleagues [18], in a meta- term clinical outcomes but a higher rate of
analysis of RCTs, showed a greater redislocation complications and similar clinical outcomes in
rate in non-surgical patients after an FTLPD. the long-term.
Better clinical outcomes were found with surgi- We can conclude that the currently available
cal treatment up to the 6-year follow-up, but the evidence is not sufficiently conclusive to rec-
results were similar in both groups, surgical and ommend one treatment over the other. That is,
non-surgical, at longer term follow-up. In 2020, the results of these papers are not enough to
Migliorini and colleagues [19] recommend up answer the relevant question as to who needs
front surgical treatment after an FTLPD in a early surgery. To answer this question for each
systematic review of randomized and non- individual patient, it is necessary to keep other
randomized clinical trials with meta-analysis. issues in mind, ones that we will analyze next.
Better function is achieved with the therapeutic
approach proposed by these authors, as demon-
strated by higher values in the Kujala score as 2.1 First-Time Patellar Dislocation
well as a significant reduction in redislocations with an Associated Loose
and persistent feelings of instability in compar- Body
ison with non-surgical treatment. In 2020, Fu and
colleagues [20] conducted a systematic review Even though the current standard treatment for
with a meta-analysis of solely RCTs and con- FTLPD is non-surgical, an operation would be
cluded the same as Migliorini and colleagues considered to fix the osteochondral fragment if
[19], that surgical treatment is better than non- the patient presents with an osteochondral injury
surgical treatment in patients with an FTLPD. It and an associated loose body. If it cannot be
is important to note that these systematic reviews fixed, then generally the loose body is excised
include both MPFL repairs and MPFL recon- arthroscopically. According to Pedowitz and
structions within the surgical treatment group and colleagues, if the treatment of an osteochondral
we must bear in mind that the results of a repair injury is not pared with an MPFL repair or
are not the same as those of a reconstruction. In MPFLr, the percentage of recurrent instability is
2018, Askenberger and colleagues [21] pub- 61% [22]. If we compare the cases in which an
lished their results of a randomized controlled MPFLr is performed to those cases in which the
Evolving Management of Acute Dislocations of the Patella 255
MPFL is repaired or nothing at all is done, then dysplasia. The combination of both factors (tro-
we see that there is a lower rate of recurrent chlear dysplasia and skeletal immaturity) con-
instability (10 vs 58.7%), a higher percentage of ferred a risk of 69% at 5 years. The results of this
return to sports activity (66.7 vs 38.1%), and an study are in accordance with those of Asken-
even smaller risk of a second surgery (56.7 vs berger and colleagues [26] who recognized that
47%) with MPFLr [23]. Given this body of lit- trochlear dysplasia is the main anatomic patellar
erature, it would be reasonable to perform an instability risk factor in skeletally immature
MPFLr on all adolescents with an FTLPD with children. Balcarek and colleagues [27] developed
an associated loose body. the Patellar instability severity score (PISS)
which was the first multivariable scoring system.
This score might allow us to differentiate
2.2 Pathoanatomy−Risk Factors between responders and non-responders to non-
for Recurrence After surgical treatment after an FTLPD. PISS has six
an FTLPD−Predictive factors. They are age, the bilaterality of the
Models Analysis instability, trochlear dysplasia severity, patella
alta, tibial tuberosity-trochlear groove (TT-TG)
The decision-making with regard to either sur- distance, and patellar tilt. Jaquith and Parikh [28]
gical or non-surgical treatment can be based on also presented a predictive score to calculate the
the risk of recurrence after non-surgical treat- risk of recurrence. According to these authors,
ment. The key question is whether recurrent trochlear dysplasia, skeletal immaturity (age of
patellar dislocation be predicted after an FTLPD. 14 years or less), Caton-Deschamps index
The idea is to identify those risk factors that can (CDI) > 1.45, and a history of contralateral
predict the failure of non-surgical treatment and patellar dislocation were all significant risk fac-
to design predictive models of recurrent dislo- tors for recurrence after an FTLPD. The presence
cation after an FTLPD treated non-surgically. of all 4 risk factors had a predicted recurrence
Predictive models may assist in the decision- risk rate of 88%. The presence of any 3 risk
making process aimed at achieving better clinical factors had a predicted risk of about 75% and the
outcomes as well as reducing costs [24]. The end presence of any 2 risk factors had a predicted risk
point of using predictive models in the FTLPD of about 55%. Arendt and colleagues [29] eval-
population is to identify individuals at high risk uated sixty-one patients out of 145 with FTLPD
for recurrent patellar instability that might benefit that had had a recurrent dislocation within 2
from early surgical treatment. years of follow-up. Stepwise logistic regression
Several scoring systems to assess the risk of analysis demonstrated that skeletal immaturity,
recurrence after an FTLPD have been published. the sulcus angle and Insall-Salvati ratio were
An analysis of this literature demonstrates that significant predictors of redislocation. The cut
the redislocation risk can only be assessed using points were determined to be a sulcus angle
combined risk factors. In 2013, Lewallen and 154° and Insall-Salvati ratio 1.3. The prob-
colleagues [25] analyzed the factors that predict a ability of redislocation was of 5.8% with no
lateral patellar dislocation recurrence in pediatric factors present and 22.7% with any 1 factor
patients and adolescents with a mean age of 15 present, increasing to 78.5% if all 3 factors were
years (ranging from 9 to 18 years). They dis- present. Natural history studies of recurrent lat-
covered that successful conservative treatment eral instability show that the mean time to
after an FTLPD was 62% and that around half of recurrence is 3.7 years [29]. For this reason,
the patients with recurrent lateral patellar dislo- Hevesi and colleagues [30] chose a minimum
cation need surgical treatment. The most impor- follow-up time of 4 years in their study, in con-
tant risk of dislocation recurrence appeared in trast to previous studies [25–27]. They developed
skeletally immature patients with trochlear a model to predict the risk of recurrence after an
256 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
FTLPD that is entitled “Recurrent Instability of the optimum treatment of a patient with an
the Patella Score” (RIP Score). This score is FTLPD. It can also be useful when we want to
based on age (<25 years old), skeletal immatu- inform patients and their families about the
rity, trochlear dysplasia (A-D according to the prognosis after an FTLPD.
Dejour classification) and TT-TG/PL ratio
0.5 (TT-TG, tibial tubercle to trochlear groove
distance; PL patellar length). This score gives a 2.3 Patient’s Goals–Return to Sports
maximum of 5 points and a minimum of zero; if at a Pre-Injury Level
the patient is under 25 years of age, the score will
be 2; the remaining items score 1. According to When we consider a therapeutic indication, be it
the score obtained, the risk of recurrent instabil- surgical or non-surgical, it must not only be
ity is low (0−1 points), intermediate (2−3) or based on the best available scientific evidence,
high (4−5). In low-risk patients, there were no pathophysiological arguments and predictive
further dislocation episodes at 1, 2, 5, and 10 models, but also on the patient´s expectations
years. In intermediate-risk patients the percent- and wishes. These three elements constitute the
ages of recurrent instability-free patients were 83, three cornerstones of evidence-based medicine.
72, 69 and 69% respectively. These figures are There are patients for whom sports is important
84, 62, 34 and 21% in the same time periods in for leisure or professional reasons. We have to
the high-risk group. In 2020, Huntington and offer the treatment with the greatest guarantees of
colleagues demonstrated in a systematic review making it possible for them to return to their
with meta-analysis that the key risk factors for sports activity of choice.
recurrence were younger age, open physes, tro- In 2017 Magnussen and colleagues [6] showed
chlear dysplasia, radiographic patella alta, and an that those patients in whom there is no recurrence
elevated TT-TG distance, while sex and MPFL of the dislocation after non-surgical treatment of
injury pattern were not predictive. The presence an acute dislocation are quite limited by this injury
of 3 factors increased the recurrence risk to over up to three years after the FTLPD. Interestingly,
70% [31]. In 2022, Wierer and colleagues [32] patient-reported outcomes of non-surgical treat-
proposed the “The Patellar Instability Probability ment without recurrence are not different from
Calculator” to estimate the individual risk of those non-operated with dislocation recurrence
early recurrence after FTLPD. They have shown [6]. It is important to note that only 26.4% of
that at 16 years of age with a FTLPD, tro- patients without further dislocations were able to
chlear dysplasia (Dejour type B-D; lateral tro- practice their sport again with no limitations at a
chlear inclination 12°) and history of pre-injury level [6]. These studies demonstrate
contralateral instability are significant risk factors that the absence of recurrent dislocation as an
for recurrent lateral patellar dislocation within 2 isolated finding may not be sufficient to evaluate
years after FTLPD. The prediction accuracy the outcomes of a patient after an FTLPD. In
including these 3 risk factors was 79%. However, contrast, Regalado and colleagues [11] showed, in
patella alta, an increased TT-TG distance, and 2014, that 80% of adolescent patients who were
patellar tilt did not have an association with treated surgically after an FTLPD attain an
increased recurrence rates or an influence on excellent result with regard to the return to sports
prediction accuracy of recurrent lateral patellar at a pre-injury level. This percentage was only
dislocation either. 47% for patients who were treated conservatively.
In summary, predictive models can help us to These studies suggest that surgery increases the
predict which patients are most likely to redis- likelihood of returning to sports at a pre-injury
locate after FTLPD treated conservatively. This level compared with a non-surgical treatment for
approach helps us with our decision-making for athletic adolescents.
Evolving Management of Acute Dislocations of the Patella 257
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How to Deal with Chronic Patellar
Instability
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 259
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_18
260 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and E. Montesinos-Berry
A B
Fig. 1 A Medial knee anatomy. Adductor tubercle (AT), the patella, and the MQTFL on the quadriceps tendon.
medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL), medial quadri- (“Republished with permission of Springer Nature BV,
ceps tendon femoral ligament (MQTFL), superficial from Recognition of evolving medial patellofemoral
medial collateral ligament (sMCL) and vastus medialis anatomy provides insight for recognition, Tanaka MJ,
obliquus (VMO). B Articular-sided view of proximal et al., 27, 2537–2550, 2019; permission conveyed through
medial patellar restraints. Attachments of the MPFL on Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.”)
How to Deal with Chronic Patellar Instability 261
The decisive steps to guarantee a successful Not only does the MPFLr prevent further
outcome after MPFLr are the suitable graft patellar dislocation but it might also detain the
positioning on the femur and the right tension on progression of knee osteoarthritis [15]. With
the graft [11]. A lot less attention has been given second-look arthroscopy, the effect of MPFLr on
to the patellar attachment of the MPFL than to articular cartilage in the PFJ showed that the
the femoral attachment [11]. status of the patellofemoral chondral was only
According to Mochizuki and colleagues [12] modified at the central ridge of the patella [16].
the MPFL mainly attaches to the vastus inter- Consequently, it is not necessary to treat chon-
medius tendon (Fig. 1). Therefore, some sur- dral lesions in most cases even though it is a
geons propose a medial quadriceps tendon good idea to remove loose bodies in some
femoral ligament (MQTFL) reconstruction (Figs. 3 and 4).
(Fig. 1) [13].
If the patellar instability has gone on for a long This condition accounts for 25% of the cases of
time, the probability and the extent of patellofe- lateral instability in our series. Lateral patellar
moral chondral injuries will be greater [14]. Of instability beyond 30° of knee flexion suggests
patients with recurrent lateral patellar instability, severe trochlear dysplasia (grade C or D) or a
58% have patellar lesions and trochlear lesions pathological femoral anteversion associated with
have been observed in 13% (Fig. 2) [14]. a deficient MPFL (Fig. 5). It is not enough to
have an isolated MPFL or a MQTFL recon- 3.1 The Medial and Anteromedial
struction to achieve good clinical results when Tibial Tuberosity Transfer
treating this type of instability. The predisposing
anatomic factors for instability should be cor- According to several authors, a medialization of
rected along with the MPFLr. Step one is to the tibial tuberosity (TT) must be done when the
correct the patellofemoral maltracking (J-sign) to TT-TG distance is more than 20 mm [17]. How-
neutralize the lateral displacing forces. In step ever, there is not any strong evidence in the med-
two, only when the patellofemoral joint is rea- ical literature to support this recommendation. The
ligned, do we stabilize the joint. That means to TT-TG distance depends on weight-bearing and
restore the passive restraining elements to get joint size [18–20]. Moreover, the intra and inter-
good patellofemoral balance. This restoration is observer reliability for TT-TG distance measure-
achievable by doing an MPFL or an MQTFL ments is seen less in patients with severe trochlear
reconstruction. One should never use the dysplasia when compared to those with a low-
MPFL/MQTFL reconstruction to pull the patella grade trochlear dysplasia [20]. Some authors have
medially because it will give rise to an overload also demonstrated that there are no differences in
on the PFJ and cause future PFOA. TT-TG distance between the stable and the
How to Deal with Chronic Patellar Instability 263
Fig. 5 Lateral patellar instability persisting beyond 30° of knee flexion in a patient with pathological femoral
anteversion
Fig. 6 Patella alta in a patient with lateral patellar still a professional dancer. The result of his surgery is
instability. A distalization osteotomy of the anterior tibial excellent despite a patellar tilt of 29°, a severe trochlear
tubercle followed by a double bundle MPFLr, using an dysplasia and a TT-TG distance of 33 mm
anatomic femoral tunnel. 5 years after his surgery he is
A pathological ratio or index is not enough to D) was considerably more frequent in the surgi-
indicate a tibial tubercle distalization. A promi- cal failure group (89%) than in the control group
nent J-sign, the circumstances relative to the (21%) [2]. Even so, no statistical differences in
initial and posterior dislocation episodes (trau- the patellar height ratio (Insall-Salvati index) or
matic vs atraumatic), bilaterality, the level of the TT-TG distance were observed between the
activity, and patient expectations are other factors two groups [2]. Trochlear dysplasia seems to be
that should be taken into consideration. Patellar an important risk factor for the failure of opera-
tendon imbrication is a useful alternative to tive stabilization of the recurrent patellar dislo-
osteotomy in the skeletally immature patient. cation [2]. There is a correlation between high
degrees of trochlear dysplasia and a poor clinical
outcome. This is because the MPFL graft may be
3.3 Trochleoplasty overloaded because of the increased instability
present in dysplastic situations [3]. A more tai-
Trochlear dysplasia seems to be the most lored operative procedure along with the MPFLr
important of all the main risk factors for the and a trochleoplasty would be advisable.
development of chronic lateral patellar instability When there are cases with high degrees of
[2–5]. Incidentally, in an analysis of failed sur- trochlear dysplasia, a trochleoplasty should be
gery for patellar instability, it has been shown considered. An acceptable revision option for the
that a severe trochlear dysplasia (Dejour type B- surgical treatment of patients with persistent
How to Deal with Chronic Patellar Instability 265
patellar dislocation and high-grade trochlear (17%). Therefore, we must be cautious when we
dysplasia is the sulcus-deepening trochleoplasty decide to perform a trochleoplasty as the surgical
[5]. Trochleoplasty is a widely used and reliable procedure.
surgical technique to treat patellofemoral insta-
bility in patients who have a dysplastic trochlea.
Nonetheless, while improved stability can be 3.4 The Rotational Femoral
predicted, pain is less predictable and could even Osteotomy And The
increase after surgery. The overall results depend Femoral Varization
on the type of dysplasia, types B and D having a Osteotomy Versus Growth
significantly better clinical outcome [28]. With Modulation
reference to trochleoplasty, there is concern
about the long-term consequences to healthy Lateral patellar instability originates from a
cartilage. Even so, the vast majority of patients, deficient MPFL that may have become incom-
candidates for trochleoplasty, present severe petent due to trochlear dysplasia, patella alta,
chondropathy. However, many patients with genu valgum, abnormal limb torsion or a com-
trochlear dysplasia will go on to develop PFOA bination of these factors [30]. The MPFL might
at some point in the future [17]. not be strong enough to withstand the normal
When assessing the indications for trochleo- lateral pull of the quadriceps when the trochlea is
plasty, caution is called for. In our clinical dysplastic. In the same way, when abnormal limb
experience, it is a valuable tool only in a small torsion is present, the lateral displacement force
subset of patients with lateral patellar instability. acting upon the patella will be increased, and the
This is the case when there is a severe trochlear ligament will most likely fail. This leads to lateral
dysplasia, when the patella dislocates not only patellar instability (Fig. 7) [30]. Kaiser and col-
during the first 30° of knee flexion but also at leagues [31] highlight the importance of internal
higher degrees of knee flexion, and when there is femoral torsion in the etiopathogenesis of lateral
a positive J-sign. In a consensus statement from patellar instability. They have shown that 20° of
the AOSSM/PFF about patellar instability, the increased internal femoral torsion is a significant
Deepening trochleoplasty is considered when all risk factor for patellar instability in a knee with
the following are present: a positive J-sign, a an intact MPFL. However, with an insufficient
boss or 5 mm supratrochlear spur, and a convex MPFL, 10° of increased internal femoral torsion
proximal trochlea [1]. is a significant risk factor for patellar instability.
In a systematic review with a meta-analysis When the limb is realigned, the lateral displace-
published in 2021, Leclerc and colleagues [29] ment force acting upon the patella will be
determined that trochleoplasty is an effective decreased, which eliminates lateral patellar
surgical procedure to stabilize the patella. The instability [30]. Excessive external tibial torsion
deepening trochleoplasty, described by Dejour, as well as a pathological femoral anteversion
was the most effective among all the trochleo- have been correlated with chronic patellofemoral
plasty techniques with only 1 recurrence out of instability. We consider rotational osteotomies
349 knees (0.28%). Nevertheless, we should along with an MPFLr in those cases with severe
point out that the trochleoplasty in general is not rotational deformity (femoral anteversion >40°,
a problem-free technique. Leclerc and colleagues external tibial torsion > 40°) and a positive J-
[29] have shown that patellar instability without sign. Milinkovic and colleagues [32] have shown
dislocation occurred in 82 out of 754 knees (8% that a high-grade J-sign and an increased body
[95% CI: 3–14%]), PFOA in 117 out of 431 mass index (BMI) are the most relevant param-
knees (27%), knee stiffness in 59 out of 642 eters influencing the quality of life in patients
knees (7% [95% CI: 3–12%]) and the need for with lateral patellar instability measured using
subsequent surgery in 151 out of 904 knees the Banff Patella Instability Instrument (BPII 2.0
266 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and E. Montesinos-Berry
Fig. 7 Lateral patellar instability persisting beyond 30° A rotational supracondylar femoral osteotomy was per-
of knee flexion. Haglund excavation on the patella with formed. After osteotomy, coronal plane alignment was
sclerotic edges in a patient with valgus and left femoral evaluated. A normal mechanical axis is near the medial
anteversion. According to Robert A. Teitge, MD abnor- tibial spine, not in the middle of the knee joint
mal sclerotic joint surfaces suggests abnormal loading.
score). Nelitz and colleagues [33] as well as Lee in 80% of the cases with the genu valgum cor-
and colleagues [34] have shown that femoral rection it is sufficient to resolve the patellar
rotational osteotomies may result in an increment instability. The first study in which the use of the
of knee valgus. Therefore, the assessment of femoral varus osteotomy is described in patients
coronal plane alignment is crucial after a femoral with lateral patellar instability and genu valgum
rotational osteotomy performed for treating dates back to 2009 [36]. The objective of the
patellar instability. varus osteotomy is to reduce the lateral vector
In the author´s clinical practice, knee valgus is applied to the patella. In a systematic review with
often associated with femoral torsional abnor- a meta-analysis published in 2019 assessing the
malities in cases of chronic lateral patellar outcomes of a distal femoral varus osteotomy
instability. If there is genu valgum, the treatment performed to treat patellar instability in patients
will depend upon the stage of maturation of the with genu valgum, Tan and colleagues [37]
patient. In patients with an open physis, a ther- concluded that this type of osteotomy was useful
apeutic option is growth modulation (hemiepi- in the management of this subset of patellar
physiodesis). In skeletally mature patients, a instability patients. The problem is that out of the
therapeutic option to correct the valgus is the 5 studies analyzed in this systematic review, in 4
open or closed osteotomy of the distal femur. In of them the varus osteotomies are performed
skeletally mature patients with genu valgum along with other associated procedures. For this
( zone II or a mechanical lateral distal femoral reason, we cannot know for sure if the good
angle (mLDFA) <83º) and patellar instability clinical result achieved with this particular pro-
(Fig. 8), Palmer and colleagues [35] recommend cedure is due to the varus osteotomy or to any of
performing a distal femoral osteotomy. In both the other associated surgeries, or even to all the
cases, that is to say, in skeletally immature and surgical procedures as a whole. The only study of
mature patients these authors proposed the the 5 included in this systematic review in which
MPFL reconstruction as a second surgery, since the osteotomy is analyzed as an isolated
How to Deal with Chronic Patellar Instability 267
Fig. 8 Evaluation of the magnitude of the genu valgum with the quadrant method
procedure was published by Wilson and col- of this finding is that patients with a normal
leagues in 2018 [38]. These authors [38] height patella or with a low-riding patella may
observed a disappearance of lateral patellar profit from a closing wedge osteotomy in order to
instability in most of the cases after an isolated prevent patella infera. On the other hand, patients
osteotomy of the distal femur without any other with a high-riding patella, which is a well-known
associated surgical procedures. They analyzed 10 risk factor for the appearance of lateral patellar
patients, out of which 2 (20%) presented new instability, may profit from an opening wedge
episodes of instability. This shows how impor- osteotomy because it will distalize the patella.
tant genu valgum is in the etiopathogenesis of Therefore, it is essential to evaluate preopera-
lateral patellar instability. Therefore, a logical tively the height of the patella before deciding
approach would be to treat genu valgum and in a between a closing or opening wedge osteotomy.
second procedure, if necessary, do an MPFLr.
On the contrary, in the other 4 studies no recur-
rences of instability are reported. This systematic 3.5 Additional Surgery on the Lateral
review also evaluates the performance of a Retinaculum
closing wedge osteotomy or an opening wedge
osteotomy. The results obtained with both types Isolated lateral retinacular release (LRR) is not
of osteotomies are similar. Nevertheless, the recommended to treat patellar instability [1].
authors draw attention to the fact that the opening Isolated Lateral release or lengthening is only
wedge osteotomy lowers the Caton-Deschamps necessary in rare cases. Biomechanical studies by
index, something that did not occur with the Amis and Merican [39] have shown that the
closing wedge osteotomy. The clinical relevance lateral retinaculum (LR) actually contributes to
268 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and E. Montesinos-Berry
Fig. 9 Fixed lateral patellar instability in knee flexion. The patella is well-centered in extension, but in flexion is
dislocated and cannot be reduced to the midline due to severe quadriceps retraction
How to Deal with Chronic Patellar Instability 269
A C
Fig. 10 Fixed lateral patellar instability in knee flexion. from Baishideng Publishing Group Inc. From Sanchis-
The patella is well-centered A on the femoral trochlea Alfonso V, et al. Failed medial patellofemoral ligament
when the knee is in extension. In flexion, the patella is reconstruction: Causes and surgical strategies. World J
dislocated and contacting B, C the lateral surface of the Orthop, 2017; 8(2): 115–129)
external femoral condyle. (A, B. Reused with permission
C D E
short and is displaced laterally (Fig. 14) [42]. terminals [43]. These factors collectively lead to
Therefore, the extensor mechanism becomes a an MPFL insufficiency. The patella is perma-
flexor and external rotator of the knee. Moreover, nently dislocated in flexion and cannot be
a flat lateral condyle is seen around the sulcus reduced manually.
270 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and E. Montesinos-Berry
Fig. 12 Fixed lateral patellar instability in knee flexion. Severe trochlear dysplasia and severe PFOA
Fig. 13 Fixed lateral patellar instability in knee flexion. complications of operative management for patellofe-
Severe PFOA. (Republished with permission of AME moral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27, 2018)
Publishing Company. From V Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating
Currently, the standard surgical approach in a side-to side repair of the vastus lateralis and
patients with fixed lateral patellar instability in vastus medialis is carried out. If needed, the
knee flexion involves Lateral retinaculum lateral condyle may be raised. The final step is an
lengthening, the release of the vastus lateralis MPFLr. In order to calculate the length necessary
from the superolateral border of the patella, and for quadriceps tendon lengthening it is essential
Quadriceps tendon lengthening on the coronal to achieve 90º of flexion or more by maintaining
plane after isolating the central tendon of the the patella reduced. Once this objective has been
quadriceps from the vastus medialis and lateralis achieved, end-to-end suture of the quadriceps
(Fig. 15). Afterwards, a side-to side repair of the tendon is performed. We use a brace postopera-
quadriceps tendon is performed (Figs. 15). Then, tively for 6 weeks with weight bearing
How to Deal with Chronic Patellar Instability 271
Fig. 14 Fixed lateral patellar instability in knee flexion. The quadriceps is short and displaced laterally with knee
flexion
immediately after surgery depending on the tol- the patellar height is evaluated before definitive
erance. The brace is locked in 0º of knee exten- fixation.
sion for ambulation. At the third week, the brace
is unlocked allowing flexion increments from 10
to 20º per week. The return to full activity varies 5 Medial Patellar Instability
from 6 to 12 months. and Multidirectional Patellar
In 2019 Song and colleagues [44] presented a Instability
novel surgical technique to lengthen the extensor
mechanism of the knee in skeletally mature Medial patellar instability (MPI) is an objective
patients with fixed lateral patellar instability in condition with its own characteristics that fre-
knee flexion. The authors perform a tibial quently brings on disabling anterior knee pain,
tubercle proximalization (“bony release”) asso- significant disability as well as important psy-
ciated with a lateral retinaculum release, tibial chological problems [40]. In most cases, it is
tubercle medialization and a MPFL reconstruc- secondary to an “extensive” LRR [40, 45]. In
tion. The objective is to avoid the possibility of other cases, it is due to the release of the LR in
extensor lag during the postoperative rehabilita- patients with trochlear dysplasia or hyperelas-
tion after quadriceps lengthening. This technique ticity [40]. It can also be attributable to the
allows early postoperative rehabilitation. How- release of a previously lax LR, which shows poor
ever, a possible problem with this surgical tech- patient selection [39]. Typically, the patient feels
nique is the patella alta, which is a well-known new pain and new instability that are different
risk factor for patellar instability. Nevertheless, and much worse than that prior to surgery.
we must note that this surgical technique is The first step in diagnosing a pathological
always associated with a MPFL reconstruction condition is to know that it exists. This was
that provokes a descent of the patella. Moreover, clearly reflected by Jack Hughston in his well-
272 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and E. Montesinos-Berry
Fig. 15 Lengthening of the quadriceps tendon on the coronal plane. Side-to side repair of the quadriceps tendon
known sentence: ``You may not have seen it, but when we apply medial stress to the patella and a
maybe it has seen you''. Normally, MPI appears positive “Fulkerson relocation test” (Fig. 16)
in the first 30º of knee flexion. It is frequently [46].
missed because patients complain of the patella Moreover, all our patients experienced sig-
moving laterally with early knee flexion. In our nificant relief from their pain with a “reverse”
series, many patients have had to visit more than McConnell taping [40]. We believe that it is a
three doctors before obtaining a diagnosis and an good and useful diagnostic approach to take.
appropriate treatment. This demonstrates that it is When the standard radiological studies are nor-
a clinical condition that most orthopedic sur- mal, it puts the orthopedic surgeon on the
geons do not know about. Therefore, we believe defensive when seeing this kind of patient. Stress
that there is a need to spread the word about the axial radiography [47] or stress axial CT scans
diagnostic procedures for recognizing this clini- [48] allow for the objective documentation and
cal condition. quantification of MPI.
The physical findings are crucial to the diag- At the present time, our preference for
nosis. The most important are pain and tender- reconstructing the lateral retinaculum is the
ness at the site of the LR defect, an increment in technique described by Jack Andrish because it is
passive medial patellar mobility, especially when very anatomic and allows us to fine tune the
compared with the opposite normal knee. There graft-tension by adding sutures to further tighten
are also the issues of pain and apprehension the graft [49]. He uses a central strip or an
How to Deal with Chronic Patellar Instability 273
A B
C D
Fig. 16 Fulkerson relocation test A, B. A The patella is reproduction of symptomatology with this maneuver
held medially in extension (arrow) and B then released on strongly suggests medial patellar instability. Sulcus sign
abrupt knee flexion. It is a provocative test, and therefore C. Excessive medial displacement of the patella D
anterior strip of the iliotibial band, leaving it with medial displacement of the patella.
attached proximally and attaching it to the mid- Therefore, we must reconsider medial instability
point of the patella. The objective of this tech- after the MPFLr in cases of multidirectional
nique is to reconstruct the deep transverse layer instability. If the MPI is corrected after
of the LR. The lateral reconstruction must be the MPFLr, it is not necessary to reconstruct the
tensioned with the patella engaged within the LR.
trochlea with the knee at 30º of knee flexion.
Take note that it is a “salvage” procedure. It does
not address the original source of pain. More- 6 Take Home Messages
over, it cannot improve symptoms from
osteoarthritis, malalignment, or lateral instability – Not all the patients with chronic patellar
due to a deficient MPFL. This may explain the instability are equal.
satisfactory results of only 65% in isolated – The etiology of chronic patellar instability is
reconstructions [45]. multifactorial. Therefore, its treatment must
The LR is a restraint on medial patellar dis- be personalized. Let’s call it “bespoke treat-
placement. Another restraint on medial patellar ment.” This is the only way to avoid failures
displacement is the MPFL. The MPFL tightens and subsequent operations.
274 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and E. Montesinos-Berry
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Limitations of Patellofemoral
Surgery in Children
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 277
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_19
278 M. Hassan and M. Tompkins
Trochlear dysplasia is a risk factor for patel- isometry is significantly altered following patel-
lofemoral instability because the poorly formed, lar tendon shortening and could necessitate
or medialized, sulcus increases the lateral track- rebalancing if these procedures are performed
ing of the patella and risk for lateral instability prior to the patellar tendon shortening. Compli-
[5]. Various procedures have been described to cations from this technique can arise and patella
address dysplasia and increase the effective depth baja may result as it can in a distalizing osteot-
of the trochlea [7–11]. However, these proce- omy. This can result in significantly increased
dures have been contraindicated in skeletally contact pressures in the patellofemoral joint
immature patients as they can damage the distal throughout early flexion [15, 16], Patellar tendon
femoral physis [7]. rupture through the imbrication site can also
Genu valgum can contribute to patellar occur. Subsequent repair can be done but may
instability because it also creates a laterally lead to worse outcomes and extended recovery
directed force vector on the patella. In skeletally [15, 16].
immature patients, the physis can be utilized to Multiple techniques have been described in
correct this deformity via guided growth [1, 12]. the past to address extensor mechanism
Coronal plane abnormalities can also be addres- malalignment. The Roux-Goldthwait procedure
sed with osteotomies, but the physis must be was originally described over one hundred years
considered when performing an osteotomy. ago and involves longitudinally dividing the
Increased femoral version and/or tibial torsion patellar tendon and transferring the lateral limb
can cause poor overlap of the patella and trochlea deep and medial to the medial limb [17, 18].
in the axial plane resulting in lateralizing of the Galeazzi described a tenodesis technique in the
patella relative to the trochlea increasing the risk 1920s in which the semitendinosus tendon is
of lateral instability. In adults, axial plane harvested and secured to the medial patella in an
abnormalities can be addressed at the proximal, oblique manner while keeping its insertion intact
midshaft, or distal aspects of the femur or tibia. [19]. When performed in isolation, the outcomes
Midshaft osteotomies are typically fixed with an of this procedure are variable when recurrent
intramedullary nail which is difficult in skeletally dislocation and knee function are considered.
immature patients because most nailing systems While the original description of the procedure
approach the intramedullary canal in a manner and follow up studies showed good results with
which penetrates through the physis [13, 14]. lower than 10% recurrent instability rates, a
recent long term follow up study showed a
greater than 80% redislocation with approxi-
3 Surgical Techniques mately 40% of those patients requiring surgical
stabilization [19–21].
Due to the aforementioned anatomic considera- Treating trochlear dysplasia with a deepening
tions, surgical techniques unique to the pediatric trochleoplasty has been described in skeletally
population have been devised. immature patients, but only in those who are
For skeletally immature patients with patella close to skeletal maturity [22]. There are cur-
alta, a patellar tendon shortening procedure can rently no descriptions or indications for per-
be done in lieu of a distalizing tibial tubercle forming trochleoplasty in very skeletally
osteotomy in skeletally immature patients. This immature patients as this will put the anterior
is performed by using sutures to imbricate the distal femoral physis at risk of injury and sub-
tendon with the aim of improving the engage- sequent growth disturbance.
ment between the patella and trochlea [15, 16]. Genu valgum can be addressed surgically via
There a few limitations to this technique and care hemi-epiphysiodesis or guided growth. Guided
should be taken with the sequence of performing growth in this case is the temporary slowing of
concomitant procedures such as medial imbrica- the medial distal femoral physis until the
tion and MPFL reconstruction. Ligament patient’s mechanical axis is corrected to the
Limitations of Patellofemoral Surgery in Children 279
center of the knee [12]. Limitations with this when there are anatomic risk factors present
approach include undercorrection if not enough which cannot be adequately addressed during
growth remains or overcorrection if not followed skeletal growth, an MPFL reconstruction may be
closely. Hence, the patient must be followed a temporizing procedure and there may be a need
closely to monitor for correction and the patient to perform additional procedures as the child
and family must be prepared for further surgery achieves skeletal maturity.
to remove hardware.
Axial plane correction can be performed sur-
gically with a plate and screws at any level: 4 Risk of Recurrence and Return
proximal, midshaft, or distal. Midshaft requires to Activity
more dissection and soft tissue disruption than
would be done in adults with intramedullary Failure of surgical patellar stabilization is
nailing. With proximal and distal osteotomies, believed to be due to many reasons, but includes:
the physis must be taken into account and pro- (1) technical failure of the primary stabilization
tected when performing these osteotomies. method, (2) unaddressed static and dynamic
pathoanatomy and (3) intrinsic risk factors such
as collagen disorders and ligamentous laxity
3.1 Medial Patellofemoral Ligament [26]. Age at the time of surgery has been shown
Reconstruction in multiple studies to affect risk of recurrence
following surgery, with younger patients at
Medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) recon- higher risk [27, 28]. This is something in which
struction can be a powerful operation to decrease patients should be counseled at the time of the
the dislocation risk in patients with patellar surgical discussion. The greater the presence of
instability, but requires adjustment in surgical anatomic risk factors at the time of surgery also
technique for skeletally immature patients. The increases the risk of further instability [29]. All of
attachment of the MPFL on the femur is in close the anatomic risk factors, therefore, that can be
proximity to the physis, so in some patients it is addressed must at least be considered for inter-
not possible to place the fixation on the femur in vention at the time of surgery.
a perfect anatomic position [23]. If the MPFL is There is limited literature on return to play
not in an anatomic location, it can affect the after patellar stabilization surgery in pediatric
tracking of the patella and result in instability or patients [26, 30]. A systematic review on return
overconstraint [24]. Care must therefore be taken to play highlighted a lack of objective guidelines
to place the MPFL as close to anatomic as pos- for return to play. Moreover, there was a wide
sible, while also protecting the physis. range of timing and criteria in the studies iden-
MPFL reconstruction has been shown to tified in the review [30]. Return to play time-
decrease dislocation risk even in patients with frames are varied and can range from 3 to 8
anatomic risk factors such as patella alta and months. The variation in return to play timeline
trochlear dysplasia [25]. However, further pro- also depends on concurrent procedures per-
cedures may still be necessary at skeletal matu- formed [26, 30]. A recent review recommended
rity such as addressing the trochlear dysplasia using the criteria for return consisting of no pain,
which would be contra-indicated in patients with full motion, no effusion, no objective patellofe-
an open distal femoral physis. As such, it is moral instability on exam, near symmetric
important to counsel parents and patients that strength and excellent dynamic stability [31].
280 M. Hassan and M. Tompkins
26. Vellios EE, Trivellas M, Arshi A, Beck JJ. Recurrent for patellar instability in children with open growth
patellofemoral instability in the pediatric patient: plates. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc.
management and pitfalls. Curr Rev Musculoskelet 2012;20(5):822–8.
Med. 2020;13(1):58–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 30. Zaman S, White A, Shi WJ, Freedman KB, Dod-
s12178-020-09607-1. son CC. Return−to−play guidelines after medial
27. Hiemstra LA, Kerslake S. Age at time of surgery but patellofemoral ligament surgery for recurrent patellar
not sex is related to outcomes after medial patello- instability: a systematic review. Am J Sports Med.
femoral ligament reconstruction. Am J Sports Med. 2017;363546517713663.
2019;47(7):1638–44. 31. Menetrey J, Putman S, Gard S. Return to sport after
28. Hiemstra LA, Kerslake S, Kupfer N, Lafave M. patellar dislocation or following surgery for patello-
Patellofemoral stabilization: postoperative redisloca- femoral instability. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
tion and risk factors following surgery. Orthop J Arthrosc. 2014;22(10):2320–6.
Sports Med. 2019;7(6).
29. Nelitz M, Theile M, Dornacher D, Wölfle J,
Reichel H, Lippacher S. Analysis of failed surgery
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral
Ligament Reconstruction. What Can
We Do?
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 283
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_20
284 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
the patella to its proper position within the tro- accurately, make an incision that is large enough
chlear groove but to stabilize it once the patel- to identify the most relevant anatomical land-
lofemoral tracking (J-sign) has been corrected. mark, the adductor magnus tendon (AMT).
Therefore, an isolated MPFLr is not indicated to The AMT is easily identifiable and leads right to
eliminate the J-sign. In this way, Zhang and the origin of the MPFL on the femur. It is situ-
colleagues [3] have demonstrated that a preop- ated 10.6 ± 2.5 mm distal to the apex of the
erative high-grade J-sign is associated with adductor tubercle (AT) and parallel to the long
residual graft laxity after isolated MPFLr. axis of the femur [12]. The great variability in the
location of the AT (Fig. 7) is behind the vari-
ability in the location of the femoral insertion of
2.2 Technical Mistakes and Surgical the MPFL. This explains the large number of
Technique Issues errors when Schoettle's method is used to iden-
tify the femoral fixation point during MPFLr.
According to Parikh and colleagues [4] 47% of
But, is the anatomic femoral tunnel position so
the complications that occur after MPFLr are
relevant in MPFLr?
related to technical errors.
A poor outcome is not always seen with femoral
2.2.1 Incorrect Femoral Attachment tunnel malpositioning. In our experience, those
Point ligaments with a non-anatomical femoral fixation
The most frequent serious technical error that can point that behave kinematically like an anatom-
lead to MPFLr failure is the incorrect location of ical MPFL have excellent clinical outcomes at
the femoral attachment point (Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 long-term follow-up [6]. However, those non-
and 6). Walker and colleagues [5] analyzed anatomical grafts that do not show physiological
MPFLr revision surgeries in a systematic review kinematic behavior are those that have a poor
that was done as recently as 2021. In it, the authors clinical outcome [6]. What should we do in those
showed that the most frequent cause for revision cases? We believe every MPFL graft should be
surgery is the malposition of the femoral attach- placed anatomically, because an anatomical
ment point (38%). The femoral attachment point is femoral tunnel position maximizes outcomes and
crucial as it determines the length change behavior provides the best chance of excellent short-term
of the graft and thereby the graft tension at dif- and long-term success. In summary, an anatom-
ferent angles of knee flexion [6]. It is determinant ical MPFLr is a fast and reproducible way to
in the kinematic behavior of the graft [6]. achieve an MPFL that is long enough to act as an
isometric “leash” from 0º to 30º and becoming
How to avoid an incorrect femoral attachment
loose after 30º of knee flexion (Fig. 8). In con-
point?
clusion, the relevant anatomy and biomechanics
To accurately locate the femoral attachment must be identified and restored to avoid
point, Schoettle and colleagues [7] recommended complications.
using intra-operatory fluoroscopy. Having a true
intra-operative lateral image is indispensable 2.2.2 Excessive Graft Tension
when this radiological method is used. However, Another technical error that can lead to surgical
various authors have demonstrated that Schoet- failure is excessive graft tension. The concept of
tle's radiological method, which is accepted as ‘‘tensioning’’ the MPFL graft is not correct from
the gold standard, is no guarantee of a true a conceptual point of view because the MPFL is
anatomical attachment point [8–11]. Therefore, not under constant tension in its native state. It
the radiological method is only an approxima- only comes under tension when a lateral force
tion. It should not be used as the sole way of acts on the patella to displace it laterally. Philip
locating the femoral attachment point. To locate Schoettle makes a very intelligent simile, com-
the real anatomical attachment point most paring the MPFL to a dog leash. The leash is
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 285
Fig. 1 CASE # 1. A 19-year-old male patient presented femoral fixation point increased with knee flexion.
with severe AKP and CLPI. He had undergone an MPFLr Clinically speaking, it results in increased patellofemoral
with a single bundle semitendinosus tendon graft some pressure during knee flexion, which may have been the
3 years earlier. Upon physical examination, no patellofe- origin of the patient’s severe patellar chondropathy. The
moral tracking disorder was detected (negative J-sign). resolution was found in the anatomic MPFLr in which the
The patient was first placed under general anesthesia. contralateral semitendinosus tendon with a double-bundle
During the procedure, it was determined that dislocation technique was used. (Reused with permission from
beyond 40° of knee flexion was not possible. The femoral Baishideng Publishing Group Inc. From Sanchis-
tunnel of the MPFLr was seen excessively anterior. It is a Alfonso V, et al. Failed medial patellofemoral ligament
significant error. Severe chondropathy of the articular reconstruction: Causes and surgical strategies. World J
surface of the patella was also observed. Moreover, the Orthop, 2017; 8(2): 115–129)
distance between the patellar fixation point and the
loose most of the time, except when the dog (the the greatest distance between the femoral and
patella) wants to run away (dislocate), and then it patellar attachment points is between 0 and 60º of
becomes tight. If the leash (the MPFL) were tight knee flexion (the greatest at 30º) and that this
all the time, it would choke the dog. Continuing distance decreases significantly from 60º to 120º
with our simile, it would create patellofemoral of flexion [6]. With this, we make it such that
pressure that would be great enough to lead to excessive compression forces are not produced in
chondropathy and finally PFOA. In vivo studies the patellofemoral joint during high degrees of
of the kinematics of the MPFL have shown that knee flexion. Finally, it is important to note that
286 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
Fig. 2 CASE # 2. A 28-year-old female patient came to brings about a significant increase in patellofemoral
us with very severe AKP and CLPI. A clear case of pressure during knee flexion. It was considered a possible
patellofemoral maltracking was seen in the physical explanation for the patient’s severe case of patellofemoral
examination (positive J-sign). Moreover, we were able osteoarthritis (PFOA). In this specific instance, the pain
to dislocate the patella laterally beyond 60° of knee went away after a sulcus deepening trochleoplasty. After
flexion. She had been operated on various times over the carrying out an anatomic double-bundle MPFLr with a
previous 8 years. She had undergone a lateral retinacular semitendinosus tendon graft, the CLPI also totally
release, proximal realignment, osteotomy for medializa- disappeared. (Reused with permission from Baishideng
tion of the tibial tubercle and MPFLr. It was noted that the Publishing Group Inc. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al.
femoral tunnel was overly proximal and anterior. With Failed medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction:
knee flexion, the space between the patellar and the Causes and surgical strategies. World J Orthop, 2017; 8
femoral fixation points increases a great deal. Clinically, it (2): 115–129)
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 287
A B
C D
Fig. 3 CASE # 3. This clinical case highlights the femoral attachment (blue arrow) with an excellent result.
importance of the femoral attachment point in MPFLr Finally, we must note that the patient is an athlete and
outcomes. Both knees were operated on, the left with an therefore she is more demanding and a surgical procedure
excellent result B, D and the right with a bad result A, that is not 100% perfect will be more noticeable in an
C. In this case, there are no confusion variables that can athlete than in a sedentary person. In short, the only
influence the result. There is no patellar tilt, no patella difference between both knees was the femoral attachment
alta, no severe trochlear dysplasia, and the TT-TG point. (C, D. Reused with permission from Baishideng
distance is normal. Therefore, the only variable that Publishing Group Inc. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al.
counts is the femoral attachment point and therefore we Failed medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction:
are able to compare the failed operated knee with the Causes and surgical strategies. World J Orthop, 2017; 8
contralateral successful knee. The right knee was re- (2): 115–129)
operated on performing a new reconstruction with a new
288 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
Fig. 4 CASE # 3. Here we analyze the knee with an anatomic femoral attachment (red dot). We can see that
excellent outcome. This knee was operated on performing the length of the MPFL-graft (the blue line) is quite
a double-bundle MPFLr with semitendinosus. In the similar to the length of the virtual anatomic MPFL (the
graphs on the right you can see the kinematics of the red line). Anatomic and reconstructed MPFL are isometric
reconstructed MPFL in vivo. The blue lines represent the from 0 to 30° of knee flexion, that is there is less than
reconstructed MPFL. The femoral attachment point is 5 mm of length change throughout this range of motion.
clearly non-anatomic (blue arrow). The red dot represents In conclusion, the MPFL-graft behaves physiologically,
the anatomic femoral attachment. The red lines represent that is, it is isometric from 0 to 30º of knee flexion
the virtual anatomic MPFLr that we have drawn using an
the MPFL is not tight when the patella is not attachment points is greatest [6]. If the fixation
subject to a lateral displacing force. In a state of were made in the flexion range in which the two
rest, the MPFL is not under tension. anchor points are closer, we would be subjecting
the graft to excessive tension when we flex the
How to avoid excessive tension on the graft?
knee further. Therefore, it would cause a signif-
When we go to fix the graft, the assistant should icant increase in patellofemoral pressure that
keep the patella well-centered in the femoral would result in the future development of a
trochlea with the knee at 30º of flexion. We do it patellofemoral chondropathy and pain. To pre-
at 30º because it is at this knee flexion angle that vent excessive tension, do not pull the graft tight
the distance between the femoral and patellar at the time of fixation. If the other knee is
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 289
A B
Fig. 5 CASE # 3. Now, we are going to analyze the knee isometric from 0 to 120° of knee flexion B. (B, Reused
with a bad result (right knee). In this knee, you can also with permission from Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.
observe a clearly non-anatomic femoral attachment point. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Failed medial patellofe-
It is too anterior A. However, in this knee unlike the left moral ligament reconstruction: Causes and surgical
one the graft does not behave physiologically. It was strategies. World J Orthop, 2017; 8(2): 115–129)
asymptomatic, the aim is to reproduce the degree revision MPFLr surgery is unaddressed trochlear
of patellar mobility of the healthy contralateral dysplasia (18.4%).
knee. We must note that tighter is never better in While an isolated MPFLr is sufficient in the
MPFL reconstruction surgery. group of patients with patellar instability from 0
to 30º, this might fail to control instability in the
2.2.3 Single Versus Double-Bundle group with instability beyond 30º [14]. Thus,
Patellar Graft Insertion surgical failure in MPFLr might be due to not
Migliorini and colleagues [13] performed a sys- considering risk factors for patellar instability
tematic review in which the isolated single- such as trochlear dysplasia or pathologic femoral
bundle (SB) was compared to the double-bundle anteversion. Apprehension that is relieved at 30°
(DB) graft for recurrent lateral patellar instability. of knee flexion suggests a good clinical result
In the DB group, there was more improvement in with an isolated MPFLr. An apprehension
function and a reduction of overall complications beyond 30° of knee flexion suggests severe tro-
when compared to the SB group. The authors chlear dysplasia, a significant femoral antever-
concluded that the current scientific evidence sion or both. With that, an associated surgical
support the use of the DB tendon graft for the procedure such as trochleoplasty and/or femoral
isolated MPFLr. rotational osteotomy might be necessary [14, 15].
If the trochlear geometry is insufficient to
provide restraint, osteotomy to change the shape
2.3 Failure to Recognize and Correct of the trochlea has proven its value. Nelitz and
Concomitant Risk Factors colleagues [16] performed an analysis of failed
for Instability surgery for patellar instability. They observed
that severe trochlear dysplasia (Dejour type B-
In a 2021 systematic review analyzing MPFLr D) was significantly more frequent in the surgi-
revision surgery by Walker and colleagues [5], cal failure group (89%) than in the non-surgical
the authors showed that the second cause for failure group (21%). However, they did not find
290 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
A B
C D
Fig. 6 CASE # 3. Right knee after revision surgery. that the severe patellar chondral lesion was left alone. We
After a quasi-anatomical MPFLr the pain disappeared. can conclude that femoral tunnel position is crucial for a
Femoral tunnel excessively anterior (blue arrow). New successful MPFLr. (A, B. Reused with permission from
femoral attachment (red arrow). The new ligament is Baishideng Publishing Group Inc. From Sanchis-Alfonso
isometric from 0 to 30º of knee flexion C, D. That is, the V, et al. Failed medial patellofemoral ligament recon-
graft behaves physiologically. An interesting finding was struction: Causes and surgical strategies. World J Orthop,
that the pain disappeared completely in spite of the fact 2017; 8(2): 115–129)
differences relative to the patellar height ratio and dysplasia seems to be a major risk factor for
the TT-TG distance between the two groups. In failure of isolated MPFLr, an associated
the same way, Wagner and colleagues [17] also trochleoplasty might be considered in such cases
found that high degrees of trochlear dysplasia (Fig. 9). Moreover, trochlear dysplasia seems to
correlate with poor clinical outcomes because the be a major risk factor for failure of MPFLr for
MPFL graft might be overloaded given that there recurrent patellar dislocation in children and
is more instability in dysplastic situations. Simi- adolescents [16]. These results in children are in
larly, Kita and colleagues [18] reported that agreement with the literature in adults.
severe trochlear dysplasia is the most important Dejour and colleagues [19] have shown that
predictor of residual patellofemoral instability the sulcus-deepening trochleoplasty is a good
after an isolated MPFLr. They have shown that a revision option for the surgical treatment of
combination of severe trochlear dysplasia with an patients with persisting patellar dislocation after
increased TT-TG distance was more likely to MPFLr and high-grade trochlear dysplasia.
affect the outcomes of MPFLr. We can conclude Similarly, Fucentese and colleagues [20] have
that considering that high degree trochlear demonstrated that trochleoplasty is a useful and
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 291
C
292 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
Fig. 9 CASE # 4. Chronic lateral patellar instability in a trochleoplasty. (Reused with permission from Baishideng
patient with grade D trochlear dysplasia (positive J-sign). Publishing Group Inc. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al.
We note that the patella dislocates beyond 40° of knee Failed medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction:
flexion. She had been operated on performing a proximal Causes and surgical strategies. World J Orthop, 2017; 8
realignment surgery. Lateral patellar instability resolved (2): 115–129)
after a MPFLr associated with a sulcus deepening
the increment in femoral anteversion. Diederichs with MPFLr provides satisfactory clinical out-
and colleagues [22] have analyzed rotational comes in patients with increased femoral antev-
limb alignment in patients with non-traumatic ersion along with a high-grade J sign. Finally,
patellar instability and in controls using magnetic Zhang and colleagues [3] evaluated 15 patients
resonance imaging (MRI). They found that who presented with MPFL-graft laxity. A preop-
patellar instability patients have greater internal erative high-grade J-sign was identified in 66.7%
femoral rotation, greater knee rotation, and a of these patients in comparison to 13.3% in the
tendency for genu valgum when compared to control group with no graft laxity. Moreover,
healthy controls (Figs. 10, 11, 12 and 13). They they demonstrated that the presence of a preop-
conclude that rotational malalignment may be a erative high-grade J-sign and femoral tunnel
primary risk factor in patellar instability that has malposition were independent risk factors asso-
so far been underestimated. Cao and colleagues ciated with residual graft laxity after MPFLr.
[23] have shown that increased femoral antev- Both torsional deformities and coronal plane
ersion along with a high-grade J sign is associ- deformities are associated with patellar instability
ated with MPFLr failure. These authors have in some patients. The most common multiplanar
shown that MPFLr revision surgery by means of deformity is internal femoral torsion and genu
rotational distal femoral osteotomy associated valgum.
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 293
Fig. 10 CASE # 5. This is the case of a 19-year-old male (MPFLr + hemitransfer of the patellar tendon according
patient who came to my office due to left lateral to Goldthwait technique). Both knees were bad but the
patellofemoral instability. You can observe instability one that really disabled him was the left one (positive J-
beyond 30º. At the age of 12 years and 11 months, he sign). In short, the patient is looking for a solution to the
underwent surgery on his left knee (MPFLr + hemitrans- left patellar instability, which is what really limited him.
fer of the patellar tendon following the Goldthwait He would have never bothered to go to the doctor because
technique + lateral retinaculum release). His lower-left of the right side as he was able to live with it. This case
extremity showed significant valgus malalignment and highlights the importance of the knee valgus and femoral
pathological femoral anteversion. At the age of 14 years anteversion in the genesis of patellar instability
and 10 months, his right knee was operated on
2.4 Intrinsic Risk Factors Such 2.5 Patellar Fracture. How to Avoid It
as Collagen Disorders
In a systematic review analyzing MPFLr revision
Generalized joint hypermobility (4 or more surgery performed by Walker and colleagues [5]
points on the Beighton score) has frequently been in 2021, the authors showed that the third cause
considered a risk factor for patellar instability for revision surgery is a patellar fracture (11.8%).
(Fig. 14). However, Hiemstra and colleagues Fulkerson and Edgar [27] described the medial
[24] have shown that the presence of generalized quadriceps tendon-femoral ligament -MQTFL-
joint hypermobility has no influence on disease- reconstruction. This surgical technique avoids
specific quality-of-life, physical symptoms score the risk of patella fracture.
or functional outcomes after MPFLr. Patients
with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (Fig. 15) are prone
to patellar instability. In these patients, it is 3 Reasons for Consultation
important to consider the use of allografts for in a Patient with Failed MPFLr
MPFLr given the problems we may have with
autografts in this patient population [25]. Addi- Those patients who have a failed MPFLr are
tionally, patients with Ehlers-Danlos suffer from going to consult for three reasons: (1) recurrence
combined medial and lateral patellar instability of instability, (2) AKP, (3) limitation of the range
that requires reconstruction of both the MPFL of motion of the knee or a combination of them.
and the lateral patellofemoral ligament to achieve
adequate stability [26].
294 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
Fig. 11 CASE # 5. X-rays show left-limb malalignment suggest a femoral anteversion. CT study: LEFT–femoral
on the coronal plane (knee valgus). Valgus 10º (4º anteversion = 43º (According to Murphy´s method)/
femur + 4º joint deformity + 2º tibia) (Mechanical axis— TT-TG distance = 26 mm/external tibial torsion = 25º/
red line). The patella is subluxed externally. In X-rays, we tibio-femoral rotation (knee rotation) = 29º/Trochlear
can see a curvature of the left femur which represents the inclination 3º; RIGHT–femoral anteversion = 26º/TT-
normal anterior bow of the femur. This is highly TG distance = 25 mm/external tibial torsion = 30º/knee
suggestive of internal rotation of the femur. It would rotation = 25º/trochlear inclination 5º
3.1 Re-dislocation or Persistence tear again due to an indirect trauma to the knee. If
of Apprehension Without we add the high frequency of return to sports
Dislocation practice, and the ensuing possibility of a new
knee trauma to the fact that more and more
Schneider and colleagues [1] reported an insta- MPFL are reconstructed, we can infer that the
bility recurrence rate of 1.2% (95% CI, 0.3– number of re-dislocations after MPFLr will be
2.1%) and a rate of apprehension persistence of greater each time even though it is not as much as
3.6% (95% CI, 0–7.2%) after isolated MPFLr for we might think because only 31% of graft rup-
the treatment of CLPI. However, Shah and col- tures are due to knee trauma [29].
leagues [28] showed that recurrent apprehension In most cases, re-dislocation after an isolated
represents 32% of all the complications found in MPFLr is non-traumatic (69%) [29]. In the rest
MPFLr. Instability might be due to a rupture of of the cases, it is secondary to an obvious trauma
the MPFL graft, or could be secondary to the (31%) [29]. In both cases, it can be due to a
failure to recognize associated risk factors for femoral tunnel malposition or the presence of
instability. It has been reported that 84.1% (95% anatomic risk factors. There are numerous risk
CI, 71.1–97.1%) of patients return to sports after factors such as (1) trochlear dysplasia (types B
an isolated MPFLr [1]. Thus, the return to sports through D), (2) patella alta (CD index >1.2),
puts the reconstructed ligament at risk and so its (3) genu valgum (>5º), (4) TT-TG distance
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 295
Fig. 12 CASE # 5.
Intraoperative X-rays. The
patella is well centered on the
distal femur after biplanar
supracondylar osteotomy
(lateral supracondylar open
wedge varus and rotational
osteotomy of the femur)
Fig. 13 CASE # 5. 3D
model. The patella is well
centered on the distal femur
after biplanar supracondylar
osteotomy (lateral
supracondylar open wedge
varus and rotational
osteotomy of the femur)
296 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
greater than 20 mm and (5) torsional abnormal- shown that a CDI > 1.3 is also another risk factor
ities (femoral anteversion greater than 25º and for surgical failure. Cregar and colleagues [31]
external tibial torsion greater than 35º). Of all have found that severe trochlear dysplasia (types
these factors, the most prevalent in re-dislocation C and D) and a femoral tunnel malposition
cases are trochlea dysplasia (50%) and valgus (10 mm from Schottle's point) appear to be
malalignment (35%) [29]. In atraumatic re- responsible for the increased prevalence of
dislocations, 2 or more risk factors are present recurrent dislocation as well as worse patient-
in 65% of cases [29]. Sappey-Marinier and col- reported outcomes. Despite this, the role of
leagues [30] have evaluated the importance of concomitant bony procedures along with MPFLr
the J-sign prior to isolated MPFLr surgery and to correct the pathoanatomy remains unknown.
have observed that it is a risk factor for predict- An incorrect femoral/patellar attachment point
ing surgical failure. Furthermore, they have can also lead to the excessive obliquity of the
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 297
Fig. 16 CASE # 6. A 30-year-old female patient flexion and extension. The lateral patellar instability and
suffering from very severe left AKP had had an MPFLr the pain completely went away following an anatomic
done. It had been carried out with a partial thickness double-bundle MPFLr with a semitendinosus tendon
quadriceps tendon. Clinically, there was no evidence of graft. (Reused with permission from Baishideng Publish-
patellofemoral tracking disorders (negative J-sign). ing Group Inc. From Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Failed
Despite having an intact MPFL, the patella could be medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction: Causes
dislocated laterally while the patient was under general and surgical strategies. World J Orthop, 2017; 8(2): 115–
anesthesia. In her case, the instability was caused by an 129)
inappropriate graft length change pattern during knee
4.2.2 Define the Deficient Restraints analgesia can help to evaluate intraoperatively the
Which Caused the active patellar excursion after realignment sur-
Instability—Reconstruction gery. After realignment, the anesthesiologist
of the Deficient Restraints wakes the patient and we ask her to flex the knee
and Limb Realignment (see Video Case # 6). In this way, we can observe
When It is Grossly the correction of the patellofemoral tracking after
Abnormal sulcus deepening trochleoplasty before fixing the
What causes patellar instability? That is the key MPFL.
question when we indicate surgery to a patient
with CLPI. Patellar Instability is the result of a 4.3.2 Stabilization of the Patella
failure of the patellar restraints (MPFL, lateral Once the patellofemoral maltracking has been
retinaculum and trochlear geometry) and an corrected, we stabilize the patella by performing
increment of the lateral vector of the quadriceps. an MPFLr. In some infrequent cases, once the
This vector is increased by knee valgus, MPFL has been reconstructed, patellar tilt may
increased internal torsion of the femur and still be abnormal. In these cases, a third surgical
increased external torsion of the tibia (abnormal step in the lateral retinaculum (LR) may be nec-
limb alignment). Instability occurs in the range essary to achieve good patellofemoral balance.
between 0º and 30º of knee flexion in approxi- The decision to operate or not on the lateral
mately 70% of the cases. In this range-of-motion, patellar retinaculum is an intraoperative decision
patellar stability depends mainly on the MPFL based on the patella tilt test [34]. To do this test, a
[14]. Beyond 30º of knee flexion, patellar sta- transverse K wire is placed in the proximal patella,
bility mainly depends on the bony anatomy of from medial to lateral. With the knee in full
the femoral trochlea and femoral anteversion extension and at 20º of flexion, the K wire should
[14]. The primary soft tissue restraint to lateral be parallel to the surgery table. If the K wire is
patellar dislocation is the MPFL. That is the tilted (positive test) within this range-of-motion,
reason why MPFLr is very important. Trochlear lateral patellar retinaculum lengthening is needed.
dysplasia will cause stress on the MPFL for In cases of multidirectional patellar instability,
which this ligament is not designed. The lateral the LR reconstruction should be the final
retinaculum prevents lateral displacement of the step. The reason we perform LR reconstruction
patella. Therefore, an increment in lateral patellar as the last step is because MPFLr not only sta-
instability is expected after LRR. bilizes the patella laterally but also medially.
To guide the patella towards the trochlear
sulcus during the first degrees of knee flexion,
4.3 Steps In Revision MPFLr Surgery both the MPFL and the LR must interplay in a
harmonious way. Both ligaments behave simi-
4.3.1 Correction of Patellofemoral larly to the reins of a horse. Both reins must have
Tracking some degree of tension. They are not very tense
When there is a maltracking (positive J-sign), the but they are not loose either. If one of the reins is
first step would be to correct it. In my series, the completely loose, the horse is inclined towards
most frequent cause of patellar maltracking is the opposite direction as occurs in the patella.
severe trochlear dysplasia. However, in some This patellofemoral imbalance may be responsi-
cases, the patellar maltracking is secondary to ble for pain. Following the same simile, we can
excessive femoral anteversion. Trochleoplasty compare the patella with the mouthpiece and the
should be only performed when the patella dis- trochlea with the tongue. If we tense the reins
locates at high degrees of knee flexion, mostly in very much we will nail the mouthpiece into the
revision surgeries. When the maltracking can be tongue and that hurts the horse. Similarly, if we
detected only actively, selective epidural tense both ligaments during surgery, we will
300 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and C. Ramírez-Fuentes
increase the patellofemoral joint reaction and it 4.4 Complex Revision Cases—MPFLr
will provoke a patellar overload and patellar Without Bone Tunnels
chondropathy and PFOA in the long-term.
In multi-operated patients, revision surgery might
4.3.3 Patellar Chondropathy. What Can be a real challenge because we have found
We Do? multiple tunnels and implants in both the patellar
Patellar condropathy is very common in cases of insertion area as well as in the femoral insertion
CLPI (Figs. 17 and 18). We only remove area. Therefore, there may be an increased risk of
unstable cartilage flaps, but other cartilage patella fractures as well as tunnel collisions that
lesions are not addressed. Patellar chondropathy may compromise the fixation. In these cases, we
could be responsible for AKP in the patient with might consider surgical techniques without bone
CLPI. However, in the vast majority of the cases, tunnels. One option would be to use an autolo-
once the patella has been stabilized, the pain gous quadriceps tendon graft along with its
disappears even though the chondral lesion is left native patellar insertion site and using the AMT
alone. Loose bodies are removed.
Fig. 17 Patellofemoral chondropathy after an inadequate not completely corrected. A Preop-CT. B Iatrogenic
MPFLr. In this case, the cartilage lesion was left alone, patellar chondropathy. C Postop-CT. (Republished with
and only patellofemoral balance was corrected by means permission of AME Publishing Company. From V
of a new anatomic MPFLr and an LR lengthening Sanchis-Alfonso, Treating complications of operative
procedure. The patient is pain-free even though nothing management for patellofemoral pain, Ann Joint, 3:27,
was done to the cartilage. Moreover, the patellar tilt was 2018)
Fig. 18 Patellofemoral chondropathy after an inadequate MPFLr. In this case, the cartilage lesion was left alone, and
only a new anatomic MPFLr was performed. The patient is pain-free even though nothing was done to the cartilage
The Failed Medial Patellofemoral Ligament … 301
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Surgical Treatment of Recurrent
Patellar Instability: History
and Current Concepts
Christopher A. Schneble,
David A. Molho, and John P. Fulkerson
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 305
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_21
306 C. A. Schneble et al.
Fig. 1 A, B Bilateral Merchant axial radiographs of a were acquired a few years later following multiple repeat
patient with recurrent right patellar instability and recur- dislocations on the right, while the left side remained
rent dislocations. On subsequent follow-up examinations asymptomatic. Progression of lateral patellar tilting and
she exhibited persistent lateral tracking. The top row of lateral subluxation can be seen. It is important to note that
images (1A) was immediately after the first dislocation the magnitude of patellar tilt and subluxation can be be
event for the right knee, showing increased lateral dampened on axial radiographs with knee flexion beyond
subluxation and tilting in comparison to the non- 30 degrees
symptomatic left side. The bottom row of images (1B)
across the osteotomy site as seen in a Maquet radiographs [16, 25, 27] (Fig. 1A, B). The notion
procedure [20, 21]. AMTTO was effective in that correction of a laterally tracking vector alone
minimizing the likelihood of medial patellofe- can often result in adequate stability became an
moral overload and subsequent arthritis due to important principle in John Fulkerson’s practice.
over medialization, posteromedialization or dis- Despite the utility of a TTO, restoring soft tissue
talization during the previously described patellar support can improve success rates, particularly in
tendon transfers [22–24]. Fulkerson was a strong patients with trochlea dysplasia, while adding little
advocate for using AMTTO procedures to treat additional risk when done properly [33–36]. In
lateral patellar instability for almost 20 years, contrast, failure to balance lateral tracking, by
finding the procedure to work remarkably well either a medial or anteromedial TTO, can leave a
for both recurrent patellar instability and the patient vulnerable to late patellofemoral arthritis
prevention of overload induced arthritis [11, 25– secondary to lateral focal overloading (Fig. 2A–C).
27]. Jack Farr, William Post, Brian Cole, John Apart from the tibial tubercle, other osseous
Albright, Seth Sherman and others have all locations can be osteotomized for treatment of
contributed towards our understanding of how patellofemoral instability. Robert Teitge cor-
effective an AMTTO can be [19, 28–32]. rectly pointed out that patellar instability can be
A salient lesson gathered from Fulkerson’s related to femoral rotation problems, including
experiences was that the correction of a laterally excessive femoral anteversion that results in a
tracking extensor mechanism was rather effective more lateralized extensor mechanism vector [37].
at preventing recurrent instability. Even without He went on to suggest that a femoral de-
medial patellofemoral reconstruction, anteromedi- rotational osteotomy would be an appropriate
alization (AMZ) of the tibial tuberosity surfaced as treatment option [37]. Performing a compen-
a viable solution for restoring patellar stability in satory TTO, however, proves to be a much more
most patients who had evidence of a laterally benign and consistently effective treatment, so
tracking patella on Merchant view axial few orthopedic surgeons do femoral de-rotation
Surgical Treatment of Recurrent Patellar Instability … 307
A B C
Fig. 2 A–C Radiographic and arthroscopic images of a lateral patellar tilting and translation is more accentuated
patient who developed lateral focal articular overloading in this early flexion range. Articular cartilage wear and
from persistent lateral patellofemoral instability. Fig- thinning along the lateral patellar facet is present.
ure A shows a 30-degree Merchant axial radiograph with Figure C shows an intra-articular view of the lateral
joint space narrowing laterally, osteophyte formation, and patellofemoral compartment as viewed from the antero-
slight lateral patellar tilting and translation. Fig- lateral portal. The lateral patellar facet exhibits chondral
ure B shows an MRI of the same knee, however this fibrillation, fissuring and cartilage loss has extended down
was acquired in 20° of knee flexion. The magnitude of to nearly the level of the subchondral bone
osteotomies for the treatment of patellar insta- Thanks to Mochizuki, Smigielski, Tanaka,
bility, even in the presence of excessive femoral Baldwin, Hinckel, Chahla, and others, the com-
anteversion, with an exception being if antever- plex anatomy of the medial patellofemoral
sion were to need correction for other reasons, in restraints have been further elucidated [45–50].
which case it will usually be done bilaterally. Their work identified the MPFL as only a portion
Since the time of Insall, an increased under- of a much more intricate medial patellofemoral
standing of the intricate patellofemoral stabiliz- complex (MPFC), a term coined by Miho Tanaka
ing anatomy has led to advancements in soft [51, 52]. In a quest to understand the intricate
tissue stabilization procedures. João Ellera medial patellofemoral anatomy, Tanaka descri-
Gomes first described the notion of medial bed the midpoint of the proximal MPFC, located
patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) reconstruction at the junction of the MPFL and the medial
for the treatment of recurrent lateral patella quadriceps tendon-femoral ligament (MQTFL)
instability in 1992 [38]. Subsequently, Don (Fig. 3A, B) [52]. With the MQTFL being
Fithian popularized the technique in the United roughly equivalent to the MPFL in resisting lat-
States and referred to the MPFL as the primary eral patellar translation and dislocation, there has
restraint to lateral dislocation of the patella [39, been an increased interest in reconstructing this
40]. In an attempt to translate the anatomical portion of the complex [53–56]. Despite
location of the MPFL to its corresponding advancements in our understanding of the MPFC
radiographic position, Schöttle developed radio- and the MQTFL, more time is still needed for
graphic criteria that could be used to identify the long-term outcome studies to surface regarding
femoral origin of the MPFL [41]. These criteria MQTFL or combined reconstructions. Thus far,
have proved helpful in MPFL reconstruction MQTFL reconstructions have shown promise as
procedures, however others, like Sanchis- a viable option for restoring medial soft tissue
Alfonso, have emphasized the importance of an restraint [56] (Fig. 4A, B).
open dissection to assure precise, anatomical In addition to proximal patellofemoral
placement of the femoral tunnel in every case restraints, there are also more distally located
[42, 43]. MPFL reconstructions became very patellotibial and patellomeniscal restraints.
popular given they were, and continue to be, very Hinckel found that the distal medial restraints are
effective procedures for treating recurrent insta- primarily responsible for maintaining patellar
bility [44]. stability in flexion [49, 57].
308 C. A. Schneble et al.
Fig. 3 A, B Figures 3A and 3B show are an artist tendon (medial quadriceps tendon femoral ligament) and
rendition of the medial patellofemoral restraints. Fig- the medial osseous patella (medial patellofemoral liga-
ure A illustrates the medial side of the knee, with the ment). AMT = Adductor magnus tendon; VMO = Vastus
medial patellofemoral complex (MPFC) marked by a gold medialis obliquus; R = Rectus femoris; QT = quadriceps
star. Figure B illustrates an anterior view of the distal tendon; PT = patellar tendon; MCL = Medial collateral
femur, and the bony undersurface of a reflected patella. ligament; SM = Tibial insertion of semimembranosus;
The MPFC is outlined in light blue, extending from the MQTFL = Medial quadriceps tendon femoral ligament;
medial femur to its insertion on the medial quadriceps MPFL = Medial patellofemoral ligament
A B
Fig. 4 A, B Axial right knee MRI slices of an adolescent and two years later she presented with worsened patellar
patient with recurrent patellar instability and dislocations. tilt and subluxation, which is exhibited in the MRI image
The left image (A) was acquired after a traumatic on the right (B). Her physes were not yet closed, and she
dislocation that resulted in a medial patella osteochondral was successfully treated with a medial quadriceps tendon-
flap. She was treated with a medial patellofemoral femoral ligament (MQTFL) reconstruction without recur-
ligament (MPFL) reconstruction and debridement of this rence of instability
osteochondral flap. Her instability unfortunately recurred
Surgical Treatment of Recurrent Patellar Instability … 309
A good primary screening tool for deciding when perform a TTO in a given patient, however no
to add a TTO is a properly done neutral rotation single finding was ever considered as absolute or
30-degree knee flexion axial radiograph, known in isolation. These findings are:
as a Merchant view, which can generally be
acquired in the office. If the patella sits laterally 1. A prominent J sign with evidence of a lateral
on this view (see Fig. 1a, b) adding a TTO may patella entry point
be in the patient’s best interest. Other traditional 2. A TT-TG over 15–20 mm (causes consider-
radiographic measurements like the Caton- ation for the need to medialize the tibial
Deschamps ratio (C-D ratio), the tibial tubercle- tubercle)
trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance, the lateral 3. C-D ratio > 1.3 (causes consideration for the
trochlear inclination (LTI) angle, and the Dejour need to distalize the tibial tubercle)
classification are also helpful in surgical decision 4. A curvilinear dysplastic trochlea
making. With these clinical and radiographic 5. The presence of a connective tissue disorder,
parameters, one gains a general overview of the or ligamentous laxity
collective problem and whether a TTO will 6. Evidence of excessive femoral anteversion
provide added benefit. 7. Evidence of patellofemoral articular damage
Three-dimensional imaging can be very that would benefit from the unloading effects
helpful when one is unsure about whether to of an AMTTO.
perform a TTO. Using 3D images one can better
discern the obliquity and curvilinearity of the It is important to synthesize the magnitude of
trochlea, thereby providing an appreciation for contribution from each factor, and the risks
the expected path of patellar tracking (Fig. 5a–c). associated with their correction. Not all forms of
In particular, one can infer the entry point for the malalignment need be corrected when identified,
patella as it enters the trochlea, and its coronal but when found to confer a sizeable influence
plane distance from the central trochlea. Three- towards persistent instability they will often need
dimensional reformats from a 20-degree knee to be addressed for successful treatment. Tibial
flexion weight bearing CT yields a very helpful tubercle transfer can serve as a powerful proce-
depiction of how the patella engages with tro- dure, when indicated, with the potential to pro-
chlea in early knee flexion. This early interaction vide improved extensor mechanism tracking
of engagement is important in instability patients while also off-loading painful or progressive
when considered in the context of a dysplastic articular lesions.
trochlea and the aforementioned factors. Compared to a TTO, trochleoplasty has been
Deciding whether to add a TTO also comes quite uncommon in Fulkerson’s approach to
down to risk and reward for each patient. As part patellar instability over the years. Nonetheless, in
of this assessment the surgeon should gauge the selected cases, recession of a prominent proximal
following: medial trochlear ridge or spur, usually done
arthroscopically, has been performed occasion-
1. What is the projected risk of redislocation ally, usually done to facilitate patellar entry into
without a TTO? the femoral trochlea at the time of a concomitant
2. What is the likelihood of developing lateral distalizing tibial tubercle transfer, as recom-
patellofemoral arthritis if a TTO is not done? mended by Rush and Diduch [64].
3. What is the patient’s healing and rehabilita- In summary, recurrent instability of the patella
tion potential? can often be treated successfully by reconstruc-
tion of the medial patellofemoral complex
Over time, certain findings have consistently (MPFC) in most patients, without additional
influenced the likelihood that Fulkerson would procedures. If lateral maltracking is a definable
Surgical Treatment of Recurrent Patellar Instability … 311
Fig. 5 A–C From left to right, the top row depicts patellar tracking path would result in the most optimal
progressively distal axial MRI slices of a right distal bony constraint. The bottom series of images are 3-
femur afflicted with trochlear dysplasia and recurrent right Dimensional CT reformats that were created using ScanIP
patellar instability and dislocations. Prior medial patello- (Synopsys, Mountain View, CA). The red lines reveal the
femoral ligament (MPFL) reconstruction was unsuccess- estimated deepest points of the trochlea along its entirety.
ful in preventing recurrence. The second row, from left to Visualizing the trochlea in this manner, while also
right, shows progressively distal axial CT scan slices. considering the extent of lateral bony constraint, can help
Both the MRI and CT images shown reveal a flattening of one to understand and validate plans for tibial tubercle
the trochlea consistent with dysplasia, however the nadirs transferring osteotomies. It provides a more digestible,
of the trochlea at each slice level can be difficult to tangible depiction of the vector corrections necessary to
synthesize in order to garner a fluid understanding of what result in the optimal pathway for patellar tracking
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Chondral and Osteochondral Lesions
in the Patellofemoral Joint
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 315
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_22
316 K. Credille et al.
blistering, and/or fissures, grade 2 lesions are restoration procedures occur when coexisting
fissures <50% of cartilage depth, grade 3 lesions pathologies go unaddressed [6]. Therefore, liga-
are >50% cartilage depth, and grade 4 lesions are ment reconstruction, meniscal repair, or meniscal
full-thickness lesions with exposure and allograft transplant should precede or be addres-
involvement of the subchondral bone. sed concomitantly with any cartilage defect repair
procedures to minimize the excessive stress in the
patellofemoral joint PFJ and increase the chances
3 General Isolated Cartilage Lesion of a successful cartilage treatment [5]. Select
Evaluation patients may also need treatment concomitantly
with a distal femoral osteotomy, proximal tibial
At the time of presentation, patients do not report osteotomy, or tibial tubercle osteotomy.
a chondral lesion. Rather, patients complain of
pain and, at times, associated swelling, dimin-
ished motion, stiffness, and mechanical symp- 4 Evaluation of the Patient
toms such as catching or locking [3]. Of note, with Patellofemoral Specific
knee effusions persisting after an aggravating Lesions
event are one of the most important clinical
indicators suggestive of an underlying cartilage Patellofemoral patients typically present with
injury. This type of effusion progresses slowly as anterior knee pain with activities such as walk-
opposed to acute effusions seen with cruciate ing, stairs, squatting, jumping, or running as
ligament injuries or patellar dislocations. These these increase contact pressures in the knee
slow, latent effusions are reflective of the insidi- during flexion due to mechanical loading. While
ous nature of chondral lesions. When a chondral posterior knee pain can also be present, this is
defect of the knee is suspected, patients are often secondary to an effusion and most patients
questioned and examined for malalignment, knee will still localize their pain just deep to their
instability, patellar instability, and other patella. A subset will have patellar or trochlear
pathologies [3]. In patients with acute pain from a chondral lesions. Locking and catching symp-
cartilage lesion, radiographs do not show toms can also occur but are associated with
pathology other than an effusion or loose body chondral flaps. Clinicians should pay particular
[5]. However, standard weight bearing knee attention to acute and/or chronic nature of the
radiographic views (AP and PA flexed) as well as patient’s patellofemoral instability and whether
standing long leg limb alignment films are they are experiencing apprehension, subluxation,
required to rule out coronal plane malalignment or full dislocations. It is important to uncover
as malignment in any plane may contribute to a whether the patient’s pain is transient and occurs
failed cartilage restoration procedure [6]. MRI is secondary to an acute subluxation or dislocation
also ordered to evaluate the location, size, and event or if it is a result of a persistent chondral
depth of cartilage defects and any concomitant defect stemming from chronic instability or
ligamentous or meniscal pathology. Once a malalignment [3].
chondral lesion is identified as the root cause of a At the time of physical and radiographic
patient’s symptoms, non-operative treatment examination of patellofemoral lesions, focus
consisting of rest, non-steroidal anti- should be paid to lower extremity alignment, the
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), steroid and hya- patient’s gait, and the patient’s Q angle. The Q
luronic acid injections, and physical therapy angle is increased by a lateralized tibial tubercle,
needs to be trialed for six weeks to six months and valgus alignment and may appear decreased
before considering surgical options [3]. For by chronic subluxation of the patella until it is
lesions that fail conservative management, reduced into the central trochlear groove. That is,
arthroscopic evaluation can be considered. the most accurate Q angle measurement needs to
Importantly, higher failure rates of cartilage be made while the patella is in the trochlear
Chondral and Osteochondral Lesions in the Patellofemoral Joint 317
groove and a Merchant extended goniometer pathologic anatomy that may have contributed
extends to the ASIS. The knee should also be the initial cartilage lesion and to decrease the
evaluated for effusion, patellar displacement in contact stresses through mechanical offloading.
quadrants, patellar tracking during flexion and An anteromedialization (AMZ) TTO is an
extension and evaluation for a J sign. Concomi- example of a procedure that reduces the lateral
tant ligamentous injury should also be ruled out force vector by moving the tubercle medially and
[3]. One should also perform the patellar grind reducing patella contact pressures by moving the
exam by applying direct compression to the patella tendon attachment anteriorly [5].
patella with translation. This may signify an
underlying chondral lesion or stress overload. To
best interpret the results of this test, it should also 5 General Indications for Cartilage
be performed on the contralateral knee [7]. If Restoration Procedures
history and physical examination suggest the
possibility of a patellofemoral cartilage defect, In general, surgical treatment of full thickness
Merchant and lateral knee views will aid in the cartilage lesions is reserved for persistently
diagnose patella alta or patella baja via the symptomatic patients who have failed conserva-
Caton-Deschamps index [8], patellar tilt and tive treatment or those with cartilage flaps and
subluxation, and bony contour indicative of tro- unstable osteochondral fragments. Full thickness
chlear dysplasia [9, 10]. lesions can be treated with a variety of surgical
MRI is essential to evaluate chondral and/or options including chondroplasty/debridement,
osteochondral lesions of the PFJ and other fac- open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) of
tors such as trochlear dysplasia [3]. While MRI is osteochondral fragments, microfracture, osteo-
a helpful tool in the evaluation of chondral chondral autograft transfer (OAT), osteochondral
lesions, it may underestimate true lesion size by allograft transplantation (OCA), and various cell-
up to 60% and does not provide lesion structural based techniques such as autologous chondrocyte
or edge stability data like diagnostic arthroscopy implantation (ACI), matrix induced autologous
[11]. However, it is important for identifying chondrocyte implantation (MACI), and particu-
meniscal pathology, ligamentous injuries, sub- lated juvenile allograft cartilage (PJAC) [3, 5].
chondral bone edema, and patellar height and For smaller lesions less than 2 cm2, debridement/
tibial tubercle to trochlear groove (TT-TG) dis- chondroplasty, microfracture, and OAT are the
tance which can be associated with developing preferred treatment choices. OCA is preferable
cartilage defects [12]. One should also consider a for larger lesions >2–4 cm2. Cell-based therapies
CT arthrogram as an adjunct for patients with like MACI and PJAC are also excellent for larger
poorly visualized chondral lesions on MRI and lesions, but are limited to lesions with minimal
significant patellar maltracking to help assess subchondral bone loss [14]. Deeper subchondral
tibial version, plan osteotomies, and further bone loss is better treated with OATs and OCAs,
evaluate bony anatomy (in cases with suspected although bone grafting can be used with cell-
axial malalignment, MRI or CT hip/knee/ankle based therapies in the setting of defects 8 mm
assessment is indicated) [13]. at the time of cartilage restoration [15]. Patients
If major anatomic factors placing the patient younger than <55 generally qualify for cartilage
at increased risk for patellar dislocation or excess restoration procedures versus total knee arthro-
patellofemoral stresses are identified, the patient plasty, but the primary criteria for this may
may end up needing concomitant procedures depend upon how much healthy cartilage
including, but not limited to a tibial tubercle remains [16]. A person with several large lesions
osteotomy (TTO), medial patellofemoral liga- throughout the knee is more consistent with
ment reconstruction, and lateral retinacular osteoarthritis and may fare better with a total
lengthening. These procedures serve to correct knee or patellofemoral arthroplasty [5].
318 K. Credille et al.
uses angulated awls. The goal of marrow stim- inflammation, bleeding, clot formation, and
ulation is to promote fibrocartilage formation via mesenchymal stem cell migration to the site of
migration of mesenchymal stem cells to the injury. It should be noted that while these cells
cartilage defect from subchondral bone [23, 24]. will produce collagen and cartilage to repair the
The threshold for performing bone marrow cartilage defect, it is fibrocartilage, which
stimulation is restricted in the PFJ and should be biomechanically inferior to the native hyaline
2 cm2 or less, due to the higher sheer stresses cartilage typically found at the bone surfaces of
experienced in this joint compartment. It should joints [19].
be avoided in uncontained lesions altogether Most of the outcome studies related to bone
[25]. The authors advocate that bone marrow marrow stimulation combine data from both the
stimulation plays little to no role in the PFJ re- tibiofemoral joint (femoral condyles) and PFJ, as
gardless of lesion size. there is limited data available on isolated patellar
Regardless of the marrow stimulation tech- microfracture. The majority of these studies
nique used, it is essential to perform a chon- demonstrate low failures rates in the short-term at
droplasty through the calcified cartilage to 2 years follow up in lower demand patients with
subchondral bone while creating stable vertical smaller defects, with increases in long-term
walls [19]. The bony perforations made with this failure rates after 2–5 years of follow up
technique must be perpendicular to the bone [25–27]. Kreuz et al. evaluated full thickness
surface, which can be difficult to achieve for the cartilage lesions in 85 patients in different ana-
patella via arthroscopy of the PFJ [3]. Sometimes tomic locations in the knee including the femoral
a small arthrotomy is necessary for proper visu- condyle, tibia, trochlea, and patella. Patient
alization, instrument angulation, and counter reported outcomes were strong at 6-months and
pressure that is necessary for lesions on the 18-months but started to deteriorate at the 2-year
patella. For classic “micro fracture” each perfo- mark and MRI measured defect filling deterio-
ration must be at least 3 mm deep and spaced rating at 36-months, with the trochlear and
3–4 mm apart from the others as seen in Fig. 2. patellar patients declining more rapidly than the
Newer marrow stimulation techniques attempt as other groups [28]. Additionally, it has been
little bony injury as possible with very small shown that microfracture can negatively impact
(e.g., 1 mm) drill bits and drill to a depth of the success rates of subsequent cartilage
6–10 mm to access more marrow derived cells. restoration procedures. Minas et al. demonstrated
The injury to the bone surface will promote an ACI failure rate of 26% after a prior marrow
11 Particulated Juvenile Allograft implant sits proud to the defect perimeter [56]. If
Cartilage the lesion is uncontained and there are concerns
for excessive biomechanical sheer and compres-
Particulated juvenile allograft cartilage (PJAC) is sive stresses, commercial collagen can be sutured
another cell-based cartilage restoration technique or anchored to the cartilage wall defect exten-
used for full-thickness chondral lesions 1–6 cm2 sions. This technique for treating uncontained
and ICRS grade 3 or higher without bony lesions can also be applied to other cell-based
involvement [19]. PJAC is used preferentially in techniques like MACI/ACI [57] (see Fig. 6).
the PFJ but can still be utilized in the TFJ. Akin However, outcomes studies for PJAC remain
to MACI/ACI, this technique evolved from sparse, are limited to case series or case reports
research efforts to expand the chondral lesion and most of the PJAC research has been focused
treatment arsenal for orthopedic surgeons and on lesions in the talus. Regardless, there is still
offers the same ease of surface contour matching. some existing data. Recently, there was a
An additional benefit of PJAC compared to prospective case series performed by Wang et al.
MACI/ACI is that it is a one-stage procedure. of 27 patients treated for patellofemoral cartilage
PJAC shares graft hypertrophy as a common defects with an average of 3.84 years of follow-
complication with MACI/ACI as they are both up. Patients in this study experienced statistically
cell-based techniques [46]. PJAC is initially significant improvements in patient reported
harvested from the femoral condyles of pediatric outcomes. Additionally, at the 2-year follow up
donors, with a viable shelf life of 45 days. MRI, nearly 70% of patients had more than two-
Each PJAC package contains 30–200 cubes of thirds of their defect filled [46]. Several other
minced graft tissue and one package is capable of single arm studies have shown similarly favor-
treating a full-thickness cartilage lesion up to 2.5 able results for patients with patellar and tro-
cm2, with larger lesions treated with multiple chlear cartilage lesions in the short-term and
PJAC packages [2]. Mincing the graft allows medium-term follow up [58–61]. Future studies
chondrocytes to migrate from extracellular will need to focus on long-term outcomes and
matrix and form native hyaline cartilage [53]. head-to-head comparisons with other cartilage
Furthermore, the advantage of using pediatric restoration techniques.
cartilage rather than adult tissue is that juvenile
chondrocytes are capable of producing more
extracellular matrix and proteoglycan content 12 Post-operative Rehabilitation
and thus have a more favorable cartilage gene
expression profile [54, 55]. Cartilage restoration procedures have a variety of
For implanting the graft, a similar defect protocols aimed at protecting their repair. Range
preparation is used to that of MACI/ACI. The of motion exercises are usually started within the
defect is debrided down to the calcified cartilage first week post-operatively to encourage cartilage
level and stable vertical walls are created typi- healing and prevent stiffness. Weight bearing
cally via a mini arthrotomy similar to varies based on the procedure type and surgeon
MACI/ACI. Once the defect is prepared, the preference. Chondroplasty, for example, will be
minced PJAC cubes can be placed directly into weight bearing as tolerated immediately while
the defect or prepared extra-articularly. Regard- full weight bearing in extension is often the case
less of the method used, cubes should be spaced for one or two weeks after patellofemoral carti-
1–2 mm apart in one layer and the top layer lage procedures with the exception of marrow
needs to be 1 mm below the periphery of the stimulation, MACI, and PJAC. The latter three
cartilage defect [2]. This ensures minimization of procedures require six weeks of protected weight
the shear stress and compressive biomechanical bearing before progression to full weight bearing
loading on the graft that might occur if the to give time for a mature cartilage surface to
Chondral and Osteochondral Lesions in the Patellofemoral Joint 325
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Patellofemoral Arthritis
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 329
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_23
330 C. S. Frey et al.
in some cohorts [18]. Injuries with fractures nonoperatively treated and 4/53 operatively
involving the articular surfaces of the patella or treated children with OCD lesions ultimately
trochlea will likely pose the same risks of developed symptomatic arthritis [27].
arthritis as most intra-articular fractures. In these Our knowledge of the genetic component of
cases, direct force transmission as well as chronic osteoarthritis is still limited and epigenetics is
elevations in contact forces from joint incon- even more limited. It has been estimated that the
gruity leads to chondrocyte death [21]. For tibial heritability of osteoarthritis may be 50% or more
plateau fractures, the incidence of secondary [28]. Some genes reported to be associated
osteoarthritis may be nearly 50% [22]. Even include VDR, AGC1, IGF-1, ER alpha, TGF beta,
without fractures, energy delivered is thought to CRTM, CRTL, and collagen II, IX, and XI. Genes
manifest in delayed chondral damage. In other that have been identified to lead to patellar
words, chondrocyte death occurs with impacts anomalies when altered include TBX4 and
insufficient to cause bone fracture. In an in vitro LMX1B [29]. In general, these are associated with
rabbit model, cell death was detected at 20 Mpa nail patella syndrome, small patella syndrome,
impacts while frank matrix damage was found at and isolated patella aplasia. These conditions can
30 Mpa impacts [23]. With no living chondro- lead to patellar dysplasia and instability which
cytes, the articular cartilage matrix deteriorates will ultimately contribute to PF OA.
over time. Chondrocyte overload may also be a
result of diminished trochlea-patella congruence
or disturbed joint homeostasis. 4 Presentation
Ligamentous injuries are also associated with
PF OA. A common association is with anterior It is crucial to understand the underlying
cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries. One systematic pathology that links chondrosis to pain. Cartilage
review reported that PF OA is associated with is considered an aneural tissue. Thus, the actual
ACL injury, especially in cases of reconstruction pain generator needs elucidation before planning
[24]. Bone-patellar tendon-bone graft, single- treatment [30]. This can be from surrounding soft
bundle reconstruction, and delayed operation tissue, bone or rarely referred pain.
time reported a higher prevalence of PF OA Typically, the patient with PF OA will present
within this subset. In fact, the prevalence of with chronic anterior knee pain that is aggravated
PF OA at 15 years status post ACL reconstruc- with flexion and activities such as lunges and
tion may be nearly 50% [25]. The mechanism is stairs. [3] When isolated, they will often tolerate
poorly understood, but loss of terminal extension ambulating on level ground, but avoid stairs or
and reduced patellar mobility may play a role. squats. Patients may experience swelling and
Quadriceps weakness and an overall inflamma- stiffness as well, especially with flares.
tory state may be additional contributing factors. In addition to pain, patients may also experi-
Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is a condi- ence mechanical symptoms. This can consist of
tion involving focal subchondral bone impair- subjective sensations of grinding, popping, or
ment, necrosis, collapse, and destabilization of clicking, likely from the increased friction
overlying articular cartilage. Although the vast between patella and trochlea. This should not be
majority occur in the medial femoral condyle and associated with frank locking, however, this can
less commonly in the lateral femoral condyle, it be associated with other pathology-like displaced
sometimes occurs in the patellofemoral joint meniscus tear or chondral flap [31]. The patient
[26]. Most of these patients were competitive may also complain of patellar instability, which
athletes at some point. One longitudinal study of often, as discussed above, is a risk factor but not
skeletally immature patients reported that 2/42 prerequisite for PF OA [18].
332 C. S. Frey et al.
parameters include: sulcus angle, congruence as a prominence just proximal to the trochlea and
angle, and the lateral patellofemoral angle. illustrates a prominence of the trochlea that
Specifically, the sulcus angle measures trochlear works like a ramp to push off the patella. Lastly,
depth. It is calculated as the angle between peaks the double contour consists of the radiographic
of MFC and LFC and the nadir of the intra- line adjacent to the crossing sign and represents a
condylar sulcus. Greater values indicate trochlear hypoplastic medial condyle. 96% of patients with
dysplasia, with 145° often being cited as the patellar instability were found to have these
cutoff [39]. The congruence angle, which uses radiographic signs of dysplasia [39]. The Dejour
the angle between the patellar articular ridge and classification was developed based upon various
apex of the sulcus angle, measures patellar sub- combinations of these findings and dysplasia is
luxation. Normal subjects have an average angle assigned to 4 main types to aid in operative
of 16° (medial to the congruence line), and an planning. However, 3D reconstruction from MRI
angle over 16° is typically associated with sub- and/or CT have demonstrated a more nuanced
luxation [40]. Lastly, the lateral patellofemoral continuum of dysplasia.
angle assesses patellar tilt. This parameter is Patellar height is another important factor
measured as the angle between the line along the measured on these lateral views. Patella alta may
lateral facet and along the anterior condyles. If be associated with patellofemoral osteoarthritis
these lines are parallel or converge, it is indica- [45]. This is related to multiple factors. Patients
tive of increased tilt or subluxation and is asso- with this abnormal positioning of the patella have
ciated with more severe chondromalacia [41, 42]. been found to have decreased contact surfaces of
It is important to note that absolute values cannot the patellofemoral joint, which increases the
be used in isolation. One should consider the pressure on the cartilage interface and can
whole picture when evaluating radiographs in directly lead to chondral injury [46]. Patella alta
PF OA. can also result in patellar instability, which can
In the context of evaluating PF OA, the be a driving factor of degeneration [47]. On the
standing flexed PA, also known as the Rosenberg other hand, patella baja is associated with ante-
or skier view, as well as the classic AP, primarily rior knee pain, decreased range of motion, and
aid in evaluation of the tibiofemoral joint. extensor tendon weakness [48]. This is less
The PA view is considered to be more sensitive common and may be associated with prior
for catching medial/lateral compartment arthritis intervention. Patella height factors into preoper-
and may capture this before standard AP films ative planning to decide whether or not the
[43]. However, a subset of patients with more patellar component will be engaged in the tro-
anterior TF OA will have joint space narrowing chlea component at full quad active extension.
only on the AP view. Although there may be some proponents of
The true lateral view (femoral condyles are the Insall-Salvati, the most commonly used
superimposed and confluent) allows for direct measurement by patellofemoral experts is the
visualization of degenerative change in the Caton-Deschamps Index (CDI) [49, 50]. It is
patellofemoral joint as well as morphologic fea- calculated by dividing the distance from the
tures that may predispose to arthritis there. While anterosuperior articular margin of the tibia to the
it visualizes the same hallmarks of PF OA as inferior articular margin of the patella/articular
suggested by axial views, the lateral view has surface patella. Thus, it changes after tibial
been found to have lower diagnostic accuracy tubercle osteotomies, but stays constant with
[44]. Using these true lateral images, the classic various degrees of knee flexion. This may be of
signs of trochlear dysplasia may be detected as value in corrective TTOs to assess for restoration
described by Dejour [39]. In short, the crossing of more “regular” parameters. Values over 1.2
sign appears when the line of the trochlear are typically associated with patella alta. In
groove intersects the anterior border of the addition, the patella overlap with the trochlea
femoral condyle. The supratrochlear spur is seen yields another assessment of patellar height.
334 C. S. Frey et al.
The three compartments of the knee should proton density-weighted sequences are often
not be viewed in isolation. For a complete picture most accurate in evaluating cartilage defects [54].
of the knee, bilateral full hip to ankle radiographs Findings can be classified with the modified
are crucial to better characterize the anatomic and Outerbridge classification, which has been
mechanical axes of the limb. This view will adapted to MRI use. It consists of seven stages
depict aberrations in contact forces and therefore, starting with mere signal heterogeneity and
joint degeneration patterns. It will also assist in ending with full thickness cartilage loss.
surgical planning. Knowledge of alignment will In addition to cartilage, MRI is useful for
direct one to the most appropriate soft and/or picking up changes in underlying bone. Common
bony intervention for a mechanically sound knee. changes in subchondral bone include cyst for-
Advanced imaging is particularly useful for mation, sclerosis, and marrow edema. Although
patellofemoral joint evaluation. Computed fairly nonspecific, focal areas of edema may be
tomography (CT) is an excellent tool for indicative of overlying cartilage defects [55].
depicting bony morphology. It can be used to There may also be classic bone bruising patterns
assess trochlear dysplasia, patellar height, and the of patellofemoral instability at the medial patellar
tibial tubercle-trochlear groove (TT-TG) dis- facet and lateral femoral condyle. These findings
tance. TT-TG measurement captures malalign- are helpful for guiding pre-operative planning;
ment in the axial plain, specifically the however, arthroscopy is still considered the gold
lateralization of the tibial tubercle relative to the standard [56]. After operative repair, MRI may
trochlea. Values over 20 mm are often described be used for monitoring healing. There exist
as pathologic and an indication for intervention several detailed scoring systems such as
[39]. One should note the limitations of this MOCART and OCAMRISS, however, the data
measurement, however. It has been shown to is mixed regarding correlation with clinical out-
positively vary with age and patient height. [51] comes and at this time, this is largely applied in
This would need to be taken into consideration the setting of research [57].
for patients at either end of the height spectrum. Similar to CT, MRI offers evaluation of axial
CT can also be used to evaluate the direct effects alignment. MRI is an accurate modality for
of degenerative change on the joint. Although measuring TT-TG, with good inter-rater relia-
cartilage is not best visualized with standard CT bility [58]. However, it appears to consistently
imaging, subchondral bone can easily be scruti- yield higher values; 3.8 mm on average accord-
nized. In fact, this imaging modality has superior ing to one study. Thus, the calculated values
resolution of underlying bony structure when from CT and MRI are not interchangeable. With
compared to MRI [52]. Considering many the ability to visualize soft tissue, MRI allows
patients will have an MRI and full XR series one to measure TT-PCL as well. Similarly,
already, CT is not always worth the additional 20 mm may be used as a cutoff for pathologic
risk. lateralization [51]. However, there exist some
Unlike CT, MRI is useful for directly evalu- key differences between TT-TG and TT-PCL that
ating articular cartilage. Considering how thin must be noted. By utilizing points in the femur
and structurally contoured this tissue is, high and tibia, TT-TG measures gross femorotibial
quality imaging is required. T1-weighted images rotation as a result of factors such as femoral
are limited in delineating the boundary between torsion, tibial torsion, lateralized tibial tubercle,
joint effusion and cartilage surface [53]. This and medialized groove. It is, therefore, more
offers basic anatomic details but is not useful for sensitive to knee flexion as well, through the
focal defects or delamination. T2-weighted “screw home mechanism”. By only using points
imaging provides better contrast resolution of on the tibia, TT-PCL isolates tibial pathology. By
this interface, but has the limitation of poor combining the two metrics, one can pinpoint the
internal cartilage signal. For these reasons, cause of the malalignment.
Patellofemoral Arthritis 335
physiologically relevant bioavailability which noxious compounds, but it may be safest to avoid
corresponds to clinical efficacy [69]. The OARSI intra-articular anesthetics. This may be consid-
and AAOS recommend paracetamol condition- ered diagnostic in some sense, but this interpre-
ally in the short and long term while the ESCEO tation is limited in that injections are not
only recommends short term use. Both groups sequestered to the PF compartment.
cite low proof of clinical efficacy and mild hep- Viscosupplementation is thought to work by
atotoxicity risk. augmenting the synovial fluid with additional
If this first-line of medical intervention is glycosaminoglycans. This would have improved
inadequate, both guidelines recommend short lubrication and shock absorbing qualities with
term use of oral NSAIDs [59]. Although effective ultimate mechanical and analgesic effects [74].
in controlling symptoms, this medication class is Typically, this involves hyaluronic acid with both
limited by cardiovascular, renal, and gastric side high and low molecular weight options available.
effects. It is recommended to take PPIs with One small trial of hyaluronic acid used in patients
nonselective NSAIDs to mitigate the gastroin- with PF OA found significant improvements in
testinal effects. pain with stairs and global assessments [75].
As a last resort pharmaceutical intervention, However, it was limited by an 18.6% adverse
patients can also take opioids. The ESCEO event rate, most of which were local site reactions
guidelines recommend short term use of relatively such as joint effusion. In the context of general
weak narcotics such as tramadol [59]. This is osteoarthritis, this treatment has had mixed out-
attributed to efficacious pain relief. However, the comes with the AAOS recommending against
OARSI and AAOS recommend against this class hyaluronic acid with moderate strength and both
of medication, even in the short term because of OARSI and ESCEO recommending its use.
unsavory side effects such as addiction, nausea, The AAOS guidelines cite a lack of clinically
constipation, and falls. Alternatively, patients can relevant differences when compared to controls in
take duloxetine, a serotonin-norepinephrine more recent analysis, even with the use of high
reuptake inhibitor, which is particularly suited molecular cross-linked formulations.
for cases of central pain sensitization as well as Lastly, there are various biologic formulations
other chronic pain disorders [70, 71]. currently in use or on the horizon that are being
The vast majority of injections currently in the applied to the degenerative joint. Of these, pla-
orthopaedist’s armamentarium can be broken telet rich plasma (PRP) is probably the most
down into three groups: viscosupplementation, described. The technology relies on the concen-
corticosteroids, and biologics. All three guideli- tration of a growth factor payload that is not
nes support the use of intra-articular corticos- completely understood and varies with formula-
teroids, especially in the short term (<6 weeks) tion. In general, leukocyte poor (LP-PRP) is
[59, 60]. This broad class of medications acts associated with less of an inflammatory effect as
through glucocorticoid receptors to downregulate concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cells is
the inflammatory cascade. Although recently lower than that of whole blood. This formulation
downgraded to moderate strength in the AAOS is often favored out of concern for inflammation
guidelines, it is still considered an integral com- after the injection [76]. Additionally, LP-PRP has
ponent of the treatment algorithm for patients also been found to have a greater ability to pre-
who do not respond to anti-inflammatories due to serve cartilage mouse models and functional
significant relief of symptoms. There is some outcomes in knee OA trials [76, 77].
concern that these injections may be cytotoxic. Unfortunately, due to this variation, studies
Indeed, there are studies that demonstrate both are fairly heterogenous. With respect to the
tenocyte, synoviocyte, and chondrocyte toxicity patellofemoral joint, one publication found that
with combination injections, including local LR-PRP was associated with an increase in vol-
anesthetic and corticosteroids [72, 73]. It appears ume of patellofemoral cartilage on 3D MRI
that bupivacaine and triamcinolone are the least analysis as well as several PROMs [78]. There is
Patellofemoral Arthritis 337
a vastly larger body of evidence for general OA. be warranted in order to correct aberrant force
Overall, results are quite mixed with multiple vectors and/or patellar instability.
large studies and meta-analyses showing no It should be noted that there is a very limited
significant benefit. Subsequently, the AAOS role for isolated arthroscopy in patellofemoral
guidelines downgraded the recommendation arthritis. Knee arthroscopy with debridement
for its use to limited and OARSI recommends allows for direct evaluation of the cartilage as well
against its use for OA. The most recent ESCEO as other intra-articular pathology such as meniscus
guideline does not delve much into the topic. injury to facilitate planning for definitive man-
agement. In essence, this serves more as a staging
AAOS ESCEO OARSI arthroscopy to take inventory of possible surgical
Topical anti- Strong for First line First line targets. Chondroplasty can be performed on
inflammatory
unstable lesions. Any loose bodies identified
Oral anti-inflammatory Strong for First line First line
should be removed. Patients may have some initial
Opioid Strong Conditional Strong
against short term against symptomatic relief, especially if there are
Intra-articular Moderate Conditional Conditional mechanical symptoms, but the underlying prob-
corticosteroid short term short term short term
lem may require further definitive surgery. This
Intra-articular Moderate Conditional Conditional
viscosupplementation against
technique may be used definitively in instances of
Intra-articular PRP Limited No comment Strong acute pain, specific localized mechanical symp-
for against toms, and no malalignment or intra-articular
Glucosamine/Chondroitin Limited First line Strong pathology in low demand patients [79] One reg-
for (Pharmaceutical against
grade) istry study found isolated large cartilage defects to
respond well at one year post-operative follow-up,
as long as there was no associated meniscus
pathology requiring debridement.
8 Surgical Management If there is isolated lateral trochlear or patellar
of Patellofemoral Arthritis disease, lateral retinacular lengthening or release
can be used to decrease lateral retinacular forces
Once non-operative management fails, there are on joint, yet the reduction of PF loading has been
multiple surgical options. Several important fac- questioned. It may also have theoretical benefit
tors should be considered when deciding on the from denervating the retinaculum to provide pain
best management. Patient factors include age, relief [80]. This can be done arthroscopically or
medical comorbidities, activity level, and symp- open. In the setting of PF OA, lateral retinacular
tomatology. The joint as a whole must be con- release had mixed results, with worse outcomes
sidered, and previous injuries, chondral wear associated with cases of patellar instability [81,
pattern—both location and severity, and liga- 82]. Typically, lateral lengthening is preferred
mentous pathology or instability should be over a complete release as the latter results in
incorporated into planning. Perhaps most greater disruption of lateral stabilizing structures
importantly, lower limb alignment in both the [83]. This can potentially result in iatrogenic
coronal and axial or rotational planes is integral medial patellar instability, especially in cases
to the treatment algorithm for obtaining optimal with patellar instability to begin with. Although
outcome. In general, in more diffuse disease or there are no direct assessments of lengthening on
older lower demand patients, arthroplasty with or isolated PF OA, it likely has a role as an adjunct,
without additional procedures would likely pro- especially with tight lateral structures, or lateral
vide more predictable benefit than pure soft tis- osteophytes (Fig. 1).
sue work or restorative cartilage surgery. In the Similarly, lateral facetectomy can both
setting of malalignment, depending on the nature decompress the tight lateral structures and
of the malalignment, corrective osteotomy may remove focal lateral facet OA making up the
338 C. S. Frey et al.
R T
Fig. 1 Lateral retinacular lengthening. After develop- retinaculum in a lengthened position to rebalance soft
ing the plane superficial to the joint capsule, along the tissue tension while preventing iatrogenic instability. T:
patellar tendon, a 2-cm lateral retinacular lengthening is patellar tendon; P: patella; R: lateral retinaculum in
performed, with closure of the lateral tissues at the lengthened position
“kissing” osteophytes that may be contributing to measurement variability, as CT scan and MRI
pain [80]. When used to treat PF OA, often with may produce differing measurements, and knee
lateral release, there were modest short term flexion angle may affect static measurement of the
results with reoperation free survival of 85% at dynamic nature of axial malalignment [85].
5 years and 67.2% at 10 years in one study [84]. Additionally, rotational malalignment is affected
Another investigation utilizing lateral release by femoral version, tibial torsion, tibiofemoral
combined with facetectomy for cases of PF OA rotation through the knee joint and other factors
with lateral patellar compression had overall [86]. While TTO is typically used in the setting of
good results with improved Kujala and satisfac- instability, by nature it alters force vectors across
tion scores at 5 years out, but had similar reop- the patellofemoral joint, and thus, can be used to
eration rates [80]. decrease contact pressures in areas of chondrosis.
This method of relieving PF OA is most relevant
for young, active patients who are not ready for
9 Osteotomy arthroplasty. It is of less benefit in cases of more
severe or diffuse disease. TTO can be performed
The tibial tubercle osteotomy (TTO) is the in conjunction with soft tissue stabilization for
workhorse of bony alignment procedures for patients with concomitant instability.
patellofemoral malalignment and can be used to The classic anteromedialization osteotomy of
manipulate contact forces. In patellofemoral OA, Fulkerson is best suited for cases with distal
the optimal use of anteromedialization is distal lateral patellar chondrosis related to maltracking
and lateral OA of the patella. It is less effective refractory to conservative management. It helps
for bipolar OA, medial, proximal and panpatellar realign the extensor mechanism and improve
presentations. patellar contact with the trochlea earlier in the arc
Although a TT-TG > 20 mm is often cited as of motion. This shifts the contact area more
a threshold for this procedure in patella instabil- proximal on the patella [87]. It serves to offload
ity, indications are more nuanced for differing the joint and provide relief in patients with
underlying pathologies and threshold values may malalignment and lateral disease. In carefully
be lower on case-by-case basis (i.e. TT- selected patients, results are fairly promising with
TG > 15 mm). This is partially due to good satisfaction and improvements in Kujala
Patellofemoral Arthritis 339
scores [88]. However, failure rates are correlated femur can unload the lateral patella, but at the
with severity of arthritis and patients with cost of increasing medial contact pressure. If the
arthritis have earlier deterioration of symptoms. deformity is related to tibial torsion (typically
Typically, it is indicated in younger patients external rotation of 40°), the corrective rotational
under 50, however, active older patients may also osteotomy may be made through the proximal
benefit [89]. There is no consensus on the degree tibia [98]. Prior studies have reported improve-
of correction. Some suggest a goal TT-TG of 10– ment in patellofemoral pain and instability in
15 mm [90]. It is important not to over-medialize patients who have failed prior extensor mecha-
as this may cause increased medial tibiofemoral nism operations, but have not focused on treat-
contact forces [91]. ment of PF arthritis. Pathologic genu valgum can
Pure anteriorization, known as the Maquet lead to lateralization of force vectors acting
osteotomy, has been shown to decrease patello- on the patella and can be treated with varus
femoral joint forces through changing the lever producing distal femoral osteotomy [99]. It
arm [92]. It unloads the patella without affecting should be noted that prior reports of femoral
alignment. This may be useful for medial patella varus producing or derotational osteotomies
cartilage lesions for when anteromedialization is have not focused on PF arthritis, and although
contraindicated [90]. This technique, as origi- severe patellofemoral osteoarthritis is typically
nally described, was marred by infection and considered a contraindication, mild to moderate
dehiscence, and carried the risk of overload of PF OA is not necessarily [99, 100].
the superior pole. Direct medialization, often
described as the Roux-Elmslie-Trillat procedure
helps to address lateralized forces that lead to 10 Cartilage Surgery
maltracking. Long term outcomes show around
54%-64% good or excellent results, with worse Cartilage restoration is a powerful tool for treat-
outcomes for patellofemoral pain than instability ing symptomatic focal chondral defects in the
[93]. It is limited by bony contact needed for setting of preserved joint space; thus, it is not
fixation and rarely indicated [90]. considered for advanced or diffuse disease. Con-
The TTO can be augmented with MPFL sidering that hyaline cartilage is relatively avas-
reconstruction to aid in patellar tracking and cular and hypocellular, its ability for spontaneous
patellar contact area. This is typically indicated in healing is limited [57]. The cartilage-based
cases of concomitant symptomatic instability and interventions can largely be broken down into
objective laxity remains after TTO. Although the palliative (arthroscopic debridement), reparative
MPFL cannot be used to “pull” the patella, it (marrow stimulating), or restorative (osteochon-
does offer soft tissue stabilization as a restraint to dral or cartilaginous). Patients must be indicated
lateral subluxation with a native tensile strength carefully to optimize outcome, as it is accepted
of about 209 N [94]. When MPFL and TTO are that in general, there is a limited role for these
combined for indicated cases, the recurrence techniques in cases of patellofemoral arthritis.
rates of instability appear to be quite low, around Osteochondral transfer is a useful tool for
4%–6% [95, 96]. large defects and has been shown to be effective,
Rotational and coronal plane osteotomies are even after failed bone marrow stimulation pro-
used to correct for malalignment in the axial cedures [101]. However, several patient specific
plane malalignment through the tibia and femur, factors are worth consideration. While age and
and while described, have not been extensively cause do not appear to have a significant impact,
studied in the setting of PF arthritis. In cases of female gender, increasing size, patellar lesions,
increased femoral anteversion, a femoral rota- and bipolar lesions seem to be associated with
tional osteotomy can be performed to redistribute worse outcomes [102]. Patients should not have
pressure [97]. External derotation of the distal severely diminished range of motion and
340 C. S. Frey et al.
Fig. 2 Bipolar disease of the patellofemoral joint, good contour match with no step-off; bottom right—OCA
focal, treated with bipolar osteochondral allograft. Top to the trochlea showing restoration of trochlear surface
right—large but focal patellar defect; top right—focal geometry and no step-off
central defect; bottom left—OCA to the patella showing
typically recommended not to have end stage reliable option other than in very young and
degenerative disease. As previously mentioned, active patients (Fig. 2).
maltracking and malalignment must be addressed There are some measures that can be taken
as well to optimize outcomes. to maximize outcomes. It is preferable to use
In general, the results of osteochondral allo- grafts from the same location [102]. This
graft of the patellofemoral joint are positive, improves surface congruency for smoother glid-
especially considering the lack of donor mor- ing. However, as long as the radius of curvature
bidity. A recent systematic review found signif- is similar, femoral grafts are likely to be of use-
icant improvements in IKDC as well as good ful size [106]. Advanced imaging and sizing
10 year survivorship of 77%, similar to femoral markers can be useful for templating. Another
condyle lesions [103]. However, when applied to consideration when using allograft is maintain-
bipolar lesions in more severe disease the results ing chondrocyte viability. It is known that
are not quite as promising. One study found fresh allograft has better viability than cryopre-
improvements in IKDC function and pain, but a served counterparts and that sooner time
five year survival of 64% [104]. However, implantation is generally better [107, 108]. It is
another found that ultimately, 8 of 11 patients also interesting to note that impaction can also
were able to delay arthroplasty and many grafts lead to cell inviability [109]. The greater the
had survivorship over 10 years [105]. At this impaction from tapping, the greater damage
time there is limited applicability for patellofe- dealt. This is particularly salient for thick, mis-
moral arthritis. Arthroplasty is generally the more matched plugs.
Patellofemoral Arthritis 341
prefers a medial parapatellar arthrotomy. Next, a factors for this include low BMI, larger resec-
limited synovectomy can be performed to tions, thinner patellas, and large trochlear com-
mobilize the patella. Once adequately mobile, the ponents. Sometimes, the procedure may be
patella can be prepared and sized. Patellar and executed well, but the patient may just have
quadriceps tendon attachments can be used as progression of disease due to activity level,
reference and a minimum of 12–14 mm of genetics, or other factors. Notching has the
patella should be left after cutting—in younger potential to yield stress concentration and possi-
patients, the risk of “stuffing” the joint is over- bly fracture, similarly to TKA. Though not a
ridden by the reward of better bone stock if “complication”, it is important to have a thor-
revision is needed in the distant future. Rota- ough discussion with those patients who have a
tional alignment of the trochlea can be estab- remote history of patellar instability. In the more
lished with an intra- or extra-medullary system to recent years, the instability has resolved sec-
prepare for femoral cuts. The native trochlea can ondary to the high coefficient of friction (CoF) of
be used to determine varus/valgus orientation. PFA implants and soft tissue contractures asso-
However, if there is dysplasia one can align the ciated with OA. With low CoF PFA, the old,
proximal trochlea groove just lateral to the mid contracted scar of prior MPFL tearing may pro-
sagittal plane of the femur [110]. When per- gressively loosen and lead to functional sublux-
forming the anterior femoral cut, steps should be ation or rarer, dislocation. While this is easily
taken to ensure that there will be no notching. addressed with MPFL reconstruction, a preop-
The anterior cut should yield a “modified grand erative discussion is important for patient trust
piano” sign. PFA is a resurfacing. The lateral and satisfaction. Alternatively, an MPFL recon-
facet is normally higher than the medial facet, struction may be performed at the index PFA.
therefore, PFA orientation may appear neutral However, if the patella is stable intra-operatively,
rather than the external rotation. One can use the risk/reward ratio supports only performing
direct visualization as well as fluoroscopy to the PFA to avoid problems with ROM with the
ensure that there is no notching. The rest of the “prophylactic” addition of MPFLR as only a
femur can be prepared and trochlea sized subset will develop this instability.
according to the system used. Implant position
and patellar tracking should be checked with trial Procedure Indications Outcomes
implants. The patella should engage throughout Palliative Mechanical Short term
Arthroscopy symptoms, symptomatic
its entire excursion. After thorough cleansing and diagnostic workup, relief of
drying, final implants are cemented in place. loose body, unstable mechanical
Following final implantation, if there is mal- chondral lesion symptoms
Lateral Lateral tightness Short to medium
tracking, instability, or lateral retinaculum tight- Lengthening/Lateral term pain relief in
ness, these can be addressed at this time (Fig. 3). Facetectomy select patients
There are several complications that can result Tibial Tubercle Malalignment, lateral Short to medium
Osteotomy wear pattern, term
from incorrect procedural technique. For exam- young/active, mild improvement in
ple, component malpositioning in the sagittal, disease select patients
coronal, and/or axial planes can lead to mal- Patellofemoral Isolated Good medium to
tracking and instability [119]. Excessive external Arthroplasty patellofemoral long term results
degenerative disease in select patients
rotation has been associated with subluxation and pain
while internal rotation leads to impingement. Total Knee Multicompartmental Good long term
Patellar fracture has also been known to occur, Arthroplasty degenerative disease results
and pain
up to rates of 9% in some cases [120]. Risk
Patellofemoral Arthritis 343
Fig. 3 Intraoperative photographs of patellofemoral trochlea. Bottom—final placement of patellar and femoral
arthroplasty, through a medial parapatellar arthro- trochlea components.
tomy. Top—diffuse chondrosis of the patella and
treat this including palliative, reparative, and 12. Huberti HH, Hayes WC. Patellofemoral contact
restorative treatments of cartilage, bony and soft pressures. The influence of q-angle and tend-
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2016;11(6):820–30.
14. Tanaka MJ, Chahla J, Farr J 2nd, et al. Recognition
of evolving medial patellofemoral anatomy pro-
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Fresh Osteochondral Allografts
in Patellofemoral Surgery
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 349
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_24
350 S. P. Dasari et al.
eventually lead to chondral damage in the vast risk to fail in cases with high grade trochlear
majority of patients [5]. Furthermore, acute dysplasia [23]. Furthermore, a shallow, dysplas-
injuries can occur in up to 95% of dislocation tic trochlear groove creates a knee with insta-
events and lead to osteochondral or chondral bility that is comparable to a knee with an
fractures and fissures that occur either at the time incompetent MPFL. A dysplastic trochlea is
of the injury/dislocation or during the reduction defined as a trochlea with a sulcus angle greater
[5]. Subsequent ongoing chondral damage occurs than 145° on sunrise views of a knee flexed at
via chondroptosis, which is a chondrocyte 30° [17]. The Dejour classification is used to
specific apoptotic pathway, and via degradation grade the level of trochlear dysplasia [17].
of the extracellular matrix due to elevated matrix Dejour outlined radiographic parameters that
metalloproteinase expression [5]. define trochlear dysplasia [24]. This included a
Chronic patellar instability is associated with trochlear depth less than 4 mm, a patellar tilt
underlying trochlear dysplasia, increased Q over 20°, a spur height greater than 5 mm, and a
angles, insufficient medial stabilization, and trochlear sulcus angle over 145°. Using these
increased TT-TG distances [16]. Patellar mal- criteria, the Dejour dysplasia classification was
tracking is defined as instances where the patella described with four overarching dysplastic phe-
fails to engage or subsequently disengages from notypes (A-D). This was further subclassified
the trochlear groove [17]. The medial patellofe- into low-grade dysplasia (type A dysplasia) and
moral ligament (MPFL), the lateral trochlea, and high-grade dysplasia (types B-D dysplasia) [17].
the deep sulcus work in a synergistic effect to Clinically, this is reflected in the treatment
maintain normal patellar tracking during the full options recommended as low-grade trochlear
range of knee motion [16]. The MPFL is the dysplasia does not typically require operative
primary restraint during the first 70° of knee intervention as these patients are unlikely to
flexion; however, the trochlea serves as the pri- benefit from a trochleoplasty procedure [17].
mary restraint for the remainder of knee flexion. The complex strain and stress environment at
Deficiency in either mechanism can lead to the PFJ articular surface has made chondral
chronic patellar instability, and trochlear dys- lesions of the PFJ a notoriously difficult patho-
plasia has been reported to be present in 85% of logical challenge to surgeons [25]. Focal defects
patients with recurrent lateral patellar instability of the patellar cartilage lead to altered biome-
[18]. Joint instability has demonstrated increased chanics, debilitating pain, and rapid acceleration
in-vitro peak contact stresses and has correlated of osteoarthritis when mismanaged [25]. An
with cartilage degeneration in an animal model understanding of the pathophysiology of patel-
[5, 19, 20]. Furthermore, a study by Jungmann lofemoral osteochondral lesions can guide a
et al. has reported an association between tro- surgeon in determining which combination of
chlear dysplasia and severe patellofemoral joint procedures will provide the best long term pain
degradation [21]. This is reflected by the results relief, provide substantial functional improve-
of a separate study by Noehren et al., where the ment, and adequately address the etiology of
authors identified common risk factors of patellar aberrant joint loading and instability when
instability like trochlear dysplasia, patella alta, present.
and increased TT-TG distance and reported the
correlation between these risk factors and
advanced early onset degenerative disease in 4 Treatment Modalities
young patient populations [22].
When addressing PFJ pathology, trochlear Cartilage lesions of the knee can be debilitating
morphology is critical to surgical planning. conditions that can worsen overtime and progress
A systematic review by Cregar et al. demon- to a diffuse arthritis if left untreated [26, 27].
strated that MPFL reconstruction, while effective When managing these lesions, the first-line goals
in patellar instability cases, was at an increased are conservative modalities that aim to relieve
352 S. P. Dasari et al.
inflammation, control pain, and restore functional biomechanically inferior to hyaline cartilage
capacity [13]. Typically, nonsteroidal anti- [34]. These techniques are also unable to ade-
inflammatory medications, intra-articular corti- quately manage larger osteochondral lesions [35,
costeroids, and hyaluronic acid viscosupple- 36]. Additionally, the unique anatomy of the PFJ
mentation are utilized as first-line therapeutic makes marrow stimulation techniques challeng-
interventions to manage inflammatory symptoms ing and leads to difficulty in creating stable ver-
[13]. Physical therapy can also play a crucial role tical walls [37]. These factors, combined with the
in the early nonoperative management of these challenging biomechanical environment, limit
lesions as there is a high incidence of functional the utility and popularity of marrow stimulation
impairment and kinematic derangement in indi- techniques in the PFJ.
viduals with PFJ cartilage lesions. Muscle Autologous chondrocyte implantation
strengthening can improve absorption of physi- (ACI) utilizes tissue engineering techniques to
ological loads across the knee, while weight loss regenerate cartilage using cell-based therapy.
and activity modification can avoid aggravation While effective, it is a two-stage procedure that
of painful symptoms [28, 29]. In general, non- requires harvesting donor cartilage from a non-
operative treatment should be trialed prior to weightbearing portion of the knee in addition to
pursuing surgical intervention as many patients an expensive culturing phase. The modality has
will achieve substantial relief through these been shown to be effective in treating large
conservative measures, allowing them to poten- chondral lesions and can be implemented using a
tially avoid a complicated subsequent surgical sandwich technique, when there is subchondral
procedure [30, 31]. bone involvement [38]. Many proponents of ACI
Surgical management is pursued for patients recommend routine use of patellofemoral
with persistent, functionally limiting symptoms unloading and realignment procedures when
that have failed to adequately respond to initial using this technique [2, 39, 40].
nonoperative treatment [6]. There are several Osteochondral autograft transfer (OAT) is a
effective cartilage repair modalities that have procedure that is effective at managing smaller
been described for the management of patello- symptomatic osteochondral lesions regardless of
femoral chondral defects, including bone marrow underlying subchondral bone involvement [41].
stimulation techniques, autologous chondrocyte Typically, autografts are harvested from non-
implantation (ACI), osteochondral autograft weight bearing portions of the knee like the
transplantation (OAT), and osteochondral allo- intercondylar notch before being prepared and
graft transplantation (OCA) [1]. When deter- press-fit in a single stage procedure [6]. OATs
mining the optimal treatment modality, the lesion have several inherent advantages including the
size, depth, location, subchondral bone, and transfer of mature, physiologic hyaline cartilage
patient demand must be assessed. Due to the and viable chondrocytes over an intact osseous
relatively challenging anatomy and increased bed. Additionally, the technique has no risk of
biomechanical forces experienced at the PFJ, immunologic reaction [28]. While effective for
these cartilage procedures have consistently smaller lesions, this technique is not without
demonstrated inferior clinical outcomes when limitations. For example, the morbidity associ-
implemented at the PFJ relative to other locations ated with a donor site of an OAT procedure can
within the knee, regardless of the technique used make it an undesirable therapeutic intervention
[1, 27, 32]. for patients with defects that are larger than 2.5
Bone marrow-stimulation techniques, such as cm2 [42]. Additionally, this technique is partic-
microfracture or subchondral drilling attempt to ularly limited in the management of patellofe-
stimulate bone marrow to allow cell migration moral chondral lesions due to the challenging
into the defect area to promote healing [33]. anatomy of the PFJ. There is difficulty matching
These procedures are limited as they create the surface concavity and convexity of the
fibrocartilage that is physiologically and patellofemoral articulation when transplanting
Fresh Osteochondral Allografts in Patellofemoral Surgery 353
Table 1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Fresh Osteochondral Allograft Technique for Patellofemoral
Osteochondral Lesions
Advantages Disadvantages
Mature, metabolically active chondrocytes transplanted Graft availability and challenges related to morphology
in the graft matching the donor graft with the recipient’s knee
anatomy
No donor site morbidity Expensive procedure
Relatively immunoprivileged A risk of disease transmission
Management of underlying subchondral bone Technically demanding procedure
pathology
Effective option for large lesions, unconstrained Logistical demands to minimize chondrocyte death
lesions, bipolar lesions
Effective for trochlear dysplasia with high grade
chondromalacia
Can be used as a primary procedure or a secondary
salvage procedure after a failed prior surgical
intervention
Graft survivorship not impacted by prior procedures to
the lesion
Return to weight bearing can begin when bone base
has healed and integrated
354 S. P. Dasari et al.
when managing the lesion in athletes as it can was approximately 11,000 dollars [27]. Part of
accelerate their return to activity and weight this cost is reflected in the rigorous testing that
bearing [41, 48, 49]. grafts undergo to minimize the risk of disease
Furthermore, the OCA technique for PFJ transmission [41]. Despite this testing, there is
lesions offers a wide range of applicability. The still some small risk of communicable disease
technique can be implemented in large chondral transmission associated with OCA transplants
lesions with or without subchondral bone [27].
involvement. Additionally, transplantation Graft availability is another relative disad-
necessitates removal of the underlying native vantage of the OCA technique. Variability
subchondral bone, so prior microfracture surgery between patellar and trochlear anatomy in the
does not affect graft survivorship [26]. Another population can make it difficult to find an
benefit is that OCAs can be used to treat appropriate donor graft [2]. Graft matching is
unconstrained lesions as they do not need a made further challenging by the unique bony
continuous border of healthy articular cartilage shape, chondral thickness, and sliding articula-
for successful repair [41, 50]. The technique can tion intrinsic to the PFJ [51]. Challenges related
also be successfully implemented in bipolar to complex morphology matching are most pro-
lesions, as a salvage procedure after failed prior nounced when lesions involve the central tro-
treatment, and in young patients with posttrau- chlear groove or median patellar ridge [2]. As a
matic osteochondral defects after fractures result, graft availability can be a significant lim-
around the knee joint [13]. For trochlear defects, itation as the ideal graft should be from a donor
an OCA procedure can be implemented as both a of similar or younger age at death and have
primary and salvage procedure, while it is typi- similar knee dimensions to the recipient [41].
cally utilized as a salvage procedure for large Location matching and size matching are strate-
patellar lesions to delay arthroplasty in young gies implemented to offset this challenge, but
patients [13]. Though trochleoplasty is able to graft availability still remains a limiting factor in
address high grade trochlear dysplasia and pro- the effective implementation of this transplant
vide an osseous restraint to patellar instability, it technique [2]. To offset this limitation, it is cru-
does not adequately address any symptomatic cial for scheduling flexibility. When a well-
trochlear chondral lesions and is contraindicated matched donor graft becomes available, the sur-
in cases of high grade trochlear chondromalacia geon and patient should agree to perform the
[17, 18]. As a result, in chronic instability cases procedure in a time frame that minimizes chon-
with a large chondral lesion and high-grade tro- drocyte death (*28 days). While the goal should
chlear dysplasia, a trochlear shell OCA technique be to find a donor graft that matches the mor-
may be a viable surgical option to adequately phology of the host joint architecture, a slight
address both trochlear pathologies [18]. In cases mismatch has been shown to lead to acceptable
of severe dysplasia of both the patella and tro- clinical results [51].
chlea, large plug or shell allografts have the Another drawback to OCA transplants within
unique ability among cartilage repair techniques the PFJ is that they are technically challenging
to change structural pathoanatomy. procedures. Precise fitting of the plug and cre-
Disadvantages of an OCA are related to ating a smooth transition between the donor and
availability, cost, infection risk, disease trans- recipient is crucial to success with this technique
mission, and challenging surgical technique [13]. The complex topography and variation in
(Table 1). Cost is a major limitation of the OCA anatomy of the patella and the trochlea contribute
technique. In 2016, it had been reported that the to the challenges associated with the OCA
average cost of a fresh OCA in the United States transplantation procedure [2].
Fresh Osteochondral Allografts in Patellofemoral Surgery 355
grafts can also prolong the time from harvesting bone component of an OCA is thought to mini-
to implantation. While it is important to perform mize the risk of potential immunogenicity [13].
the procedure in a timely manner, studies that Despite this potential risk, larger grafts have not
have investigated the implantation of fresh OCAs demonstrated inferior overall survival rates rela-
after prolonged storage demonstrated good effi- tive to smaller grafts [82].
cacy in grafts stored up to 42 days after harvest Graft integration occurs over a gradual pro-
despite the corresponding decline in chondrocyte cess termed creeping substitution. Overtime, the
viability [73, 74]. Based on these findings, cur- osseous portion of the graft is gradually replaced
rent recommendations would suggest that the by host bone. This slow process is mediated on
transplant procedure be performed within the cellular level by osteoblastic bone formation
42 days of graft harvesting [65]. and osteoclastic resorption; minimizing the
Higher impact loads also adversely affect cell amount of transplanted bone may reduce the
viability. Prior studies have demonstrated that healing process associated with bone incorpora-
less than 50% of cells in the graft survive high tion [83]. The cartilage component is trans-
force loads during impaction [75, 76]. It has also planted at a mature stage, does not undergo
been demonstrated that the load of the impact interactions with the host, and does not undergo
plays a larger role in chondrocyte death than the further healing [65]. When performed appropri-
number of impacts, so multiple low-load taps are ately, transplanted OCAs have good survivorship
preferred over a single high-load tap if impaction and retrieved specimens have demonstrated high
cannot be avoided [2]. Ideally, impaction should donor chondrocyte viability [57, 69].
not be needed and the graft can be press fit into
position such that it is flush and in contact with
the base of the recipient hole regardless of sub-
chondral bone matching [2]. Using this method 7 Indications and Contraindications
allows the surgeon to decrease the subsidence of
the graft, leading to a better restoration of the As a high load joint, symptomatic patellofemoral
contact pressure in that knee compartment [77]. osteochondral lesions often require an interven-
Another potential drawback to an allograft tion. When nonoperative treatment measures fail,
technique is the risk of potential immunogenic- surgical intervention should be considered. OCA
ity. Intact hyaline cartilage is a relatively is a valid treatment modality for large patellar
immunoprivileged tissue because it is avascular and trochlear chondral defects except in patients
and the chondrocytes of the tissue are embedded with end-stage osteoarthritis [2]. Cases with
in a dense ECM that is inaccessible to the host subtotal loss or bipolar lesions without signifi-
immune system [52]. Despite this, marrow ele- cant joint space narrowing can be adequately
ments in the osseous portion of the graft have addressed by this modality in younger patient
some degree of immunogenicity as the sub- populations [2]. OCA is indicated as a primary
chondral bone component of the graft is laden procedure in patients who have large, full
with potentially immunogenic cells and proteins thickness cartilage lesions with abnormal sub-
[65]. Routine pulse lavage of the graft has been chondral bone, though it is gaining increasing
implemented to decrease the concentration of implementation in the treatment of pure chondral
these marrow elements, mechanically remove lesions as well [13]. OCA is suitable for a wide
proteins that may trigger a reaction, and thus range of disease pathologies due to its inherent
reduce immunogenicity of the allograft [78–80]. osseous structure and multishaping possibilities:
Studies have demonstrated that larger grafts were this includes complex reconstruction procedures,
more likely to elicit a systemic immune response massive osteochondral defects, osteonecrosis,
[81]. Because the immunogenicity of the graft is diseases affecting the subchondral bone, primary
directly related to the osseous portion of the large chondral lesions, and lesions that have
graft, reducing the thickness of the subchondral failed a prior cartilage repair technique [52].
Fresh Osteochondral Allografts in Patellofemoral Surgery 357
Surgical candidates for an OCA transplant procedures when pursuing an OCA transplant.
procedure are young active patients with full General indications for the procedure include
thickness, symptomatic focal lesions that are young, active patients (typically less than
greater than 2 cm2 in size [41]. Typically, these 50 years old) with severe discomfort from a focal
patients cannot undergo another restorative pro- chondral or osteochondral lesion (Table 2) [6].
cedure like arthroplasty due to their age or an There are several absolute contraindications
OAT or ACI procedure due to defect size, depth, where a fresh patellofemoral OCA should not be
and location [41]. For these younger patients pursued (Table 2). These include advanced
with cartilage defects, arthroplasty is not an ideal osteoarthritis, where patellofemoral arthroplasty
treatment modality as it leads to functional lim- may be a superior treatment option; cases with a
itations and a higher rate of revision joint chronic posttraumatic defect; or any patient who
replacement [84–86]. Unlike joint replacement is a poor surgical candidate [41]. Advanced
procedures, OCA transplantations give this sub- osteoarthritis and inflammatory arthritis are con-
set of patients the best possibility to return to traindications for OCA transplant as the failure
athletic activity, especially in those younger than rate for the procedure and need for subsequent
24 years old with symptoms that are less than a total knee arthroplasty in a short span make this
year old [41]. Another major benefit of OCA patient population unlikely to benefit from the
transplants for larger lesions and for patellofe- intervention [41].
moral lesions is the ability to construct an opti- Relative contraindications to the procedure
mized allograft that matches the size, shape, and include obese patients (BMI > 35 kg/m2), con-
depth of the lesion [53, 65]. This allows it to be a comitant meniscal/ligamentous injuries in the
suitable modality for posttraumatic osteochon- ipsilateral knee, uncorrectable malalignment of
dral defects, osteonecrosis, and osteochondritis the knee joint, smoking, or corticosteroid use
dissecans, where large lesions that are una- (Table 2) [41]. Irreversible damage can occur to
menable to adequate repair by OAT can be allografts in obese patients, patients who smoke,
managed [41]. Additionally, unlike ACI, OCA and those who chronically use corticosteroids, due
transplants are single stage procedures that to impaired bone metabolism [41]. For cases with
replace hyaline cartilage and the underlying osteonecrosis, it is recommended that chronic
subchondral bone without the need for an addi- corticosteroid use is stopped prior to pursuing the
tional intervention [53, 65, 87]. Another advan- OCA transplant. It is believed that continued
tage of OCA transplants is that prior treatment corticosteroid use will interfere with revascular-
failures do not limit its utilization and it can be ization of the allograft leading to collapse [53, 88].
successfully used as a salvage procedure [53]. Higher body mass leads to an increased risk of
For bipolar patellofemoral lesions, there is some failure in obese patients due to aberrant loading of
controversy over the efficacy of OCA transplants, the graft and the resulting death of viable chon-
with some authors proposing it as an effective drocytes [89–91]. Normal joint alignment is crit-
surgical option for large defects, defects with ical for a successful OCA transplant, and
extensive subchondral bone involvement, or as a uncorrectable malalignment can lead to decreased
salvage procedure for extensive degenerative viability of transplanted chondrocytes [41]. It is
changes in younger patient populations [84]. also critical to restore normal intraarticular
OCA can be performed in cases of contained biomechanics via addressing any concomitant
lesions, with the use of the dowel-plug technique, meniscal insufficiency or ligamentous instability
as well as larger uncontained defects, with the use during the OCA procedure [41]. Patients with
of the shell technique [25, 37, 56]. Knee align- posterior cruciate ligament deficiency will place
ment and patellar tracking should be evaluated to increased stress on the PFJ and are not ideal can-
determine the need for any concomitant didates for this procedure in isolation [25].
358 S. P. Dasari et al.
Table 2 Indications, Absolute Contraindications, and Relative Contraindications of the Fresh Osteochondral Allograft
Technique for Patellofemoral Osteochondral Lesions
Indications
Large chondral/osteochondral lesions (greater than 2 cm2) of the patellofemoral joint that have failed nonoperative
management [41]
Patellar defects, trochlear defects, bipolar defects, and subtotal defects without significant joint space narrowing [2]
Patients with associated subchondral bone pathology [13]
Salvage procedure after failing a prior cartilage repair technique [53]
Young active patients (less than 50 years old) who desire to return to a relatively high level of activity and are willing
to follow postoperative recovery and rehabilitation protocols [41, 84–86]
Absolute Contraindications
End stage osteoarthritis [41]
Chronic post traumatic defects [41]
Poor surgical candidates [41]
Inflammatory arthritis [41]
Relative Contraindications
Obese patients (BMI over 35 kg/m2) [41, 89–91]
Concomitant ligamentous or meniscal injuries (must be addressed before or during the procedure in order to purse an
OCA of the PFJ) [41]
Uncorrected malalignment of the joint (must be addressed before or during the procedure in order to purse an OCA of
the PFJ) [41]
Smoking [41]
Chronic corticosteroid use [53, 88]
Fig. 1 Focal patellar chondral lesion with an uncontained trochlear lesion, disrupted medial patellofemoral ligament,
and concomitant severe trochlear dysplasia seen on an axial T2 MRI (A, B)
the patellofemoral joint [6]. Lastly, bone marrow height using their technique. While potentially
aspirate concentrate (BMAC) is also often used beneficial, this method still lacks sufficient clin-
in conjunction with an OCA to enhance graft ical validation. As a result, to help with surgical
integration [13]. planning, a diagnostic arthroscopy is recom-
mended to further evaluate for the size, location,
and severity of the cartilage defect, and to further
8.3 Graft-Matching verify patient eligibility for OCA.
and trochlea—particularly in cases of bipolar prevent heat necrosis. Prior to implantation of the
lesions or large defects requiring the shell tech- donor bone plug, the subchondral bone is sub-
nique—may require a sizeable arthrotomy. jected to pulse lavage with an antibiotic solution
to eradicate any remaining bone-marrow ele-
ments to minimize the chance of immune reac-
9.3 Dowel-Plug OCA Technique tion [79]. Bone marrow aspirate concentrate is
often used in an effort to augment allograft
The defect should be identified and templated. integration [109].
Next, a guide pin is placed in the center of the The bone plug is then gently press-fit into the
defect and the edges of the defect are scored. It is socket to match the exact height of the sur-
essential that the guide pin be placed as perpen- rounding articular cartilage. Rotation of the plug
dicular as possible to the joint surface. The defect is checked to ensure “best fit.” Impaction of the
is then reamed until bleeding, healthy bone is graft should be avoided when possible. Consen-
encountered, with care not to exceed a maximum sus among the MOCA expert group points to an
of 7 to 8 mm of overall bone depth. This can be ideal depth of the allograft that is limited to 6 to
achieved by frequently checking the calibrated 10 mm [76]. If proud, the surgeon should con-
coring reamer (Arthrex, Inc. Naples, Florida), sider removal of the plug with a small blunt
along with a final measurement. The recipient elevator and smoothing off the small, elevated
site is then dilated with a smooth cylinder area with a rasp. If the recipient site is too deep,
(Arthrex, Inc. Naples, Florida) several times to then remove the allograft and add a deeper layer
ensure the donor plug can be inserted without the of bone graft first. Preference should be given to
need to apply too much pressure. In order to matching cartilage surface topography and min-
accomplish a perfect fit between the donor graft imizing peripheral step-off over osseous mis-
and the host socket, a compass reference is cre- matching [2].
ated on the prepared defect and measures are The dowel-plug technique is the preferred
taken from each main coordinate method of patellofemoral OCA when working
(North/South/East/West). These measurements with focal, contained chondral defects (Figs. 2
will be used later at the time of graft trimming. and 3) [2, 37]. The dowel or press-fit technique
The whole donor specimen is then secured fashions a 15–35 mm diameter plug that allows
within an allograft workstation (Arthrex, Inc. for press-fit implantation on the recipient site and
Naples, Florida) to ensure precision during har- obviates the need for implant-fixation. Defects
vest. The osteochondral donor plug is then har- that are entirely on the medial or lateral facets of
vested from the allograft with use of a coring the patella can be addressed with small dowel-
reamer. The direction of this reamer relative to plugs. Central defects can be treated with a dowel
the surface of the allograft should be identical to OCA but are technically more challenging to
the direction that the recipient site was prepared. match perfectly owing to the complex geometry
This fundamental technique can be challenging of the trochlear groove and patellar median ridge.
in the complex surface topography of the patella Although there is no consensus on the ideal
and trochlea. The subchondral bone of the donor approach for these cases, options include ACI, a
plug is then trimmed according to previous “mega-OAT” dowel technique, where one uses a
measurements to match the corresponding depths single large plug to resurface almost the entire
of the host location, and the surfaces are patella, or a shell technique [2, 110, 111].
smoothed with a rasp. The depth of the recipient
site and donor plug is measured several times to
make sure there are no areas that will be too 9.4 Shell Technique for the Patella
proud.
Copious irrigation should be used while Common indications for a patellar shell OCA
reaming the receiving site and graft in order to technique include extensive damage to both
362 S. P. Dasari et al.
A B
C D
Fig. 2 Patellar osteochondral lesion treated with a fresh B patellar lesion after removal of the lesion by reaming,
osteochondral allograft (OCA) using the dowel-plug C shaped osteochondral allograft plug, D OCA press-fit
technique. A Osteochondral lesion of the patella, using the dowel-plug technique
patellar facets, damage to the median ridge, and thickness measurement, in addition to superior-
uncontained lesions [37]. The technique is typi- inferior and medial–lateral widths for donor size-
cally indicated for cartilage defects that are not matching. The patellar cut is performed either
eligible for a dowel-plug OCA procedure. In the free-hand or using a “lobster-claw” patellar
clinical setting, other frequent indications include clamp. At least 12 mm of the native patellar
post-traumatic arthritis (post-patellar fracture) thickness should be preserved in order to limit
and osteonecrosis [16, 56]. fracture risk, and no more than about 15 mm
For patellar shell grafting, a patellar cut is should be preserved in order to avoid overstuff-
performed using principles comparable to those ing, which would increase patellofemoral contact
of resurfacing during total knee arthroplasty. forces and limit flexion [112, 113]. Any resulting
A caliper can be used to obtain the patellar sclerotic bone should be drilled. Donor graft
Fresh Osteochondral Allografts in Patellofemoral Surgery 363
Fig. 4 Trochlear osteochondral allograft (OCA) shell osteochondral allograft to ensure an anatomic reconstruc-
technique. A Three Kirschner wires are used to guide an tion. D Securing the trochlear OCA using four headless
oscillating saw, which is cutting the trochlea under screws. E A lateral fluoroscopic view after the fixation.
constant irrigation. B The cut surface after the trochlear F Final view of the anatomically reconstructed trochlea
cap was removed and C the placement of the with an OCA secured using four headless screws
Table 3 Pearls and Pitfalls of the Fresh Osteochondral Allograft Technique for Patellofemoral Osteochondral Lesions
Pearls
For contained lesions, a dowel-plug technique should be used, while a shell technique should be used for uncontained
lesions alone or when correcting a trochlear lesion in the setting of trochlear dysplasia
Knee alignment and patellar tracking should be evaluated to determine the need for a concomitant procedure like an
anteromedialization tibial tubercle osteotomy, medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction etc
Preoperative matching of the donor to the recipient in terms of size, shape, curvature, and overall knee morphology is
critical to ensuring a successful outcome
Donor cartilage should be from young patients without obvious chondral disease. The donor should ideally be similar
in age or younger than the recipient
Surgeon and patient schedules must be flexible to facilitate timing of the surgery when a size and shape matched donor
graft becomes available
For the plug technique, bleeding healthy bone should be encountered while reaming the defect. However, the recipient
site should not exceed 7–8 mm of depth. Frequently check the calibrated coring reamer to avoid over-reaming. Using
a graft that is thicker than 8 mm may increase the immunogenicity of the transplanted tissue
For the plug technique, using a smooth dilator after reaming the defect facilitates further insertion of the donor plug
For the plug technique, reduce the size of the original allograft in order to facilitate its manipulation during
osteochondral plug preparation
For the plug technique, use a clockface reference (12/3/6/9) for measuring the depth of the recipient’s bed and have an
assistant outside the surgical field taking notes to precisely prepare the donor plug. This allows the surgeon to ensure
an accurate donor-host curvature match
Multiple trials of shaving the undersurface of the graft should be done to facilitate anatomic reconstruction
Pulsed lavage the osseous component of the graft to minimize the risk of an immunogenic reaction
Bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) can be used to biologically enhance and expedite graft integration
BMAC should be applied to the osseous component of the graft after pulsed lavage of the graft and after applying
pressurized carbon dioxide to the osseous component of the graft. Pressurized carbon dioxide helps to clean the bone
microarchitecture
Pitfalls
Heat necrosis can occur from high-speed reamers in the edges of the receptor’s bed as well as in the donor plug. It can
also occur when using the oscillating saw for the shell technique. Copiously irrigate cutting surfaces with room-
temperature saline while using reamers and saws to minimize this risk
Failure to address concomitant underlying pathology such as instability related to an insufficient MPFL or a dysplastic
trochlea can ultimately lead to failure of the procedure
(continued)
366 S. P. Dasari et al.
Table 3 (continued)
Inaccurate curvature match can lead to inferior outcomes of the OCA procedure
Ensure a flush fit of the graft; a graft that is too proud will lead to aberrant joint mechanics
Reaming too deep increases the risk of a fracture and also requires the use of an OCA with a thicker osseous
component that could increase the risk of immunogenicity
For the plug technique, minimize impaction of the osteochondral graft while press-fitting it into the receptor’s bed (use
a sponge to cushion the chondral surface and frequent low-force impaction if necessary)
Non-compliance with postoperative rehabilitation can lead to poor results. Do not pursue an osteochondral allograft in
a patient who is unwilling or unable to follow the postoperative rehabilitation and recovery protocol
Kirschner wires are drilled to hold the graft in encouraged after 6 weeks [37]. From 6 to
place, while four headless screws are used to 12 weeks the patient should be able to regain the
secure the graft. The screws are placed either ability to perform functional activities of daily
perpendicularly through the center of the graft or life. Avoidance of high-impact activities during
obliquely from the graft margins. For this case, the first 6 to 12 months is advised to allow for
the trochlear shell technique (Fig. 6) was fol- complete graft healing and incorporation. A pref-
lowed by a TTO, MPFL reconstruction, and a erence for low-impact over high-impact activities
dowel-plug technique OCA for a contained after this period is also encouraged. Athletes
patellar chondral lesion. A list of pearls and pit- should follow rigorous criteria for return to play,
falls of the fresh OCA technique for patellofe- at the discretion of the treating surgeon [50].
moral osteochondral lesions is outlined in
Table 3.
11 Patient Outcomes
Patients should customarily follow an initial The current literature has consistently demon-
period of non-weight-bearing during the first strated good to excellent outcomes in terms of
eight weeks for graft protection. Progressive survival and function for generalized knee OCA
weightbearing with a knee brace locked in full procedures [50, 52]. However, when compared
extension, has not been shown to excessively load to OCAs in the tibiofemoral compartment,
the patellofemoral joint, and, as a result, it is safe patellofemoral OCA has often been associated
for patients and often implemented assuming no with inferior results, higher failure rates, and
associated osteotomy was performed [2, 115]. higher reoperation rates [27, 32, 116]. Cameron
Supervised rehabilitation should start immedi- et al. retrospectively evaluated patient outcomes
ately postoperatively, with a focused emphasis on and satisfaction in 28 patients who had OCA to
quadriceps activation. Early range of motion the femoral trochlea [117]. They found signifi-
exercises are widely considered safe in order to cant improvement in modified d’Aubigné-Postel
avoid arthrofibrosis, and a continuous passive score, International Knee Documentation Com-
motion (CPM) machine should be implemented mittee (IKDC) subscores, and Knee Society
whenever possible [2]. Some authors advocate Score-Function (KS-F). Furthermore, 89% of
limiting knee flexion during the early postopera- patients were extremely satisfied or satisfied with
tive phase and allowing for 30° flexion incre- their surgical outcome. This was determined
ments biweekly until a full range of motion is using the OCA patient satisfaction score.
Fresh Osteochondral Allografts in Patellofemoral Surgery 367
However, these results must be interpreted with was seen in four patients; however, three of these
caution due to the small sample size and lack of four grafts had good to excellent clinical scores.
comparison with other treatment options. Given the limited radiographic analyses per-
In 2020, Chahla et al. performed a systematic formed for PF OCA outcomes, future studies
review of clinical outcomes after PF OCA with at should focus on imaging outcomes to aid in
least 1.5 years follow up [1]. One hundred and validating the success of OCA to treat patello-
twenty nine patients were evaluated from eight femoral chondral lesions.
clinical studies. The etiologies of the osteochon-
dral lesions included trauma, osteochondritis
dissecans, patellar instability, degenerative 11.3 Survivorship
chondral lesions, and osteoarthritis. A total of 16
outcome measures were utilized across these In the systematic review by Chahla et al., seven
studies. Significant improvement in at least one of included studies performed Kaplan–Meier sur-
the following primary clinical outcome measures vival analysis for PF OCA [1]. Cameron et al.
was reported in seven of the eight studies. These reported 100% allograft survivorship at 5 years
primary outcome measures were the IKDC, Knee and 91.7% at 10 years post-operatively [117].
Society Score-Function, Lysholm Knee score, The lowest survivorship was reported by Graci-
and modified d’Aubigné-Postel score. However, telli et al. with 55.8% at 15 years follow up [26].
the apparent heterogeneity in studies’ reporting of When combining data from all studies, the
subjective and objective outcomes, as well as the weighted mean 5 year survival rate was 87.9%,
influence of concomitant pathologies and proce- the average 10-year survivorship was 77.2%, and
dures alongside PF OCA limit the generalizability survival rate at 15 years was 55.8%; however,
of these findings. Additionally, the design of the this 15 year outcome was only reported in one
included studies precluded the authors from per- single study [1].
forming a formal meta-analysis of the data. Amongst these seven clinical studies included
in the systematic review by Chahla et al., graft
failure was not uniformly defined [1]. Three
11.2 Imaging Outcomes studies defined graft failure as necessitating graft
revision or conversion to total knee arthroplasty
Similar to the clinical outcomes for PFJ OCA, (TKA) [117, 120, 121]. Another study defined
the imaging outcomes are supportive of the failure as any reoperation resulting in allograft
technique but limited thus far. Spak and Teitge removal [26]. Frank et al. defined failure to be
evaluated radiographs at final follow-up for graft conversion to TKA, revision OCA, or graft fail-
incorporation, resorption, collapse, cyst forma- ure as observed on second-look arthroscopy [89].
tion, and osteophyte formation [1, 118]. At final One study included clinical outcome measures as
follow up, all patients demonstrated an intact part of their definition of failure, with clinical
allograft with radiographs exhibiting mild ratings less than 70 points on KSS-F and
degenerative changes for six of eight patients, Lysholm Knee Score scales [118].
and no degenerative changes in the remaining A recent 2019 study by Cotter et al. performed
two patients. Jamali et al. also evaluated radio- a survivorship analysis of 50 patients treated with
graphs of 12 patients for visibility of allograft- PF OCA (using either plug or shell technique)
host junctions, allograft radiodensity, and pres- and identified variables associated with graft
ence of subchondral cysts [119]. Four patients failure [37]. In the plug technique group, two
did not show signs of PF arthrosis, six had mild patients (out of 16 patients) failed at an average
arthrosis, and two patients developed advanced of 9.17 years post-operatively. In the shell tech-
arthrosis. The allograft-host interface was visible nique group, 13 patients (out of 34 patients)
in three patients. Graft radiodensity was found to failed at an average of approximately 3.81 years
be increased in four patients. Subchondral lysis post-operatively. In addition, Kaplan–Meier
368 S. P. Dasari et al.
with oral antibiotic treatment only. One patient 12 Conclusion and Key Message
developed pain and stiffness secondary to intra-
articular adhesions requiring arthroscopic lysis of Patellofemoral osteochondral allograft is an
adhesions. Wang et al. reported on three patients effective procedure used to treat patellofemoral
who developed arthrofibrosis post-operatively, osteochondral lesions unamenable to conserva-
but all were successfully treated with arthro- tive measures (Table 4). It can be used as both a
scopic lysis of adhesions and scar excision [120]. primary procedure or a secondary salvage pro-
Unfortunately, one of these patients subsequently cedure to treat large lesions, unconstrained
developed septic arthritis after lysis of adhesions, lesions, lesions involving the underlying sub-
which was treated with arthroscopic irrigation chondral bone, and bipolar lesions. Current
and debridement. This same patient later went on clinical literature shows promise in the wide-
to undergo TKA nearly four years later. spread implementation of this technique. Future
studies should continue to investigate possible
graft-matching parameters specifically tailored
11.5 Reoperation Rates for the patellofemoral joint as well as the long-
term outcomes and complications associated with
The most common reoperation reported after the patellofemoral OCA surgical technique.
PF OCA was hardware removal [1, 26, 118–120].
However, it is not clear if this was secondary to the
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Extensor Mechanism Complications
After Total Knee Arthroplasty
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 375
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_25
376 J. Shatrov et al.
and the infrapatellar fat pad the lateral supply is fragmentation or fracture. However in the case of
disrupted by cutting the recurrent branch of the unbearable symptoms, extensor lag, component
anterior tibial artery and inferior lateral genicu- loosening or fragmentation surgical intervention
late artery. A lateral arthrotomy will disrupt the is indicated.
superior and inferior lateral geniculate arteries as
well as the anterior tibial recurrent artery leaving 2.4.1 Allograft
only the superior lateral geniculate artery intact In cases of discontinuity of the extensor appara-
[36]. Exposure and release of the medial menis- tus, extensor mechanism allograft replacement is
cus and plateau will disrupt the inferior medial required. Our preference is to perform a complete
geniculate artery, leaving only the superior extensor mechanism replacement including a
medial geniculate artery intact. tibial tuberosity bone block, patellar tendon,
patella and quadriceps tendon. Brown et al. have
reported outcomes following complete extensor
2.3 Risk Factors mechanism allograft at 10 years, reporting a
failure rate of 38% [8]. For patients not meeting
2.3.1 Surgical Approach the criteria for extensor mechanism allograft,
Whilst a medial parapatellar approach reduces bracing, knee arthrodesis or patellectomy with
blood flow to the patella by 53% it is generally muscle transfer are alternative options. A surgi-
considered safe and no difference has been cal technique for extensor mechanism allograft
demonstrated with a sub-vastus approach [38]. If reconstruction in TKA is described at the end of
a lateral release is performed the sole remaining this section.
blood-supply to the patella may be from the
recurrent branch of the anterior tibial artery. 2.4.2 Muscle Transfer
However AVN has been reported in case reports Transfer of the vastus medialis, vastus lateralis,
following isolated medial parapatellar arthrotomy and medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle can
as well [39]. Given lateral releases are typically be used to fill the defect caused by loss of the
performed to improve patella tracking, the need patella and extensor tendon mechanism after
to perform such a release may be avoided failure and removal of allograft material. How-
through careful component sizing and position- ever only short—term results have been reported
ing which have been shown to improve patella with this technique and it is generally considered
tracking. These include avoiding over-stuffing, a salvage procedure after failed reconstruction
dome shaped patella button, lateralised and [50].
externally rotated femoral component and a lat-
eral arthrotomy in valgus osteoarthritis. In diffi- 2.4.3 Patellectomy
cult exposures we prefer a tibial tubercle Patellectomy may be indicated in such cases
osteotomy (TTO) as this avoids injury to where reconstruction of allograft is not possible
quadriceps and the superior geniculate vessels (infection, inability to adhere to post-operative
which can occur with a V–Y turn-down or protocol) however it must be recognised that this
quadriceps snip. reduces the quadriceps strength by 50%, requires
at least 15% more force to straighten the knee and
may result in a progressive recurvatum in a non-
2.4 Surgical Management constrained prosthetic knee [49]. Change et al.
followed up 8 patients with unsalvageable patella
Asymptomatic cases can be managed non- fractures with TKA up at 49 months who were
operatively with a period of activity modifica- treated with patellectomy. Whilst pain relief was
tion, monitoring with serial clinical examination achieved, 2 could not use stairs, two had quadri-
for the presence of an extensor lag and x-rays for ceps failure and 50% had an extensor lag [13].
Extensor Mechanism Complications After Total Knee Arthroplasty 377
2.5 Extensor Mechanism Allograft • Allograft is made slightly larger than the host
Replacement insertion site since it can be easily trimmed
down to obtain a press-fit at the time of
Contraindications insertion. The patellar tendon must be care-
1. Active infection or repeated unsuccessful fully protected during harvest, so it is not
staged re-implantation surgeries with damaged by the oscillating saw
infection • The host tibial tubercle trough is sized
2. Inability to comply with post-operative appropriately and outlined on the anterior
immobilisation (3 months leg in extension) tibial cortex.
and rehabilitation • Proximal portion of the tubercle is dovetailed
in a distal/anterior to proximal posterior
Pre-operative planning fashion, just proximal to the patellar tendon
insertion. The dovetail is outlined with a pen
• Fresh frozen, non-irradiated extensor mecha- in a 30–40° angle with a 20–25 mm length.
nism allograft is available which matches the The allograft is securely stored until ready for
affected side implantation (Fig. 1).
• 10 cm’s of quadriceps tendon is necessary for
sufficient soft tissue fixation and overlap with The graft is cleared of any remnant muscle
the host tissue fibres leaving the quadriceps tendon, patella
• If the allograft tibia is not delivered in its tendon, patella and tibial tuberosity intact. The
entirety, a minimum 6 cm of tuberosity bone graft is than fashioned to create two long strips of
length must be available for sufficient distal quads tendon with a whip stitch (Fig. 2).
fixation The critical step of the trough preparation is to
• The allograft should be inspected and deemed leave a 1.5 cm bridge proximally to prevent graft
appropriate prior to the patient entering the escape, with a so called dove-tail technique. This
operating room is measured and then a small sagittal saw and
• A constrained prosthesis may be required to lombotte are used to create the desired dimen-
avoid delayed recurvatum and graft failure sions to receive the graft. A small medialization
or change in length may be achieved by manip-
Graft sizing ulating placement of the trough. The patella
height should be checked prior to completion of
• We recommend a graft that has the following the trough (Fig. 3).
dimensions The tibial tuberosity is first fixed with two
• Quadriceps tendon −10 cm large fragment screws. Each limb of the graft is
• Patella—minimum 40 mm in diameter and then pulvertaft weaved into the quads tendon and
25 mm in thickness then stitched in extension (Fig. 4).
• Patellar tendon minimum 50 mm in length The patient is managed for minimum
• Tibial tuberosity 12 weeks locked in extension followed by
• Minimum 6 cm in length, minimum 2 cm in graduated flexion. It is critical not to bend the
diameter proximally and distally with 15 mm knee once final fixation and tensioning of the
thickness graft has been achieved.
• The tibial tubercle of the allograft is carefully • Patella osteonecrosis following TKA is a rare
measured to dimensions of approximately complication
56 cm of length, 2 cm wide, and 2 cm depth
378 J. Shatrov et al.
distal quadriceps tendon compared to other 3.3.4 Elevation of the Joint Line
prosthesis designs. This is believed the subse- Joint line elevation of more than 8 mm has been
quent soft tissue irritation, fibrous hyperplasia shown to create patella baja that can produce
and subsequent clunk [15]. patella clunk syndrome [21].
Fig. 5 Patella tendon rupture in total knee arthroplasty surgical management algorithm
4.4.2 Partial Extensor Mechanism when bone stock is poor. Both of these situations
Allograft Using the ‘Hour- are common in this setting. The technique and
Glass Technique’ outcomes for whole extensor mechanism allo-
The hourglass variant of the partial allograft graft has been highlighted in an earlier section.
technique is a useful treatment option that can be
used even after patellar resurfacing. An 4.4.4 Surgical Technique—Acute
hourglass-shaped patellar bone block is press-fit Patellar Tendon Rupture—
into the native patella. The graft is fixed to both Repair
the patella and the tibia then sutured with the with Semitendinosus
knee fully extended. Outcomes of this technique Augmentation
have been reported previously in 5 patients after A surgical technique is demonstrated in a
at least 24 months’ follow-up. The mean knee cadaveric dissection below (Figs. 6, 7, 8). Sev-
and function Knee Society Scores values were eral descriptions of this technique with variations
77.8 and 64.0, respectively. Extension lag was have been described and published previously
less than 10 in all 5 patients [22]. The technique [10, 29].
is described later in this section. A mid-substance patellar tendon disruption is
seen (Fig. 6). The patella can be reduced to its
4.4.3 Whole Extensor Mechanism natural position. The semitendinosus tendon is
Allograft harvested and detached (Fig. 7). Both free ends
Whole extensor mechanism allograft may be are subsequently whip stitched to facilitate
required in cases of chronic patellar tendon rup- passing through tunnels.
ture when the patella is retracted and cannot be Two transverse tunnels are created using a
mobilised to within 1-2 cm of the joint line, or 4.5 mm drill. The length of the tendon should be
Extensor Mechanism Complications After Total Knee Arthroplasty 383
checked prior to creation of the tibial tunnel to leaving the tendon attached to its insertion
ensure it is long enough. medially and fixing it with an anchor fixation on
The graft is shuttled through the tunnels and the lateral tuberosity, or fixation of both free ends
sutured to itself once the tendon has been with the use of anchors.
repaired end-to-end. Alternative options include
384 J. Shatrov et al.
4.4.5 Surgical Technique for Chronic its thinnest point in the patella trough. The tibial
Patellar Tendon Rupture— tuberosity bone block is 2 cm wide proximally
Reconstruction and 12 mm wide distally, with a length of 6 cm.
with a PartialExtensor Troughs are created in the patella and tibial
Mechanism Allograft—The tuberosity to receive the allograft. The patellar
“Hour-Glass” Technique bone block is press-fit into the patellar groove
(Fig. 9) and firmly fixed using the metallic wire. Primary
stability is enhanced by the hourglass shape of
The allograft patella is cut in the coronal plane the bone block, and most of the tendon attach-
to remove the cartilage-covered aspect. The ments are preserved. In addition to primary sta-
remaining bone is then cut into an hourglass bility, the metallic wires and proximal fixation to
shape and press-fit into a groove fashioned in the the quadricipital tendon combine to prevent
native patella (see below). An hourglass shape migration of the patellar bone block (Fig. 11).
that is identical to the shape of the groove in the The graft is fixed distally with 2–3 cortical
patella is critical to ensure primary stability. screws and the quadriceps tendon end of the graft
A metallic wire 1.2 mm in diameter is threaded is then pulvertaft weaved through the native
distally through the tibial bone block, which quadriceps tendon with the leg held in extension.
measures about 6 cm (Fig. 10). Post operatively the patient is managed with the
A partial extensor mechanism is fashioned in knee locked in strict extension for a minimum of
the shape of an hour glass being 12 mm wide at 8 weeks followed by a period graduated flexion
Extensor Mechanism Complications After Total Knee Arthroplasty 385
• Patellar tendon rupture following TKA is The rate of quadriceps tendon rupture following
difficult problem to treat TKA is low, being reported to be 1- 0.1%, with
• Usually occurs as a result of difficult exposure partial tears being more common than complete
and revision surgery disruption [20, 33].
• Acute rupture may be repairable, however we
advise augmentation due to high rates of
5.2 Risk Factors
failure with primary repair
• Chronic ruptures require salvage reconstruc-
Systemic disorders, that weaken soft tissues,
tive procedures, with allograft options pro-
excessive resection of the patella, lateral release
viding the most reliable results in our
and a prior quadriceps snip or V–Y turndown
institution´s experience.
have all been associated with quadriceps tendon
386 J. Shatrov et al.
Patient factors
Fig. 12 Algorithm for surgical management of quadriceps tendon rupture following total knee arthroplasty
Fig. 13 Treatment algorithm outlining the management of periprosthetic patellar fracture following total knee
arthroplasty. (Reproduced from: Parker DA, Dunbar MJ, Rorabeck CH. Extensor mechanism failure associated with
total knee arthroplasty: prevention and management. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2003 Jul–Aug;11(4):238–47)
Type 2–42% reoperation rate, 50% complication able to flex to a maximum of 40°. He subsequently
rate, and 58%prevalence of extensor lag post- underwent a TKA (Fig. 15) with a rotating hinge
operatively [11]. prosthesis with a TTO for exposure which was
uneventful. 3 months following the surgery he fell
Type 3—reoperation rate of 20% and an overall
and these are his radiographs (Fig. 16).
complication rate of 45% [11].
X-ray following a fall demonstrating a trans-
verse periprosthetic patella fracture and the post
for the hinge mechanism can be seen dislodged
6.5 Case Example
on the lateral view indicating that the post
mechanism was ‘jumped’ during the hyperflex-
Images and x-rays of an 82 year old gentleman
ion of the knee during the fall (Fig. 16).
who initially presented to our service with a
Intra-operative images demonstrating the
painful stiff knee after a previous patella fracture
prosthesis dislocated in deep flexion as the piston
(Fig. 14). Pre-operatively he had a total range of
has ‘jumped’ out of the polyethelene. The patella
20°, with a 20° fixed-flexion deformity and only
390 J. Shatrov et al.
Fig. 15 Post-operative x-
rays showing an all-cemented
hinge-prosthesis with a
resurfaced patella. Note a
TTO has been performed to
facilitate exposure
post fixation with tension band wire. Note the on the lateral view. Intra-operatively the patella
extensor mechanism has been augmented with a prosthesis was noted to be stable and well fixed.
semi-tendinosus autograft which has been left
attached to its insertion at the pes anserinus, Take home messages
tunnel through the patella using a 6 mm trans-
• The critical factors determining management
verse tunnel in the superior half and fixed back to
of patella fractures are the stability of the
the tibia using the screw from the TTO and a
implant, the integrity of the extensor mecha-
suture anchor (Fig. 17).
nism and the quality of the bone-stock
Post op-operative x-rays (Fig. 18) demon-
• Surgical management has a high complication
strating patella fracture fixation with a tension
rate
band wire. Note the post of the rotating hinge is
• Augmentation of the extensor mechanism is a
now reduced in the correct position and an
good option to protect internal fixation.
anchor can be seen just below the tibial plateau
Extensor Mechanism Complications After Total Knee Arthroplasty 391
Fig. 18 Post-operatively
• Chronic patella dislocation taken from the medial 1/3 of the quadriceps
• Severe quadriceps shortening or severe patella tendon, leaving the patella attachment undis-
baja. turbed (Fig. 21).
The graft is whip stitched and passed beneath
7.3.1 Technique the vastus medialis muscle. Next, a femoral
The TTO is performed using an oscillating saw tunnel is drilled starting from the femoral foot-
to create an osteotomy that is 6 cm in length, 1.5- print of the MPFL [46] aiming for the meta-
cm deep proximally, tapered distally and hinged diaphyseal junction laterally.
open leaving the lateral side attached to soft tis- Due to the observation of poor bone quality in
sues. TTO is fixed using two 3.5 mm cortical the supracondylar region of the femur, an addi-
screws, or in cases of thin bone, transosseous tional cortical fixation is added with the use of an
cerclage wires can be utilised. Medialisation is endobutton. The graft is tensioned with the knee
performed up to 10 mm, or until correction of the flexed to approximately 30°- 45° and fixed with
J-sign and proximalisation in cases of quadriceps an interference screw but a cortical button is
shortening or severe patella baja. 1.5 cm bone added laterally to avoid graft slippage (Figs. 22
bridge is preserved proximally to avoid conflict and 23).
with the tibial tray. Post operatively the patient is placed into a
range-of-motion knee brace that allows a range
7.3.2 Medial Patellofemoral Ligament of movement from 0 to 90 degrees flexion. The
Reconstruction patient can fully-weight bear with the brace
A medial sub-vastus approach is performed and locked in full extension. Follow-up consultation
extended if necessary for a TTO. The MPFLr is at 6 and 12 weeks is performed with x -rays to
performed using a quadriceps tendon autograft look at patella height, tilt and translation. If a
394 J. Shatrov et al.
A C
Fig. 19 Patellar instability post total knee arthroplasty. Patient with dislocated patella post TKA. A. AP image, B, sky-
line view and C lateral view
Fig. 20 Suggested management algorithm for patella instability post total knee arthroplasty
Extensor Mechanism Complications After Total Knee Arthroplasty 395
B C
Fig. 23 Post MPFLr using double fixation with tibial- of 6°. B. AP x-ray, the endobutton can be seen sitting
tubercle-osteotomy. Post-operative x-rays of the patient flush on the lateral cortex. C. Lateral profile demonstrat-
from Fig. 19 taken at 12 post-surgery. A. Sky-line view ing the tibial-tubercle osteotomy and tunnel position. The
demonstrating the patella now centered with a patellar tilt osteotomy is united at 3 months post surgery
Extensor Mechanism Complications After Total Knee Arthroplasty 397
TTO is performed, x-rays are taken until radio- ligament reconstruction: a longitudinal study com-
graphic union is achieved which is usually parison of 2 techniques with 2 and 5-years follow-up.
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patellar tendon. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
Take home messages Arthrosc. 2001;9:2–5.
5. Berger RA, Crossett LS, Jacobs JJ, Rubash HE.
• Surgery for patellar instability post TKA Malrotation causing patellofemoral complications
either requires revision of components or a after total knee arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
soft tissue procedure, plus or minus a TTO. 1998. https://doi.org/10.1097/00003086-199811000-
• MPFL reconstruction in this population 00021144-153.
6. Berger RA, Rubash HE, Seel MJ, Thompson WH,
should utilise a quadriceps tendon autograft. Crossett LS. Determining the rotational alignment of
• Double fixation of the graft that is reinforced the femoral component in total knee arthroplasty
with a cortical button should be used due to using the epicondylar axis. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
the typically poor bone quality in this region 1993:40–47.
7. Bouras TUE, Brown A, Gallacher P, Barnett A.
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8 Summary Berger RA, Della Valle CJ. Extensor mechanism
allograft reconstruction for extensor mechanism
Extensor mechanism complications following failure following total knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint
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most severe impact on the patient are rare, mechanism allograft reconstruction in TKA at a
however their management is difficult and in mean of 56 months. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
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Surgical Techniques: Why, When
and How I Do It
Sonosurgery Ultrasound-Guided
Arthroscopic Shaving
for the Treatment of Patellar
Tendinopathy When Conservative
Treatment Fails
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 403
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_26
404 F. Abat and H. Alfredson
Fig. 1 Treatment algorithm proposed by the authors treatment proceeds with ultrasound-guided galvanic elec-
according to the ReSport Clinic methodology for patellar trolysis (USGET) under local anesthesia with or without
tendinopathy. Initially, the diagnosis is made by ultra- platelet-rich plasma support. In the case of hypervascu-
sound, which can be supported by magnetic resonance larization, high-volume infiltrations or polidocanol can be
imaging (MRI). The conservative physiotherapy protocol used (the latter is the authors’ preferred option). If this
is started as well as the modification of sports and does not improve the patient's symptoms, sonosurgery is
biomechanical habits. If the result is not satisfactory, performed
USGET is non-thermal electrochemical abla- degeneration, are affected by USGET through its
tion with a cathodic flow to the clinical focus of direct inhibitory effect and thereby facilitates
tendon degeneration. The treatment brings on a phagocytosis and tendon regeneration [7]. The
dissociation of the H2O, salts and amino acid application of USGET stimulates the production
components, those elements that create new of new immature collagen fibers that come to
molecules through ionic instability, of the maturity through eccentric stimulus (Abat et al.
extracellular matrix. The organic reaction that is 2015). With that application, excellent results are
induced in the tissue encircling the cathodic obtained in the short- and long-term in terms of
needle gives rise to a localized inflammation in pain and function. It must be said that using this
the area to be treated [7]. An immediate activa- technique without mechanical stimuli results in a
tion of an inflammatory response and overex- significant loss of the biological effect.
pression of the activated gamma receptor for The introduction of Platelet Rich Plasma
peroxisome proliferation (PPAR-gamma) is pro- (PRP) is another adjunct to USGET in conser-
duced. Moreover, the action of IL-1, TNF and vative treatment. It is applied by means of
COX-2, which are mechanisms of tendon ultrasound-guided infiltrations in the area of
Sonosurgery Ultrasound-Guided Arthroscopic Shaving … 405
Fig. 2 High-definition ultrasound image of a proximal rarefaction of the patella at the insertion of the tendon. An
patellar tendinopathy. Longitudinal sect with linear probe. important intrasubstance rupture (arrow) and the fibrosis
Note the thickened tendon in its proximal portion in of Hoffa's fat pad stand out
contact with the patella (double arrow) as well as cortical
tendon injury. To carry it out, blood must be the injured area to try to bring about a stimula-
drawn from the patient and centrifuged to sepa- tory response. This response helps to reduce pain
rate the blood components. Then, the Platelet and increase function [2, 8, 9]. Although pain
Rich Plasma (high concentration of platelets) is during treatment and in the days immediately
collected from it. The PRP is later pushed into following it seems to increase considerably, it is
406 F. Abat and H. Alfredson
Fig. 4 Ultrasound-guided
galvanic electrolysis
(USGET) procedure under
local anesthesia. The
ultrasound shows the lesion
area within the patellar tendon
and the 0.3 mm needle of the
USGET handpiece applies the
galvanic current directly to
the focus of the lesion
one of the most valid options among the non- analyses of tendon biopsies, high blood flow
surgical ones to improve function and alleviate [16] and nerves outside the tendon (on the dorsal
pain in the long-term. it is advisable to rely on side of the proximal patellar tendon) [17, 18]
other treatments such as radiofrequency to have been documented. Very few nerves were
address the intermediate pain, but the adminis- seen inside the tendons if any. A temporary cure
tration of anti-inflammatories should be avoided. for the pain was observed by injecting a local
Thought must be given to the surgical approach anesthetic that targeted the region with high
when the conservative options fail. blood flow and nerves outside the tendon. Those
The open patellar tenotomy and excision of findings were at the root of the push to develop
the region with tendon changes is quite often new treatment methods like sclerosing polido-
included in traditional surgical treatment. On canol injections [19] and ultrasound-guided
occasion, ultrasound-guided percutaneous longi- arthroscopic shaving [20]. They put a focus on
tudinal tenotomy, curettage, multiple drilling of treatment outside the dorsal patellar tendon
the inferior patellar pole, or excision of the distal where high blood flow and nerves have been
patellar tip are also employed [10–12]. The detected. Herein, we describe the newly invented
aftermath of these treatments is always a rela- surgical treatment method.
tively long rehabilitation period. The clinical
results of classical surgery vary, and the out-
comes are often unsatisfactory [13]. In a ran- 2 Classification and Preoperative
domized study in which treatment with eccentric Evaluation
quadriceps training was compared to traditional
open tenotomy in combination with excision, The deep portion of the proximal insertion of the
similar results were seen. However, there was patellar tendon supports most of the traction
only 50% of good clinical results in both groups forces that the tendon must withstand. When the
[14]. patient has lived with the patellar tendon injury
Over recent years, the question as to where the for a long time, they generally present with
pain originates in this case and other chronic hypotonic atrophy of the quadriceps muscles.
painful tendinopathies has been debated [15]. In The pain typical of patellar tendinosis can be
some studies that used Color Doppler Ultrasound triggered by a sudden and rapid contraction of
in surgery along with immuno-histochemical the quadriceps.
Sonosurgery Ultrasound-Guided Arthroscopic Shaving … 407
Afterwards, the insertion of the patellar ten- pad should be left untouched as much as
don in the patella is identified to initiate possible.
debridement using a synoviotome with a 4.5 mm Should a prominent patella peak be encoun-
full radius. Simultaneous longitudinal and cross- tered (Fig. 10), the recommendation is to resect it
sectional ultrasound views guide the entire pro- with caution. The tendon must be well explored
cedure (Fig. 9). Debridement is carefully per- in search of intratendinous tears (Fig. 11).
formed. The goal being the destruction of only When a lesion is been detected at the level of
the high blood flow (neovessels) region and the the superficial bursa of the patellar prior to sur-
nerves adjacent to the tendinosis changes on the gery, a longitudinal incision in the skin and
dorsal side of the tendon (i.e., separating the resection of the bursa should be carried out
Hoffa fat pad from the patellar tendon). Healthy (Fig. 12). The portals are closed with sutures or
tendon tissue is not resected, and the Hoffa fat tape and a bandage is kept in place for 24 h.
Sonosurgery Ultrasound-Guided Arthroscopic Shaving … 409
Fig. 7 Pre-surgery ultrasound image with high-definition (single arrow) entering the tendon from Hoffa's fat pad.
ultrasound and linear probe in transverse (left) and Tendon thickening (double-headed arrow) and hypoe-
longitudinal (right) views. Note the hypervascularization choic tendon injury areas (asterisk) are highlighted
Fig. 9 Ultrasound images in transverse (left) and longi- for debridement by means of a 4.5 mm full radius
tudinal (right) views with a linear probe where the arthroscopic shaver. Simultaneous transverse and longi-
insertion of the patellar tendon in the patella is identified tudinal ultrasound views guide the entire procedure
Fig. 12 Debridement of the superficial bursa of the accompanying the tendon injury had previously been
patella as the last step in the sonosurgery of the injured confirmed. A longitudinal incision is made in the skin and
tendon in those cases in which a bursal pathology the bursa is resected
Fig. 13 Progression of exercises after surgery for patellar tendinopathy. From elastic exercises with one and two legs
to the use of inertial devices such as the yoyo multigym or leg extensions in protocolized loading programs
21. Blazina ME, Kerlan RK, Jobe FW, Carter VS, pain, function and structure in persistent patellar
Carlson GJ. Jumper’s knee. Orthop Clin North Am. tendinopathy: short term follow-up of a case series.
1973;4(3):665–78. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med. 2020;6(1): e000803.
22. Kaux JF, Forthomme B, Goff CL, Crielaard JM, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjsem-2020-000803.
Croisier JL. Current opinions on tendinopathy.
J Sports Sci Med. 2011;10(2):238–53.
23. Masci L, Alfredson H, Neal B, Wynter BW.
Ultrasound-guided tendon debridement improves
Medial Patellofemoral Ligament
Reconstruction: Anatomical Versus
Quasi-anatomical Femoral Fixation
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 415
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_27
416 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
length change behavior of the graft and therefore help the surgeon to reach the right spot.
the graft tension at different angles of knee According to this investigation, an exact lateral
flexion [14]. Proximal and anterior femoral image is needed to locate the anatomic femoral
attachments points will result in an excessive attachment point. This is currently the most
stretching of the MPFL-graft at deeper knee common technique to determine the femoral
flexion angles as shown by Wang and colleagues fixation point. The technique permits drilling the
[15]. This will over-constrain the medial PFJ and femoral tunnel through a very small and cosmetic
increase the cartilage pressures at this level. In skin approach. However, one may wonder how
that way, PFOA may be the consequence of accurate this method is insofar as replicating the
femoral tunnel malposition after MPFLr. Inter- anatomic femoral attachment point? In terms of
estingly, the patellar attachment point seems not accuracy, it largely depends on getting a true
to be so important as the femoral attachment lateral knee image with a perfect superposition of
point [14]. It has been demonstrated that MPFL both femoral condyles. Nevertheless, several
length changes during knee flexion depend on authors have questioned the precision of this
the femoral attachment site more than on the radiological method [18–21].
patellar attachment one [14]. In this section, we The femoral MPFL attachment site is located
will focus on the femoral attachment point. approximately one centimeter distal to the tip of
The current trend in MPFLr is oriented the adductor tubercle (AT) [22]. However, the
towards drilling the femoral attachment in the great interindividual anatomical variability in the
most anatomic point. An anatomic femoral fixa- location of the AT probably explains the unpre-
tion is the easiest and most reproducible way to dictability relative to the location of the femoral
achieve the optimal length-change behavior of insertion of the MPFL. This means that the
the graft during knee flexion—extension, and MPFL is unique for every single individual and
therefore, a satisfactory long-term clinical result so the optimal femoral position is patient
[13, 14]. Yet a strict anatomic femoral attach- specific.
ment point might not be that critical for a suc- More recently, new technologies like 3D-CT
cessful reconstruction, as has been demonstrated scan (Fig. 2) appeared to help the surgeon in
by Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues [14]. A non- locating the right spot for femoral MPFL
anatomic MPFL graft that replicates the isometry attachment. Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues [19]
and length change pattern of a native MPFL will evaluated 100 patients with CLPI by means of
also provide satisfactory results [14]. This con- 3D-CT. For each knee, two virtual 7 mm diam-
cept is of paramount importance in children eter femoral tunnels were created. One tunnel
because of the close anatomical relationship was shaped based on the AT landmark (the
between the distal femoral physis and the area anatomic tunnel). The second one was created
where the anatomic tunnel should be drilled. The according to Schoettle’s radiological method
actual risk of iatrogenic physeal damage is the [17]. The ratio of overlapping between the two
reason the first author performs a quasi- tunnels was calculated. An overlapping area
anatomical MPFLr with gracilis tendon auto- superior to 50% was considered as reasonable.
graft, using the AMT as a pulley for femoral The goal was achieved in only 38% of cases with
fixation in skeletically immature patients with a good intra- and inter-observer reliability values
good clinical results. Using this technique, the [19]. Therefore, it was concluded that the radio-
kinematic behavior exhibited by the graft is like logical method is only an approximation and
that of the native MPFL [16]. should not be the sole basis for safely and
In 2007, Schoettle and colleagues [17] pub- reproducibly drilling an anatomic femoral tunnel
lished a technique that demonstrated how to find in MPFLr.
a reproducible anatomic femoral attachment Some drawbacks in Schoettle[17] investiga-
point. They used intra-operative fluoroscopy to tion may contribute to understanding this para-
determine some radiological coordinates that dox. They analyzed only 8 frozen cadaver knees
418 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 2 Location of the AT (red arrow) by means of 3D- radiographic location ensure precise anatomic location
CT. Medial supracondylar line (white arrow). Medial of the femoral fixation site in medial patellofemoral
femoral epicondyle (blue arrow). Non-anatomical femoral ligament surgery?, Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al., 24, 2838–
tunnel placement (black arrow). (“Republished with 2844, 2016; permission conveyed through Copyright
permission of Springer Nature BV, from Does Clearance Center, Inc.”)
of unknown age and gender. Additionally, the dysplasia, this finding is relevant from the clini-
presence of trochlear dysplasia was not men- cal standpoint.
tioned or considered. However, CLPI is more Fluoroscopy is a method that can be very
frequent in young females with bony variances helpful for the casual surgeon to determine the
such as trochlear dysplasia. Therefore, the use of femoral attachment point. However, to avoid
female knees with trochlear dysplasia would be mistakes, the fluoroscopic findings should not be
reasonable in this type of studies. To further relied upon too greatly due to extreme
illustrate this concept, in the Sanchis-Alfonso interindividual anatomical variability. For that
[19] investigation, 7 out of 12 male patients reason, it is wise to recommend an incision large
without severe trochlear dysplasia showed an enough to permit the correct identification of the
overlap area greater than 50% when using the anatomy of the area, including the AMT and the
method described by Schöettle. Conversely, this apex of the AT. The femoral MPFL attachment is
occurred in only 12 out of 40 female patients located 10 mm distal to the AT and proximal and
with severe trochlear dysplasia [19]. Thus, severe a bit posterior from the medial femoral epi-
trochlear dysplasia associated with the female condyle (ME) in a groove midway between the
gender was predictive of overlap of less than 50 MFE and the AT (Fig. 3). And so, the AT has
in 70% of the cases [19]. In conclusion, in female been suggested as a consistent landmark for a
knees with a severe trochlear dysplasia, the proper location of the femoral tunnel during
radiographic method used to recognise the MPFLr because the distances between the AT
femoral anatomic fixation point showed a non- and the femoral attachment of the MPFL are
negligible number of inaccuracies. Since CLPI is uniform, approximately 10 mm distally [22–25].
more frequent in females with a severe trochlear However, a good option would be to use the 3D-
Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction … 419
A B
there is no need to tension the MPFL graft during common finding that can be addressed by means
its reconstruction. If the graft were tight all the of trochleoplasty. This last procedure relaxes the
time, it would bring on an increase in patellofe- deep layer of the lateral retinaculum and so LRR
moral pressure that could lead to PFOA over is unnecessary. Additionally, LRR in cases of
time. trochlear dysplasia might provoke medial patellar
instability.
Only in the rare cases of fixed lateral dislo-
4.3 Role of Lateral Retinacular cation in flexion must we consider LRR or
Release lengthening since in these cases there is a
shortening of the lateral structures. In these
Lateral retinacular release (LRR) of the patella exceptional cases the advice of the first author
has been used extensevely for knee surgeries, (V.S-A) is not to perform a LRR but a
particularly in disorders of the extensor mecha- lenghthening (Fig. 5). It has the same effect
nism. However, its current usefulness is under regarding the elimination of hypercompression
scrutiny due to its complications and doubtful and hypertension on the lateral side as the LRR.
outcomes. Moreover, lateral retinaculum lenghthening is a
In the first author’s opinion, LRR or length- tecnnique individually adapted. Finally, it avoids
ening has no role in primary CLPI surgery. In a the secondary complications of LRR such as
series of 33 patients evaluated with a minimum medial patellar instability.
of 12 months, Malatray and colleagues [27]
demonstrated that isolated MPFLr was not infe-
rior to MPFLr associated with arthroscopic LRR 5 Surgical Technique Step-By-Step.
in terms of the IKDC subjective score and Pearls and Tips
patellar tilt. They conclude that there is no indi-
cation for LRR associated to MPFLr in the 5.1 Static and Anatomic MPFLr
treatment of CLPI. Furthermore, Merican and
colleagues [28] conducted a biomechanical The first author’s preferred surgical technique is
investigation showing that the lateral retinaculum the anatomic double-bundle static MPFLr using a
actually contributes to resisting lateral patellar semitendinosus autograft. MPFLr can be done
displacement. Consequently, lateral patellar either with single-bundle (SB) or double-bundle
instability will increase after LRR. (DB) graft configuration. According to current
To guide the patella towards the trochlear evidence, the use of a double-bundle pattern
sulcus during the first degrees of knee flexion, seems more advisable to better reproduce the
both the MPFL and the lateral retinaculum must native MPFL function. Better outcomes (i.e.,
interplay in a harmonious way. Christian Lat- Kujala, IKDC, and VAS) and fewer complica-
termann states that both ligaments behave simi- tions, reoperations and re-dislocation rates have
larly to the reins of a horse. Both reins must have been found in a recent revision of primary iso-
some degree of tension. They are not very tense lated DB MPFLr for recurrent patellofemoral
but they are not loose either. If one of the reins is instability [29]. Furthermore, Migliorini and col-
completely loose the horse is inclined towards leagues [30] have shown that isolated MPFLr
the opposite direction as it occurs in the patella. with semitendinosus tendon graft performed bet-
This will provoke a patellofemoral imbalance ter than the gracilis. All the scores of interests
that could be responsible for iatrogenic anterior (Kujala, Tegner, Lysholm) and range of motion
knee pain (AKP). scored better in the semitendinosus group. More-
The most usual indication for LRR or over, in favour of the semitendinosus group, a
lengthening is severe patellar tilt. However, in statistically significant reduction of the revision
this case, severe trochlear dysplasia is also a surgeries and re-dislocations were evidenced.
Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction … 421
A B
C D
Fig. 5 Lateral retinaculum lengthening. Technical note from its attachment to the iliotibial band and the synovial
according to RM Biedert, MD. The lateral retinaculum layer opened (C). This releases the increased tension of the
consists of a superficial oblique and a deep transverse part lateral structures. The two parts of the lateral retinaculum
(A). Lengthening is started incising longitudinally the are sutured together in 90º of knee flexion (D). This makes
superficial oblique retinaculum about 5 mm from its it impossible that the retinaculum is too tight. The mobility
attachment to the lateral border of the patella. Then it is of the patella should be 1–2 quadrants to the medial and
separated from the deep transverse retinaculum (B). The the lateral side in full extension, guaranteeing a normal
deep transverse ligament is incised also longitudinally balance of the patella in the trochlea
The patient is placed in the supine position on a diagnostic arthroscopy has been questioned
a standard table. After induction of anesthesia [32], it is routinely performed prior to MPFLr in
lateral patellar dislocation must be confirmed the author’s practice (Fig. 6). The main objec-
(Fig. 1). Fathalla and colleagues [31] have tives being (1) full evaluation of the status of the
assessed the prognostic value of examination cartilage and (2) to rule out any intraarticular
under anesthesia (EUA) prior to MPFLr. They damage not seen on the preoperative magnetic
retrospectively evaluated the outcome of 23 resonance imaging.
patients who had undergone an isolated MPFLr Then, the semitendinosus tendon is harvested
for CLPI. Of the 23, 9 failed (39%), all of them following the standard technique, prepared and
had a dislocating patella at more than 30º of knee wrapped in gauze previously soaked in a solution
flexion. They concluded that patients in whom of 100 ml of saline mixed with 500 mg of van-
the patella can be dislocated beyond 30º on EUA comycin powder. This last step has been sug-
are unlikely to benefit from isolated MPFLr. gested to avoid microbiological contamination of
The leg to be operated on is prepared in the the graft [33].
standard fashion. The use of a tourniquet is Next, an incision is made in the anterior
optional. A sterile bump is placed under the knee aspect of the knee, centered over the junction of
to keep it slightly flexed. Although the benefit of the medial and middle thirds of the patella. The
422 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 6 Diagnostic
arthroscopy previous to
MPFLr. Note (A) a
chondropathy in the medial
facet of the patella, (B) a
loose body in the subquad
area (axial CT view),
(C) arthroscopic view, an
(D) after its excision.
(“Republished with
permission of Elsevier
Science & Technology
Journals, from Medial
Patellofemoral Ligament
Reconstruction, V Sanchis-
Alfonso & JC Monllau,
Operative Techniques in
Sports Medicine, Vol 27, 4,
2019; permission conveyed
through Copyright Clearance
Center, Inc.”)
medial third of the patella is exposed and sub- through the patellar tunnels (Figs. 7 and 8) and
periosteally dissected with a scalpel. The dis- then between layers 2 and 3 until the femoral
section is carried through medially between attachment point is reached.
layers 2 and 3. Two 4.5 mm diameter tunnels are Correct ligament tension is crucial to the
drilled in the anterior cortex of the patella near its success of MPFLr surgery. Enough tension to put
medial aspect (Fig. 7). Special care should be the graft taut is sufficient. Do not pull the graft
taken when drilling to avoid penetrating the tight at the time of fixation. If done so, it leads to
subchondral bone and damaging the articular elevated medial contact pressures and medial
cartilage. Attention should be paid to leaving at patellar tracking. To avoid excessive graft ten-
least 10 mm of bone-bridge between the tunnels sion, the graft is fixed at 30° of knee flexion as
to avoid intraoperative fractures. the distance between the femoral and patellar
Then, a small incision is made over the medial attachments points is greatest at this angle [14].
epicondyle. 3D-CT technology is used to locate Graft fixation on the femoral side can be done
the anatomic femoral attachment point as with bioabsorbable interference screws or suture
explained earlier on. The image intensifier is anchors, which is the author’s preferred tech-
used to further check the femoral attachment nique. A biomechanical cadaveric study demon-
point (regularly located 10 mm distal to the AT). strated that suture anchor femoral fixation was
Once the anatomic femoral attachment point is not significantly different from interference screw
determined using the 3D-CT method, there is no fixation in terms of load-to-failure [34]. Like-
need to further check the graft isometry. After wise, the mean load-to-failure values for both
that, the medial patellar and medial femoral fixation techniques in MPFLr were greater than
incisions are connected by blunt dissection by the values reported in the medical literature for
means of a hemostat. Firstly, the graft is passed the native MPFL [34]. The effect of interference
Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction … 423
Fig. 7 Intraoperative views of the patellar steps of the Technology Journals, from Medial Patellofemoral Liga-
surgical procedure. (A) the dissected anterior and medial ment Reconstruction, V Sanchis-Alfonso & JC Monllau,
sides of the patella. (B) drilling two 4.5 v-shaped tunnels. Operative Techniques in Sports Medicine, Vol 27, 4,
(C) and (D) the graft being passed through the tunnels. 2019; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance
(“Republished with permission of Elsevier Science & Center, Inc.”)
incision centered in the upper medial aspect of GT is enough in terms of both length and
the tibia and some 3-fingerbreadths down the strength to reconstruct the MPFL.
joint line. After dissecting the soft tissue, the A second 2 to 3 cm vertical skin approach is
Sartorius fascia is incised horizontally, releasing then made over the superior medial border of the
the distal attachment of the GT. From there on, patella to expose its proximal third where the
the graft is harvested using a tendon stripper. anatomical footprint of the MPFL is located.
When harvesting the tendon, care should be Two convergent 4.5 mm holes are drilled at the
taken so as not to amputate it before full dis- edges of the footprint. The tunnels are made in a
section is made. The graft must be at least convergent V-shape from the medial cortex to
90 mm in length (total graft length 180 mm) to the cancellous bone of the patella. Attention
properly reconstruct the MPFL in a double- should be paid to leaving at least 15 mm of bone-
bundle pattern. The 2 ends of the graft are pre- bridge between the tunnels to avoid intraopera-
pared with #2 high-strength Krackow mattress tive fractures or locus minor resistentiae where a
sutures. The prepared graft is then sized and kept stress fracture could be produced postopera-
wrapped in vancomycin-soaked gauze to prevent tively. The edges of both drill holes and the inner
bacterial contamination [32]. The native MPFL angle of the V-shaped tunnels obtained are
was found to have a mean tensile strength of smoothed out to avoid any “killer turn”.
208 N and the mean maximum load for 1 strand A third 2 to 3 cm skin incision is then made
of a GT was found to be 837 ± 138 N [36, 37]. slightly proximal to the ME along the AMT. The
Therefore, the author’s (JCM) opinion is that the approach is deepened in line with the medial
Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction … 425
outcomes of isolated MPFLr in the setting of a Furthermore, the detachment of the TT might
TT-TG index>20 mm compared to those with a potentially cause a tibial fracture and non-union.
TT-TG distance<20 mm [44]. Therefore, it Regarding sulcus deepening trochleoplasty, it
seems wise to use these measurements with care is not a routine surgical procedure. It is a valu-
when designing the treatment for each individual. able tool only in a small subset of patients,
A much more comprehensive approach that mostly in revision surgeries. They include severe
includes the patient’s medical history and phys- trochlear dysplasia, when the patella dislocates
ical examination, the etiology of dislocation not only during the first 30º of knee flexion but
(traumatic versus atraumatic), the uni or bilater- also at high degrees of knee flexion, and when
ality of the process as well as the activity level there is patellofemoral maltracking (positive J-
and expectations of the patient is advised. sign).
Patellofemoral tracking (J-sign) should also be The first author (V.S-A) recommends never
taken into consideration. In conclusion, TTO performing a trochleoplasty, a femoral osteotomy
should be considered in extremely selected cases or a tibial tubercle osteotomy if there is no
when a less invasive alternative is insufficient. maltraking (J-sign) as isolated MPFLr is likely to
Similarly, there is no consensus on a threshold work.
value for the Caton-Deschamps index to indicate
TT distalization associated with MPFLr for the
treatment of recurrent patellar instability. In a 7 Postoperative Management
recent publication, isolated MPFLr in patients
with patella alta (Caton-Deschamps index 1.2) Pain control is important after surgery; a femoral
and CLPI results in a significant decrease in the nerve block and endovenous analgesics are our
patellar height ratio with the effect size being preferred options. A knee brace is recommended
greatest in patients with higher pre-operative for 4 weeks until the quadriceps is fully acti-
Caton-Deschamps index values [45]. In patients vated. Immediate full weightbearing, as tolerated,
with patella alta, defined as a Caton-Deschamps with the help of two crutches is encouraged from
index 1.2, normalization of the patellar height the beginning. The principles of MPFLr reha-
ratio occurred in 59.6% of the cases [45]. Addi- bilitation stress early complete range-of-motion
tionally, no differences in clinical outcomes were (ROM) exercises, with the emphasis on exten-
encountered in patients with and without patella sion to prevent scar formation and capsular
alta using de Banff Patellofemoral Instability retractions, quadriceps strengthening and proxi-
Instrument score [45]. Consequently, distaliza- mal control of the lower limb (hip abductors and
tion may not be necessary in most CLPI associ- external rotators strengthening). As knee rotation
ated with patella alta if MPFLr provokes a places lateral stress on the patella, it is necessary
descent of the patella, at least in those with to refrain from knee rotation until three months
Caton-Deschamps Index values between 1.2–1.4 after the operation [47].
[46]. On the other hand, patients with mild In recent years, several investigations have
patella alta report similar outcomes after isolated analyzed the return to sports after ACL recon-
MPFLr than patients with normal patella height struction. Conversely, there is scarce information
[46]. In conclusion, the value of adding TT dis- on when to start sports after MPFLr. As in the
talization in patients with patella alta is not clear. ACL reconstruction, the timing to return to sports
Moreover, TT distalization is not a panacea. TT is not just a matter of time but rather a matter of
distalization always implies some degree of meeting some clinical and functional require-
medialization. Additionally, it may be risky in ments. Ménétrey and colleagues [48] proposed
patients with chondral lesions of the distal pole six clinical criteria for returning to sport after
of the patella because the procedure causes an MPFLr: absence of pain, no effusion, no patellar
overload of this area upon initial flexion. instability, full range of motion, symmetrical
Medial Patellofemoral Ligament Reconstruction … 427
strength (85–90%) in both legs, and excellent 0–7.2%) and a reoperation risk of 3.1% (95% CI,
dynamic stability assessed with the use of several 1.1–5.0%) [50].
functional tests such as the single-leg squat and Platt and colleagues [51] also meta-analyzed
the star excursion balance test (SEBT). Many the overall rate of return to sports after MPFLr.
sports activities call for changes in direction and In their revision, the rate of return to sport was
landing from jumps. It is therefore important to higher (92.8%) even though only 71.3% return to
assess these parameters before returning to their preoperative level of performance. Return to
sports. Drop and jump test and side hop-test sport after MPFLr does not differ significantly in
provide valuable information about those sports patients with or without an osteotomy (95.4 vs.
gestures. 86.9%). Moreover, the time to return to play was
seen at approximately 7 months after index sur-
gery. Complications occurred at an overall rate of
8 Clinical Outcomes. Scientific 8.8%, being the most common recurrence of
Evidence instability (1.9%). Another interesting issue is the
characteristics of patients who were unable to
Medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) recon- return to play after MPFLr. This subject was
struction is being performed more frequently addressed by Hurley and colleagues [52]. They
each time with good clinical outcomes. Sappey- evaluated the psychological readiness to return to
Marinier and colleagues [49] have reported the sport using the MPFL-RSI score. It was con-
clinical outcomes of isolated MPFLr. They con- cluded that patients that do not return to play
clude that isolated MPFLr is a safe and efficient exhibit poor psychological readiness with the
surgical procedure with a low failure rate. They most common reason being fear of re-injury.
evaluated 211 MPFL reconstructions with a Interestingly, only 42.4% of US military ser-
mean follow-up of 5.8 years (range, 3– vicemembers undergoing primary MPFLr were
9.3 years). Twenty-seven percent of patients had able to fully return to unrestricted impact activity
a preoperative positive J-sign, and 93% of after surgery, bilateral instability being a factor of
patients had trochlear dysplasia (A, 47%; B, poor prognosis [53].
25%; C, 15%; D, 6%). The mean CDI was 1.2 In summary, a high percentage of patients
(range, 1.0−1.7); mean tibial tubercle-trochlear with CLPI undergoing MPFLr have good clinical
groove distance, 15 mm (range, 5−30 mm); and outcomes with a return to sports and a low
mean patellar tilt, 23° (range, 9°-47°). The mean incidence of recurrent instability, postoperative
Kujala score improved from 56.1 preoperatively apprehension, and reoperations.
to 88.8 in the postop. Recurrent patellar insta-
bility requiring surgical revision was reported in
10 cases (4.7%). Preoperative predictive factors 9 Anatomical MPFLr Versus Quasi-
for failure were patella alta (CDI 1.3) and a anatomical MPFLr
preoperative positive J-sign. These results are in
accordance with a recent systematic review with Marot and colleagues [54] performed a multi-
a meta-analysis to evaluate outcomes after iso- center longitudinal prospective study to compare
lated MPFLr for the treatment of recurrent the functional outcomes after an isolated MPFLr
patellar dislocations. The pooled estimated mean using either a quasi-anatomical technique (elastic
postoperative Kujala score was 85.8 (95% CI, femoral fixation) or an anatomical (static femoral
81.6–90.0), with 84.1% (95% CI, 71.1–97.1%) fixation) MPFLr. Patients with trochlear dys-
of the patients returning to sports after surgery. plasia types C and D were excluded. The main
The pooled total risk of recurrent instability after evaluation criterion was the Kujala functional
surgery was 1.2% (95% CI, 0.3–2.1%) with a score. The secondary objectives were to compare
positive apprehension sign risk of 3.6% (95% CI, the rates of redislocation, range-of-motion and
428 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
subjective patellar instability (Smillie test). The patellar dislocation and severe femoral anteversion
mean postoperative Kujala was 90.4 (89.4 in syndrome: surgical technique and clinical outcome.
Int Orthop. 2015;39(12):2355–62.
group A and 92.1 in group B). Upon comparing 6. Nelitz M, Williams SR. [Combined trochleoplasty
the mean difference between pre- and post- and medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction
operative values, no differences were detected for patellofemoral instability]. [Article in German]
between the two groups. They concluded that an Oper Orthop Traumatol. 2015;27(6):495–504.
7. Ellera Gomes JL. Medial patellofemoral ligament
isolated quasi-anatomical MPFLr using a gracilis reconstruction for recurrent dislocation of the patella:
tendon autograft provides outcomes as good as a preliminary report. Arthroscopy. 1992;8(3):335–40.
the isolated anatomical MPFLr at the 2–5 years 8. Avikainen VJ, Nikku RK, Seppanen-Lehmonen TK.
follow-up in the selected subgroup of patients Adductor magnus tenodesis for patellar dislocation.
Technique and preliminary results. Clin Orthop Relat
with CLPI. Re. 1993;(297):12–16.
9. Teitge RA. Treatment of complications of patellofe-
moral joint surgery. Oper Tech Sports Med.
10 Take Home Messages 1994;4:317–33.
10. Gallie WE, Lemesurier AB. Habitual dislocation of
the patella. J Bone J Surg. 1924;6(3):575–82.
– MPFLr has proven to be a safe, reliable and 11. Monllau JC, Masferrer-Pino A, Ginovart G, et al.
reproducible technique for the treatment of Clinical and radiological outcomes after a quasi-
CLPI. anatomical reconstruction of medial patellofemoral
ligament with gracilis tendon autograft. Knee Surg
– The paramount requirement for a successful Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2017;25(8):2453–9.
MPFLr is the proper selection of the patient as 12. Seitlinger G, Moroder P, Fink C, et al. Acquired
well as correct presurgical planning and a femoral flexion deformity due to physeal injury
during medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruc-
meticulous surgical technique.
tion. Knee. 2017;24(3):680–5.
– An MPFL reconstruction should not be per- 13. Sanchis-Alfonso V. Guidelines for medial patellofe-
formed if the patella cannot be laterally moral ligament reconstruction in chronic lateral
dislocated. patellar instability. J Am Acad Orthop Surg.
2014;22:175–82.
14. Sanchis-Alfonso V, Ramírez-Fuentes C, Montesinos-
Berry E, et al. Femoral insertion site of the graft used
to replace the medial patellofemoral ligament influ-
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Outcomes after isolated medial patellofemoral liga-
ment reconstruction for the treatment of recurrent
Minimal Invasive MPFL
Reconstruction Using Quadriceps
Tendon
Christian Fink
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 431
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_28
432 C. Fink
A B
Fig. 1 Anatomical dissection of the native MPFL (A) compared to a reconstructed one using a QT strip (B)
for reconstruction of the anterior (ACL) or pos- Parallel to these developments I went through
terior (PCL) cruciate ligament would be helpful. the literature and realized that this technique with
In the next few months, I went to the anatomy some modification has been around for a few
lab to do some anatomical dissections and also years already and that very encouraging clinical
talked to the engineer I was working with at the results had been published.
KARL STORZ company to make some modifi- The first description of partial-thickness QT
cation on the ACL harvesting instruments we were graft MPFL reconstruction was by Burks and
developing. All we really needed was to define a Luker in 1997 [5]. This was a free graft tech-
new tendon separator of 3 mm thickness instead nique, harvesting a strip of QT with a patella bone
of the 5 mm used for ACL/PCL graft harvest. block, which was placed into a recessed bony bed
After a few trials in the lab the new minimal in the femoral epicondyle and secured with a
invasive technique for quadriceps MPFL recon- screw/washer. The QT end of the graft was
struction was born [4]. secured through a bone tunnel on the patella side.
Minimal Invasive MPFL Reconstruction Using Quadriceps Tendon 433
Steensen et al. in 2005 [6] were the first to However, there was not only interest but a lot of
describe leaving the quadriceps tendon attached skepticisms, most of all questioning the strength
on the patella side. Harvesting a partial thickness of the patellar graft fixation. Was fixation of a
quadriceps tendon graft, they extended dissection detached and diverged periosteum strip only with
distally over the anterior patella elevating the sutures at the medial edge of the patella really
thick periosteum. By dissecting further distal strong enough to withstand the forces?
laterally than medially they created a diagonal There was nothing in the literature about this
hinge point, allowing the graft to fold into posi- topic. So again, I knew if this technique was
tion medially on an intact periosteal pedicle. about to get more popular, we needed both
A 5 cm midline longitudinal incision was made biomechanical as well as clinical data.
extending proximally from the superior pole of I knew that a group in Münster Germany had
the patella. A partial thickness quadriceps tendon just published on the biomechanical characteris-
graft, 10–12 mm wide, was harvested from the tics of different MPFL fixation methods for
central third of the quadriceps tendon. hamstring graft on the patella [9]. This setup
Shortly after Steensen et al. [6], in 2005 seemed perfect for testing the QT construct and
Noyes and Albright [7] published a technique, would also allow for direct comparisons not only
also based on an intact graft pedicle on the to the characteristics of the natural MPFL but
patella side. They harvested an 8 70 mm full- also in comparison to the commonly used ham-
thickness graft from the medial (rather than string techniques.
central) aspect of the QT. This was left attached I contacted one of the authors (Prof. Mirco
at the superomedial border of the patella, passed Herbort) of the paper whom I knew and pre-
medially beneath the medial retinaculum and sented my ideas. He was immediately interested
sutured to the medial intermuscular septum. Due and soon afterwards we started the biomechani-
to non-anatomical femoral fixation, this is tech- cal project. I flew to Münster in order to
nically not an MPFL reconstruction, but a medial demonstrate and train them in the surgical tech-
reinforcement. nique. I did not want to be part of the further
On one of the following international Knee procedures and the testing itself in order to avoid
meetings I got to know Prof. Deepak Goyal from bias.
India, who was using a QT MPFL technique for A few weeks later I got a phone call from
several years. He published his clinical results Prof. Herbort late at night. He sounded really
and the technique with bony femoral fixation in excited. Not only was the maximum pullout
2013 [8]. He harvests the central 10–12 mm of strength equivalent or higher than the natural
the QT superficial lamina, via a 7–8 cm longi- MPFL but the stiffness of the construct also
tudinal incision starting at the superior pole of closely resembled that of the natural MPFL.
the patella. The proximal free end of the graft The biomechanical results and the good clin-
was tunneled medially between the capsule and ical impression we got from the first patients
medial retinaculum. No.2 Ethibond® stay sutures encouraged us to push this technique forward
were placed at junction of the medial edge of the [10].
patella and the graft to stabilize the graft-patella
anatomic attachment and finally, the graft is
secured in the distal femur with a bio- 2 Anatomy and Considerations
interference screw rather than transosseus for QT Graft Harvest
sutures as described by Steenson et al.[6].
Proudly I presented my “discoveries” and my The native MPFL is a broad flat structure
technique to friends who I knew being involved approximately 1 mm thick arising from a broad
with patellofemoral surgeries for years. They all origin on the femur approximately 9–17 mm in
used hamstring MPFL techniques at this time. width and located within a triangle formed by the
434 C. Fink
A B
Fig. 3 Positioning of the patient. A The operated knee is placed in an electric leg holder. B Arthroscopy is performed
prior to graft harvest
A B
Fig. 4 A Placement of the skin incision at the superomedial aspect of the patella. B A long Langenbeck retractor is
inserted to allow proper visualization of the quadriceps tendon
436 C. Fink
A B
Fig. 5 Graft harvest—Step I: Double knife of 10 or 12 mm (KARL STORZ, Tuttlingen) pushed proximally 8—10 cm
above the superior patella boarder (A schematic drawing, B operative procedure)
A B
4.3 Patella Preparation and B). The proximal 1.5 cm of the medial
patellar border is then exposed.
The free proximal end is sheathed with resorb- Using a periosteal elevator the prepatellar tissue
able sutures (Fig. 8A) in a web-stitch technique is lifted from the medial patella border (Fig. 10A)
(Fig. 8B). The diameter of the free tendon end is creating a subperiosteal tunnel (Fig. 10B).
measured using an ACL graft sizer (Fig. 8C). A surgical clamp is introduced into the tunnel
Distally the longitudinal cuts are continued in from medial to lateral and by grasping the sutures
the same width (10 or 12 mm) with a surgical the graft is passed through. The graft diverged 90°
knife towards the patella and over the patellar and left attached to the periosteum (Fig. 11A and
surface (2 cm-lateral and 1 cm-medial). The B). It is then secured at the medial boarder of the
quadriceps tendon strip is than subperiostally medial patellar (equivalent to the attachment of
elevated from the surface of the patella (Fig. 9A the natural MPFL) by resorbable No. 1 sutures.
Minimal Invasive MPFL Reconstruction Using Quadriceps Tendon 437
A B
Fig. 7 Graft harvest—Step 3: The tendon strip is cut at the desired length (8–10 cm) using a special Tendon cutter
(KARL STORZ, Tuttlingen) (A schematic drawing, B operative procedure)
B C
Fig. 8 A The free proximal end is sheathed with resorbable sutures in a B locked web-stitch technique. C the tendon
diameter is measured
438 C. Fink
A B
Fig. 9 The preparation of the tendon strip is extended distally on the patella (°lateral 1.5 to 2 cm and *medial 0.5 to
1 cm (A schematic drawing, B operative procedure)
A B
Fig. 10 The prepatellar tissue is lifted from the medial patella border (Fig. 10A) using a periosteal elevator creating a
subperiosteal tunnel (Fig. 10B)
A B
Fig. 11 The QT strip diverged 90° and left attached at the periosteum. (A schematic drawing, B operative procedure)
then pulled through the tunnel. This loop is used • The QT is longest when starting slightly lat-
later to pull the graft towards the femoral inser- eral over the center of the patella.
tion (Fig. 13A and B). • The QT can be inspected using the arthro-
The graft is then pulled into the tunnel. The scope before harvesting.
knee is cycled 5 times with moderate tension on • Be sure you have enough graft length (mini-
the graft. Fixation is performed with a bioab- mum 9 cm in an average patient).
sorbale interference screw (with a equivalent
diameter to the tunnel diameter) at 40–60 degrees
5.2 Pitfalls
of knee flexion (Fig. 14A). The lateral border of
the patella should be flush with the lateral border
• The QT strip could peel off the bony surface
of the trochlear groove.
of the patella.
Alternatively, and generally in children with
– To avoid a “peel off,” dissection must be
open physis the graft is fixed with a bone anchor
performed carefully. If “peel off” occurs
and additional sutures (Fig. 14B).
and the graft is amputated from the patella,
bone anchors may be used to fix the QT
strip to the medial aspect of the patella
5 Pearls and Pitfalls
(free QT graft) or if the graft is long
enough it can be looped through the pre-
5.1 Pearls
patellar tissue and sutured on to itself.
• The QT strip could be too short.
• Careful dissection is necessary to expose the
– It is important to angle the tendon sepa-
QT (including removal of all the bursal and
rator 30° down, in order to avoid “cutting
superficial layers).
out” anteriorly leading to premature graft
440 C. Fink
Fig. 12 Fluoroscopic control of the guide wire placement [according to Schöttle et al. [3]]
A B
Fig. 13 A, B The graft is pulled in between layer 2 and 3 towards the femoral incision using a long clamp
A B
14. Dirim B, Haghighi P, Trudell D, Portes G, Resnick D. reconstruction using quadriceps tendon autograft
Medial patellofemoral ligament: cadaveric investiga- provides good clinical, functional and patient-
tion of anatomy with MRI, MR arthrography, and reported outcome measurements (PROM): a 2-year
histologic correlation. AJR Am J Roentgenol. prospective study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
2008;191(2):490–8. Arthrosc. 2019;27(8):2426–32.
15. Grob K, Manestar M, Filgueira L, Ackland T, 20. Tegner Y, Lysholm J. Rating systems in the evalu-
Gilbey H, Kuster MS. New insight in the architecture ation of knee ligament injuries. Clin Orthop Relat
of the quadriceps tendon. J Exp Orthop. 2016;3(1):32 Res. 1985;198:43–9.
16. Xerogeanes JW, Mitchell PM, Karasev PA, 21. Lysholm J, Gillquist J. Evaluation of knee ligament
Kolesov IA, Romine SE. Anatomic and morpholog- surgery results with special emphasis on use of a
ical evaluation of the quadriceps tendon using 3- scoring scale. Am J Sports Med. 1982;10:150–4.
dimensional magnetic resonance imaging reconstruc- 22. Kujala UM, Jaakkola LH, Koskinen SK, Taimela S,
tion: applications for anterior cruciate ligament Hurme M. Nelimarkka O. Scoring of patellofemoral
autograft choice and procurement. Am J Sports disorders. Arthroscopy. 1993;9:159–63.
Med. 2013;41(10): 2392–9. 23. Fink C, Steensen R, Gföller P, Lawton R. Quadriceps
17. Herbort M, Hoser C, Domnick C, Raschke MJ, tendon autograft medial patellofemoral ligament
Lenschow S, Weimann A, Kösters C, Fink C. MPFL reconstruction. Curr Rev Musculoskelet Med.
reconstruction using a quadriceps tendon graft. Part 2018;11(2):209–20.
1: Biomechanical properties of quadriceps tendon 24. Shah JN, Howard JS, Flanigan DC, Brophy RH,
MPFL Reconstruction in comparison to the Carey JL, Lattermann C. A systematic review of
Intact MPFL. A Human Cadaveric Study. Knee. complications and failures associated with medial
2014;21(6):1169—74. patellofemoral ligament reconstruction for recurrent
18. Fisher B, Nyland J, Brand E, Curtin B. Medial patellar dislocation. Am J Sports Med. 2012;40
patellofemoral ligament reconstruction for recurrent (08):1916–23.
patellar dislocation: a systematic review including 25. Nelitz M, Williams SR. Anatomic reconstruction of
rehabilitation and return-to-sports efficacy. Arthro- the medial patellofemoral ligament in children and
scopy. 2010;26(10):1384–94. adolescents using a pedicled quadriceps tendon graft.
19. Gföller P, Hoser C, Runer A, Abermann E, Wierer G, Arthrosc Tech. 2014;3(2):e303–8.
Fink C. Medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL)
Combined Medial Patellofemoral
Ligament and Medial Patellotibial
Ligament Reconstruction
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 445
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_29
446 R. S. Dean et al.
length of the MPTL is 36.4 mm and the width is flexion. Next, the MPTL was sacrificed in addi-
7.1. Radiographic evidence demonstrates that the tion to the MPFL and full dislocation was
tibial attachment is 9.4 mm from the joint line observed between 0 and 60° of knee flexion.
and in line with the medial border of the medial When reattaching only the MPFL, lateral dislo-
tibial spine [12]. cation was not possible, but subluxation was
The MPML is encountered as three distinct observed between 0 and 10° of knee flexion.
layers. They originate from the inferomedial After reattaching only the MPTL, some stability
patella (5.7 mm proximal to the distal border of was restored but frank dislocation was still
the patella), just proximal to the MPTL and insert observed at full flexion and subluxation of the
at the anterior meniscus, at the anterior horn or patella was noted between 0 and 15°. Thus, these
transition from the anterior horn to the body of authors concluded that the MPTL provided a less
the meniscus. The angulation of the ligament significant stabilizing force than the MPFL, but
relative to the patellar tendon is 22–42° when the the rupture or dysfunction of the MPTL may
knee is at 90° of flexion [13]. result in increased lateral patellar laxity which
The histological samples of both the MPTL can result in lateral patellar instability [20].
and the MPML demonstrated dense connective A biomechanical study by Phillippot et al.
tissue with oriented collagen fibers uniformly in determined that the MPTL and MPML combined
parallel and intermingled, elongated fibroblasts to provide approximately 46% of the restraint
consistent with ligamentous tissue [13]. forces against lateral patellar subluxation when
The mean failure loads of the MPTL and the knee was at 90° of flexion. Additionally, the
MPML were 147 and 105 N, respectively. It is MPTL and MPML were responsible for 72% of
important to put the strength of these ligaments patellar tilt and 92% of patellar rotation. Unfor-
in relation to the MPFL which has a reported tunately, this study did not study the MPTL and
load to failure of 178 N [14]. In one cadaveric MPML separately, but rather examined them as a
study, 90% of MPTLs failed by mid-substance combined entity [21].
rupture and 100% of MPMLs failed by mid- These previous conclusions were called into
substance rupture. It is important to note that the question by Grantham et al. who examined the
MPTL was significantly stiffer and showed less role of the MPFL and MPTL through a section-
deformation in maximum tensile strength com- ing biomechanical model. These authors found
pared to the MPFL [13]. that when the MPTL was sectioned the patella
Biomechanical cutting studies have reported tracking was similar to the native state. They
that the MPFL accounts for 50–60% of restraint described the role of the MPTL as “comple-
against lateral patellar instability, whereas the mentary” to the MPFL and reported that MPTL
MPTL and MPML combined to provide 20–40% reconstruction in a MPFL deficient knee did not
of the resistance in extension [15–17]. The improve knee stability. Additionally, they con-
medial retinaculum accounts for the remaining cluded that the MPTL provided a more signifi-
3–25% of restraint [15–18]. Individually, the cant contribution to medial stability at greater
MPTL may provide up to 24% of restraint and than 30° of knee flexion [22].
the MPML provided up to 38% of restraint near Based upon these studies the distal medial
full extension [15, 17–19]. patellar complex (MPTL and MPML) is most
Ebied and El-Kholy performed a sequential important during two knee motions: active ter-
sectioning study of the medial patellar stabilizers minal extension of the knee where it directly
followed by sequential repair of the sectioned counteracts the quadriceps contraction, and dee-
ligaments. After cutting the MPFL and leaving per knee flexion when the distal ligament com-
the MPTL intact, lateral subluxation of the plex tightens increasing its contribution to
patella was possible between 0 and 30° of knee resistant lateral patellar translation [21] (Fig. 1).
Combined Medial Patellofemoral Ligament and Medial Patellotibial … 447
3 Diagnosis
3.2 Imaging
3.1 Presentation and Physical Exam
Imaging of these injuries typically begins with
It is crucial to perform a thorough physical standard AP and lateral radiographs along with a
examination in order to identify any concomitant low flexion axial view. These images allow
pathologies including ligamentous, muscular, clinicians the opportunity to appreciate any frank
osseous or cartilaginous pathologies which can dislocations, increased lateral translations or
contribute to various findings during the workup avulsion fractures. Additionally, the lateral
phase of management. Exam features pertinent to radiograph is used evaluate for trochlear dys-
this discussion will be detailed. plasia as well as patellar height. Low flexion
Several physical exam maneuvers can be axial views allow one to assess for sulcus depth,
suggestive of medial patellar stabilizers injury, patellar tilt and translation, as well as patellar
however it is essential compare all findings to the morphology. Finally, in some circumstances full
contralateral, healthy, limb for reference. length weight bearing films can be used to
448 R. S. Dean et al.
while the smaller graft can be used for the medial appropriate fixation point for the distal medial
patellotibial complex graft. patellotibial complex can be identified on the
The surgeon can identify the inferior-medial anteromedial tibia approximately 5–10 mm distal
border of the patella at the distal end of the to the joint line and just medial to the medial
cartilage border, C-arm can be used as needed. edge of the medial tibial spine [13]. The recon-
Careful dissection through each layer of the structed ligament is typically placed at a 25–30°
medical capsule ensures (Fig. 4). The anatomic angle relative to the medial aspect of the patellar
landmarks of the MPTL are identified on the tendon. This angle is equal to a diagonal line
patella (Figs. 5 and 6). Fixation can be estab- from the inferior medial to superolateral corners
lished using a small anchor such as 1.8 mm Q- of the patella, which helps resist superolateral
Fix (Smith and Nephew). If the patella is small or migration of the patella throughout knee range of
if there are concerns about bone quality, one can motion [13]. Fixation can be established using a
undermine the periosteum on the dorsal surface small anchor such as 2.8 mm Q-Fix (Smith and
of the patella. Using fluoroscopic guidance, the Nephew) (Fig. 7). The graft is then sutured to the
Combined Medial Patellofemoral Ligament and Medial Patellotibial … 451
periosteum and back upon itself using a free An additional non-anatomic technique was
needle for additional fixation (Fig. 8 and 9). It is described by Maffulli et al. who utilizes a semi-
easier to tension the graft in the patellar attach- tendinosus autograft to reconstruct both the
ment. Therefore, the graft is fixed first on the MPFL and MPTL. The authors propose main-
tibia, passed deep to the retinaculum and then taining the native semitendinosus attachment site
fixed in the patella. The final fixation and tension and passing the graft through two bone tunnels
should be done with the knee in 90° of flexion. on the patella. The fixation is achieved by loop-
During fixation the surgeon should confirm ing the graft around the adductor magnus tendon
that the tension through the MPTL is similar to at 30° of flexion [37]. Concerns over this tech-
that of the patellar tendon. This is important as to nique were raised by outside authors who ques-
ensure that there isn’t excessive pressure on the tioned the specific distances of the patellar
medial compartment. The knee is then observed tunnels, the fixation method of the graft after
through complete range of motion as well as being looped around the adductor magnus ten-
medial and lateral forces on the patella as to don, in addition to the non-anatomic location of
assess for the degree of translation [19]. the semitendinosus on the tibia compared to the
Grantham et al. proposes a slight variation of attachment site of the MPTL [38].
the MPTL reconstruction aspect of the technique Recently, Abdelrahman et al. reports on a
using their anatomic studies. They start by combined MPFL and MPTL reconstruction in
preparing a gracilis graft. From there, they which the MPTL reconstruction is performed
establish the MPTL patellar attachment 9.1 mm based upon a central approximation of the MPTL
proximal to the inferior pull with a suture anchor. and the MPML. These authors reported that it is
Next, they identify the tibial attachment 5 mm fundamental to identify the individual anatomic
distal to the joint line and 23 mm medial to the footprint of both the MPTL and the MPML in the
tibial tubercle. The allograft is then tensioned tibia and the meniscus so that to place their
with the knee at 70° [22]. reconstruction with hamstring autograft at the
Combined Medial Patellofemoral Ligament and Medial Patellotibial … 453
Medial Patellotibial Ligament Reconstruction Techniques By Studies That Reported on Combined MPFL and MPTL
Reconstruction
Author Graft choice Fixation Fixation location Fixation Combined
modality angle with
MPFL
(Y/N)
Hughston Direct repair Suture N/A 60° Yes
[41] (39/65) anchors vs
IT band bone tunnels
autograft (12/65)
Patellar Tendon
autograft (12/65)
Drez [42] Semitendinosus, Suture “1.5 cm distal to the joint line” 0° Yes
Gracilis or anchors flexion
Fascia Lata
Brown and Semitendonosis Bone tunnel Pes Anserine 60° Yes
Ahmad [43] or Gracilis with suture
Ebied [20] Semitendinosus Interference N/A 30° Yes
or Gracilis screws?
Giordano [44] Semitendinosus Suture a N/A 35–40° Yes
and gracilis nchors
Sobhy [45] Semitendinosus Bone N/A 45° Yes
autograft tunnels?
Hinckel [46] Patellar tendon Suture Tibial: 1.5–2.5 cm below the joint line 90° Yes
autograft anchor and 15–25 mm medial to the patellar
tendon
Grantham Gracilis allograft Suture Patellar: 9.1 mm proximal to the 70° Yes
[22] anchors inferior pole
Tibial: 5 mm distal to joint and
23 mm medial to the tubercle
Maffulli et al. Semitendinosus “looped Patella: bone bunnel, looped around 30° Yes
[37] autograft around the the AML
AMT” Tibia: native attachment site of the
semitendinosus
Abdelrahman Semitendinosus Suture Tibia: the midway point in between 90° Yes
[39] autograft anchor the anatomic insertion of the
patellotibial and patellomeniscal
insertion
secondary to instability, with 82% reporting stating they would undergo the procedure again
recurrent subluxations or dislocations and 41% at a mean of 5.5 months post-operatively [46].
with an IKDC score of less than 70 [32].
Several other studies have reported successful
outcomes with MPTL reconstruction using a 6.3 MPTL with Concomitant
patellar tendon transfer with lateral retinaculum Realignment Procedures
release and vastus medialis advancement [34, 35,
47]. Myers et al. reported on 42 knees with Several studies reported on MPTL reconstruction
minimum 2 year follow-up and reported that with Roux-Goldthwait procedures [36, 49, 50].
76% had good or excellent results with 12% Most recently, Niedzielski et al. included 11
reporting poor results; two had recurrent dislo- patients at 8-year follow-up and had only 1 dislo-
cations [34]. Oliva et al. included 25 patients and cation, with 10 having normal patellar tracking. Of
8 year follow-up with only 1 patient suffering a note, this study reported a decrease in the maxi-
re-dislocation which occurred following a motor mum quadriceps muscle torque between 60 and
vehicle accident [35]. 180° compared to the healthy contralateral limb
[49]. Additionally. Joo et al. reported no re-
dislocations and all patients with a Kujala score
6.2 MPTL with MPFL Reconstruction greater than 88 at 4.5-year follow-up [36]. Mar-
cacci et al. performed a tibial tuberosity osteotomy
Ebied and Kholy was the first known study that in addition to MPTL reconstruction with a patellar
reported outcomes following combined MPFL tendon autograft. In their 18-person study with
and MPTL reconstruction in 25 knees. They 5 year follow-up, they reported no re-disclocations
reported significant improvement in IKDC scores with 83.3% of patients having IKDC A or B
with no reports of subsequent dislocation events scores, and a mean Kujala score of 88.9% [51].
[20]. Additionally, Drez et al. published and
early report of 15 patients with minimum 2-year
follow-up after combined MPFL/MPTL recon- 6.4 Systematic Reviews
structions using either semitendinosis, gracilis or
IT band autografts. They reported 93% had good Finally, Baumann et al. performed a systematic
or excellent outcomes, no rates of re-dislocation review of previous outcome studies describing
and high patient reported outcome scores [42]. MPTL reconstruction which included 403 knees
Hetsroni et al. reported on outcomes of com- from 19 studies. Their review included primarily
bined MPFL and MPTL reconstructions in 23 studies that utilized hamstrings tenodesis (n = 9),
knees with a minimum of 2-year follow-up. They medial transfers of the patellar tendon (n = 5),
demonstrated significant improvements in Kujala and combined MPFL and MPTL reconstructions
score (86.4 vs 54.9), however activity scores using either hamstring autograft or allograft
were not consistently restored compared to pre- (n = 5). They showed that despite a variable
injury levels [48]. Similarly, Sobhy et al. repor- degree of study qualities, most studies reported
ted on 33 patients that underwent combined favorable patient reported outcomes with low
MPFL and MPTL reconstruction with semi- rates of dislocation [52].
tendinosus autograft and reported improved pain
scores (VAS 6.3 vs 1.8) and patient reported
outcomes (Kujala score, 37 vs 91; Lysholm 7 Conclusions
score, 52 vs 90) [45]. Recently, Hinckel et al.
reported on 7 patients that underwent a combined The distal medial patellar ligamentous complex
MPTL and MPFL reconstruction and reported (MPTL and MPML) are integral stabilizers of the
high rates of satisfaction with 100% of patients patella. Additionally, they have a consistent
Combined Medial Patellofemoral Ligament and Medial Patellotibial … 457
anatomical and biomechanical profile in pre- 6. Parikh SN, Lykissas MG, Gkiatas I. Predicting risk
clinical studies. While typically performed in of recurrent patellar dislocation. Curr Rev Muscu-
loskelet Med. 2018;11(2):253–60.
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several described surgical procedures designed to Arendt EA. Medial patellotibial ligament and medial
repair or reconstruct these structures which have patellomeniscal ligament: anatomy, imaging, biome-
demonstrated reproducible and encouraging chanics, and clinical review. Knee Surg Sports
Traumatol Arthrosc. 2018;26(3):685–96.
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31. Letts RM, Davidson D, Beaule P. Semitendinosus reconstruction in skeletally immature patients. J Knee
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Combined Medial Patellofemoral Ligament and Medial Patellotibial … 459
44. Giordano M, Falciglia F, Aulisa AG, Guzzanti V. medial patellotibial ligaments: outcomes and prog-
Patellar dislocation in skeletally immature patients: nostic factors. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc.
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bined medial patellofemoral and medial patellotibial 49. Niedzielski KR, Malecki K, Flont P, Fabis J. The
ligament reconstruction. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol results of an extensive soft-tissue procedure in the
Arthrosc. 2012;20(8):1594–8. treatment of obligatory patellar dislocation in chil-
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ments reconstruction in recurrent patellar dislocation. 50. HALL JE, MICHELI LJ, MCMANAMA GBJ. Semi-
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Warning: Lateral Retinacular Release
Can Cause Medial Patellar
Dislocation—Lateral Patellofemoral
Ligament Reconstruction
Robert A. Teitge
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 461
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_30
462 R. A. Teitge
Fig. 1 Stress Radiographs A In clinic, the knee is rotation while stress is applied to the opposite side of the
extended to the maximum and still be able to obtain an patella B Patient positioning in the operating theater for
axial view. The knee is supported on one side to prevent stress radiographs C Medial stress being applied
patella to apply the displacement force, before The presence of complete dislocation on the
moving to a padded curved wooden block and symptomatic side contrasted with minimal med-
later to a device produced for me by the Med- ial translation on the asymptomatic side was
metric Corporation in San Diego. This Patella dramatic evidence of medial instability. (Fig. 3).
Pusher (Fig. 2) had a gauge to measure force so It became clear that many patients worse after
an equal force would be applied with each test. It lateral release (LR) had patellae which would
was obvious that an absolute displacement value dislocate outside the trochlea with medial stress
could not be used for all patients because of (Figs. 3 and 4). We then realized we had two
differences in generalized soft tissue laxity, tro- groups of patients with medial dislocation. There
chlear geometry, and patellar height. Therefore, were patients who had a lateral release for pain
comparison with the asymptomatic side needed but not instability and those who had LR for
to be the reference. For those with bilateral instability. Those with LR for pain with medial
symptomatic knees, the comparison meant little, dislocation on stress often had lateral displace-
but we felt confident the finding of complete ments slightly greater than normal but would not
dislocation represented instability. dislocate laterally. Those with LR for lateral
Warning: Lateral Retinacular Release … 463
instability would often dislocate in both the of 68 patients all worse after LRR, all with
medial and lateral direction. These were referred increased medial excursion, all with medial
to as multi-directional instability. It was also excursion apprehension and all with a stress
clear that patients with medial dislocation often radiographs demonstrating a patella dislocated
were more anxious, depressed, afraid of being medially. The moderator requested I remove this
examined, and afraid of pain far in excess of the paper from the program because he did not
presentation of lateral instability patients. believe that radiographs showing medial patellar
In 1987 I presented a scientific exhibit at the dislocation represented true pathology but rather
annual AAOS meeting. Jack Hughston was quite represented an adequate and appropriate release
excited and spent considerable time studying the and that stress radiographs were not a valid
cases. In 1991 I presented at AAOS a case series testing method.
464 R. A. Teitge
Fig. 3 Radiographs of a 40-year-old women who had a measures 16 mm. The increase in medial displacement is
lateral release 1 year after a dashboard injury of the left 24 mm. D and E are lateral stress radiographs. (D) Lateral
knee sustained in a minor automobile accident. (A) static stress of the operated knee shows lateral patellar dis-
axial patellar view post-lateral release shows no pathol- placement of 15 mm and medial tilt of 44°. (E) Lateral
ogy. B and C are medial stress radiographs taken 1 year stress of the normal patella shows lateral displacement of
after lateral release. (B) A complete medial patellar 10 mm and medial tilt of 26°. In this patient lateral release
dislocation is obvious. Medial displacement on the left produced a pathologic increase in lateral displacement of
patella measures 40 mm from the Laurin reference line. 5 mm. and increased medial tilt of 18°
(C) Medial displacement of the normal right patella
In 1996 we reported [4] that stress radiographs group the mean difference in lateral and medial
were the only radiographic choice for the diag- displacement between the asymptomatic side and
nosis of medial patellar instability (Figs. 3 and the symptomatic side was 7.5 and 0.2 mm. In the
4). No other measure of axial radiographs gave a medial instability group the difference in lateral
hint of medial subluxation or dislocation. It was displacement between the symptomatic (L.R.)
also the strongest test to diagnose lateral insta- and asymptomatic side was 0.5 mm while the
bility. In the control group the mean difference in mean difference in medial displacement between
lateral and medial displacement (glide) between the symptomatic (L.R.) and asymptomatic knees
the right and left normal knees was 1.3 and was 10.3 mm. In the multi-instability group the
1.2 mm respectively. In the lateral instability difference in lateral and medial displacement
Warning: Lateral Retinacular Release … 465
Fig. 4 24 year old athlete post lateral release and lateral medial cartilage. B the patella was unstable enough to stay
facet chondroplasty for anterior knee pain. Pain was in the dislocated position for CT which shows complete
unresolved and she underwent a second chondroplasty medial dislocation and contact of the lateral facet with the
and lateral release. A CT arthrogram shows complete medial trochlear edge
removal of lateral facet articular cartilage with intact
Ligament Reconstruction (LPFLR) is unpre- isometric points. Secure fixation of the graft
dictable and often unreliable, even though the which is not lost over time is essential. Mountney
repairs at surgery look strong. et al. [6] compared fixation of an MPFL graft
The principles of ligament reconstruction are fixation with suture repair of the ruptured liga-
well known. Ligaments attach to bones with a ment, and with the failure load of the intact
unique and complex geometry which prevents ligament. Three fixation methods for a tendon
excess displacement. Ligament reconstruction graft included suturing the graft to the bone
requires selection of an adequate graft, proper edges with suture anchors, interference screws
location of the graft, proper tension, adequate anchoring grafts at the tunnel entrances, inter-
fixation and avoidance of local mechanical ference screws anchoring the graft on the lateral
damage. There is much literature on each of these edge of tunnels after crossing the femur and
requirements. Adequate graft material requires a patella. Normal MPFL ruptured at 208 N, liga-
strength to withstand displacement forces, but ment suture repair failed at 37 N as the suture cut
also the laxity required to prevent over- through the ligament tissue, suture anchor fixa-
constraint. Tendons used for grafting do not tion failed at 142 N usually by the anchors
have the same materials property as ligaments pulling out of the bone, interference screw
but are stiffer. They do not have the same geo- (8 mm dia.) fixation at the entrance to tunnels
metrical fiber arrangement. Thus, ligament failed at 126 N with the grafts pulling past the
reconstructions run a risk of over-constraint of femoral screws, and passing the graft through the
patellar motion in some joint positions and patella and femur and fixing on the lateral side
excess laxity in others. The location of the graft with interference screws failed at 195 N with the
on both the femur and patella should be such that grafts pulling past the screws. This study should
changes in distance between these two attach- be applicable to LPFL fixation.
ment points does not change with knee flexion In 1982 I did the first LPFL reconstruction for
−extension. This so-called isometric location is a a failed repair of a lateral retinacular release.
weak compensation for our lack of reproducing I have followed this patient for 30 years. The
ligament geometry and normal ligament laxity. patella has remained stable. The first series of
Isometers measure distances between points. reconstructions used a 1 cm square patellar bone
Measurement of the change in length with knee block from the proximal edge of the patella and
motion allows estimating tension changes partial thickness quadriceps tendon graft (Figs. 5
between points on the patella and femur. With and 6). The square bone block was countersunk
the isometer placed into a 2.5 mm hole in the into the lateral femoral condyle at the isometric
medial patella a k-wire with an attached string point. Thin bone chisels cut a square recess into
may be “walked” around potential attachment the femoral condyle and the patellar bone block
sites for graft attachment to the lateral femur. was held in place with a lag screw. This allowed
I have used since the mid 1980’s a “tension the quadriceps tendon to run straight from its
isometer” developed by Synthes. By using a bone block without bending over sharp corners.
constant pneumatic pressure, the piston applies a A transverse hole was placed across the upper
constant tension to the test string and length 1/3 of the patella. Obviously and unfortunately
change can be read within 0.5 mm. Charles removing a bone block from the upper 1 cm of
Henning, M.D. compared accuracy of this with the patella and placing a transverse tunnel at the
various commercial isometers and concluded the same level created a stress riser and a few patellar
pneumatic gave consistent almost perfect mea- fractures were not surprising. Additionally, a
surements as opposed to spring isometers. The 1 cm wide quadriceps tendon graft was far larger
graft will occupy an area larger than the isometric than was probably necessary for a LPFL graft.
point and will typically migrate away from the Roger Torga-Spak’s [7] description of the tech-
isometric point to one side of a tunnel opening, nique reported that 60 of these operations had
so the graft tunnels need to be shifted behind the been performed before his 2004 publication.
Warning: Lateral Retinacular Release … 467
Fig. 5 Lateral patellofemoral ligament reconstruction. isometer in the medial patella and the k-wire on the lateral
The technique is not important as long as the objectives epicondylar region. Drawing of the quadriceps graft
outlined are met. Patellar bone quadriceps graft. The bone attached to the lateral femur and then passed through the
block was countersunk into the lateral femoral condyle at patellar tunnel and back onto the anterior surface of the
the isometric point, the quadriceps graft was passed patella
through a transverse tunnel in the patella. Drawing of the
Fig. 6 Left knee approach for lateral PF ligament transpatellar hole to a k-wire which is walked around the
reconstruction. To locate the isometric site on the lateral epicondyle until an isometric position or a position which
femoral epicondyle, the tip of a pneumatic driven piston allows the string to become 1-3 mm looser with flexion is
isometer is inserted into a 2.5 mm drill hole in the medial located. The graft will be positioned immediately poste-
patella; a #2 suture runs from the piston, through the rior to this isometric location
Gradually I have shifted to hamstring allo- graft. Obviously tension would be different in the
grafts, largely because of the risk of patellar two limbs I have not used ITB graft because of
fracture and the complexity of countersinking a the observation reported in 1980 [8] that 53% of
bone block with lag screw fixation. I have not patients in which a portion of the ITB was used
studied the tension behavior of a double bundle for a lateral extra-articular reconstruction of ACL
468 R. A. Teitge
instability demonstrated medial tilting of the is poor and the decision to improve balance with
patella on post-op axial radiographs. lateral release is likely a poor choice. Case
Lateral PF Ligament Reconstruction is a sal- examples shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
vage procedure to improve the complication of
medial instability. It cannot be considered a cure
for whatever reason the lateral release was sup- References
posed to improve. Since the lateral retinaculum
does provide a resistance to lateral patellar dis- 1. Losee RE, Johnson TR, Southwick WO. Anterior
placement it was observed early that patients with subluxation of the lateral tibial plateau. A diagnostic
test and operative repair. J Bone Joint Surg Am.
lateral instability often noted improvement in their 1978;60(8):1015−30.
lateral instability with LPFL reconstruction. 2. Slocum DB, Larson RL. Pes anserinus transplantation.
Results have held up and I am unaware of any A surgical procedure for control of rotatory instability of
recurrence of medial dislocation. Lag screws used the knee. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1968;50(2): 226−42.
3. Laurin CA, et al. The abnormal lateral patellofemoral
for fixation often had to be removed because of angle: a diagnostic roentgenographic sign of recurrent
the irritation to the overlying ITB. The clinical patellar subluxation. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1978;60
outcome cannot be assessed beyond the patients (1):55–60.
report of improvement because of the multiple 4. Teitge RA, et al. Stress radiographs of the patellofe-
moral joint. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1996;78(2):193–
variables of their underlying disease. Residual 203.
symptoms may arise from the original undiag- 5. Pagenstert G, et al. Open lateral patellar retinacular
nosed cause of pain or from an imbalance between lengthening versus open retinacular release in lateral
medial and lateral retinacular tightness. It is gen- patellar hypercompression syndrome: a prospective
double-blinded comparative study on complications
erally impossible to diagnose this imbalance. As and outcome. Arthroscopy. 2012;28(6):788–97.
Pagenstert [5] reported the group difference 6. Mountney J, et al. Tensile strength of the medial
between < 1 quadrant, 1−2 quadrants and 3 patellofemoral ligament before and after repair or
quadrants of medial glide was Kujala scores of reconstruction. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005;87(1):36–40.
7. Teitge RA, Torga Spak R. Lateral patellofemoral
57.7, 90.3 and 75.3 (significantly different). This ligament reconstruction. Arthroscopy. 2004;20(9): 998
reflects the potential extreme sensitivity of reti- −1002.
nacular imbalance. It must also be acknowledged 8. Teitge RA, et al. Iliotibial band transfer for anterolat-
the agreement between 5 examiners in the Patel- eral rotatory instability of the knee. Summary of 54
cases. Am J Sports Med. 1980; 8(4): 223−7.
loFemoral Study Group was only 11% for 9. Smith TO, et al. The intra- and inter-observer relia-
assessment of patellar glide and 8% for assess- bility of the physical examination methods used to
ment of patellar tilt (kappa = 0.11 and 0.08) [9]. assess patients with patellofemoral joint instability.
Clearly, assessment of retinacular tension balance Knee. 2012;19(4):404–10.
Reconstruction of the Lateral
Patellofemoral Ligament
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 469
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_31
470 D. S. Zhu and L. D. Farrow
osteoarthritis or inflammatory arthropathy anchor placement and graft healing. The trough
arthroplasty options should be considered rather should be placed at the mid-portion of the patella.
than soft tissue stabilization techniques. The incision for the iliotibial band harvest is
made along the lateral aspect of the thigh. This
incision is started at the lateral epicondyle and
4 Procedure taken proximally 7–8 cm. With mobilization of
the subcutaneous tissues a smaller incision can
We perform the procedure under general anes- be utilized. Sharp dissection is carried down to
thesia with a regional nerve block. The patient is expose the iliotibial band. The subcutaneous are
positioned supine on an operative table with the then lifted bluntly to allow for wide visualization
contralateral extremity padded free from pres- of the iliotibial band. Next, the subcutaneous
sure. A non-sterile tourniquet is applied high on tissues at the level of the patella are tunneled
the thigh. If we are performing arthroscopy, a proximally in order to form a subcutaneous
lateral stress post is utilized in order to aid with tunnel between the anterior incision and the lat-
application of valgus stress when viewing the eral incision for later passage of our graft. At this
medial compartment. Some authors prefer the point in time a 10 mm wide 80 mm long strip
use of a leg holder. We prefer to position the of iliotibial band is created. (Fig. 1) The proxi-
operative leg free in order to allow full range of mal strip is released sharply but the distal base is
motion of both the hip and knee during surgery maintained. The free end of the graft is whip-
to better assess stability of the patellofemoral stitched with a #2 non-absorbable braided suture.
joint. Once positioning is complete, the entire A large, blunt forcep is then tunneled under the
lower extremity is prepped and draped. The limb soft tissues just lateral to the patella and passed to
is exsanguinated and the procedure is performed the distal aspect of the opening in the iliotibial
under tourniquet control. band. The tag sutures are then used to pull the
When addressing iatrogenic medial instability, strip of the iliotibial band anteriorly, bringing the
preexisting incisions may dictate approach for graft perpendicularly under the iliotibial band.
reconstruction of the lateral patellofemoral liga- (Fig. 2) While suture fixation can be utilized to
ment. In the absence of prior surgery and in most attach the iliotibial band strip to the lateral patella,
cases of revision surgery we utilize a two inci- we prefer suture anchor fixation. We utilize and
sion approach. The goal is to adequately visual- all suture anchor placed into the groove we pre-
ize the mid-portion of the iliotibial band and also viously made at the mid-point of the patella. This
visualize the lateral border of the patella. We first anchor is placed at the hemisphere of the patella.
utilize an anterior midline incision to expose the Typically, only a single anchor is necessary for
patella. This incision is typically 5–7 cm in fixation. The knee is now placed over a bolster in
length. This is taken down through the subcuta- order to position it at 20–30°. The patella is
neous tissues until the prepatellar fascia is iden- placed in the center of the groove and the suture
tified. The prepatellar fascia is then incised from our suture anchor is passed in order to fix the
longitudinally and lifted laterally in order to iliotibial band strip to the lateral aspect of the
expose the lateral retinaculum. In cases of patella. (Fig. 2) Any excess iliotibial band strip is
extensive iatrogenic medial instability the lateral then sutured to the anterior patellar periosteum
retinaculum may be completely absent and the with an absorbable #0 suture.
joint may be open to the subcutaneous tissues. In Stability of the patella is then checked in full
most cases the lateral joint is covered by a sheet extension and at 30 degrees of flexion. The knee
of scar tissue. The lateral patellar border is is taken through a full arc of motion to assess
identified and a cautery knife is utilized to clear patellar tracking. The goal is 1 quadrant of
the lateral border of soft tissue. A small rongeur medial glide of the patella and the patella should
is then utilized to decorticate the lateral patellar be able to be everted to neutral when the patella
border and create shallow trough to aid with is centered over the trochlear groove with the
472 D. S. Zhu and L. D. Farrow
Fig. 1 A 10 mm wide 80
mm long strip of iliotibial
band is created. Reprinted
with permission, Cleveland
Clinic Foundation ©2022. All
Rights Reserved
may be unlocked for weight bearing at 4 weeks medial patellar instability exists as isolated case
post-surgery if quadriceps function and gait reports or case series [13–21]. One of the first
mechanics allow. The brace is discontinued at studies evaluating outcomes came from Hugh-
6 weeks post-surgery. Expectations are that ston et al. who evaluated direct repair or recon-
patients may begin a running program at struction of the LPFL in 63 patients with
3 months post-surgery. Return to sport may symptomatic patellofemoral instability [9]. At
commence as soon as 4 months post-surgery if final follow-up 80% of patients reported good to
pain and effusion has resolved, range of motion excellent results and 6 knees required additional
has fully returned and when the patient has met surgery due to failure to improve [9]. The authors
return to play criteria as determined by the found this technique was effective in relieving
Physical Therapist. painful medial subluxation of the patella [9].
In addition to improved functional status fol-
lowing LPFL reconstruction, Sanchis-Alfonso
7 Outcomes et al. also evaluated resolution of psychological
variables following reconstruction [18]. As
Due to the rare occurrence of medial patellar mentioned previously, patients with medial sub-
instability there have not been many large studies luxation of the patella following overzealous
evaluating outcomes following lateral patellofe- lateral release can present not only with appre-
moral ligament reconstruction. Most of the evi- hension and instability but also patellofemoral
dence describing lateral techniques to address pain. In the study by Sanchis-Alfonso et al. 24%
Reconstruction of the Lateral Patellofemoral Ligament 475
of patients had signs of depression, 59% had 5. Ostermeier S, Holst M, Hurschler C, Windhagen H,
anxiety, 41% exhibited catastrophizing with Stukenborg-Colsman C. Dynamic measurement of
patellofemoral kinematics and contact pressure after
respect to patellofemoral pain and 100% exhib- lateral retinacular release: an in vitro study. Knee
ited kinesiophobia [18]. Following LPFL recon- Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2007;15(5):547–54.
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Patellar Tendon Imbrication
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 477
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_32
478 R. M. Patel et al.
Fig. 1 Stepwise patellar tendon imbrication procedure. See text for details. Adapted from Andrish [18]. Reprinted with
permission, Cleveland Clinic Center for Medical Art & Photography ©2022. All Rights Reserved
Take Home Messages 2. Amin NH, Lynch TS, Patel RM, Patel N,
Saluan P. Medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruc-
• Patella alta is a common underlying cause of recurrent tion. JBJS Rev. 2015;3(7):1–9.
patellar instability 3. Atkin DM, Fithian DC, Marangi KS, Stone ML,
• Tibial tuberosity osteotomy has been historically Dobson BE, Mendelsohn C. Characteristics of
performed to correct patella alta, but this procedure patients with primary acute lateral patellar dislocation
cannot be used on skeletally immature patients due to and their recovery within the first 6 months of injury.
an open apophysis Am J Sports Med. 2000;28(4):472–9.
4. Quirbach S, Smekal V, Rosenberger RE, El Attal R.
• Patellar tendon imbrication can be performed on Scho¨ ttle PB. Anatomical double-bundle reconstruc-
skeletally immature and mature patients to correct tion of the medial patellofemoral ligament with a
patella alta gracilis autograft [in German]. Oper Orthop Trau-
• Careful dissection of the patellar tendon at 50% depth matol. 2012;24:131–9.
throughout ensures appropriate integrity 5. Shah JN, Howard JS, Flanigan DC, Brophy RH,
Carey JL, Lattermann C. A systematic review of
• Performing locking stitches prevents migration of the
complications and failures associated with medial
imbrication/reduction
patellofemoral ligament reconstruction for recurrent
• A clinical study evaluating patellar tendon imbrication patellar dislocation. Am J Sports Med.
demonstrated that there was no significant loss of the 2012;40:1916–23.
corrected length of the patellar tendon after a minimum 6. Gao G, Liu P, Xu Y. Treatment of patellar disloca-
of 2 years postoperatively tion with arthroscopic medial patellofemoral liga-
Key Message: In both skeletally immature and ment reconstruction using gracilis tendon autograft
mature patients, patellar tendon imbrication is an and modified double-patellar tunnel technique: Min-
effective procedure in treating patella alta with imum 5-year patient-reported outcomes. J Orthopaed
recurring patellar instability Surg Res. 2020;15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/
s13018-020-1556-4.
7. McNeilan RJ, Everhart JS, Mescher PK,
Abouljoud M, Magnussen RA, Flanigan DC. Graft
choice in isolated medial patellofemoral ligament
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Quadricepsplasty
Jason Koh
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 483
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_33
484 J. Koh
Table 1 Indications
1. Contracture of extensor mechanism resulting in obligate lateral patella dislocation and poor function
2. Congenital dislocation of the patella
3. Given “normal” alignment, failure of lateral lengthening to permit relocation of patella
4. Arthrofibrosis/arthrogryposis with quadriceps contracture
5. Significant patella alta requiring distalization that would result in loss of knee flexion
Table 2 Contraindications
1. Lack of quadriceps contracture
2. Minimal symptoms or impact on daily activities
3. Inability to comply with postoperative management
4. Poor or absent quadriceps function
5. Inadequate soft tissue coverage
486 J. Koh
knee brace locked in extension for 2 weeks, and mechanism, meticulous and strong repair tech-
then progression by allowing 30 degrees addi- niques, and rehabilitation that respects the biol-
tional range of motion every 2 weeks in the brace ogy of healing. Recurrent instability is related to
until 90 degrees of knee flexion is achieved. With improper tensioning and the lack of strong
the brace locked in extension, touch down medial structures to restrain the patella. Recon-
weightbearing is permitted with the brace for the struction of the MPFL helps decrease the risk of
first 2 weeks, then progressed to 50% at 4 weeks instability. In either case, if patients remain
and full at 6 weeks. The brace can be discon- symptomatic, revision repair and reconstruction
tinued when quadriceps function allows a would be appropriate.
straight leg raise. The initial goal range of motion Other potential issues include wound com-
is 110 degrees of knee flexion by 3 months. plications or failure of range of motion.
Progression is slow to allow tissues to heal
without excessive lengthening or stretching out.
10 Take Home Message
5. Bergman NR, Williams PF. Habitual dislocation of 17. Marumo K, Fujii K, Tanaka T, Takeuchi H, Saito H,
the patella in flexion. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1988;70 Koyano Y. Surgical management of congenital
(3):415–9. permanent dislocation of the patella in nail patella
6. Gao GX, Lee EH, Bose K. Surgical management of syndrome by Stanisavljevic procedure. J Orthop Sci.
congenital and habitual dislocation of the patella. 1999;4(6):446–9.
J Pediatr Orthop. 1990;10(2):255–60. 18. Wada A, Fujii T, Takamura K, Yanagida H, Suri-
7. Ghanem I, Wattincourt L, Seringe R. Congenital jamorn P. Congenital dislocation of the patella.
dislocation of the patella. Part II: orthopaedic man- J Child Orthop. 2008;2(2):119–23.
agement. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000;20(6):817–22. 19. Jones RD, Fisher RL, Curtis BH. Congenital dislo-
8. Dos Santos CF. GA TAM, Rocha de Faria JL, Perez cation of the patella. Clin Orthop Relat Res.
da Motta D, Dos Santos Cerqueira F, Adolphson F. 1976;119:177–83.
Minimally Invasive Quadricepsplasty Arthrosc Tech. 20. Ellsworth B, Hidalgo Perea S, Green DW. Stepwise
2019;8(3):e343–7. lengthening of the quadriceps extensor mechanism
9. Oliveira VG, D’Elia LF, Tirico LE, Gobbi RG, for severe obligatory and fixed patella dislocators.
Pecora JR, Camanho GL, et al. Judet quadricep- Arthrosc Tech. 2021;10(5):e1327–31.
splasty in the treatment of posttraumatic knee 21. Eilert RE. Congenital dislocation of the patella. Clin
rigidity: long-term outcomes of 45 cases. J Trauma Orthop Relat Res. 2001;389:22–9.
Acute Care Surg. 2012;72(2):E77-80. 22. Drennan JC. Congenital dislocation of the knee and
10. Hung NN, Tan D, Do Ngoc Hien N. Patellar patella. Instr Course Lect. 1993;42:517–24.
dislocation due to iatrogenic quadriceps fibrosis: 23. Ferrone JD Jr. Congenital deformities about the knee.
results of operative treatment in 54 cases. J Child Orthop Clin North Am. 1976;7(2):323–30.
Orthop. 2014;8(1):49–59. 24. Sever R, Fishkin M, Hemo Y, Wientroub S,
11. Thompson TC. Quadricepsplasty. Ann Surg. Yaniv M. Surgical treatment of congenital and
1945;121(5):751–4. obligatory dislocation of the patella in children.
12. Masse A, Biasibetti A, Demangos J, Dutto E, J Pediatr Orthop. 2019;39(8):436–40.
Pazzano S, Gallinaro P. The judet quadricepsplasty: 25. Grisdela PT, Paschos N, Tanaka MJ. Fixed (congen-
long-term outcome of 21 cases. J Trauma. 2006;61 ital) patellar dislocation. Clin Sports Med. 2022;41
(2):358–62. (1):123–36.
13. Merchan EC, Myong C. Quadricepsplasty: the Judet 26. Ramaswamy R, Kosashvili Y, Murnaghan JJ,
technique and results of 21 posttraumatic cases. Yau CK, Cameron JC. Bilateral rotational osteo-
Orthopedics. 1992;15(9):1081–5. tomies of the proximal tibiae and tibial tuberosity
14. Ali AM, Villafuerte J, Hashmi M, Saleh M. Judet’s distal transfers for the treatment of congenital lateral
quadricepsplasty, surgical technique, and results in dislocations of patellae: a case report and literature
limb reconstruction. Clin Orthop Relat Res. review. Knee. 2009;16(6):507–11.
2003;415:214–20. 27. Ceder LC, Larson RL. Z-plasty lateral retinacular
15. Daoud H, O'Farrell T, Cruess RL. Quadricepsplasty. release for the treatment of patellar compression
The Judet technique and results of six cases. J Bone syndrome. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1979;144:110–3.
Joint Surg Br. 1982;64(2):194–7. 28. Mo Y, Jing Y, Wang D, Paley D, Ning B. Modified
16. Bidolegui F, Pereira SP, Pires RE. Safety and Langenskiold procedure for congenital patella dislo-
efficacy of the modified Judet quadricepsplasty in cations in pediatric patients. BMC Musculoskelet
patients with post-traumatic knee stiffness. Eur J Disord. 2022;23(1):241.
Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2021;31(3):549–55.
Sulcus Deepening Trochleoplasty
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 491
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_34
492 E. Giovannetti de Sanctis and D. H. Dejour
Table 1 The Trochlear dysplasia Dejour’s classification.. CS: Crossing sign; SS: Supratrochlear spur; DC: Double
contour
Type Sagittal View Axial images
A CS Shallower trochlea
B CS and SS Flat or convex
C CS and DC Convex lateral facet and hypoplastic medial facet
D CS, SS, DC A prominent and convex lateral facet with a vertical connection to an hypoplastic medial
facet almost absent (cliff pattern)
Fig. 3 Trochlear dysplasia classification according to D. facet (Slice images); Type D: Crossing sign, supra-
Dejour: Type A: Crossing sign (X-rays). Shallower trochlear spur, and double-contour sign (X-rays).
trochlea (Slice images); Type B: Crossing sign and Hypoplastic medial facet proximally short and almost
supratrochlear spur (X-rays). Flat or convex trochlea absent with a vertical connection to a prominent and
(Slice images); Type C: Crossing sign and double-contour convex lateral facet defining the so called “cliff pattern”
sign (X-rays). Convex lateral facet and hypoplastic medial (Slice images)
494 E. Giovannetti de Sanctis and D. H. Dejour
A posteriorly directed force produced, mainly slightly modified: the sulcus is clearly visible
by the quadriceps, pushes the patella against the although the groove has a shallower angle. No
trochlea. Both the articulating surfaces orienta- shape modifying procedures are necessary;
tion and the tibial internal rotation during knee recurrent dislocations or maltracking should be
flexion, create a medially directed vector, attributed to other anatomic risk factors: patella
directing the patellar tracking [13]. alta, tibial tubercle—trochlear groove (TT–TG)
A trochlea without properly oriented facets distance or patellar tilt.
(TD) prevents the patella from sliding properly Although trochlear dysplasia type C has a
up and down within the margins [14]. shape substantially altered there is no promi-
Trochlear shape guide the patellar tracking and nence to be corrected, making the choice of the
therefore an incongruency between trochlear and proper treatment controversial. Sulcus deepening
patellar surfaces, has a high influence on patellar trochleoplasty is not indicated for those patients,
tilt, subluxation and lateral displacement [11]. usually undergoing an alternative procedure like
The PF joint reaction force, which is linked to a mild medialization and/or distalization.
the onset and progression of orteoarthritis, The degree of instability and clinical symp-
depends also on the trochlear prominence. The toms should also be considered when proposing
bigger the trochlear prominence, the greater the this procedure to a patient. Sulcus deepening
compressive reaction force in flexion. Therefore, trochleoplasty, as any other surgical procedure, is
decreasing the protrusion would lead to an liable to failure and therefore, the indication
expected reduction of the PF reaction force. should not be given lightly.
Associated anatomic risk factors have to be
evaluated preoperatively in order to plan an
4 Goals eventual correction: tibial tubercle distalization/
medialization and/or lateral release. Tibial tuber-
Sulcus deepening trochleoplasty has three func- cle medialization might be not necessary in cases
tions while treating patients with trochlear dys- of increased TT–TG, as sulcus deepening
plasia: it modifies the trochlear shape with a trochleoplasty lateralizes the groove, thus
central groove and oblique medial and lateral decreasing the this distance. The sulcus deepen-
facets; it decreases the patellofemoral joint ing trochleoplasty is part of the “menu à la carte”,
reaction force by reducing the supratrochlear meaning specific procedures for each of the main
prominence (spur); and might reduce the TT–TG anatomic risk factors in patellar instability.
value by a proximal realignment. The MPFL (Medial patello-femoral ligament)
reconstruction is systematically added to the
sulcus deepening trochleoplasty, in order to treat
5 Indications the consequence of the ligament rupture occurred
during the first dislocation episode.
Sulcus deepening trochleoplasty has specific and
selective indications: e.g.patients with types B
and D trochlear dysplasia, in which the promi- 6 Surgical Technique
nence of the trochlea (supratrochlear spur) is
relevant (>5 mm); recurrent patellar dislocation The procedure is generally performed with the
and maltracking. In patients with patellofemoral patient supine under both regional anesthesia and
osteoarthritis, open growth plates, and pain with sedation. A thigh tourniquet is positioned.
no history of dislocations this procedure is A straight midline incision is performed, with the
contraindicated. knee flexed at 90°, from the superior pole of the
Trochlear dysplasia type A is not considered a patella to the tibiofemoral joint line. A tran-
severe morphologic abnormality, as the groove is squadricipital approach is done.
Sulcus Deepening Trochleoplasty 495
Fig. 4 Surgical exposure. The periosteum is incised along the osteochondral edge and reflected away from the
trochlear margin. The anterior femoral cortex should be visible to guide the bone resection
The patella is not everted but retracted later- The planned trochlear groove is marked in a
ally and it is carefully inspected for cartilage more lateral position according to the pre-
damages. The trochlea is exposed (Fig. 4). An operative TT-TG value to be aligned with the
incision along the femoro-trochlear junction is anatomical femoral axis.
performed and the peritrochlear synovium/ Thereafter the under surface of the trochlea is
periosteum are reflected using a periosteal ele- assessed. A thin strip of femoral anterior cortical
vator. The anterior distal femoral cortex should bone is removed all around the trochlea, with a
be visible to evaluate the supratrochlear spur thickness equal to the height of the prominence
adapting the amount of deepening. from the anterior femoral cortex, i.e., the bump
With the trochlea fully exposed, the native formed. A sharp osteotome is used to remove the
trochlear groove is marked with a sterile pen. bone.
Two additional divergent lines, representing the Subsequently, cancellous bone must be
lateral and medial facet limits, are drawn, from removed from the under surface of the trochlea.
the notch going laterally and medially, through Using an offset guide-equipped drill, different
the condylotrochlear grooves (sulcus terminalis). tunnels are made through the subtrochlear can-
Those two lines have to be out of the tibiofe- cellous bone, from proximal to distal (top of the
moral articulation (Fig. 5). notch) and parallel to the anterior cortex.
Fig. 5 After the surgical exposure, the new trochlea is drawn. From the intercondylar notch, the bottom of the sulcus
and the facets are planned
496 E. Giovannetti de Sanctis and D. H. Dejour
Fig. 6 In order to allow further modeling to the underlying bone bed, the osteochondral flaps may be cut in the sulcus
and facets lines
The offset guide tip is placed on the antero- Light pressure should be able to model the
distal part of the notch. The distance between the flap to the underlying cancellous bone bed in the
drill and guide tip never goes below 5 mm to distal femur. The groove, and the lateral facet
ensure uniform thickness of the osteochondral external margin, might be cut to allow further
flap and prevent cartilage damage. Thereafter, a modeling (Fig. 6).
high-speed burr is used to remove the cancellous Pieces of bone graft, using the thin strip of
bone bridges between the tunnels. The guide femoral cortical bone removed previously, might
equipped with a cartilage palpator set at 5 mm is be placed medially and laterally, between the flap
used to determine the thickness of the bone and the bone bed, to elevate the medial and lat-
resection and avoid crossing the trochlea or eral facet and increase the angle of the new tro-
producing cartilage injuries inflicted by heat. chlea if necessary. A 145° Polyethylene Pusher is
More cancellous bone could be then removed used to apply light pressure and mold the flap to
from the central metaphyseal part towards the the underlying cancellous bone bed (Fig. 7).
notch, below the planned trochlear groove, to The new trochlea is fixed by placing with one
make the deepest part of the groove flush with absorbable anchor with 2 absorbable sutures
the anterior cortex. (Vicryl number 2) placed at the top of the notch.
Fig. 7 Lateral and anterior views of the dysplastic trochlea after trochleoplasty
Sulcus Deepening Trochleoplasty 497
Both ends of each suture are then fixed at the Phase 2 (46th to 90th day): closed kinetic
proximal lateral and proximal medial (trochlear chain (e.g. cycling) and weight- bearing propri-
facets) bone margins of the corresponding facet oception exercises are started initially respec-
with a knotless anchor. Patellar tracking is tested tively with weak resistance and in bipodal stance.
and measures may be obtained. Periosteum and The anterior and posterior muscular chains are
synovial tissue are sutured to the osteochondral stretched.
edge. Phase 3 (4th to the 6th month): a gradually
The associated procedures are then carried return to sport might be started. Running is
out. allowed initially on a straight line. The patient is
The lateral retinaculum is systematically encouraged to proceed with the rehabilitation on
released or lengthened due to its usual tightness. his own. After 6 to 8 months sports might be
The other instability factors like patella alta or resumed.
axial malalignment are corrected if needed An imaging follow-up is recommended a
according to the “menu à la carte” with medial- 6 weeks and 6 months respectively with radio-
ization and/or distalization. The chronology of graphs (AP, sagittal and axial view at 30° of
the procedure is trochleoplasty first, lateral flexion) and CT scan (Figs. 8 and 9).
release, tibial tubercle osteotomy and then MPFL
reconstruction.
8 Results
factors (patella alta, TT-TG, excessive patellar sulcus deepening trochleoplasty for failure of
tilt). previous surgery with persistent patellar disloca-
Zaffagnini et al. [16] reviewed the clinical tion. Respectively 29.1% and 70.9% of patients
outcomes of MPFL reconstruction with and had type B and D trochlear dysplasia. After the
without sulcus deepening trochleoplasty in procedure, no recurrence of dislocation was
patients affected by trochlear dysplasia. Altrough, recorded up to the last follow-up. Pain decreased
no difference was found in the overall redisloca- significantly and the Apprehension sign was
tion rate between those two groups, they stated negative in respectively 72% and 75% of cases.
that while treating severe trochlear dysplasia, the Ntagiopoulos et al. [19] reviewed retrospec-
redislocation rate is lower when sulcus deepening tively the clinical outcomes of thirty-one sulcus
trochleoplasty is added to MPFL reconstruction. deepening trochleoplasties. No cases of stiffness
Balcarek et al. [17] confirmed that in OPI or instability recurrence or maltracking were
patients with severe trochlear dysplasia, the sul- recorded. The apprehension sign remained posi-
cus deepening trochleoplasty has to be added to tive in 19.3% of cases. The mean preoperative
the MPFL reconstruction to lower the risk of and postoperative International Knee Documen-
post-operative redislocation/subluxation. tation Committee (IKDC) score was respectively
Dejour et al. [18] evaluated 24 knees with a 51 (range, 25–80), and 82 (range, 40–100)
mean follow up of 66 months, undergoing a (p < 0.001). The mean Kujala score improved
Sulcus Deepening Trochleoplasty 499
from 59 (range, 28–81) to 87 (range, 49–100) a high rate in: satisfaction (mean of 9.1/10),
(p < 0.001). return to work (100%) and sport (84.8%).
PF stiffness has been shown as one of the Lutz et al. [26] stated that the addition of bony
main factors decreasing the postoperative clinical procedures to MPFL reconstruction leaded to a
outcomes, leading sometimes to manipulation low redislocation rate, improved physical and
under anaesthesia or arthroscopic arthrolysis sexual activity and a quality of life comparable to
[20]. values reported after isolated MPFT
Zaffagnini et al. [16] have observed in their reconstruction.
systematic review that the addition of the Longo et al. [27] in their systematic review
trochleoplasty to an MPFL reconstruction for the outlined that the Dejour V-shaped sulcus deep-
treatment of severe trochlear dysplasia might ening trochleoplasty leaded to the highest mean
increase the risk of post-operative range of motion Kujala post-operative score (79.3) compared to
(ROM) limitation. the other trochlea modifying shape techniques.
Twenty-nine arthroscopic deepening Debated is the efficacy of this surgical pro-
trochleoplasties were followed up for more than cedure in decreasing PF pain.
twelve months by Blønd and Haugegaard [21]. Faruqui et al. [28] observed a greater risk of
No redislocations or arthrofibrosis were recorded. postoperative anterior knee pain after sulcus
The median Kujala score (range) improved from deepening trochleoplasty. Although four over six
64 (12–90) preoperatively to 95 (47–100) patients reported postoperative anterior knee
postoperatively. The authors therefore stated pain, each one was satisfied with the postopera-
that the use of this technique is safe and tive clinical outcomes.
reproducible. Also Beaufils et al. [20] confirmed the resid-
Song et al. compared trochleoplasty with non- ual mild anterior knee pain as a frequent com-
trochleoplasty surgical procedures as a treatment plication after this procedure.
for patients with severe trochlear dysplasia, out- Von Knoch et al. [29] evaluated forty-five
lining inferior outcomes in terms of range of consecutive sulcus deepening trochleoplasty,
motion (ROM) in the first group [22]. with a mean follow-up of 8.3 years; None of
In Verdonk et al. [23] although the results of those had recurrence of dislocation, However, PF
the majority of patients scored fair/poor on an pain, referred pre-operatively in only 35 knees,
objective scoring system, seventy-seven % were worsened in 15 (33.4%), remained unchanged in
satisfied with the procedure. four (8.8%) and improved in 22 (49%). Four
Seventeen consecutive sulcus deepening knees not referring pain pre-operatively (8.8%)
trochleoplasties, with a one-year minimum fol- kept on being asymptomatic.
low up, were evaluated by Donell et al. [24] Rouanet et al. [30] evaluated thirty-four sul-
Patellar tracking normalized in eleven knees and cus deepening trochleoplasties with a follow up
had a slight J appearance in six. Seven patients of 15 years. Sybjective patient satisfaction and
showed a mild residual apprehension. In terms of postoperative occasional pain rate were respec-
subjective satisfaction, seven, six and two were tively 65% and 53%.
respectively very satisfied, satisfied, and disap- Controversial is the correlation between PF
pointed. Three patients returned to full sports and arthritis, patellar dislocations and sulcus deep-
eight patients required further operations. ening trochleoplasty. Theoretically, the severe
Carstensen et al. [25] evaluated the clinical altered morphology of the trochlea, influences
outcomes of 44 patients with Type B and D the patellar kinematics leading to a greater risk of
trochlear dysplasia, treated with sulcus deepen- patellofemoral osteoarthritis [14]. Whether
ing trochleoplasties plus MPFL reconstruction, patients with OPI and undergoing sulcus deep-
with a minimum follow-up of 2-years. Although ening trochleoplasty are respectively more prone
a 18% rate of postoperative arthrofibrosis and to and protected from developing osteoarthritis
27% rate of overall reoperation, patients reported has not been determined clearly yet [31].
500 E. Giovannetti de Sanctis and D. H. Dejour
Longo et al. [27] stated that sulcus deepening the risk of developing postoperative Joint stiff-
trochleoplasty is associated with improved clin- ness and pain.
ical outcomes and stability and a relatively low Still Controversial is whether the sulcus
rate of osteoarthritis and pain. In Von Knoch deepening trochleoplasty influences the devel-
et al. [29] 30% of knees undergoing sulcus opment of patello-femoral osteoarthritis.
deepening trochleoplasty, evaluated at a mean
follow up of 8.3 years, developed PF degenera- Acknowledgements The authors thank Paulo R.F. Sag-
gin for his work on the previous edition of this chapter.
tive changes. None of the twenty-seven patients
(thirty-one knees) evaluated by Ntagiopoulos
et al. [19] showed radiographic evidence of PF
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Arthroscopic Deepening
Trochleoplasty
Lars Blønd
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 503
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_35
504 L. Blønd
patellofemoral pain, only three studies have purposes of the ADT procedure is reshape the
reported on this and still restraint must be rec- trochlea groove into a more normal configuration
ommended [19–21]. Biomechanical studies have and indirectly to unload the compressive forces
spotted that TD affects the kinematics of the in the PF joint by deepening the trochlea. Indi-
patellofemoral joint and negatively influence the rectly this provides osseous stability by creating
stabilizing forces for the patella [16, 22, 23]. a lateral trochlea wall. Another issue, can in cases
Reviews and metaanalysis have reported low rate with a medialized groove, be to lateralize the
of re-dislocations, high satisfaction, a mean trochlea as this can help the tracking forces.
reduction of pain and a low rate of complications Ideally the trochlea is made approximately
following trochleoplasty [24–27]. Several tech- 4.5 mm deep and the trochlear should be later-
nical variations of deepening trochleoplasty alized to approximate a more normal figure of
procedures have been published and the Arthro- 50% trochlear symmetry [34]. By lateralizing the
scopic deepening trochleoplasty (ADT) that is groove the TT-TG is reduced [35]. In cases with
going to be explained here, is a variant based instability is the ADT technique combined with
upon the thin thin flap Bereiter technique [21, 28, MPFL reconstruction and eventually lateral
31]. The ADT is less invasive and considered to release or lateral lengthening. The MPFL recon-
have the same known advantages from other struction is needed since the trochlea do not
techniques based on minimal invasive surgery. provide stability to the patella until there is suf-
The ADT is in comparison to the open technique, ficient overlap between trochlea and patella, and
more demanding but also more precise due to the that means for the first degrees of knee flexion a
enlargement of the arthroscope. The open patella stabilizing is needed to help the patella to
trochleoplasty is associated with the risk of entrance the groove correctly. In cases with
arthrofibrosis, infection, prolonged pain and scar chronic anterior knee pain without instability is
formation [32] and those complication have yet there no need to reconstruct MPFL. This chapter
not been observed by the ADT method. When will focus only on the ADT technique.
ether this is due to the minimal invasive surgery
itself or a less restrictive postoperative regime is
unclear. Though never reported in the scientific 2 Indication
literature it well known that there is a risk of
cartilage flap fracture during the open trochleo- The main indication for ADT is symptomatic
plasty procedure, and this is significantly reduced patellar instability or severe chronic anterior knee
with the ADT. A case series after ADT in com- pain in patients with severe trochlear dysplasia
bination with MFPL reconstruction demonstrated evaluated by MRI axial scans. The author’s
results comparable with the results obtained for preferred parameters for evaluation of the degree
open trochleoplasty procedures combined with of trochlear dysplasia is the lateral trochlea
MPFL reconstruction [33]. Open trochleoplasty inclination angle and the threshold is 9 degrees,
surgery is considered complex and only for when using the 2 image technique by Joseph
experiences patellofemoral surgeons, and similar et al. [10, 12]. Other radiologic measurements
applies for the ADT and additional arthroscopic which are included in the evaluation is trochlear
skills is needed. Training on cadaver knees is asymmetry, trochlear depth and anterior posterior
recommend, despite cadaver knees typically measurements in relation to the width of the knee
contains a V shaped trochlea with fragile carti- [9, 14, 15]. Clinically the patellar instability
lage, which means that the release of the cartilage patients must have a positive reverse dynamic
flake can be unachievable, but nonetheless it’s patella apprehension test at a minimum of 30
important to practice portals and cartilage fixa- degrees of flexion [36].
tion technique. The cartilage release is more ease Contraindications are relative and can be
when the trochlea is shallow or convex and the severe PF osteoarthritis and open growth plates.
cartilage is more elastic as in clinical cases. The Smaller grade 4 cartilage lesions are not
Arthroscopic Deepening Trochleoplasty 505
necessary a contraindication and healing of the vital. The correct location is parallel to the
damaged cartilage flake occurs. Open growth proximal extent of the flat part of the trochlear
plates are relative contraindication. If the grow- groove in both the frontal and transversal planes,
ing potential is nearing its end, meaning that the to give the right working angle for the instru-
patients are close to the height of the parents and ments. A too distal or too posterior placement
if the girls have had menstruation for more than a can be detrimental since it will not be possible to
year, the procedure can be done safely. get create the correct lateral wall angulation.
A too proximal portal can make it difficult to
reach the most distal part of the trochlea. A 8 mm
3 Technique PassPort Button Canula (ArthrexInc. Naples, FL)
is useful as a working portal (Fig. 1).
A tourniquet is avoided due to production of free
radicals that theoretically can impair healing and
cause increased inflammation. To reduce intra- 3.2 Creation of the Cartilage Flap
operatively bleeding, reduction of leaks from the
portals in combination with gradually elevation A 90-degree radiofrequency device is introduced
of the arthroscopic pump pressure can secure through the lateral suprapatellar portal, the
visualization. One dose of intravenous antibiotics synovium/periosteum is released from the area
is given preoperatively. Antithrombotic prophy- proximal to the trochlear cartilage. The release is
lactic treatment is considered in patients above continued as long proximal so a clear area is
the age of 40 years or in cases with a history of ready for both using the shaver burrs and for later
thrombotic complications. placement of the proximal anchors when the flap
shall be reinserted. The cartilage flap is then
released by the use of respectively a 3- or 4-mm
3.1 Preparation and Portal round shaver burr without a shield, and a lam-
Placement botte osteotome. Initially the shaver burr is
moved from medial to lateral and vice versa. The
Initially a standard knee arthroscopy is done cartilage is undermined, and the progression of
through two small standard anterior portals and the shaver continues more and more distally
the knee is inspected for other intraarticular beneath the cartilage (Fig. 2). As a supplement to
pathologies. The quality of the trochlear cartilage the shaver, a straight and curved lambotte
is evaluated to assure that the procedure is osteotome (6 mm 27 cm) is needed. By add-
technically possible. A superior portal placed as ing the osteotome, the bone resection at the most
proximal as possible to reach an optimal view of lateral part of the trochlea is minimized, helping
the trochlea and this is placed just medial to the to achieve a normal lateral trochlear wall to
quadriceps tendon. In case of a suprapatellar provide the patella with osseous stability
plica, this have to be resected such as the visu- (Fig. 3). The cartilage flap separation from bone
alization is not inhibited. By insertion of a is continued distally until the shaver meets the
hypodermic needle the correct placement is curvature approximately 10 mm from the
identified, and a switching stick is introduced in femoral notch. Before this point is reached dis-
the same direction into the most proximal part of tally, it is recommended to change the 4 mm
the suprapatellar pouch followed by introduction shaver burr to a smaller 3 mm burr, thereby
of the arthroscope. Preferable scope is 45- minimizing the bone resection in the area close to
degrees, but a 30- or 70-degree scope can be the hinge of the cartilage flap. The release should
used as well. With the scope introduced in the be continued in the medial and lateral directions,
suprapatellar portal, the position for the lateral otherwise the hinge of the flap will not become
suprapatellar portal is localized by the needle sufficiently elastic such to be able to fit into the
technique. Correct placement of this portal is new trochlea.
506 L. Blønd
Fig. 1 This demostrates outside and inside view of the superior suprapatellar portal with the arthroscope introduced
and the lateral superopatellar portal with a PassPort canula mounted
Fig. 2 This demonstrate the initial release of the cartilage flap using a shaver burr
the cartilage flap is too stiff, excessive bone on the eyelet loaded with a resorbable tape and a
the rear side of the flap should be gently and suture, so the end of the tape and sutures are
gradually removed until the needed elasticity is equal in length (one tape—Vicryl 3 mm BP-1,
reached. V152G, Ethicon and one 1–0 suture Vicryl CT-2
plus, V335 H) or since the tape is about to being
pulled out of production, alternatively multiple
3.4 Fixation of the Cartilage Flap 1–0 suture Vicryl CT-2 plus, V335 H can be
used. The anchor is placed distal to the cartilage
With the arthroscope remaining in the superior hinge, just proximal to the notch, through the
medial portal, the fixation of the cartilage flap is medial joint line portal. In order to achieve a 90
started by placing a biocomposite 3.5 mm degree insertion angle of the anchor, the knee has
PushLock anchor (Arthrex Inc., Naples FL) with to be flexed close to 45 degrees. A bone socket
508 L. Blønd
Fig. 3 This demonstrate outside and inside use of the osteotome to guide the direction of the osteotomy and to reduce
the bone loss most laterally
for the anchor is initially drilled central in the In about 50% of the cases a gap between the
most distal part of the trochlea, just proximal to cartilage flap and the new trochlea and this
the notch and still distally from the cartilage requires an additional anchor now loaded with
flap. After having introduced the anchor into the the vicryl (Fig. 7). Obviously, co-morbities are
socket, one of the tape endings are grasped and treated as indicated, such as medial patellofe-
brought out through the canula and loaded into moral ligament insufficiency with MPFL recon-
another similar anchor. On the lateral side, based struction, distalizations of the tibial tubercle in
upon the hardness of the bone, the socket can be cases of patella alta, de-rotational osteotomies in
prepared using either a taping device or a burr, cases of torsional abnormalites, varising osteo-
placed in a spot superior to the cartilage flap and tomies etc.
lateral to the center of the groove. The tape is From a biomechanical point it should be
gradually tensioned thereby pressing the cartilage stressed that when a MPFL reconstruction is
flap into the new groove, and the anchor is done in conjunction to an ADT, following issues
inserted into its position. With the anchor posi- have to be taken into consideration. The axis of
tioned, the tape is locked, and the excess is cut. rotation around the femoral epicondylar axis, as
Next the arthroscope is introduced through the described by Coughlin et al. [37], is affected due
superior lateral canula. The superior medial to the bone resection caused by the ADT. The
portal is in a similar way used for insertion of the distance (radius) from the center of rotation (the
next anchor. This should also be placed superior foot print in the epicondyle) to the resection area
to cartilage flap and medial to the center of the in the new groove is shortened. Consequently,
groove. The cartilage flap is now sufficiently both the native MPFL and the MPFL graft are
stabilized into the new trochlea groove (Fig. 6). relatively slack in extension. If this is not
Arthroscopic Deepening Trochleoplasty 509
Fig. 4 This demonstrate how the PowerRasp can help creating a smooth lateral wall of the new trochlea
Fig. 5 This demonstrate how the elasticity of cartilage flap can be tested using stump instrument
weight bearing. This regime has been practiced been published [28], in which significant
for the past 8 years without related complications. improvements in Kujala and KOOS scores were
Postoperative rehabilitation is detailed in observed with 93% satisfied with the outcome
Table 1. and 55% returning to sports. In all cases the
preoperative range of movements or more have
been achieved. A later smaller case series with
5 Results similar results have been published as an abstract
[38].
The author has conducted the ADT procedure in
more than 150 knees with a median age of 20
(range 12–51). The formalized registration has 6 Complications
ended due to GPDR issues. In seven cases were
the indication severe chronic patellofemoral pain Two complications (DVT) have occurred. Eight
and no MPFL reconstruction was done. The patients have had further surgery. Three patients
surgery has in all cases been one-day surgeries. who had high TT-TG distances above 20 mm
The results from the first 29 cases of ADT in developed symptomatic subluxations postopera-
combination with MPFL reconstruction have tively and were subsequently successfully
Arthroscopic Deepening Trochleoplasty 511
Fig. 6 This demonstrates how the cartilage flap in pressed into the new trochlear groove by the tape fixation
corrected by medialization of the tibial tubercle. pain due to degeneration of cartilage in the lateral
Those cases were all operated in the start of the part of the trochlear. At further examination
series and at that phase and due to lack of increased femoral anteversion was recognized.
knowledge, the new trochlear groove was not The patients had undergone external rotational
lateralized during the trochleoplasty procedure. distal femoral osteotomy and tibial internal
Three patients also from the start of the series osteotomy elsewhere. This procedure worsened
experienced pronounced postoperative anterior the situation. Case number seven has re-
knee pain in flexion. On examination, tightness dislocated (by report) due to overlooked exces-
of the lateral retinaculum was found, indicating sive femoral anteversion.
lateral hyper-pressure syndrome, and they all
responded positively to a subsequent lateral
release. This have resulted in a more liberal use 7 Discussion
of a subsequent lateral release. Since there have
been no further cases developing symptoms of For the past fourteen years period the author has
hyperpressure. One patient who already have had performed the ADT in more than 150 knees, with
five operations, developed severe anterior knee no cases of arthrofibrosis or infections, however
512 L. Blønd
Fig. 7 This demonstrates a cases with the use of the extra vicryl sutures in order to provide extra fixation compared to
Fig. 6
complication as mentioned above have occurred. combined ADT and MPFL reconstruction, sig-
Since the original paper was published in 2010, nificantly improved median knee scores for all
the procedure has undergone minor changes in measured parameters with no re-dislocations
addition to above mentioned. The superior lateral were found [28]. These results have later been
canula have been omitted, since it wasn’t neces- confirmed in a second follow-up study including
sary and the PowerRasp 4.0 mm 13 cm AR- 18 more knees [38]. Based on the theory that the
8400PR (Arthrex Inc., Naples FL) was success- trochleoplasty doesn’t provide sufficient stability
fully introduced in 2016 and this has helped to the patella in the initial 20 degrees of flexion,
smoothening the lateral wall of the new trochlear concomitant MPFL reconstructions are more
groove. The fixation method for the cartilage flap, frequently a concomitant procedure with
with the use of absorbable tapes in combination trochleoplasty as is evident in four recent series of
with suture anchors, was adopted for the open trochleoplasty procedures [21, 40–43].
trochleoplasty several years ago. The ADT has A significant relationship between trochlea
until now only been combined with osteotomy in cartilage lesions and trochlea dysplasia has been
a single case, where the a distalisation of the tibial documented [5, 44, 45]. Neumann et al.
tubercle was done due to significantly reduced observed, in a 50-month follow-up of 46 patients
patellotrochlea overlap [39]. In the primary study, after trochleoplasty, that in a subgroup of 26
a median VAS pain score of 3 was observed 24 h patients with radiographic degenerative changes
postoperatively, and this equalized the level of or intraoperative findings of chondromalacia, that
pain scores from MPFL reconstructions alone. there were comparable subjective post-operative
Based on these findings and later observations, improvements in this group, compared to the
we have experienced that the combined ADT and patients without chondral changes [46]. Those
MPFL procedure unproblematic and can be car- findings have encouraged the author to include
ried out as one-day surgery. In a follow-up study patients for ADT with more degenerative carti-
of a consecutive series of 29 knees in patients lage changes in the trochlea and the results have
troubled by patella instability and treated by been positive.
Arthroscopic Deepening Trochleoplasty 513
Table 1 The physiotherapy guided rehabilitation program after arthroscopic deepening trochleoplasty
Day Goal Exercise Physical Therapy
0–1 Range of motion Ankel pumps
(ROM): CPM
machine
RICE: Rest,
Compression, Ice
2–3 day:
30 min. Elevation
2–3 ROM, Focus Heel slides, ankle pumps, seated heel PROM, retrograde massage, Pain
Extension slides control
Strength Isometric quadriceps, VMO Maybe NMES (neuromuscular
stimulation 30–40 Hz)
Gait FWB (full weight bearing) with 2 Gait training; heel-toe.
crutches AlterG Anti‐Gravity: 40–50% WB,
0.5–1 km/hr, 4–5 incline. 5–10 min
RICE: Rest,
Compression, Ice
2–3 day:
30 min. Elevation
Electrotherapy Vascularization 8 Hz and pain relief
(Endorfin 5 Hz, or TENS)
Laser Level IV laser for pain and swelling
4–7 ROM: Focus Heel slides, ankle pumps, seated heel PROM
Extension slides
Strength Isometric quad sets, Assisted straight NMES (neuromuscular stimulation
leg raises: FLX, ABD, EXT, Terminal 30–40 Hz)
knee extension (TKE), Bridge
Stretching Hamstring supine with strap
Quad: prone with strap
Calf: standing on step, push heel
down
Gait Weight bearing exercises Gait traingn using two crutches
AlterG Anti‐Gravity: 50% WB,
1–2 km/hr, 2–3 incline. 10–15 min
Stationary bike High seat, slowly back and forth for
ROM, do not force the knee around
Manual therapy Retrograde massage, Scar massage
with vitamin-e, Patella mobes
Superior-inferior. No Medial‐lateral
with MPFL reconstruction for 4 wks
Prioprioception Standing on 1 leg on even surface, if
able to stand without knee extension
dysfunction then close eyes
Electrotherapy Vascularization 8 Hz and pain relief
(Endorfin 5 Hz, or TENS)
Laser Level IV laser for pain and swelling
(continued)
514 L. Blønd
Table 1 (continued)
Day Goal Exercise Physical Therapy
1–4 wks ROM: Focus Heel slides, ankle pumps, seated heel PROM
Extension slides, prone FLX-EXT with strap
If problems with getting full knee
extension, try low load long duration
stretch prone with rubber band
5–10 min daily
Strength Isometric quad sets, Assisted straight NMES (neuromuscular stimulation
leg raises: FLX, ABD, EXT, Terminal 35–40 Hz)
knee extension (TKE), Bridge, mini AlterG Anti-Gravity: 50% WB, 0
squat, Heel glides on cloth supine km/hr, 0 incline: bilateral heel lifts
(progres to eccentric and unilateral),
mini squat, single leg stance
Stretching Hamstring supine with strap Manualstretching
Quad: prone with strap
Calf: standing on step, push heel
down
Gait Heel-Toe with 1–2 crutches Gait training using 1–2 crutches
AlterG Anti-Gravity: 50% WB,
2–3 km/hr, 2 incline. 15–20 min
Stationary bike High seat, slowly back and forth for
ROM, try to cycle around back and
forth with resistance: 10–15 min
Manualtherapy Retrograde massage, Scar massage
with vitamin-e, Patella mobes
Superior-inferior
No Medial-lateral with MPFL
reconstuction for 4 wks
Knee mobilisering: tibia A–P mobes,
general mobes for FLX/EXT gr I–II
Prioprioception Standing on 1 leg on even surface, if
able to stand without knee extension
dysfunction then close eyes
Electrotherapy Vascularization 8 Hz and pain relief
(Endorfin 5 Hz, or TENS)
Laser Level IV laser for pain and swelling
(continued)
Arthroscopic Deepening Trochleoplasty 515
Table 1 (continued)
Day Goal Exercise Physical Therapy
4–6 wks ROM: Full Heel slides, seated heel slides, prone PROM
Extension. heel to buttocks with strap
Fleksion 90–120
Strength Isometric quad sets, straight leg raises NMES (neuromuscular stimulation
(SLR): FLX, ABD, EXT, Terminal 50–70 Hz)
knee extension (TKE), Bridge, mini AlterG Anti-Gravity: 50–80% WB,
squat, Heel glides on cloth supine 0 km/hr, 0 incline: bilateral heel lifts
(progres to eccentric and unilateral),
mini squat, single leg stance
Stretching Hamstring supine with strap Manual stretching
Quad: prone with strap
Calf: standing on step, push heel
down
Gait Gait training without crutches Gait training without crutches: heel-
toe
AlterG Anti-Gravity: 50%–80% WB,
2–4 km/hr, 2–3 incline. 15–20 min
Stationary bike High seat, slowly back and forth for
ROM, do not force the knee around
Manual therapy Retrograde massage, Scar massage
with vitamin-e, Patella mobes
Superior-inferior
No Medial-lateral with MPFL
reconstuction for 4 wks
Prioprioception Standing on 1 leg on even surface, if Single leg stance in trampoline, ball
able to stand without knee extension catch
dysfunction then close eyes
Electrotherapy Vascularization 8Hz and pain relief
(Endorfin 5Hz or TENS)
Laser Level IV laser for pain and swelling
(continued)
516 L. Blønd
Table 1 (continued)
Day Goal Exercise Physical Therapy
6–? Wks ROM: Full Heel slides, seated heel slides, prone PROM
Progression Extension. heel to buttocks with strap
as tolerated Fleksion 135–140
Strength Isometric quad sets, SLR: FLX, ABD, NMES (neuromuscular stimulation
EXT (should be able to hold knee in 50–70 Hz)
full extension, otherwise cont. Ass), AlterG Anti-Gravity: 50–80% WB,
SLR with rubberband, Terminal knee 0 km/hr, 0 incline: bilateral heel lifts
extension (TKE), Bridge with leg (progress to eccentric and unilateral),
lifts, wall squat, Heel glides on cloth mini squat, single legstance
supine
Progression: standing slides on cloth,
side step without and with
rubberband, lunges, squats.
Machines: Leg press, squat in smith
rack, leg curls
Free weights when full AROM and
able to hold knee in full extension
with SLR
Stretching Hamstring supine with strap Manual stretching
Quad: prone with strap
Calf: standing on step, push heel
down
Gait Gait training without crutches Gait training without crutches: heel-
toe
AlterG Anti-Gravity: 50%–80% WB,
2–4 km/hr, 2–3 incline. 15–20 min
Stationary bike Normal cycling on stationary bike,
able to bike outside about 3 months
after surgery if full AROM and
Isometric strength normal compare to
opposite leg
Manual therapy Retrograde massage, Scar massage
with vitamin-e, Patella mobes
Superior–inferior. Medial-lateral gr
I–II Knee mobilisering: tibia A–P
mobes, general mobes for FLX/EXT
gr I–II
Prioprioception Standing on 1 leg on even surface, if Single leg stance in trampoline, ball
able to stand without knee extension catch. Mini jog on trampoline
dysfunction then close eyes
Electrotherapy Vascularization 8 Hz and pain relief
(Endorfin 5 Hz, or TENS)
Laser Level IV laser for pain and swelling
deformities. Am J Sport Med. 2015;43(6):1354–61. up. Knee Surgery Sport Traumatol Arthrosc. 2018;27
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show complication rates similar to other patellar- medial patellofemoral ligament for patients with
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leads to a stable patellofemoral joint at 5-year follow- the femoral epicondylar axis during squatting.
Arthroscopic Deepening Trochleoplasty 519
Roland M. Biedert
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 521
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_36
522 R. M. Biedert
(A) (B)
Fig. 3 A Well-centred patella under relaxed conditions. B Dynamic supero-lateral patellar subluxation (arrow) caused
by muscle contraction
coil in extension, the foot in 15° external rota- values of 93% or more, compared with the length
tion, and the quadriceps muscle consciously of the posterior articular cartilage, is considered
relaxed [1, 2, 4]. normal. LCI values of less than 93% are con-
All measurements are performed on sagittal sidered pathologic, and values of 86% or less
images. Firstly, on sagittal images showing the confirm the presence of a too short lateral facet
anterior cruciate ligament, the longitudinal axis (Fig. 5). LCI values between 86 and 93% need
(Ca) of the femoral shaft is defined by drawing a additional assessment, such as patellotrochlear
proximal and a distal circle (C1 and C2, respec- index or radiographic patellar height measure-
tively) (Fig. 4A). Secondly, the most lateral ments, to document or exclude patella alta [13].
sagittal image on which the articular cartilage of Combinations of a short proximal-lateral trochlea
the lateral condyle still can be seen is selected. and patella alta are possible (Fig. 6A and B).
The measurements include different parameters
(Fig. 4B) [1, 2, 4]. The length of the anterior
articular cartilage of the lateral trochlea (a) is 4 Differential Diagnosis
calculated using as a reference to the length of the
posterior articular cartilage of the lateral condyle The dynamic supero-lateral patellar instability
(p). For each individual subject p is always con- must be differentiated from other diagnoses.
sidered to be 100%. The variable length of a is
calculated in percentages with regard to p. The
LCI compares the length a with the length p and 4.1 Patella Alta
is expressed in percentages [1, 2, 4].
The mean value of the LCI in a normal pop- Specifically, differentiation from patella alta may
ulation without any patellofemoral complaints is be difficult [25, 26]. The most important differ-
93% [1, 2, 4]. Therefore, an anterior length of the ences in patients with a too short lateral trochlea
lateral articular facet of the trochlea with index are: normal patellar height, no patellar
Lengthening Trochleoplasty 525
(A)
Fig. 4 A. MR measurements [2, 3, 16] (Reused with measurements [2, 3, 16]. (Reused with permission from
permission from Springer. From: The lateral condyle Springer. From: Lengthening osteotomy with or without
index: a new index for assessing the length of the lateral elevation of the lateral facet. In: Dejour D, Zaffagnini S,
articular trochlea as predisposing factor for patellar Arendt EA (Eds) Patellofemoral pain, instability, and
instability. Int Orthop. 2011; 35(9):1327–31). B MR arthritis. Springer, 2020)
4.2 J-Sign
4.4 Hyperlaxity
The J-sign describes an excessive lateral trans-
lation of the patella in terminal knee extension. General hyperlaxity may also be a cause of lat-
The patella disengages from the intertrochlear eral patellar instability. Applied load at full
groove caused by excessively tight lateral reti- extension may show increased lateral patellar
naculum [27, 28]. As most important difference, mobility. With hyperlaxity, the Beighton score
this lateral translation occurs when the knee is is =<4 out of 9. Passive hyperextension of the
extended from 90° of flexion to full extension. knee of 10° or more is present [27, 30].
526 R. M. Biedert
(B)
Fig. 4 (continued)
Dotted red line: length of the anterior articular cartilage of the lateral condyle
Dotted blue line: length of the posterior articular cartilage of the lateral condyle
Fig. 5 MR measurement with too short anterior articular cartilage of the lateral facet of the trochlea. The LCI is 77%
calculation of lengthening of the lateral facet. chisel. Small fractures of the distal cartilage may
The overlap should be about one third at the end, occur and have no consequences; however sharp
measured in extension (0° of flexion) [1, 2, 4, edges must be smoothed. Elevation above the
13]. The incomplete lateral osteotomy is per- maximum height of the lateral trochlea should be
formed at least 5 mm from the cartilage of the avoided to prevent hypercompression. Cancel-
trochlea to avoid necrosis or breaking of the lous bone (obtained through a small cortical
lateral facet. The osteotomy starts at the end of opening from the posterior aspect of lateral
the cartilage and is continued approximately 1 to femoral condyle) is inserted into the osteotomy
1.5 cm to distal into the femoral condyle and to site and impacted (Fig. 7C). Additional fixation
proximal into the femoral shaft, always accord- is possible using resorbable sutures. To finish,
ing to the calculated lengthening and planned the synovial membrane is adapted and the lateral
patellofemoral overlapping (Fig. 7B). The retinaculum reconstructed in about 60° of knee
osteotomy is opened carefully with the use of a flexion to avoid overtensioning.
Lengthening Trochleoplasty 529
(C) Amount of lengthening (arrow: end of the original trochlea; dotted arrow: new end).
Increased patellofemoral overlap
Fig. 7 Lengthening trochleoplasty. (Reused with permission from Springer. From: Osteotomien. Orthopäde. 2008;
37:872–883)
530 R. M. Biedert
(A) Preoperative MR measurement with too short anterior articular cartilage of the lateral
facet of the trochlea (red arrow). The LCI is 76%. Decreased patellofemoral overlap
(B) Postoperative MR measurement with lengthened anterior lateral facet of the trochlea
(green arrow). The LCI is 98%. Increased patellofemoral overlap
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chanics of patellar stability. Sports med Arthrosc Med. 2015;43:2706–13.
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11. Biedert RM, Sigg A, Gal I, Gerber H. 3D represen- schot N, Hannink G. Trochleoplasty procedures
tation of the surface topography of normal and show complication rates similar to other patellar-
dysplastic trochlea using MRI. Knee. 2011;18:340–6. stabilizing procedures. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
12. Tecklenburg K, Dejour D, Hoser C, Fink C. Bony Arthrosc. 2017;26:2841–57.
and cartilaginous anatomy of the patellofemoral joint. 23. Carrillon Y, Abidi H, Dejour D, Fantino O,
Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2006;14: Moyen B, Tran-Minh VA. Patellar instability:
235–42. assessment on MR images by measuring the lateral
13. Biedert RM, Albrecht S. The patellotrochlear index: trochlear inclination-initial experience. Radiology.
a new index for assessing patellar height. Knee Surg 2000;216(2):582–5.
Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2006;14:707–12. 24. Tavernier T, Dejour D. Knee imaging: what is the
14. Dejour H, Walch G, Nove-Josserand L, Guier C. best modality? J Radiol. 2001;82:387–405.
Factors of patellar instability: an anatomic radio- 25. Biedert RM, Tscholl PM. Patella alta: a comprehen-
graphic study. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. sive review of current knowledge. Am J
1994;2(1):19–26. Orthop. 2017;46:290–300.
15. Biedert RM, Bachmann M. Anterior-posterior tro- 26. Biedert RM. Patella alta: when to correct and impact
chlear measurements of normal and dysplastic on other anatomic risk factors for patellofemoral
trochlea by axial magnetic resonance imaging. Knee instability. Clin Sports Med. 2022;41:65–76.
Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2009;17(10): 27. Donell S, McNamara I. History and clinical exam-
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flap for patellar instability: clinical and functional
Tibial Tubercle Osteotomy
in Patients with Patella Supera
or Infera
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 533
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_37
534 J. C. Monllau and E. Sanchez-Muñoz
Treatment strategies for sagittal patella vari- primary restraint to lateral patellar dislocation.
ants are still poorly explored. Therefore, further Yet, patellar instability is the result of several
study in that area is warranted. The aim of this anatomical factors that include trochlear dys-
chapter is to present some techniques to address plasia and lateralized tibial tuberosity (TT) that
these problems based on the author’s experience. should also be corrected in some circumstances.
While an increased (more than 20 mm) tibial
tuberosity-trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance [9]
2 Indications and Contraindications correction can be easily added to the index pro-
cedure by medializing its bony attachment, the
2.1 Patella Alta decision to perform a trochleoplasty can be
harder as the procedure is much more delicate
The indications for TTO with distalization have and there is no clear cut-off value.
not been fully defined. Moreover, they depend on
multiple factors. In general, the indication of
surgery is based on measurements of patellar 2.2 Patella Baja
height in skeletally mature patients. Several
measurements have been introduced over time. Patella baja is defined by a CDI of 0.6 or less or
In the author’s experience, the Caton-Deschamps and Insall-Salvati index of less than 0.8 or a
index is the most useful among them. Patella alta difference in the length greater than 15% in
is defined as a CDI of more than 1.2. However, comparison to the contralateral side [7].
surgical treatment is not regularly recommended Lengthening of the patellar tendon is indicated in
until the ratio is more than 1.4 [6]. patients with symptomatic patella baja not
In case of patellar instability, MPFL recon- responsive to conservative treatment for more
struction should also be considered as a crucial than 3 months [7, 11]. The surgical options for
part of the procedure since this ligament is a patella baja include the excision of the lower
Tibial Tubercle Osteotomy in Patients … 535
third of the patella, lengthening of the patellar This tenodesis shortens the whole length of the
tendon with a PT plasty, reconstruction of the PT, otherwise the CD index is normalized but the
patellar tendon using tendon allografts and Insall-Salvati index remains the same (as the
proximalization TTO, or a combination of the all tendon maintains its length unchanged).
those procedures [7, 10, 11]. Post-operatively, partial weightbearing is
When associated with other conditions like allowed with two crutches, wearing a brace for
arthrofibrosis and soft-tissue adhesions between the first couple of weeks. Then, weightbearing
the PT and proximal tibia, those pathologies status is gradually increased. The knee is checked
should also be addressed to arrive at good out- with X-rays, and when the healing of the bone is
comes [10, 11]. If patella baja is associated with seen to be well under way (normally by about
a total knee replacement (TKR), a differential 6 weeks) in them, then the brace and subse-
diagnosis with pseudo patella baja is advised as quently the crutches are discarded.
the latter condition needs a different approach
from patella baja [12].
3.2 Patella Baja
detached from the patella. The medial flap is bone block of the medial flap is fixed at the tibia
moved proximally while the lateral one is moved with a 3.5 mm cortical screw. Finally, the 2 reins
distally, both at the same distance (Fig. 4). After of the patellar tendon are sutured with #2–0
checking the X-rays to make sure that the ade- interrupted suture. In cases of high-risk of
quate patellar position is reached. With the knee recurrence or bad tissue quality, augmentation
at 90º of flexion, the lateral flap is proximally with an Aquiles allograft with a bone block is
fixed at the patella with suture anchors while the recommended (Fig. 5).
Tibial Tubercle Osteotomy in Patients … 537
C 4 Results
A B
Fig. 3 A Operative image of a left knee. The patient placed in supine position with 90° flexed knee. B Image intensifier
sagittal view. A long sleeve of the tibial tuberosity has been detached and proximalized to the level of the joint line
worse functional outcomes [9]. Recurrent patellar bumper and the fragment to more closely calcu-
dislocation, TT fractures, proximal tibial frac- late the exact amount of distalization.
tures, infection and TTO non-union [14] are
potential complications with overall low-
incidence rate [9, 13], and some series report- 7 Take Home Message
ing no cases of them [11].
Concerns with this technique also focus The tibial tubercle osteotomy with distalization is
around patellofemoral contact pressure [7, 13] in an effective technique for patellar height correc-
relation to patella cartilage damage. Many papers tion and eventually to prevent recurrent patellar
have described persistent pain [9, 11], in general dislocations.
correlated with patellar cartilage defect severity The tibial tubercle osteotomy with proximaliza-
[13]. This compares to our experience. Another tion with or without a patellar tendon plasty effec-
common objection to TTO is the concern with tively corrects patella baja and brings improvement
failed osteotomy healing [14]. In our series (un- in terms of pain, range-of-motion and knee function.
published data), we had only seen one case of Patellar height disorders are usually associated
non-union. A long (>6 cm) and thick (>8 mm) with other underlying conditions and, especially
bone fragment [13] had a good bony surface area in patella baja, previous surgeries. If these
for healing and is stable. When performing a problems are not adequately addressed, the tibial
distalization tubercle osteotomy, I do like to tuberosity osteotomy alone will not bring about
place a bone autograft between the proximal tibia good outcomes.
Tibial Tubercle Osteotomy in Patients … 539
A B
Fig. 4 A Lateral imaging of posttraumatic patella baja, subperiostically dissected from the patella, is moved
showing Caton-Deschamps measurement. B Frontal view distally the same distance. C Final result. A PF prothesis
of the same knee, after detached from the TT, the medial was added in this case due to the degree of OA in the
half of the PT is moved proximally and the lateral one, articulating PF surfaces
540 J. C. Monllau and E. Sanchez-Muñoz
13. Leite CBG, Santos TP, Giglio PN, Pecora JR, 14. Vives-Barquiel MA, Torrents A, Lozano L, et al.
Camanho GL, Gobbi RG. Tibial tubercle osteotomy Proximalize osteotomy of tibial tuberosity (POTT) as
with distalization is a safe and effective procedure for a treatment for stiffness secondary to patella baja in
patients with patella alta and patellar instability. total knee arthroplasty (TKA). Arch Orthop Trauma
Orthop J Sport Med. 2021;9(1):2325967120975101. Surg. 2015;135:1445–51.
Tibial Tubercle Anteromedialization
Osteotomy (Fulkerson Osteotomy)
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 543
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_38
544 A. Gudeman and J. Farr
contact pressures in the trochlea (without an of the TT-TG in surgical planning continues to
increase in medial contact pressures) [7, 8]. evolve. It is important to keep in mind the limi-
Incidentally, the described technique was similar tations of this measurement: Knee flexion/tibial
to the Maquet technique but without bone on femur rotation and trochlear dysplasia may
grafting [9]. alter the measurement and thus make the mea-
surement less “precise” [15]. Thus, some sur-
geons have suggested adding the tibial tubercle-
2 Indications posterior cruciate ligament (TT-PCL) distance as
a reliable alternative [16, 17], as well as mea-
When discussing the indications for AMZ it is suring the tubercle position as an angle within the
important to note that as with most patellofe- coronal plane.
moral surgeries, it should only be performed after The TT-TG in asymptomatic patients has been
the patient has failed exhaustive nonoperative reported from 11–13 mm and those with insta-
measures that include a comprehensive “core to bility symptoms have average measurements of
the floor” program of rehabilitation as well as over 15 mm [17, 18]. A panel of patellofemoral
bracing and orthotics. The indications for this experts agreed that TT-TG distances of over
procedure have evolved and continue to be 20 mm were definitely abnormal and would be
refined. This has been primarily driven by the potential (key word as other factors must also be
evolution and outcomes of patellofemoral resur- considered) candidates for moving the tibial
facing procedures, as well as improved objective tubercle [19]. Results of medial patellofemoral
measures of patellar alignment, contact area and ligament reconstruction have also been shown to
forces. These alterations redistribute the contact improve with TTO for patients with TT-TG
forces within the patellofemoral compartment distances of 17–20 [20]. The upper limit of
and a keen understanding of these changes is asymptomatic patient’s TT-PCL distance has
paramount in optimizing forces on areas of been reported at 24 mm [10]. Several studies
chondral damage and restoration [10]. have compared the efficacy of a TT-TG of
Indications for AMZ are primarily based upon 20 mm versus a TT-PCL of 24 mm with mixed
the mechanical and chondral pathologies specific results [21–23]. An understanding of both mea-
to each individual knee. Malalignment is a term surements and the limitations with abnormal PF
that has different meanings to different experts, anatomy is important for the surgeon before
but for the purposes of this chapter it simply consideration of a distal realignment surgery.
means alignment that is different from the aver- Patients with isolated chondrosis of the distal
age asymptomatic individual. A comprehensive or lateral patella, who have excessive lateral
review by Post et al. [11] demonstrated that the patellar tilt and/or subluxation associated with an
“Q” angle was inadequate (within the studies increased TT-TG distance and minimal trochlear
reviewed) to use as a measure of malalignment of chondrosis are optimal AMZ candidates based on
the tibial tuberosity. Although, a recent a retrospective review of AMZ outcomes by
improvement in Q angle measurement with a Pidoriano [24]. It has been argued that rotational
long goniometer has the potential to improve the tuberosity abnormalities associated with subjec-
intra- and inter-observer reliability [12]. tive instability and pain may be sufficiently
The tibial tuberosity to trochlear groove (TT- treated with straight medialization or derotation
TG) distance, popularized by Dejour et al. [13] as of the tibial tubercle, although Pritsch et al. [25]
an objective measure of tuberosity position, has found 80% of 66 patients undergoing tubercle
helped quantify abnormal tuberosity position and transfer for patellar instability and pain associ-
enhanced appropriate candidate identification for ated with maltracking required anteriorization
all tuberosity osteotomies, including the AMZ. based on intraoperative examination. Secondly,
This is important as patellar contact pressures are patients who are undergoing PF cartilage
very sensitive to distal realignment [14]. The role restorative procedures have been shown to
Tibial Tubercle Anteromedialization Osteotomy … 545
benefit from a combined AMZ procedure [26, contraindicated in patients with a normal TT-TG
27] where optimization of the biomechanical distance and in patients who have symptoms not
environment and decreased stress across the explained by an increased TT-TG distance. The
restored cartilage is required. Additionally, in condition of the medial PF articulation should be
patients undergoing MPFL repair or reconstruc- carefully assessed as medialization will signifi-
tion for recurrent lateral patella instability, AMZ cantly increase contact pressures between the
may be indicated only in the setting of a signif- medial patellar facet and trochlea [7]. In addition,
icantly increased TT-TG distance. However, it AMZ is contraindicated for proximal patella,
should be noted that while this theoretically panpatella and bipolar chondrosis based upon the
decreases the lateral vector forces on the healing outcomes from Pidoriano et al. [24].
MPFL tissues, there is no randomized study of Advanced chondrosis of the central trochlea
AMZ plus MPFL surgery versus MPFL surgery has been associated with sub-optimal results and
alone published as of this writing. In addition, is considered a contraindication to AMZ as an
combining AMZ with PF cartilage restorative isolated procedure [7, 28]. Standard contraindi-
procedures such as autologous chondrocyte cations to any osteotomy must also be consid-
implantation and osteoarticular grafting proce- ered, which includes smoking, infection,
dures within the PF compartment have demon- inflammatory arthropathy, marked osteoporosis
strated superior results to either procedure inhibiting adequate fixation, complex regional
performed independently [26, 27]. A summary of pain syndrome, arthrofibrosis, inability to mini-
AMZ indications is presented in Table 1. mally weight-bear and non-compliant patients.
A summary of AMZ contraindications is pre-
sented in Table 2.
3 Contraindications A final caution has been championed by
Teitge: if the malalignmet is from excessive
Several contraindications to AMZ exist and femoral or tibial rotation, a correction of the
potential candidates must be assessed carefully source of malalignment should be entertained
prior to surgery. Anteromedialization is [29].
Fig. 2 The reference pin guide is orientated so it is perpendicular to the posterior cortex of the tibia
Fig. 4 The cutting guide is placed over the reference pin and the cutting block is positioned medial to the patella
tendon
• Excessive anteriorization of the tuberosity can with a hinged knee brace in extension which is
lead to skin healing problems and can cause unlocked at 2 weeks and discontinued when
clinically significant sagittal plane rotation of there is adequate lower extremity control (usually
the patella altering contact areas. by 8 weeks). Early core proximal strengthening,
• Isolated AMZ performed in the presence of quadriceps strengthening, and knee range of
chondrosis will yield poor results when the motion exercises are essential and a close rela-
wear patterns are in the: proximal patella, pan- tionship with an experienced physical therapist is
patella or trochlea. However, AMZ in con- key to optimal results. The safe range of motion
junction with cartilage restoration procedures may need to be modified throughout the rehabil-
in these regions can achieve good results. itation process to accommodate for concomitant
cartilage restorative procedures. Return to play
outcomes after TTO have been poorly reported,
6 Complications with variable return criteria including quadriceps
strength, range of motion, radiographic healing,
Potential complications include those generally and physical therapy protocols [38].
associated with osteotomies of the lower limb.
General complications include malunion, non-
union, fracture at the osteotomy site [34], venous- 8 Key Message and Take-Home
thromboembolism, compartment syndrome, Points
infection and loss of fixation. The major compli-
cation rate of TTO has been reported to be Key Message: AMZ has been shown to improve
approximately 3% [35]. Complications specific to outcomes for patients with patellar instability and
AMZ include persistent pain, arthrofibrosis and patellofemoral cartilage restoration when appro-
stiffness, progressive chondral deterioration, priately indicated with other concomitant proce-
symptomatic hardware, complex regional pain dures (Table 4).
syndrome and intraoperative injury to the neu-
Take Home Points:
rovascular structures including the popliteal
artery and its trifurcation [36] and the deep per-
oneal nerve. Registry data have shown no • The expert consensus is that AMZ should be
increased risk for adverse events between isolated considered in patients with TT-TG greater
MPFLR and concomitant MPFLR and TTO [37]. than 20 mm and TT-PCL of 24 but has also
been shown to be beneficial in patients with
smaller distances.
7 Post-Operative Management • Careful scrutiny of other concomitant pathol-
ogy including femoral anteversion and tro-
To improve postoperative recovery and prepare chlear dysplasia must also be analyzed pre-
for surgery, the patient should undergo a preop- operatively and addressed.
erative proximal core and kinetic chain • Pre-operative planning to determine desired
strengthening program (lower back, pelvis, hip amount of anteriorization and medialization,
thigh, and leg). Postoperatively the patient is with the corresponding osteotomy angle, are
treated with standard compression dressings, crucial for success.
protective bracing, cryotherapy and is monitored • AMZ is contra-indicated in medial and pan-
for immediate complications. For the first patellar chondral defects due to increased
6 weeks the patient is limited to touch weight contact pressures.
bearing with crutches and begins transitioning to • A straight anteriorization may be beneficial to
full weight bearing after radiographs are noted to offload those chondral injuries that are not
be acceptable at 6 weeks. The knee is protected amenable to AMZ.
Tibial Tubercle Anteromedialization Osteotomy … 553
• Use of the pearls and pitfalls outlined in this 8. Lansdown DA, Christian D, Madden B, Redondo M,
chapter can help minimize complications and Farr J, Cole BJ, et al. The sagittal tibial tubercle-
trochlear groove distance as a measurement of
maximize success. sagittal imbalance in patients with symptomatic
patellofemoral chondral lesions. Cartilage. 2021;13
(1_suppl):449S–455S.
9. Patel RM, Wright-Chisem J, Williams RJ. Anterioriz-
ing tibial tubercle osteotomy for patellofemoral car-
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Rotational Osteotomy. Principles,
Surgical Technique, Outcomes
and Complications
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 555
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_39
556 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
requires more time. The difference between better fit the linear model than those of the
the two would be a point in favor of per- neck. However, the fact that the diaphysis
forming the osteotomy in the metaphyseal only explains 12% of the variability of the
region. Then again, the osteotomy should total FAV angle in the linear regression
theoretically be located in the osseous seg- analysis performed in the pathological
ment that mainly contributes to the deformity. group indicates that its influence on the total
If done in that way, it would prevent the FAV is not important enough to unequivo-
creation of a new deformity on the coronal or cally recommend that the osteotomy be per-
sagittal plane in spite of the fact that good formed distal to the lesser trochanter [38].
correction of the total torsional angle can be Therefore, we must look for other arguments
obtained [36]. to opt for an intertrochanteric or a diaphyseal
– Regarding FAV, both the femoral neck and osteotomy to treat pathological FAV in AKP
the diaphysis have an overall influence on patients. Our preferred options for the rota-
femoral torsion [36–38]. Archibald and col- tional osteotomy of the femur are at the
leagues [36] evaluated 1210 paired adult (1) intertrochanteric level and the (2) supra-
femora from a well-preserved osteological condylar level. In cases of an isolated trans-
collection. They have shown that both the verse plane correction, the proximal
femoral neck and femoral shaft substantially intertrochanteric osteotomy is our choice
contribute to femoral version. Seitlinger and because it prevents damage to and scarring in
colleagues [37] have demonstrated that the the distal quadriceps avoiding the risk of knee
neck, mid and distal femur contribute to the stiffness. Rotational osteotomy is the most
total femoral torsion. Sanchis-Alfonso and effective treatment for the AKP patient with
colleagues [38] have shown that pathological pathological FAV. It is well-known that the
FAV in the AKP patient depends on both the quadriceps, is responsible for the force exer-
neck and the shaft. In those patients, the ted on the patella. The osteotomy changes the
increased anteversion of the femur is a result direction of the quadriceps and therefore the
of increased proximal anteversion of the force acting on the patella. This could be
neck and reduced torsion of the diaphysis in another argument for an intertrochanteric
the opposite direction [38]. The version angle femoral osteotomy. However, if there is a
of the neck and the diaphysis cannot sepa- malalignment on the coronal plane that must
rately explain the total FAV because it is a be addressed, our choice is a supracondylar
global torsional deformity that involves the femoral osteotomy. On the other hand, Kim
entire femur. A strong negative correlation and colleagues [39] showed that femoral tor-
between neck torsion and shaft counter sion could occur either in the supra-
direction torsion has been found [38]. It sug- trochanteric region, the infratrochanteric
gests that the shaft version acts as a com- region, or in both sites. However, Waisbrod
pensatory mechanism for the increased and colleagues [40] have proposed that
version of the neck, and this compensatory femoral torsion is a subtrochanteric deformity.
mechanism fails in pathological cases. They – As with the femoral osteotomy, the tibial
have shown that the difference in total FAV rotational osteotomy has also been performed
between healthy and pathological subjects is at every level. In terms of the rotational
due in 40% to the higher version of the neck osteotomy of the tibia, our preference is the
in the pathological group, and in 60% to the infratuberosity osteotomy. On the other hand,
decreased diaphyseal rotation in the opposite other orthopedic surgeons suggest a supra-
direction [38]. Moreover, they observed that tuberosity osteotomy. Yet again, there are
shaft version values better explain the phe- others who are inclined toward a mid-shaft or
nomenon of pathological FAV since the val- distal (supramalleolar) osteotomy. We must
ues of shaft version are less dispersed and note that an osteotomy below the tuberosity
558 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
has poorer consolidation than one done above actual lateral placement of the TT on the
the tuberosity even though it allows for good proximal tibia. Recently, Winkler and col-
fixation. We will do our best to explain our leagues [42] have shown that increased exter-
option. Osteotomies above the tuberosity lead nal tibial torsion is an infratuberositary
to medial or lateral tuberosity displacement. deformity and is not correlated with a lateral-
That is why it may be necessary to add a tibial ized position of the tibial tuberosity.
tubercle osteotomy if a supratuberosity – There is no scientific evidence as to the
osteotomy is performed. However, the amount of torsion we should correct in a
infratuberosity osteotomy does not provoke patient with a symptomatic torsional abnor-
tuberosity translation. For example, in the mality. In our experience, undercorrecting is
patient in Fig. 3 with a TT-TG distance of better than overcorrecting. The objective is a
14 mm, a 35º supra-tuberosity osteotomy will correction that is slightly less than what a
produce a tuberosity medialization of 11.4 mm torsion measurement might indicate. For
that will provoke a postop TT-TG distance of example, the aim should be an external
2.54 mm. That TT-TG distance is obviously femoral rotation of 30° but not more
pathological given that normal TT-TG dis- (49 − 30 = 19) if a patient has a femoral
tance is from 10 to 15 mm. If we place the anteversion of 49°. For an external tibial tor-
osteotomy above the tubercle, we will move it sion of 60°, we would propose an internal
medially. Doing so will create joint imbalance. rotational osteotomy of 30° (60 − 30 = 30).
Kuroda and colleagues [41] have demonstrated But again, we do not know what minimum
that a medial tuberosity transfer from the nor- correction is necessary for the surgery to be
mal position provokes an increase in medial successful. This might be another reason why
tibiofemoral compartment pressure and medial rotational osteotomy is not a common
patellofemoral pressure that theoretically leads operation.
to medial compartment osteoarthritis, degen- – The surgeon may select any internal (or
erative tears of the medial meniscus, and external) fixation device which allows for
medial patellofemoral osteoarthritis. Another maintaining the correction. Therefore, the
argument for the infratuberosity osteotomy is selection of the fixation device is also a sur-
that the goal of osteotomy is to realign the knee geon´s choice.
joint axis with the ankle joint axis on the – The objectives of rotational osteotomy are:
transverse plane, leaving the TT untouched. (1) the correction of the deformity, (2) rapid
We must note that we should only medialize an bone consolidation, (3) minimal soft-tissue
injury, (3) no restrictions in terms of range-of-
motion, and (4) immediate muscular
activation.
– Changing the limb alignment by means of
osteotomy is the single most powerful and
underutilized treatment available for treating
AKP and PI patients with a pathological tor-
sional abnormality. The quadriceps is
responsible for the force acting on the patella.
The osteotomy changes the quadriceps direc-
tion and therefore the force acting on the
patella. If one operates on the traumatized
tissue (bone, ligament or cartilage) without
changing the force which produced the
Fig. 3 Calculation of tuberosity medialization after a trauma, one should expect an unsuccessful
rotational tibial osteotomy outcome.
Rotational Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique … 559
3 Rotational Osteotomy. Surgical under the image intensifier on top of the lateral
Techniques Step-by-Step. Pearls tibia to evaluate the correct position. We insert a
and Tips K-wire if the position of the plate is correct. This
K-wire will aid in positioning the plate once the
3.1 Rotational Osteotomy osteotomy has been performed (Fig. 4A).
of the Tibia
3.1.3 Fibular Osteotomy and Peroneal
3.1.1 Positioning Nerve Release
The patient is placed in the supine position on a Like other authors, we perform a fibular osteot-
radiolucent table. The entire limb is draped from omy and peroneal nerve release when the rota-
the foot to the iliac crest. In that way, we can tional osteotomy of the tibia is going to be
look at the entire limb after correction. A tourni- greater than 20º [43]. We never perform a release
quet is not used. The image intensifier is placed of the proximal tibiofibular joint. The fibular
on the opposite side to the operated limb. The osteotomy is recommended before making the
knee is slightly flexed on a towel roll. tibial rotation for two reasons. The first reason is
that the fibula limits internal rotation of the tibia.
3.1.2 Surgical Approach The second is that the fibula pulls on the proxi-
It proceeds with an anterolateral curved mal and distal tibio-fibular capsule, which could
approach. The fascia of the tibialis anterior is be painful. A long proximal oblique cut of the
sectioned longitudinally 1 cm lateral to the tibial fibula is recommended because it provides a
attachment for it to be reattached later. The larger surface contact area between both seg-
proximal tibialis anterior muscle is detached to ments of the bone, making healing easier. Note
expose the proximal lateral tibia. If a fibular that the peroneal nerve is at risk during a fibular
osteotomy and release of the peroneal nerve is neck osteotomy. Therefore, the nerve must be
necessary, the surgical incision is extended protected by using two hallux retractors around
proximally in a similar way to the incision used the neck of the fibula while doing the osteotomy
in the reconstruction of the posterolateral corner with a small saw. Moreover, peroneal nerve
ligaments. Soft tissues are removed from the tibia palsy, might be secondary to overextension of
with a curved raspatory. The plate is positioned the nerve due to internal tibial rotation (Fig. 5).
A B C
Fig. 4 K-wire that help us to position the plate once the angle (3), using a triangle of 25° (B). The distal segment
osteotomy has been performed (1); K-wires marking the of the tibia is de-rotated internally until both K-wires are
osteotomy level (2) (A). K-wires at the desired correction parallel (C)
560 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B
Fig. 5 Peroneal nerve (arrows) before internal rotation of the distal segment of the tibia (A). Overextension of the
nerve due to internal rotation of the distal segment of the tibia (B)
is reattached, covering the plate if it is possible. If 3.2.2 Lateral Approach to the Proximal
the anterior compartment is very tight, we leave Femur
the fascia open. It is not a problem. A lateral longitudinal incision is made over the
hip. We locate the lesser trochanter with image
3.1.7 Postoperative Management intensifier. The incision is made at the level of
We encourage active ankle and knee motion the lesser trochanter, centered on the shaft and is
immediately after surgery. We use CPM in the then prolonged proximally and distally. The
hospital and at home if it is possible. The patient fascia lata is incised with a scalpel and split with
uses crutches to prevent bearing weight with the scissors. The vastus lateralis is separated by blunt
operated leg. Loading is permitted after 6 weeks. dissection from the fascia lata and then elevated
anteriorly. The perforating vessels must be liga-
ted. Finally, the proximal femoral shaft is
3.2 Rotational Osteotomy exposed.
of the Proximal Fermur To expose the femur without sectioning the
muscle fibers of the vastus lateralis, the hiatus
3.2.1 Positioning must be located distal to the insertion of the
The patient is placed in the supine position on a vastus lateralis on the lateral aspect of the greater
fracture table holding both legs under controlled trochanter. This is done by means of blunt dis-
traction (Fig. 8). Abduct the unaffected lower section with the finger. The inferior border of the
limb as much as possible to permit fluoroscopic vastus lateralis is palpated until a space is found.
examination using an image intensifier (Fig. 8). That makes for the passage of the finger towards
the anterior aspect of the femur. In this hiatus, a
Hoffman retractor will be placed to fold the
vastus lateralis anteriorly and expose the diaph-
ysis (Fig. 9). To improve access, part of the
insertion of the vastus lateralis on the lateral
greater trochanteric aspect can be sectioned with
electrocautery when tensioned with a Hoffman
retractor.
Fig. 8 Patient positioning for performing a rotational Fig. 9 Hiatus located distal to the insertion of the vastus
osteotomy of the proximal femur lateralis on the lateral aspect of the greater trochanter
Rotational Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique … 563
Fig. 10 If the position of the plate is correct, we insert marking the osteotomy site (5). K-wires for performing
2 K-wires (1) (2). These K-wires will help us to position the rotational correction (3) (4)
the plate once the osteotomy has been performed. K-wire
in positioning the plate once the osteotomy has been achieved (Fig. 12). We can use reduction
been performed (Figs. 10 and 11). forceps for temporary stabilization of the
After marking the osteotomy level with a K- osteotomy prior to the insertion of the plate
wire (Figs. 10 and 11), two threaded K-wires are (Fig. 12). Another way to stabilize the osteotomy
inserted at an angle equal to the desired rotational is with K-wires.
correction. One is put in place proximal and the
other distal to the osteotomy site (Figs. 11 and Danger
12) using triangular measuring templates The magnitude of the rotational osteotomy does
(Fig. 12). not show a 1:1 relationship with an effect on the
The cut of the osteotomy is performed using correction of the deformity in all the cases. Not
0.6 mm thick saw blades under image intensifi- only does 3D technology permit measuring the
cation from lateral to medial while protecting soft femoral torsion (see chapter “Femoral and Tibial
tissues with two Hohmann retractors. The C-arm Rotational Abnormalities are the Most Ignored
is used to confirm that the cut is perpendicular to Factors in the Diagnosis and Treatment of
the shaft of the femur. After the osteotomy is Anterior Knee Pain Patients. A Critical Analysis
complete, external rotation of the distal fragment Review”), but also to quantify the effect of the
is performed until both K-wires are parallel, osteotomy on the femoral torsion after the plan-
which indicates that the planned correction has ned osteotomy. In other words, it allows us to
564 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 11 Two K-wires (1) (2) will help us to position the plate once the osteotomy has been performed. K-wire marking
the osteotomy site (5). K-wires for performing the rotational correction (3) (4)
A B C
D E
Fig. 12 Two threaded K-wires (3, 4) are inserted at an performing rotational correction (3) (4) (A, B, C, D).
angle equal to the desired rotational correction (A). One is Triangular measuring template (B, C). Stabilization using
put in place proximal and the other distal to the osteotomy reduction forceps (D). K-wires (3) (4) are parallel after the
site using triangular measuring templates (B, C). K-wire planned correction has been achieved (D, E)
marking the osteotomy site (5) (A). K-wires for
Rotational Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique … 565
estimate the final effect of the derotational A standard lateral longitudinal incision is
femoral osteotomy (see Video Case # 1). performed, the iliotibial band is incised following
the fiber orientation and the vastus lateralis is
3.2.4 Fixation of the Osteotomy, separated by blunt dissection from the fascia lata
Closure and Postoperative and then elevated anteriorly. The septum inter-
Management musculare is detached from the femur at the level
We use a proximal femoral locking compression of the osteotomy with a curved raspatory.
plate (LCP) 4.5/5.0 (DePuy Synthes). The plate is
positioned using the K-wires inserted at the 3.3.3 Femoral Osteotomy
beginning of the procedure (Figs. 10 and 11). We After defining the osteotomy level on the femur
always use a drain to reduce risk of hematoma. with a K-wire perpendicular to the mechanical
Active hip, knee, and ankle motion immediately axis of the lower extremity, we insert two
after surgery is encouraged. The patient uses threaded K-wires at an angle equal to the desired
crutches to prevent bearing weight with the rotational correction. One is put in place proxi-
operated leg. Loading is permitted after 6 weeks. mal and one distal to the osteotomy site using
triangular measuring templates. If the osteotomy
is not perpendicular to the mechanical axis of the
3.3 Rotational Supracondylar femur, it is possible to modify the mechanical
Femoral Osteotomy axis on the coronal plane. The osteotomy is
performed using an oscillating saw (0.6 mm
3.3.1 Positioning thick) while protecting posterior neurovascular
The patient is placed in supine position on a structures with two Hohmann retractors. After
radiolucent table. The entire limb is draped from the osteotomy is complete, external rotation of
the foot to the iliac crest. Therefore, we can look the distal fragment is performed until both K-
at the entire limb after correction. A tourniquet is wires are parallel, which indicates that the plan-
not used. The C-arm is placed on the contralat- ned correction has been achieved.
eral side of the operated limb to assess the whole It is very important to check whether there is
lower limb in order to evaluate the alignment on neutral coronal plane alignment after rotation
the frontal plane. It must be acknowledged that in before fixation by using the image intensifier
many cases there is a valgus associated with (Fig. 13). We use the alignment rod from the center
transverse plane malalignment and therefore is of the femoral head to the center of the talus to make
mandatory preop and postop evaluation in the sure the mechanical axis falls near the medial tibial
coronal plane. spine. A normal mechanical axis is near the medial
tibial spine, not in the middle of the knee joint. The
3.3.2 Surgical Approach patella must always be pointing straight forward. In
The distal approach to the femur can be medial or addition, it should also be in the middle of the distal
lateral. We do the lateral because this type of femur on the anteroposterior image.
surgery is done on patients with instability and
associated femoral anteversion. If an MPFLr is Technical Considerations when an MPFLr is
associated with the osteotomy, the lateral Associated
approach is better than the medial, because there The osteotomy must be carefully planned so that
may be problems in achieving ideal femoral the distal end of the plate is located proximally to
anchoring of the MPFL if a plate is placed on the the MPFL femoral attachment point if a plate is
medial aspect of the femur. placed on the medial aspect of the femur. In
566 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
BMI: 18.78 (1.68–53 kg). Knee VAS 7. pain with external hip rotation. On the other
Hip VAS 8. Kujala score 86/100. IKDC hand, she had no pain with internal hip rotation.
78.2/100. NAHS 77.5/100. Marx Activity Rating A 20º external femoral rotation inter-
Scale 15/16–Rhythmic gymnastics. HAD: Anx- trochanteric osteotomy was performed (Fig. 17).
iety 2/21–Depression 1/21–(Cutting point 11; In Figs. 14D, E, F and 18 you can observe
no anxiety, no depression). Tampa Scale for clinical correction of torsional malalignment after
Kinesiophobia 34/68 (Cutting point 40; no rotational femoral osteotomy. In Fig. 19 you can
kinesiophobia). Pain Catastrophizing Scale see what she is able to do painlessly at the 3-
(PCS) 36/52 (Cutting point 24; catastrophiz- month follow-up. At the 6-month follow-up, the
ing). EuroQol-5D 0.429/1. knee VAS was 0 and the hip VAS was 0. Fur-
Conventional imaging studies normal or at thermore, there was no catastrophizing, no dis-
least without evident pathology. CT: TT-TG ability and the patient was leading a normal life.
distance: right 17 mm, left 18 mm; Patellar tilt: At the 4-year follow-up, she was completely
right 20º, left 12º. asymptomatic, and the physical examination was
The presence of severe pain (VAS 7), absence completely normal.
of objective structural anomalies in the knee,
absence of disability most of the time (Kujala 86, CASE # 2 -SYMPTOMATIC EXCESSIVE EXTERNAL
IKDC 78.2) and the presence of psychological TIBIAL TORSION AND OUT-TOEING GAIT –
INFRATUBEROSITY ROTATIONAL OSTEOTOMY
problems (catastrophizing) is an explosive mix-
OF THE TIBIA
ture that leads other people to believe the person
is mad. This patient had made 17 visits to the 18 y/o female gymnast with severe left AKP
emergency unit of the hospital in the year prior to for 2 years recalcitrant to conservative treatment
surgery due to severe pain. There were many (NSAIDS and Physical Therapy). “My body is
normal imaging studies. The doctors said that she out of whack!”, were her first words upon visit-
was a “somatizer”. However, nobody had ever ing my office.
told her to undress to see her lower limbs while BMI: 18.29. VAS 8. Kujala score 63/100.
she was standing straight up. In Fig. 14A, B, C, IKDC 44.8/100. Marx Activity Rating Scale 1/16
you can see her legs. In the right one, one can –Before the onset of pain rhythmic gymnastics.
clearly see a squinting patella, a tibia varus, a HAD: Anxiety 1/21 – Depression 2/21 – (Cutting
genu recurvatum and pronated foot. In this case, point 11; no anxiety, no depression). Tampa
there is an evident asymmetry. It seems clear that Scale for Kinesiophobia 40/68 (Cutting point
there is abnormal torsion. From a clinical stand- 40; low level of kinesiophobia). Pain Catastro-
point, there clearly is right femoral anteversion phizing Scale (PCS) 13/52 (Cutting point 24;
given that internal rotation of the right hip no catastrophizing).
exceeds external rotation by more than 30º in During physical examination, we saw a
prone position (Fig. 15). Moreover, there was a bilateral squinting patella and tibia varus when
gait pattern with an internal foot progression the patient was standing with their feet forward
angle (i.e., an in-toeing gait). A Torsional CT (Fig. 20). We were also able to discern a cor-
scan revealed femoral anteversion based on rection of both squinting patella and tibia varus
Murphy´s method, right 39º and left 15º. with the legs in external rotation (Fig. 20). In
It is our belief that 39º of femoral anteversion most cases, the varus is not real but reflects the
might be enough to cause some posterior tibial torsion (pseudo-varus) (Fig. 20). During
impingement between the neck and acetabulum gait, we observed that the left foot was externally
when the patient attempts to externally rotate the rotated during the swing phase. Therefore, an
limb (Fig. 16). Therefore, the hip muscles will internal rotational tibial osteotomy should result
not work in a balanced fashion. This could justify in a neutral foot progression angle during the
the hip pain in this patient. In fact, she had hip stance phase, and that is good. If the foot is
568 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B C
D E F
Fig. 14 Preop physical examination (A, B, C). On the physical examination (D, E, F). Clinical correction of
right side, squinting patella, a tibia varus, a genu torsional malalignment after intertrochanteric rotational
recurvatum and pronated foot can be seen. Postop femoral osteotomy
Rotational Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique … 569
A B C
Fig. 16 Posterior impingement between the neck and acetabulum when the patient attempts to externally rotate the
limb. Normal anteversion (A). Excessive anteversion (B). Excessive anteversion with “in-toeing” (C)
570 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B C
Fig. 17 Preoperative position of the patella with respect extension after the rotational femoral osteotomy. Correct
to the femur with the knee in extension (A). Position of patellofemoral congruence can be observed (B). X-rays
the patella with respect to the femur with the knee in after an intertrochanteric rotational femoral osteotomy (C)
(5%) was a prospective cohort study (level of condition of “miserable malalignment” for the
evidence II). An important limitation and source first time in the medical literature [45]. In other
of bias in these papers is that, in many cases, words, that is increased femoral anteversion and
rotational osteotomy has been combined with increased external tibial torsion [45]. In 1995,
other surgical procedures like varization of the James reported on 7 patients with “miserable
femur, tibial tuberosity transfer, MPFLr, lateral malalignment” who had been treated with an
retinaculum release, etc. Therefore, we cannot internal rotational tibial osteotomy over an 18-
know which surgical procedure has been deci- year period [2]. Torsional femoral deformity was
sively responsible for the improvement in terms considered mild in all those cases, and they had
of pain or instability with certainty. Furthermore, not been corrected. Subjectively, 85% of the
77% of those papers have been published since patients had satisfactory results. Functionally, the
2004, the majority being carried out by European results were good in 4 patients and excellent in 3
authors. No surprise that what we are looking at [2]. However, the most relevant finding of that
is a surgery that started to take off a relatively study was that the results do not degrade with
few years ago, especially in Europe. time (average follow-up, 10 years/range, 4–16).
James, in 1979, presented a comprehensive Several years earlier, in 1990, Cooke and col-
review of AKP in which he described the leagues [1] described the internal rotational
Rotational Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique … 571
proximal tibial osteotomy in 7 patients present- colleagues [5] evaluated 35 medial rotational
ing with AKP. They drew attention to the proximal tibial osteotomies performed in 25
inwardly pointing knee as an unrecognized cause patients with chronic disability due to AKP and
of AKP. The outcomes evaluation after 3 years PI recalcitrant to conservative treatment in 1996.
of follow-up were excellent. In 1996, Cameron The average follow up was of 4.3 years (range
and Saha [3] drew attention to an underrecog- 1–8 years). The results were good or excellent in
nized cause of recurrent patellar dislocation, 88.5%, fair in 5.7% and poor in 5.7%. Twenty-
which is the pathological external tibial torsion. three patients were satisfied and 2 were not.
They analyzed 17 cases of this type of patients It took 8 years for another publication that
who had undergone a rotational tibial osteotomy analyzed the relationship between patellofemoral
proximal to the tibial tubercle with a mean disorders and torsional abnormalities to appear in
follow-up of 25 months. Some 76% of their the medical literature. In 2004, Bruce and Ste-
patients had a satisfactory clinical result. Delgado vens [6] retrospectively reviewed 14 consecutive
and colleagues [4] presented 3 cases of double AKP patients (27 limbs with both excessive
level osteotomy (femoral and tibial) with a femoral anteversion and excessive external tibial
marked decreased in knee pain. Server and torsion), with a mean follow-up of 5.2 (2–12)
572 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
A B C
Fig. 20 Bilateral squinting patella and tibia varus (A). permission of AME Publishing Company. From
Correction of squinting patella and tibia varus with the Sanchis-Alfonso V, et al. Evaluation of anterior knee
legs in external rotation (B). A varus correction after an pain patient: clinical and radiological assessment includ-
isolated internal tibial rotational osteotomy can be ing psychological factors. Ann Joint, 3:26, 2018)
observed on the left limb (C). (Republished with
A B
Fig. 21 X-rays with feet forward (A) and with feet in external rotation (B)
Rotational Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique … 573
years. They had been treated by means of rota- unrecognized. Those authors observed that
tional femoral and tibial osteotomy with satis- addressing rotational abnormalities in the index
factory clinical outcomes. The authors surgery provides better clinical results than
highlighted that when evaluating AKP patients, osteotomies performed after previous knee
assessing the rotational profiles of the femur and surgeries for treating AKP and/or PI.
tibia is essential.
Tibial tubercle medializaon is not sufficient to
When evaluang paents with patellofemoral correct AKP and/or patellar instability in
disorders, assessment of the rotaonal profiles paents with torsional abnormalies
of the femur and bia is prerequisite
Just as the papers published on osteotomies
In 2009, Paulos and colleagues [8] compared carried out up to 2014 focused on the tibial
two surgical techniques in a cohort of patients osteotomy in most of the cases, most publica-
with patellar instability and limb malalignment. tions since 2014 are above all on the femoral
In one group, they performed a proximal osteotomy indicated to treat patellar instability.
realignment associated with a rotational tibial In 2015, Nelitz and colleagues [15] evaluated
osteotomy and in the other one was an Elmslie- 12 consecutive PI patients (12 knees) with
Trillat-Fulkerson proximal–distal realignment. pathological femoral anteversion that had under-
They concluded that rotational abnormality cor- gone an anatomical MPFLr associated with
rection produced significantly better results than rotational femoral osteotomy. The average
conventional proximal–distal realignment. follow-up after surgery was 16.4 months (range,
In 2014, Drexler and colleagues [12] evalu- 12–28 months). There were no redislocations of
ated 15 knees (12 patients) in which a rotational the patella, and there were significant improve-
tibial osteotomy proximal to the tibial tuberosity ments in the Kujala score, IKDC score and VAS.
associated with a tibial tubercle transfer was However, there were no statistically significant
performed in the face of a diagnosis of recurrent changes in the activity level according to the
patella subluxation secondary to excessive Tegner activity score. That finding was explained
external tibial torsion. The authors showed a by the fact that patients are aware that the risk of a
satisfactory clinical outcome at a median follow- new dislocation is greater if they practice contact
up of 84 months (range 15–156). The high sports. For that reason, they voluntarily reduced
number of patients with previous failed surgeries their sports practice. Dickschas and colleagues
in this series provides some evidence that tibial evaluated 35 rotational femoral osteotomies in 25
tubercle medialization associated with soft tissue patients with AKP and/or PI in 2015 [16]. The
plication is not sufficient to correct PI in patients average follow-up was of 41 months (range 6–
with excessive external tibial torsion. 113). No re-dislocation occurred during the
Stevens and colleagues [14], in 2014, ana- follow-up. Using the VAS, pain was significantly
lyzed 16 consecutives patients (23 knees) with a reduced (from 5.6 to 2.4). Moreover, the func-
failed knee surgery (tibial tubercle osteotomy in tional scores (Lysholm and Japanese Knee Soci-
12 knees and arthroscopic debridement in 9) ety score) improved significantly (Lysholm from
before which a femoral or tibial torsional 66 to 84 and Japanese from 73 to 87). However,
abnormality was recognized and subsequently the Tegner activity score did not show significant
treated by means of rotational osteotomy. They changes in the postop.
demonstrated clinical improvement after osteo- In 2017, Dickschas and colleagues [17] pub-
tomies of the femur and/or tibia in those patients. lished a series of 49 supratuberositary tibial
The authors stated that many orthopedic sur- internal rotational osteotomies performed on
geons only focus on the knee when they see an patients with a tibial maltorsion with AKP or PI.
AKP patient. Torsional abnormalities often go The VAS went down 3.4 points (SD 2.89), from
574 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
5.7 (SD 2.78; range 0–10) to 2.3 (SD 1.83; range 83.9, and the Tegner score went from 2.1 to 3.9.
0–7). The Lysholm score increased 26 points (SD No re-dislocations were observed. Preoperative
16.32), from 66 (SD 14.94; range 32–94) to 92 cartilage damage significantly influenced the
(SD 9.29; range 70–100). Regarding patellar clinical outcome. They concluded that patello-
instability, no redislocation occurred in the femoral maltracking and PI in patients with
follow-up period. The improved clinical scores pathological femoral maltorsion can successfully
and VAS and no redislocations demonstrated the be treated by means of combined distal rotational
value of this surgical procedure. Naqvi and col- femoral osteotomies and it shows excellent
leagues [18] evaluated outcomes after proximal clinical results. Imhoff and colleagues [23]
femoral rotational osteotomy in patients with evaluated 42 patients (44 knees) with PI that
symptomatic excessive femoral anteversion and underwent distal femoral rotational osteotomy
intoeing gait in 2017. They evaluated 21 patients with a mean follow-up period of 44 months
(35 operated limbs). In 13 out of 21 patients, the (range 12–88) in 2019. In 28 cases, a rotational
reason for the visit was knee pain. The mean osteotomy was associated with an MPFLr, with
follow-up after surgery was 16 months (6– valgus correction in 22 cases, patellofemoral
36 months). Ten out of 13 patients complained of arthroplasty in 8, a trochleoplasty in 6 and a tibial
knee pain that was resolved. There was no tubercle transfer in 6. During the follow-up per-
improvement for 3 after the surgery. The authors iod, no patellar re-dislocations were observed.
highlight that excessive femoral anteversion is The authors concluded that combined rotational
associated with increased external tibial torsion in osteotomy is a suitable treatment for PI due to
some cases. In these cases, an isolated correction femoral torsional abnormality as it leads to a
of femoral anteversion can have a detrimental significant reduction in pain and a significant
effect on external tibial torsion and patellofemoral improvement in knee function. To avoid
tracking may worsen. In these selected cases a overtreatment, the authors recommend doing the
double level osteotomy would be indicated. rotational osteotomy first and follow it with a
Stambough and colleagues [20], in 2018, physical examination to evaluate patellar track-
showed that a rotational femoral osteotomy over ing. Based on the results of these evaluations, an
an intramedullary nail performed in adolescents MPFLr or a tibial tubercle transfer can proceed.
with AKP and excessive femoral anteversion is a In 2020, Tian and colleagues [25] evaluated
reliable surgical option. They found that it results 17 femoral rotational osteotomies performed on
not only in deformity correction but also in a 16 patients with recurrent patellar dislocation. In
significant improvement relative to both pain and 8 cases, the rotational osteotomy was an isolated
function. A relevant finding in their study is that procedure. In 5 cases, it was associated with
those adolescents with lower preop function medial retinaculum reefing. It was associated
scores do significantly better in the postoperative with an MPFLr in 4 cases. The authors have
IKDC than those who had preoperative scores of shown that the supracondylar femoral rotational
more than 70 points. osteotomy may be an effective treatment for
Frings and colleagues [22], in 2019, analyzed recurrent patellar dislocation induced by
31 distal rotational femoral osteotomies per- increased femoral internal torsion as good clini-
formed on 25 patients with PI and maltracking cal results and improvement in patellofemoral
secondary to a femoral torsional abnormality. congruence were obtained.
The average follow-up was 27 months (range In a 2021 cohort study (level 3 of evidence),
12–64). They also did 19 MPFL reconstructions, Zhang and colleagues [26] evaluated the results
14 tibial tuberosity transfers, varization in 4 cases of the isolated MPFLr and those of the MPFLr
and a valgus correction in 1 case. The VAS associated with the distal derotational femoral
improved from 6.2 to 1.5, the Kujala score from osteotomy in patients with recurrent patellar
45.0 to 81.5, the Lysholm score from 40.3 to dislocation with increased femoral anteversion.
Rotational Osteotomy. Principles, Surgical Technique … 575
Table 1 Demographics
Demographics—(22 papers)
Author Type of study Mean age Sex Number of Number of
patients osteotomies
Cooke T.D.V et al., 1990 Case series (IV) 18 (one patient 9 Females/3 12 9
46 yrs) Males
Meister K. and James S. Case series (IV) 20.8 (15–30) 7 Females 7 8
L., 1995
Cameron J.C. and Case series (IV) 27.6 (14–42) 16 Females 16 17
Saha S., 1996
Delgado E.D. et al., 1996 Case series (IV) 14.18 (10–18) 6 Males/3 9 20
Females
Server F. et al., 1996 Case series (IV) 20 (15–45) 22 Females/3 25 35
Males
Bruce W.D. and Case series (IV) 14.9 (11.75–18) 13 Females/1 14 54
Stevens P.M., 2004 Male
Paulos L. et al., 2009 Cohort Study 20 (15–30) 9 Females/3 12 12
(III) Males
Fouilleron N. et al., 2010 Case series (IV) 26.5 (18–44) 24 Females/5 29 3
Males
(continued)
576 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Table 1 (continued)
Demographics—(22 papers)
Author Type of study Mean age Sex Number of Number of
patients osteotomies
Leonardi F. et al., 2014 Case series (IV) 20.6 (17–24) 3 Females 3 6
Stevens P.M. et al., 2014 Case series (IV) 17 (9–30) 13 Females/3 16 12
Males
Drexler M. et al., 2014 Case series (IV) 34.6 (19–57) 11 Females/1 12 15
Male
Dickschas J. et al., 2015 Case series (IV) 30.5 (15–47) 19 Females/6 25 33
Males
Nelitz M. 2015 Case series (IV) 18.2 (15–26) 12 Females 12 12
Dickschas J. et al., 2016 Case series (IV) 27 (13–48) 29 Females/13 42 49
Males
Naqvi G. et al., 2017 Case series (IV) 13.3 (8–18) 15 Females/6 21 35
Males
Frings J. et al., 2017 Case series (IV) 24 (15–46) – 25 31
Stambough J.B. et al., Cohort study 12.7 16 Females/6 22 32
2018 (II) Males
Iiobst C.A. and Ansari A., Case series (IV) 12 4 Males/4 8 16
2018 Females
Imhoff F.B. et al., 2019 Case series (IV) 28 – 42 44
Manilov R. et al., 2020 Case series (IV) 30.5 (18–61) 50 Females/10 60 60
Males
Tian G. et al., 2020 Case series (IV) 20.8 (15–41) 11 Females/5 16 17
Males
Zhang Z. et al., 2021 Cohort study 21.3 59 Females/7 66 70
(III) Males
(2 patients)
Bruce W.D. Double-level: DF(13), Dyaphiseal femoral AKP LRR (13 limbs) 5.2 Painful fibular non-union (1) (22 fibular osteotomies)
and (8), Intertrochanteric (6), Tibia
Stevens P. supramaleolar (20) Dyaphiseal tibia (7)
M., 2004
Paulos L., Derotational high tibial osteotomy Patellar instability Proximal realignment 4.2 Plate removal (1), Knee stiffness (1)
et al., 2009
Fouilleron N. Proximal tibial derotation osteotomy AKP (31), Patellar TTO 4.6 Stiffness (1), DVT (1), Transitory peroneal nerve palsy
et al., 2010 instability (5) (1)
Leonardi F. Double-level (3): Proximal femoral (2), DF AKP NO 16.3 NO
et al., 2014 (4), PT (6)
Stevens P.M. Isolated F midshaft (1)/Isolated T (midshaft AKP and Patellar LRR (8 cases) 4.9 Femoral non-union (1), Peroneal nerve irritation (1)
et al., 2014 vs. supramaleolar) (14)/Double level (8) instability
Drexler M. Derotational high tibial osteotomy Patellar instability TTO 7 Non-union (heavy smoker) (1), collapse at the site of
et al., 2014 osteotomy with varus malalignment (1)
Dickschas Isolated distal femoral osteotomy (27), AKP (17), Patellar Valgisation (8), Varisation 3.4 Non-union (2)
J. et al., 2015 Double-level (3) instability (15) (6), Extension (2)
(continued)
577
Table 2 (continued)
578
presents a risk of non-union and can therefore be will put tension on the peroneal nerve. In those
a source of pain and require surgery. Two cases of internal tibial torsion of more than 20°,
patients (0.75%) in our systematic review had release of the peroneal nerve is essential to pre-
symptomatic fibular pseudoarthrosis [44]. venting peroneal nerve palsy. The fibular neck
Sanchis-Alfonso and colleagues [44] found osteotomy must be performed meticulously
peroneal nerve palsy in 1.87% of rotational tibial because of the anatomical situation of the per-
osteotomies. It can be secondary to overexten- oneal nerve.
sion of the nerve or entrapment due to internal The risk of an intraoperative tibial fracture is
tibial rotation, or it could be secondary to a 0.3%. One way to prevent it is to make a precise
fibular neck osteotomy. A large tibial correction cut with the saw and dispense with the
580 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
osteotome. A drain should be used to reduce the the future. What has proved most impressively
risk of hematoma and compartment syndrome with following these patients is the frequent
(0.15%). If the anterior compartment of the leg is number of observations made by patients which
very tight, we should leave the fascia open. In do not appear in any usual outcome measures.
our systematic review, only 1 postoperative case This suggests that specific and validated outcome
of DVT was found (0.15%). Not using a measures must be developed for different clinical
tourniquet may be a factor that is related to the conditions and diagnoses. Interestingly, Lutz and
low incidence of DVT in that group of patients. colleagues [48] analyzed the limitations in sexual
Immediate active ankle and knee motion and the activity in female patients with chronic patellar
use of CPM in the hospital are advocated to instability and sexual function after complex
prevent DVT and avoid knee stiffness. patellofemoral reconstructions including rota-
The most important finding of our systematic tional osteotomy. The authors reported preop
review is that the location of the osteotomy (tibial restrictions of sexual activities due to patellar
vs. femoral vs. double level) has an influence on instability preoperatively. Sexual activity was
the risk of complications [44]. The risk of com- improved in 60% of females with preoperative
plications is greater in the tibial osteotomy restrictions. However, there are no studies that
(6.41%) than when the osteotomy is performed analyze the limitations in sexual activity in
on the femur (1.73%) [44]. Surprisingly, the risk female patients with AKP secondary to torsional
of complications is nil in double level osteo- abnormalities.
tomies [44].
spent the whole time sitting because of the knee why I´m wearing scruffy jeans with holes on the
pain, too. People around me thought I was doing it knees.
on purpose.
I like wearing high heels a lot, but the pain was so
strong that I was only able to wear them once or
7.1.2 Impact on Self and Loss of Self- twice a year.
identity
Pain is omnipresent in the daily life of these 7.1.4 Expectation of the Future
patients and results in a loss of physical capacity I would love to be a mum, but I dread to imagine
and even in a loss of self-identity. what my legs would have to go through due to the
extra kilos.
Every single day is complicated for me, from the
moment I wake up until I go to bed. Some days What will my life look like in 20 years’ time?
when I get out of bed and put my feet on the floor, I
can already feel the pain in my knee. Other days, I I would prefer not to live than live like that.
have no pain when I get out of bed but as soon as I I have no idea why my boyfriend puts up with me.
start to walk or do anything the pain appears again. I have so many limitations.
My knee severely limited my everyday activities,
like cleaning the house, making the bed, going for
a walk, etc. 7.2 Patient Observations After
Climbing the stairs was like climbing a mountain. Surgery Include
My knee hurt a lot and my leg was stuck. The pain the Following
was horrible.
When I woke up after surgery, my thoughts were
I had to go down the stairs step-by-step, holding on automatically about my operated leg and I felt like
to the banister and, even so, at times I would fall. the bones were in their right place, that the tibia
When I would go to a party, my friends would was in its right place, that the femur was in its
leave me behind, leaving me alone. correct place, everything was in its proper place.
Deciding on the clothes to wear is a nightmare. The operation was magical for me. The pain dis-
There are no shoes that make me feel dressed up appeared all of a sudden.
and comfortable at the same time.
My knee no longer hurts me, not at all. it’s really
Driving to work is just terrible. Pressing the clutch incredible.
is very painful.
I have never again had pain.
Before I had my surgery, I was very irritable, I
would get angry with my parents and friends for no The pain has completely gone away, and I can
reason at all. I wasn’t myself anymore. sleep again.
Teachers, especially in physical education as well I couldn’t be happier. After two years of severe
as doctors and physiotherapists told me I was pain, I no longer have pain with anything I might
crazy, that I was nuts, that I was an idiot and that I do.
complained just for fun. Before, I was in continual pain. I did not feel
happy at not being able to find a good position
7.1.3 Coping Strategies and Activity where I truly felt comfortable. Now I can sit in a
chair and not feel pain. And when I go to bed, I
Beliefs
don’t have any problem.
I try to sit idly most of the time.
I have recovered the autonomy I didn’t have
I was usually in the emergency room every few before. I can go to the movies, go down stairs, take
weeks due to pain so that they would give me a normal walk without having to use crutches or a
something for my pain. wheel chair or have someone help me.
The pain was very intense and would wake me up Now I can go up and down stairs, bend my knees,
at night. I could hardly sleep. I even had to take and do everything a girl of my age should do.
painkillers and sleeping pills. The pain was
I go to bed, and I am calm, without having to move
excruciating.
around constantly to find a comfortable position so
Putting my tight jeans on is extremely painful. The as not to have pain in my knee. And I don’t have
touch of the fabric hurts my skin. This is the reason nightmares any more about my knee.
582 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
It’s like having a new leg. 5. Server F, Miralles RC, Garcia E, et al. Medial
rotational tibial osteotomy for patellar instability
Now I feel that my leg is finally no longer a dead
secondary to lateral tibial torsion. Int Orthop. 1996;20
weight, that I can be pain-free, something I thought (3):153–8.
was impossible before, and I can sleep all through 6. Bruce WD, Stevens PM. Surgical correction of
the night at one stretch. miserable malalignment syndrome. J Pediatr
I had never thought about a future with children. Orthop. 2004;24(4):392–6.
But now I am pregnant and thrilled. My knee 7. Teitge RA. Patellofemoral syndrome a paradigm for
hasn’t given me any trouble during my pregnancy. current surgical strategies. Orthop Clin N Am. 2008;
287–311.
This surgery changed my life completely. 8. Paulos L, Swanson SC, Stoddard GJ, et al. Surgical
My life and my personality as well as my rela- correction of limb malalignment for instability of the
tionship with my family have changed completely. patella: a comparison of 2 techniques. Am J Sports
Before I was mad at the world, was always in a bad Med. 2009;37(7):1288–300.
mood, quite depressed, more aggressive, any 9. Fouilleron N, Marchetti E, Autissier G, et al. Prox-
excuse to be angry. I am myself again, both imal tibial derotation osteotomy for torsional tibial
physically and mentally. deformities generating patello-femoral disorders.
Orthop Traumatol Surg Res. 2010;96(7):785–92.
My personality is back again. 10. Dickschas J, Harrer J, Pfefferkorn R, et al. Operative
treatment of patellofemoral maltracking with tor-
My knee feels perfect. I’m able to do things I
sional osteotomy. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg.
couldn’t do like go hiking, go clubbing and not
2012;132(3):289–98.
feel like sitting down, work standing on my feet
11. Teitge RA. Does lower limb torsion matter? Tech
many hours, kneel, crouch, cross my legs, do
Knee Surg. 2012;11:137–46.
sports–in short, lead a normal life.
12. Drexler M, Dwyer T, Dolkart O, et al. Tibial
I’d have this operation a hundred times more, rotational osteotomy and distal tuberosity transfer
without any doubt whatsoever. for patella subluxation secondary to excessive exter-
nal tibial torsion: surgical technique and clinical
I have recovered my life. outcome. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc.
2014;22(11):2682–9.
13. Leonardi F, Rivera F, Zorzan A, et al. Bilateral
double osteotomy in severe torsional malalignment
8 Take Home Message syndrome: 16 years follow-up. J Orthop Traumatol.
2014;15(2):131–6.
14. Stevens PM, Gililland JM, Anderson LA, et al.
The techniques described in this chapter, when Success of torsional correction surgery after failed
well-indicated and well performed technically, surgeries for patellofemoral pain and instability.
provide very good results in AKP or PI patients Strateg Trauma Limb Reconstr. 2014;9(1):5–12.
with pathological torsional abnormalities. 15. Nelitz M, Dreyhaupt J, Robert S, et al. Combined
supracondylar femoral derotation osteotomy and
patellofemoral ligament reconstruction for recurrent
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32. Cheng JC, Chan PS, Chiang SC, et al. Angular and experience of living with patellofemoral pain—loss,
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assessment based on function axes. J Orthop Res. 48. Lutz PM, Winkler PW, Rupp MC, et al. Complex
1987;5(1):86–91. patellofemoral reconstruction leads to improved phys-
34. Yoshioka Y, Siu DW, Scudamore RA, et al. Tibial ical and sexual activity in female patients suffering
anatomy and functional axes. J Orthop Res. 1989;7 from chronic patellofemoral instability. Knee Surg
(1):132–7. Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2021;29(9):3017–24.
Bipolar Fresh Osteochondral
Allograft Transplantation
of the Patellofemoral Joint
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
and Joan Carles Monllau
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 585
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_40
586 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. C. Monllau
statistically significant. For the patient to notice grafts should not be too thick. The more bone the
an improvement in this case, it would have to go graft has, there is a greater risk not only of an
from 70 to 100. Therefore, we must analyze the immune response but also of graft necrosis. We
patient’s expectations regarding the results of the must use of the least amount of subchondral bone
surgery and see if it is really feasible to achieve possible, the minimum necessary for cartilage
that “significant clinical benefit”. Therefore, it fixation. The bone component of the osteochon-
would be reasonable to operate on those patients dral allograft acts as a support for the hyaline
with an IKDC of <50 points. cartilage and as a connecting link with the host
The main exclusion criteria are advanced bone. In the future, the bone component of the
osteoarthritis of other knee compartments, locally allograft will be replaced by bone from the host
aggressive rheumatic disease, infections, tumors, through a phenomenon of “creeping
diabetes, and vasculitis. Relative contraindica- substitution”.
tions are being older than 50 years and having a Patellofemoral chondropathy can be sec-
body mass index greater than 30 [2]. Smoking ondary to trauma, patellar instability, or lower
must be stopped 30 days prior to surgery and for limb malalignment. Therefore, for the resurfacing
at least 6 months after the operation [2]. surgery to be successful, we must first correct the
instability and/or malalignment to eliminate the
shearing forces on the cartilage and the overload
3 The Keys for a Successful of the repair. If we do not do this, the graft car-
Osteochondral Allograft tilage will deteriorate in the same way that the
Transplantation original cartilage did, and the surgery will fail in
of the Patellofemoral Joint the medium or long term.
Fig. 2 Distal femur and patella of a donor with adequate cartilage for transplantation and adequate trochlear
morphology (non-dysplastic trochlea)
allograft of the patellofemoral joint is to choose a everted. The thickness of the patella is measured.
patella and trochlea with a size similar to that of The surgical technique to prepare the patella is
the recipient. In addition, the side must match. If identical to the one used in prosthetic surgery
the recipient’s knee is the right, the donor’s side when we are going to put in the patellar com-
must also be the right. ponent. The articular surface of the patella is
The patient is placed in the supine position resected using a standard cutting patellar guide
with a support for the foot and a lateral support like that used in total knee arthroplasty (Fig. 3).
for the thigh to maintain the knee at 45° of An oscillating saw is used, leaving a patella
flexion. The contralateral limb is placed in full remnant of about 13 mm (Fig. 3). We routinely
extension. The surgical intervention should be perform a peripatellar denervation with the
performed by two surgical teams that will work electrocautery with the theoretical idea of
simultaneously, two surgeons to work in the reducing the postoperative incidence of anterior
surgical field (arthrotomy, preparation of the knee pain. Resection of the recipient trochlea is
recipient area and subsequent implantation of the performed similarly to the anterior resection of
graft) and another to prepare the graft. the distal femur in a patellofemoral arthroplasty
A longitudinal midline incision is used. Once (Fig. 4).
the joint is exposed through a conventional Meanwhile, the other surgical team prepares
medial parapatellar approach, the patella is the allograft, also using the knee prosthesis
Fig. 3 Resection of the articular surface of the patella using a standard cutting patellar guide
588 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. C. Monllau
Fig. 4 Resection of the recipient’s trochlea using the Zimmer patellofemoral prosthesis guide
Fig. 5 Resection of the donor patella using a standard cutting patellar guide
instruments (Figs. 5 and 6). The proximal and sterile saline solution to remove blood from the
lateral part of the patella is marked with a sterile graft and thus reduce a possible immunogenicity
skin marker to help place the graft in the recip- (Fig. 8). During this cleaning process, care must
ient area in the appropriate position (normopo- be taken not to injure the cartilage.
sition) (Fig. 7). Resection of the donor trochlea is Then, the trochlear allograft is implanted, and
performed similarly to the anterior resection of it is fixed with two medial and two lateral screws
the distal femur in a patellofemoral prosthesis associated or not with resorbable pins (Figs. 9
(Fig. 6). We must reduce the thickness of the and 10). After that, the patellar allograft is
bone component of the graft as much as possible implanted over the reception area and provi-
(6–8 mm) to minimize the risk of immune reac- sionally fixed with two Kirschner wires intro-
tion [3]. Before placing the patellar and trochlear duced through the anterior cortex of the patella
grafts, the bone component of the graft is cleaned (Fig. 11). The definitive fixation of the graft is
with a brush and washed for at least 15 min with performed with resorbable pins. Once the patellar
a pulsatile irrigation system with high-pressure graft is fixed, the K-wires are removed. Initially,
Bipolar Fresh Osteochondral Allograft Transplantation … 589
Fig. 6 Resection of the donor trochlea using the Zimmer patellofemoral prosthesis guide
Fig. 9 Provisional fixation of the graft with Kirschner wires and definitive fixation with Acutrak screws
Bipolar Fresh Osteochondral Allograft Transplantation … 591
Fig. 11 Provisional fixation of the graft with Kirschner wires. Definitive graft fixation with resorbable pins
objective is to delay the moment of the prosthe- 4. Gracitelli GC, Meric G, Pulido PA, et al. Fresh
sis. If the patient is clear on the fact that it is a osteochondral allograft transplantation for isolated
patellar cartilage injury. Am J Sports Med. 2015;43
“salvage surgery”, we avoid the frequent failures (4):879–84.
related to not fulfilling the expectations of the 5. Cameron JI, Pulido PA, McCauley JC, et al. Osteo-
patient. chondral allograft transplantation of the femoral
trochlea. Am J Sports Med. 2016;44(3):633–8.
6. Jamali AA, Emmerson BC, Chung C, et al. Fresh
osteochondral allografts: results in the patellofemoral
References joint. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2005;437:176–85.
7. Giannini S, Buda R, Ruffilli A. Failures in bipolar
1. Wang D, Chang B, Coxe FR, et al. Clinically fresh osteochondral allograft for the treatment of end-
meaningful improvement after treatment of cartilage stage knee osteoarthritis. Knee Surg Sports Trauma-
defects of the knee with osteochondral grafts. Am J tol Arthrosc. 2015;23:2081–9.
Sports Med. 2019;47(1):71–81. 8. Meric G, Gracitelli GC, Gortz S, et al. Fresh
2. Gelber PE, Ramírez E, Grau A, et al. Fresh osteochondral allograft transplantation for bipolar
osteochondral resurfacing of the patellofemoral joint. reciprocal osteochondral lesions of the knee. Am J
Arthrosc Tech. 2019;13(8):e1395–401. Sports Med. 2015;43:709–14.
3. Sherman SL, Garrity J, Bauer K, et al. Fresh 9. Mirzayan R, Charles MD, Batech M, et al. Bipolar
osteochondral allograft transplantation for the knee: osteochondral allograft transplantation of the patella
current concepts. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2014;22 and trochlea. Cartilage. 2018:1947603518796124.
(2):121–33. 10. Torga Spak R, Teitge RA. Fresh osteochondral
allografts for patellofemoral arthritis: long-term fol-
lowup. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2006;444:193–200.
Patellofemoral Arthroplasty. Pearls
and Pitfalls
Pedro Hinarejos
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 593
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_41
594 P. Hinarejos
Fig. 2 Third generation onlay patello-femoral arthroplasty (Gender, from Zimmer) with anatomical design, with valgus
in the trochlear groove
Fig. 4 Anterior cut of the onlay patello-femoral arthroplasty, similar to that of TKA. Correct rotation of the trochlear
component is important for the stability of the extensor mechanism
Fig. 5 Patello-femoral
osteoarthritis secondary to
trochlear dysplasia
femoro-tibial compartments. This isolated PF- The ideal requirements for a PFA are the
OA can be idiopathic, secondary to trochlear presence of severe signs and symptoms, without
dysplasia (Fig. 5) or post-traumatic, especially improvement after a conservative treatment, the
after patella fractures. absence of involvement of the femoro-tibial
Patellofemoral Arthroplasty. Pearls and Pitfalls 597
Although there is no evidence that a previous on palpation of the lateral aspect of the patella is
meniscectomy or ligament injuries can lead to very common [3]. Patients also complain of pain
worse results, it is better not to indicate this when a direct pressure is applied on the patella
partial replacement in cases of meniscal or liga- against the femur.
ment lesions, which are conditions that can Significant pain in the medial or lateral joint
accelerate osteoarthritis of the femoro-tibial joint. lines, signs of knee instability in the saggital
plane or pain with meniscal maneuvers should
make us suspect of other knee lesions.
6 Diagnosis of PF-OA: Patient
Selection
6.3 Preoperative Radiology
6.1 Anamnesis
For the diagnosis of isolated PF-OA and surgical
Pain is the main symptom of patients with PF- planning of PFA the following X-rays are rec-
OA. Usually the pain is referred in the anterior ommended [13]:
aspect of the knee. A differential diagnosis with
anterior knee pain from other causes (tendinitis, – Anterior–posterior weight-bearing view: It
synovitis, etc.), or referred pain of spinal or hip must show the medial and lateral joint lines
joint origin, must be done. preserved. This view is not necessary if a
Usually the pain produced by PF-OA increa- good quality weight-bearing long X-ray cen-
ses in closed chain movements with knee flexion tered on the knee is available.
and the foot on the ground, such as when getting – Rosenberg (or schuss) view: Posterior-
up from a chair, squatting, rising up and down anterior projection made with weight-bearing
stairs. In all these situations the contraction of the at about 40° of flexion. If an impingement of
extensor mechanism combined with the flexion the joint line height is observed, degenerative
of the knee greatly increases the pressure sup- changes in the posterior aspect of the knee
ported by the articular surfaces of the patella and should be suspected.
trochlea, causing pain. The pain when walking – True lateral view (both femoral condyles must
on flat surfaces is much lesser. be seen aligned) (Fig. 7). A decrease in the
Another frequent symptom in PF-OA is the patello-femoral joint line height can be seen,
presence of crepitus on the anterior aspect of the with preservation of the femoro-tibial joint
knee. Recurrent joint effusions are frequent and line. On this view, the presence of a trochlear
feeling of locking in the anterior aspect of the dysplasia, common in PF-OA, can be anal-
knee can also occur. ysed. On this view, an assessment of the
height of the patella should be done, usually
using the Caton-Deschamps index (CDI). The
6.2 Physical Examination presence of a high-riding patella or patella alta
(CDI > 1.2) may advise us to add a distal-
On inspection, rotational abnormalities of the ization of the anterior tibial tuberosity (TT),
lower extremities during standing and walking while the presence of a low-riding patella or
should be examined, as they cause a medial sit- patella baja (CDI < 0.8) is a contraindication,
uation of the patella when the patient places the at least relative, for a PFA.
feet facing forward. The alignment of the – Patellar axial view (Fig. 8): with a knee flex-
extremities in the coronal plane must also be ion of about 30°. It allows us to observe the
explored, since a significant genu varum or genu involvement of the lateral and medial patellar
valgum should contraindicate the use of a PFA. facets, as well as indirect signs of instability of
Pain and crepitus are frequent when the the extensor mechanism, like a lateral sub-
patella is mobilized in the longitudinal axis. Pain luxation of the patella or an excessive tilt.
Patellofemoral Arthroplasty. Pearls and Pitfalls 599
7.3 Patellectomy
7 Treatment Alternatives
Resection of the patella and secondary recon-
When an isolated PF O-A is diagnosed, several struction of the extensor mechanism was a
treatment alternatives to PFA have been widely used technique for the treatment of iso-
proposed. lated PF O-A in the past. However, this tech-
nique was associated with loss of strength, as
well as a feeling of instability and pain in a
7.1 Conservative Treatment significant number of patients. In 50% of the
cases in which the patellectomy was performed
The initial treatment for any patient with isolated as a treatment for osteoarthritis they were con-
PF-OA should be conservative: activity modifi- sidered failures [16]. These poor results, associ-
cation (avoiding squatting positions and the use ated with the rise of the prosthetic surgery, have
of stairs as much as possible), and overweight caused that this technique has been almost given
control must be recommended in case of obesity. up for the treatment of PF O-A.
Physical therapy should aim to strengthen the
thigh and gluteal muscles, as well as stretching
the contracted structures, especially the 7.4 Partial Lateral Patella
hamstrings. Facetectomy
For pain control, the use of analgesics is rec-
ommended, and the use of injections for visco- This technique has been used in short series of
supplementation may be indicated [3]. If knee patients with PF O-A with satisfactory results
braces are used, it is recommended to use those [17]. It consists in a resection by vertical
with a hole in the anterior part to minimize direct osteotomy of the most lateral part of the lateral
pressure on the patella. patellar facet, with its corresponding osteophyte,
Patellofemoral Arthroplasty. Pearls and Pitfalls 601
leaving the lateral retinaculum open to reduce the meta-analysis [21] TKAs have a significant lower
pressure on the lateral facet. It should only be revision rate than PFAs. For this reason, in
indicated if the osteoarthritis is limited to the elderly patients, for whom a TKA has a high
lateral facet and it is associated with a lateral chance of being a single surgery that does not
subluxation of the patella with an increase in its require further revisions, it is the preferred
tilt. Its results are more predictable when the indication.
cartilage lesions of the lateral facet are not full
thickness.
8 Advantages of PFAs
7.5 Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) Compared to the alternative of a TKA (which
probably remains the gold standard for the
Although the majority of TKAs are used for the elderly patients), PFAs have several advantages:
treatment of bi- or tricompartmental osteoarthritis
of the knee, several authors have reported good – Greater bone preservation (Fig. 10). This
results in the use of TKAs for the treatment of allows the revision of a PFA to be performed
isolated PF O-A, similar to those obtained with with a primary TKA, without the need for
TKAs for tricompartmental osteoarthritis [18, metallic augments or stems (unlike TKAs, that
19]. However, these cases often require a section frequently need these elements and a greater
of the lateral retinaculum to achieve a good degree of constriction in their revision).
patellar tracking [19]. – More normal kinematics: By preservation of all
TKA is probably still the best treatment for knee ligaments and both menisci, in addition to
isolated PF O-A in very advanced stages in older the preservation of the femoro-tibial joint.
patients, from 65 or 70 years of age. In studies – Lower risk of perioperative complications
based on National Registries [20], and also in (infection or deep vein thrombosis)
Fig. 10 Preservation of
bone, ligaments and menisci
during implantation of a left
patello-femoral arthroplasty
602 P. Hinarejos
– Less perioperative bleeding [22] A partial excision of retropatellar fat pad and a
– Less hospital stay synovectomy of the subquadricipital area are
– Faster postoperative rehabilitation performed. Intraoperatively, the indemnity of the
– Better functional results: In a randomized femoro-tibial joints must be verified.
study with 100 knees with isolated PF-OA, a In onlay prostheses (the most frequently used
higher score in the KOOS-Symptoms, less today) an anterior cut of the femur is performed,
pain in the SF-36 and a better range of motion looking for an external rotation with respect to
was observed in the PFA group than in the the posterior bicondylar line to improve the
TKA group [23] patellar tracking, trying to make this cut parallel
– Greater possibility to return to sports activity to the transepicondylar axis and perpendicular to
[22] the Whiteside’s line [24] (Fig. 12). This cut must
end at the level of the anterior cortex of the
All the aforementioned advantages make femoral shaft, avoiding a trochlear component
PFAs an alternative to be seriously taken into overstuffing that cause an increase in the anterior
account in young patients. space of the knee. The size of the component
must be adjusted to the size of the bone (Fig. 13),
trying to avoid an abrupt transition between the
9 Surgical Technique metal component and the bone that can cause an
impingement of the patella. If we use a sym-
After an anterior longitudinal incision, a medial metrical trochlear component, we must seek to
parapatellar arthrotomy is usually performed align it in a certain valgus (usually 7–10°) with
(although some authors recommend a lateral respect to the joint line to improve the pate-
arthrotomy) [13], taking special care not to injure llar tracking centered on the trochlea. In the
the medial meniscus anterior horn (Fig. 11). case of third-generation, anatomical PFA, the
Injury to cartilage in preserved areas must also be valgus is already incorporated into the implant
avoided. [24].
Fig. 13 Trochlear
component should not be
raised with respect to the
anterior cortex or in flexion to
avoid protrusion of the patella
with the edge of the trochlea
604 P. Hinarejos
The patella will be replaced trying to reproduce patellectomy of 10–15 mm including the lateral
the thickness of the original patella and trying to osteophyte of the patella [6], avoiding the lateral
medialize the patellar component to improve patellar soft tissue release.
patellar tracking (Fig. 14), although this medial- The absence of impingement between the
ization should not be excessive. Very frequently patella and the superior edge of the trochlea during
the wear of the patella is not only from the carti- the range of motion must also be checked [26].
lage, but also from the bone, and this can create a
Associated procedures
mistake about the previous thickness of the patella.
In any case, a minimum thickness of 12 mm in the
bone remnant of the patella must be tried to be – In cases of severe patella alta, a distalization
mantained, since a smaller thickness increases the osteotomy of the TT may be associated to
risk of patellar fracture [13]. Some authors have ensure that the patella articulates with the
used PFAs without patellar replacement, but in trochlea when the knee is in full extension [9].
some cases thet have had to perform a patellar Not treating a patella alta when implanting a
resurfacing in a second surgery in a subgroup of PFA has been associated with lower postop-
patients [25]. The systematic replacement of the erative outcomes in some series [27], but not
patella is widely recommended. in some others [28].
With the trial components, the correct patellar
– In cases of severe instability with lateraliza-
tracking must be assessed (Fig. 15), and the lat-
tion of the TT (high distance TT-GT), it may
eral tilt or subluxation of the patella should be
be necessary to associate a medialization of
corrected. If these signs of patellar instability are
the TT to ensure that the patella moves cen-
found, a lateral patellar release must be per-
tered on the trochlea.
formed. The rate of patients who required a lat-
eral patellar release is highly variable between – In cases of significant low patella, a proxi-
series, reaching up to 82% in some of them [22]. malization osteotomy of the TT or lengthen-
Other authors suggest performing a vertical ing of the patellar tendon may be indicated.
Patellofemoral Arthroplasty. Pearls and Pitfalls 605
to mechanical problems (patella instability) has term (5 years) [34, 35]. Nevertheless, the revi-
greatly decreased and the main cause of revision sion cumulate rates of PFAs from several
is disease progression to the femoro-tibial com- National Registries remain higher than those of
partments. A systematic review comparing the TKAs [36].
functional outcomes (measured with KSS, OKS, In addition to an improved survival rate in
and WOMAC) of second-generation PFAs to recent decades, the functional result is similar to
TKAs for the treatment of isolated PF O-A or better than that of TKAs [23, 37, 38] and the
concluded that there is no difference between satisfaction rate is high, with 78% having no
both treatments in terms of function [30]. residual postoperative symptoms. 80% of
Ackroyd reported in a 5.2 years follow-up patients would recommend this type of surgery to
study with Avon PFA a revision rate of 15% and others [34], and the rate of satisfied and very
progression of osteoarthritis to the other com- satisfied patients exceeds 90% [35]. Moreover,
partments was the main cause of revision [8]. from an echonomical point of view, PFAs are
Some series of second-generation inlay PFAs, more cost-effective than TKAs, at least in the
with a 5-year follow-up reported a similar revi- short term [39].
sion rate of 17%, but in the case of inlay PFAs The reported results of PFAs in the last decade
the main cause of revision was persistent pain have encouraged some authors to expand the
[31]. When inlay PFAs were compared to onlay indications, combining its use with unicompart-
PFAs in the Australian Registry, the 5-year mental prosthesis if it is associated with femoro-
revision rate was higher than 20% for the former tibial osteoarthritis in only one of its compart-
and lower than 10% for the latter [2]. ments [25, 35].
Leadbetter et al., in a multicenter study with
the Avon PFA and a follow-up of 2–6 years,
reported a 90% rate of patients without pain in 12 Complications of PFAs
daily life activities, with an improvement in the
KSS from 56 to 83 points [10]. The results of 12.1 Early Complications
PFAs seem to be better in the group of patients
whose diagnosis was trochlear dysplasia than in The incidence of readmissions after PFAs at
the group with primary osteoarthritis [27]. In a 30 days (4.3%) is similar or slightly lower than
comparative study between PFAs and TKAs in that of TKAs [11], and most of the causes that
young patients, it was concluded that the require readmission are related to medical com-
improvement in symptoms and functionality plications such as bleeding requiring transfusion,
assessed by different scores is similar between urinary tract infections or deep vein thrombosis.
both groups at 2-years [32]. The reoperation rate at 30 days is 1.5% [11].
In a longer-term series, van Jonbergen et al. Most early complications (excluding infec-
reported a series of 185 Richards II type PFAs tions) are secondary to poor surgical technique.
with a survival rate of 84% at 10 years and 69%
at 20 years [33]. Survival was not influenced by – Patellar instability: This complication was
age, gender, or primary diagnosis, but it much more frequent in first-generation PFAs,
decreased in obese patients. Femoro-tibial with inlay components, in which the trochlea
osteoarthritis was observed in 45% of patients had to be accommodated to the patient’s
in the long term, but had only required conver- anatomical trochlea. If a previous trochlear
sion to TKAs in 13% of them. dysplasia is present, it is not corrected with an
There are few publications of the third gen- inlay component and a postoperative sublux-
eration of PFAs, with an anatomical trochlear ation or excessive tilt of the patella could
component, but some of them suggest a low remain if it is not diagnosed and corrected in
revision rate (around 5%) in the short to medium the same surgical act. With onlay
Patellofemoral Arthroplasty. Pearls and Pitfalls 607
components, a mistake to achieve a proper than 90° [8, 33]. This complication is more
external rotation of the trochlea can also cause frequent if the trochlear component is too
lateral instability of the extensor mechanism. thick or it is implanted in a too anterior
If patellar instability is observed during sur- position, or if a too thick patella is mantained,
gery, it must be corrected by adjusting the causing excessive tension in the anterior space
rotation of the trochlear component and of the knee.
associating lateral patellar release. When
necessary, a medialization osteotomy of the
TT should be added.
– Protrusion of the patella: Placing the trochlear 12.2 Late Complications
implant in flexion can cause a patellar clunk
when the patella engages with the elevated – Prosthetic loosening and wear of the patellar
trochlear component (Fig. 16). button: These are rare complications, but they
– Perirpatellar pain: It may be the consequence can be treated with an isolated revision of the
of an increase in the anterior space of the patellar component. Loosening rate is < 1%
knee, due to an insufficient cut or a too thick at mid term follow-up [2].
component, either in the trochlea or in the – Persistent pain: The presence of persistent
patella [40]. This pain can also appear if a pain, without evidence of any other compli-
trochlear component that is too large is used, cation, is the cause of revision of PFAs in up
protruding medially or laterally and irritating to 16% of cases [41], and even higher in inlay
the synovium at this level. PFAs [31].
– Postoperative stiffness: A percentage of 3– – Chronic effusions: It is not uncommon to
14% of patients may require a manipulation observe long-term joint effusions, especially if
under anesthesia to improve postoperative there are technical errors like placement of the
knee flexion if postoperative flexion is less trochlear component in internal rotation [10].
– Progression of degenerative disease to the
femoro-tibial compartments: It is the most
frequent cause of PFA revision in almost all
case series and all national registries [42]. In
the Australian Registry, the progression of
osteoarthritis to the other compartments is the
cause of the revision of PFAs in 56% of cases
[36]. For this reason, the proper selection of
PFA candidates is very important, as they
must not have degenerative femoro-tibial
changes at the time of surgery, morbide obe-
sity, or varus or valgus malalignment, condi-
tions that can make the evolution of the
disease easier. The progression of the disease
to the femoro-tibial joint (Fig. 17) seems to be
more frequent in cases of primary
osteoarthritis than in those cases with tro-
chlear dysplasia or post-traumatic
osteoarthritis [22]. A case–control study sug-
gested that the use of second-generation inlay-
Fig. 16 Excessive elevation of the trochlear component
type PFA (the Hemicap Wave from Arthro-
over the anterior cortex of the patella. It can cause anterior
pain due to thickening of the anterior knee space, or saurace, USA) seems to be associated with a
protrusion of the patella when beginning knee flexion lower rate of disease progression to other
608 P. Hinarejos
13 PFA Revision
As said before, the most common cause of PFAs have instruments that make the tech-
revision of PFAs is disease progression to the nique more reproducible, but attention must
femoro-tibial compartments [42]. Except when be paid to some technical details, such as the
there is an excessive wear or loosening of the correct choice of the size, the placement of the
patellar component, the patellar button can be correct degree of flexion of the trochlear
preserved (Fig. 19). In a large series based on the component, and avoiding to increase the
Australian registry only 42% of the patellar anterior space of the knee.
components were revised during revision from a 3. The results of contemporary PFAs appear to
PFA to a TKA [36]. be clearly superior to those of the models
One case series found that the results of used 2–3 decades ago. Although the survival
revision of PFA to a TKA are similar to those of rate of PFAs is not yet the same as that of
a primary TKA [45]. However, data from the TKAs, the fact that they have some advan-
Australian Registry suggest that the survival of tages such as a faster postoperative recovery
TKAs after a PFA could be lower than that of and slightly superior functional results, the
primary TKAs [36]. use of PFA is recommended in young patients
with isolated PF-OA.
4. The most common cause of PFAs failure is
14 Take-Home Messages the progression of osteoarthritis to the other
compartments, but revision of the PFA is in
most cases a simple surgery with reproducible
1. Adequate patient selection is essential in the use
results.
of PFAs. The preoperative study of the patient
5. The use of PFAs is a useful treatment in
must confirm that femoro-tibial compartments
isolated PF-OA, especially in relatively
are undamaged and it should rule out the pres-
young patients, but in patients older than
ence of severe limb malalignment.
70 years, the use of TKAs is recommended
2. Careful surgical technique is also fundamental
because of their more reproducible results.
to obtain satisfactory results. Contemporary
610 P. Hinarejos
28. Bernard CD, Pareek A, Sabbag CM, Parkes CW, an analysis from eight large arthroplasty registries.
Krych AJ, Cummings NM, Dahm DL. Pre-operative Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2020;478:1222–31.
patella alta does not affect midterm clinical outcomes 37. Joseph MN, Achten J, Parsons NR, Costa ML; PAT
and survivorship of patellofemoral arthroplasty. Knee Trial Collaborators. The PAT randomized clinical
Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2021;29:1670–7. trial. Bone Joint J. 2020;102-B:310–318.
29. Blazina ME, Fox JM, Del Pizzo W, Broukhim B, 38. Peng G, Liu M, Guan Z, Hou Y, Liu Q, Sun X,
Ivey FM. Patellofemoral replacement. Clin Orthop Zhu X, Feng W, Zeng J, Zhong Z, Zeng Y.
Relat Res. 1979;144:98–102. Patellofemoral arthroplasty versus total knee arthro-
30. Bunyoz KI, Lustig S, Troelsen A. Similar postoper- plasty for isolated patellofemoral osteoarthritis: a
ative patient-reported outcome in both second gen- systematic review and meta-analysis. J Orthop Surg
eration patellofemoral arthroplasty and total knee Res. 2021;16(1):264.
arthroplasty for treatment of isolated patellofemoral 39. Fredborg C, Odgaard A, Sørensen J. Patellofemoral
osteoarthritis: a systematic review. Knee Surg Sports arthroplasty is cheaper and more effective in the short
Traumatol Arthrosc. 2019;27:2226–37. term than total knee arthroplasty for isolated
31. Imhoff AB, Feucht MJ, Bartsch E, Cotic M, patellofemoral osteoarthritis: cost-effectiveness anal-
Pogorzelski J. High patient satisfaction with signif- ysis based on a randomized trial. Bone
icant improvement in knee function and pain relief Joint J. 2020;102-B: 449–457.
after mid-term follow-up in patients with isolated 40. Mofidi A, Bajada S, Holt MD, Davies AP. Functional
patellofemoral inlay arthroplasty. Knee Surg Sports relevance of patellofemoral thickness before and after
Traumatol Arthrosc. 2019;27:2251–8. unicompartmental patellofemoral replacement. Knee.
32. Kamikovski I, Dobransky J, Dervin GF. The clinical 2012;19:180–4.
outcome of patellofemoral arthroplasty vs total knee 41. Bendixen NB, Eskelund PW, Odgaard A. Failure
arthroplasty in patients younger than 55 years. modes of patellofemoral arthroplasty-registries vs.
J Arthroplasty. 2019;34:2914–7. clinical studies: a systematic review. Acta
33. Van Jonbergen H-P, Poolman RW, van Kampen A. Orthop. 2019;90:473–478.
Isolated patellofemoral osteoarthritis. A systematic 42. van der List JP, Chawla H, Villa JC, Pearle AD. Why
review of treatment options using the GRADE do patellofemoral arthroplasties fail today? A sys-
approach. Acta Orthopedica. 2010;81:199–205. tematic review Knee. 2017;24:2–8.
34. Rammohan R, Gupta S, Lee PYF, Chandratreya A. 43. Feucht MJ, Cotic M, Beitzel K, Baldini JF, Mei-
The midterm results of a cohort study of patellofe- dinger G, Schöttle PB, Imhoff AB. A matched-pair
moral arthroplasty from a non-designer centre using comparison of inlay and onlay trochlear designs for
an asymmetric trochlear prosthesis. Knee. patellofemoral arthroplasty: no differences in clinical
2019;26:1348–53. outcome but less progression of osteoarthritis with
35. Romagnoli S, Marullo M. Mid-term clinical, func- inlay designs. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc.
tional, and radiographic outcomes of 105 Gender- 2017;25:2784–91.
specific patellofemoral arthroplasties, with or without 44. Hendrix MR, Ackroyd CE, Lonner JH. Revision
the association of medial unicompartmental knee patellofemoral arthroplasty: three- to seven-year
arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty. 2018;33:688–95. follow-up. J Arthroplasty. 2008;23:977–83.
36. Lewis PL, Tudor F, Lorimer M, McKie J, Bohm E, 45. van Jonbergen HP, Werkman DM, van Kampen A.
Robertsson O, Makela KT, Haapakoski J, Furnes O, Conversion of patellofemoral arthroplasty to total
Bartz-Johannessen C, Nelissen RGHH, Van Steen- knee arthroplasty: a matched case-control study of 13
bergen LN, Fithian DC, Prentice HA. Short-term patients. Acta Orthop. 2009;80:62–6.
revision risk of patellofemoral arthroplasty is high:
Clinical Cases—Primary and Revision
Patellofemoral Surgery Patellofemoral
Joint Preservation Surgery A
Case-Based Approach
In this section of the book, 11 clinical cases that with patellofemoral pain is emphasized. In
represent real situations that we encounter in our addition, the cases presented show that the eti-
daily clinical practice are presented. The goal of ology of patellofemoral disorders is multifacto-
case-based teaching is to engage the reader in rial. Therefore, a complete physical examination
real-world decision making. This pedagogical and imaging studies to discover all the anatomi-
approach aims to apply the knowledge acquired cal abnormalities that the patient presents, of
by the reader in the two previous sections of this which there are often many, is crucial. We must
book to solve the clinical cases presented. strive to restore normal anatomy, because that
Another objective of this section is to will create a better biomechanical environment
emphasize that prosthetic surgery is not neces- for the repaired tissue. We must understand
sarily the first option for treating patients with biomechanics because orthopedic surgery is a
severe patellofemoral chondropathies. This clin- mechanical engineering discipline.
ical entity is typical of active young people. I believe that these cases are a good stimulus
Therefore, all our efforts must be focused on for our intellectual activity and will make us
performing joint preservation surgery and forget many of the dogmas that we have been
avoiding prosthetic surgery. In the cases that are taught. These cases will provide us with the
presented in this section, the importance of tor- opportunity to learn something new.
sional abnormalities in the treatment of patients
Case # 1: Disabling Anterior Knee
Pain After Failed MPFL
Reconstruction in a Patient
with Patellar Chondropathy, Femoral
Anteversion and External Tibial
Torsion
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 615
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_42
616 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and A. Roselló-Añón
Fig. 1 During physical examination, the patient was seen to exhibit right femoral anteversion
Fig. 4 The SPECT-CT scan showing an uptake incre- geographic characteristics of bone homeostasis, which is
ment in the lateral aspect of the patellofemoral joint (PFJ). the normal osseous metabolic status of a living joint
The SPECT-CT scan can reveal the metabolic and
In this case, the patient is pain-free even patience and tender loving care from the provi-
though the iatrogenic patellar chondropathy pre- der, we need to look hard for pathology and help
sented was left alone. In the PFJ, patellofemoral patients with psychological impairment.
congruence and smooth kinematics are much In the same way, the presence of central
more important than normal articular cartilage. sensitization (CS) should not be the excuse to
The presence of a psychological affectation, as stop analyzing possible mechanical causes that
in the case at hand, should not be the excuse to justify the pain in our patient and send her to a
stop analyzing possible mechanical causes that “Pain Unit”. There are patients with high values
justify the pain of our patient and only send her in the CS score who have objective structural
to a psychiatric unit. Even if it takes more causes that provide an explanation for the pain
Case # 1: Disabling Anterior Knee Pain After Failed MPFL Reconstruction … 621
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 623
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_43
624 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and A. Roselló-Añón
Fig. 1 Femur fracture with a vicious consolidation. Genu varum in the left side
osteotomy (Figs. 3, 4 and 5). Both surgeries were on the contralateral facets of the patella [3].
performed in the same surgical time with a sat- A few authors have confirmed the importance of
isfactory clinical result. external femoral rotation in the genesis of
AKP. Cibulka and Threlkeld-Watkins [5] repor-
ted an unusual case of patellofemoral pain in a
3 The Conventional Thinking is ... patient with excessive asymmetric external hip
rotation. Yildirim and colleagues [6] observed
The association between femoral anteversion and that an external rotation deformity of the femur
AKP or patellar instability has been well- greater than 10° could cause a deterioration in the
documented in the medical literature, but very patellofemoral scores and provoke AKP. Kara-
few clinical studies have looked at femoral man and colleagues [7] showed that both external
retroversion and AKP. Lee and colleagues [3, 4] and internal rotational malalignment, greater than
performed the most cogent study that demon- or equal to 10° after closed intramedullary nail-
strated the importance of femoral rotation in the ing of femoral shaft fractures, caused AKP while
genesis of AKP. They found that an external climbing stairs. Finally, Jaarsma and colleagues
rotational deformity of the femur augments [8] found that patients with a torsional deformity
patellofemoral contact pressure on the medial after femoral nailing due to shaft fractures had
facet of the patella. External rotation has been difficulty with more demanding activities like
related to medial PFJ pain due to a nonlinear practicing sports activities and climbing stairs.
increase in the patellofemoral contact pressures External rotational malalignment caused more
626 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and A. Roselló-Añón
functional problems than internal rotational results in a resolution of pain. The patient noticed
malalignment in that series. an immediate improvement after the surgery. The
The ideal osteotomy site after post-fracture knee pain as well as the ankle and hip pain
deformity would be at the fracture site. completely disappeared.
Double-level osteotomy surgery is an aggres-
sive approach prone to major complications.
References
4 What Has This Case Taught Us? 1. Elahi S, Cahue S, Felson DT, et al. The association
This Case Shows ... between varus-valgus alignment and patellofemoral
osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:1874–80.
2. Fujikawa, K, Seedhom BB, Wright V. Biomechanics
Retroversion can cause AKP. Moreover, retrover- of the patellofemoral joint. Part II: a study of the effect
sion can be more symptomatic than anteversion. of simulated femoro-tibial varus deformity on the
Of course, correction at the fracture site is congruity of the patellofemoral compartment and
movement of the patella. Eng Med. 1983;12: 13–21
preferable. The ideal osteotomy site to correct 3. Lee TQ, Anzel SH, Bennett KA, et al. The influence of
retroversion would be at the fracture site. But the fixed rotational deformities of the femur on the
risk of pseudoarthrosis and the important defor- patellofemoral contact pressures in human cadaver
mity at the fracture site, makes the surgery more knees. Clin Orthop. 1994;302:69–74.
4. Lee TQ, Morris G, Csintalan RP. The influence of
aggressive and difficult. Moreover, if we correct tibial and femoral rotation on patellofemoral contact
the varus deformity at the fracture site, the cor- area and pressure. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther.
rection would be very good, and the joint line 2003;33:686–93.
would not become oblique. However, we were 5. Cibulka MT, Threlkeld-Watkins J. Patellofemoral pain
and asymmetrical hip rotation. Phys Ther. 2005;85
afraid of pseudoarthrosis. In this case, the cor- (11):1201–7.
rection away from the fracture site has given 6. Yildirim AO, Aksahin E, Sakman B. The effect of
good results. rotational deformity on patellofemoral parameters
There is not greater risk of DVT with double- following the treatment of femoral shaft fracture. Arch
Orthop Trauma Surg. 2013;133(5):641–8.
level osteotomy surgery [9]. The key is an 7. Karaman O, Ayhan E, Kesmezacar H, et al. Rotational
“atraumatic surgery” that is a surgery without malalignment after closed intramedullary nailing of
excessive tissue trauma, without a tourniquet and femoral shaft fractures and its influence on daily life.
immobilization. CPM must begin immediately Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2013;24(7):1243–7.
8. Jaarsma RL, Pakvis DFM, Verdonschot N, et al.
after surgery. Rotational malalignment after intramedullary nailing
of femoral fractures. J Orthop Trauma. 2004;18
(7):403–9.
5 Conclusion 9. Sanchis-Alfonso V, Domenech J, Ferras-Tarrago J,
et al. The incidence of complications after derotational
femoral and/or tibial osteotomies in patellofemoral
Femoral retroversion should be considered in the disorders in adolescents and active young patients.
evaluation of the mechanical causes of A systematic review with meta-analysis. Knee Surgery
AKP. Restoring the normal rotational alignment Sports Traumatol Arthrosc (In press).
Case # 3: Severe Anterior Knee Pain
Recalcitrant to Conservative
Treatment in a Patient
with Functional Femoral
Retrotorsion
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 629
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_44
630 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
cadence rate because the faster the subject walks, 2 What to Do in Such a Situation?
the more evident the functional impairment Our Surgical Treatment
becomes. Before the data were collected, she
walked on the pathway several times until she We performed a femoral neck osteoplasty and
was able to walk with a natural and constant gait. reattachment of the labrum. During arthroscopy,
A portable two-step wooden staircase and two we confirmed the impingement mechanism with
independent dynamometric platforms, placed as the hip at 90º of flexion and maximum internal
indicated in (Fig. 1), were used to perform the rotation. With external femoral rotation, we
kinetic analysis during the stair ascent test. An prevent the impingement and, in theory, the hip
eight-camera computer-aided video motion pain. After hip surgery, no specific physiotherapy
analysis system and reflective passive markers treatment for the AKP was performed.
that determined the spatial position of the seg-
ments of the lower limb were used to carry out
the kinematic analysis (Fig. 2). All the markers 3 Follow-Up
were placed on the lateral aspect of the leg to
allow for a correct visualization by the cameras At 6 months after surgery, the patient had no
(Fig. 2). The kinetic and kinematic parameters discomfort in the hip, and knee pain had com-
were analyzed using the NedRodilla/IBV soft- pletely disappeared.
ware (Instituto de Biomecánica de Valencia, At 7 months, kinetic and kinematic analyses
Valencia, Spain). Preoperative gait analysis were performed to evaluate the effects of hip
showed an altered gait pattern (Fig. 3). Preoper- surgery on the preoperative biomechanical
ative kinematic analysis showed a gait (Fig. 4A) parameters. They showed a normal gait pattern
and stair ascent (Fig. 5A) pattern with external (Fig. 3B) and a symmetric pattern between both
rotation of the involved hip. Moreover, the hip hips (Figs. 4B and 5B,D).
external rotation torque of the involved hip At final follow-up (7.5 years), the patient is
increased significantly during stair ascent completely asymptomatic. With reference to both
(Fig. 5C). the hip and knee, activities that previously could
Fig. 1 Portable two-step wooden staircase and two impingement as a possible explanation of recalcitrant
independent dynamometric platforms were used to per- anterior knee pain. Case Rep Orthop. Vol 2016, Article ID
form the kinetic analysis during the stair ascent test. 2,064,894, https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2064894. Copy-
(Reused from Hindawi Publishing Corporation. Sanchis- right © 2016 Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso et al.)
Alfonso V, Tey M, Monllau JC. Cam femoroacetabular
Case # 3: Severe Anterior Knee Pain Recalcitrant to Conservative … 631
not be done or had been done with much diffi- deformity of the femur increases patellofemoral
culty like walking at a high cadence rate, going contact pressure on the medial facet of the
up or down stairs, squatting, making turns with patella. Karaman and colleagues [3] showed that
the hip or using a car with a clutch were done both external and internal rotational malalign-
without any problem. Moreover, she runs with- ment greater than or equal to 10° after closed
out any limitation. A Dunn radiograph view intramedullary nailing of femoral shaft fractures
showed an alpha angle of 32º. At 7.5-years, the provoked AKP while climbing stairs. Jaarsma
postoperative Kujala Knee Score was 99 and the and colleagues [4] found that patients with a
postoperative Non-arthritic Hip Score was 91.25. torsional deformity after femoral nailing due to
Postoperative pain intensity on the VAS was 0 shaft fractures had difficulty with more
for the knee and 0 for the hip. demanding activities like running, sports, and
climbing stairs. External rotational malalignment
caused more functional problems than internal
4 What Does the Medical Literature rotational malalignment in this series. Other
Tell Us About the Association authors have confirmed the importance of exter-
Between External Rotational nal femoral rotation in the genesis of AKP.
Femoral Deformity and AKP? Cibulka and Threlkeld-Watkins [5] reported an
unusual case of AKP in a patient with asym-
Lee and colleagues [1, 2] demonstrated the metric excessive hip external rotation. Finally,
importance of femoral rotation in the genesis of Yildirim and colleagues [6] observed that an
AKP. They found that an external rotational external rotation deformity of the femur greater
632 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 3 Gait analysis. A Preoperative. B Postoperative. (Reused from Hindawi Publishing Corporation. Sanchis-
Red line, right lower limb. Blue line, pathologic lower left Alfonso V, Tey M, Monllau JC. Cam femoroacetabular
limb. The preoperative study showed a decrease of the impingement as a possible explanation of recalcitrant
vertical heel contact force that could be a defense anterior knee pain. Case Rep Orthop. Vol 2016, Article ID
mechanism to avoid the load on the pathologic limb. 2,064,894, https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/2064894. Copy-
Notice the gait pattern normalization after surgery. right © 2016 Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso et al.)
Fig. 4 Kinematic gait analysis. Hip external rotation Furthermore, the external rotation of the hip that has been
angle. A Preoperative. B Postoperative (at the 7-month operated on has decreased relative to the preoperative
follow-up). Red line, right hip. Blue line, pathological left status. (Reused from Hindawi Publishing Corporation.
hip. Blue band, band of normality. Notice how the Sanchis-Alfonso V, Tey M, Monllau JC. Cam femoroac-
preoperative non-pathological hip values differ from those etabular impingement as a possible explanation of
of the postoperative ones of the same hip. This is because recalcitrant anterior knee pain. Case Rep Orthop. Vol
the pathological limb influences the healthy limb in the 2016, Article ID 2,064,894, https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/
kinematic and kinetic studies. What is relevant is that after 2064894. Copyright © 2016 Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
surgery, the values of both hips are in the normality band. et al.)
Case # 3: Severe Anterior Knee Pain Recalcitrant to Conservative … 633
Fig. 5 Kinematic analysis during stair ascending test. heel strike and ends with the toe off. The normalization of
(A and B−Hip external rotation angle) A Preoperative. the kinematic and kinetic parameters can be seen after
B Postoperative (at the 7-month follow-up). Red line, cam-FAI resolution. (Reused from Hindawi Publishing
right hip. Blue line, pathological left hip. Kinetic analysis Corporation. Sanchis-Alfonso V, Tey M, Monllau JC.
during stair ascending test. (C and D−Hip external Cam femoroacetabular impingement as a possible expla-
rotation moment) C Preoperative. D Postoperative (at nation of recalcitrant anterior knee pain. Case Rep
the 7-month follow-up). Red line, right hip. Blue line, Orthop. Vol 2016, Article ID 2,064,894, https://doi.org/
pathological left hip. On the x-axis, one can note the 10.1155/2016/2064894. Copyright © 2016 Vicente
stance phase percentage. The stance phase begins with the Sanchis-Alfonso et al.)
than 10° could cause a deterioration in the mechanism to avoid hip impingement and the
patellofemoral scores and provoke AKP. associated hip pain [7]. Therefore, cam-FAI may
be responsible for functional femoral retrover-
sion. Functional femoral retrotorsion may even-
5 What Has This Case Taught Us? tually provoke a patellofemoral joint imbalance
This Case Shows … that in turn might be responsible for AKP [7, 8].
A Cam resection normalizes hip biomechanics
External hip rotation conditioned by the cam in the same way that the derotational osteotomy
morphology of the femoral head to avoid hip does in structural retroverted femora.
impingement and pain behaves from a functional This case highlights the importance of tor-
point of view as a femoral retrotorsion [7]. In this sional abnormalities, a functional torsional
case, external hip rotation is a defense abnormality in this case, in the genesis of AKP.
634 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
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Fig. 2 Multidirectional patellar instability as is seen in causes an upward tilt. The lateral retinaculum prevents the
the stress CT. Arrows indicate the direction of the stress upward tilt with lateral stress
applied to the patella during stress CT. Lateral stress
Fig. 3 Increased scintigraphic uptake in the patella that may explain the AKP in this patient
extensor moment with the subsequent reduction analyses showed reduced values of the abduction
in quadriceps contraction and, therefore, a moment that provokes, a reduction of the lateral
reduction of the PFJ reaction force, being the tibiofemoral compression force on one hand and
final goal to reduce pain. Furthermore, the a reduction of the force exerted proximally by the
Case # 4: Disabling Anterior Knee Pain in a … 637
A B
C D
Fig. 4 Knee kinetics and kinematics during stair descent. moments during stair descent. D Abduction–adduction
A Knee joint angles during stair descent. B Ground force knee moments during stair descent
reactions during stair descent. C Flexion–extension knee
2 Diagnosis
5 What Has This Case Taught Us? This is an example of PFJ preservation surgery.
This Case Shows … This begs the question as to whether articular
cartilage is essential in the PFJ. In other words,
– Not all PFOA are associated with severe pain. does the PFJ in fact need articular cartilage? [4].
There is poor evidence that all cartilage
lesions are painful. The mere presence of a
cartilage lesion does not mean it is the source References
of pain. In other words, structural damage of
the patellar articular cartilage does not always 1. Sanchis-Alfonso V, Montesinos-Berry E, Monllau JC,
result in AKP. In this case, the patellofemoral Andrish J. Deep transverse lateral retinaculum recon-
struction for medial patellar instability. Arthrosc Tech.
imbalance (medial patellar instability) was 2015;4(3):e245–9.
responsible for the pain. 2. Sanchis-Alfonso V, Montesinos-Berry E, Monllau JC,
– In the PFJ, patellofemoral congruence and Merchant AC. Results of isolated lateral retinacular
smooth kinematics are much more important reconstruction for iatrogenic medial patellar instabil-
ity. Arthroscopy. 2015;31(3):422–7.
than normal articular cartilage. 3. Sanchis-Alfonso V, Merchant AC. Iatrogenic medial
– Iatrogenic medial patellar instability is a patellar instability: an avoidable injury. Arthroscopy.
specific condition that frequently causes 2015;31(8):1628–32.
4. Blønd L, Donell S. Does the patellofemoral joint need
incapacitating AKP, severe disability, and
articular cartilage? Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
serious psychological problems. The diagnosis Arthrosc. 2015;23(12):3461–3.
Case # 5: Multidirectional Patellar
Instability After Over-Medialization
of the Tibial Tubercle in a Patient
with Severe Trochlear Dysplasia
and Patella Alta
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
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640 V. Sanchis-Alfonso
Fig. 1 Normal lower-limb alignment can be seen on the coronal plane, as well as bilateral knee osteoarthritis
Fig. 2 Pseudoarthrosis at the level of the tibial tubercle osteotomy, a patella alta and trochlear dysplasia
Case # 5: Multidirectional Patellar Instability After Over-Medialization of the Tibial Tubercle … 641
Fig. 3 Axial stress radiographs of the PFJ. The red arrow shows the force applied to the patella to displace it laterally
or medially. In the image on the left, how the patella is displace medially without applying stress to it can be seen
A B C
Fig. 4 A Tubercle sulcus angle. B Over-medialization of the tibial tubercle. C Re-osteotomy of the tibial tubercle
(tubercle sulcus angle of 0°)
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 645
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646 V. Sanchis-Alfonso
provide a lateral vector to the quad so the patella (Fig. 5). In theory, we should act on the most
will sit so far lateral? serious one when there are many predisposing
factors for instability. In this case, we should
Wilson and colleagues [1] observed a disap-
possibly act only on trochlear dysplasia. In a
pearance of the lateral patellar instability after an
consensus statement from the AOSSM/PFF about
isolated osteotomy of the distal femur, that is to
patellar instability, the Deepening trochleoplasty
say, without any more associated surgical pro-
is considered when several factors are present at
cedures. This shows how important genu valgum
the same time. They are a J-sign, a boss or 5 mm
is in the etiopathogenesis of lateral patellar
supratrochlear spur, and a convex proximal tro-
instability. Therefore, a logical approach would
chlea [6]. Our patient met all these requirements.
be to treat genu valgum if a significant genu
valgum is present. If necessary, do an MPFLr in
a second procedure. However, our patient has a
5 What to Do in Such a Situation?
very discreet valgus.
Could a Trochleoplasty Be Sufficient to Keep the My proposal was:
Patella Centered?
First Step—Arthroscopy to rule out other
Trochlear dysplasia seems to be the most pathological conditions, a chondral evaluation
important of all the main risk factors for the (Fig. 6) and resection of the previous MPFLr.
development of chronic lateral patellar instability
Second Step—Correct patellofemoral maltrack-
[2–5]. Trochlear dysplasia is a recognized factor
ing (J-sign) by means of a Deepening trochleo-
that favors lateral patella instability. The tro-
plasty to keep the patella centered.
chlear dysplasia of this patient is very severe
648 V. Sanchis-Alfonso
Fig. 3 Femoral tunnel very proximal and anterior. Severe trochlear dysplasia
– Not all PFOA are associated with severe pain. In the case presented here with trochleoplasty,
There is poor evidence that all cartilage we have completely corrected the patellofemoral
lesions are painful. The mere presence of a maltracking. In addition, with the stabilization of
cartilage lesion does not mean it is the source the patella, we have eliminated the AKP even
of pain. In other words, structural damage of though we have not acted on the severe cartilage
the patellar articular cartilage does not always injury. Now, at rest with the knee in extension,
result in AKP. In this case, the patellofemoral she does not need to flex and rotate the limb for
imbalance (lateral patellar instability) was the patella to line up with the trochlea (see
responsible for the pain. video).
Case # 6: Failed MPFL Reconstruction in a Patient with … 649
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
and Joan Carles Monllau
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652 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. C. Monllau
Fig. 3 Preoperative CT imaging showing severe trochlear dysplasia and a concave patella magna
A B
Fig. 4 A Note the severe convex dysplastic trochlea. B The concave patella has lost all the cartilage (Reprinted with
permission from Am J Orthop. 2017; 46:139–145. ©2017, Frontline Medical Communications Inc.)
654 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. C. Monllau
A B
Fig. 5 A burr, starting from the medial proximal part of molding the flap to the underlying cancellous bone bed
the joint, is used to remove the cancellous bone from the and fixation with a resorbable anchor device and sutures
under surface of the femoral trochlea. B Final result after
A B
Fig. 6 A follow-up CT scan image after the combined sulcus deepening trochleoplasty and patellar osteotomy. A Note
the supratrochlear spur resection in the lateral view as well as B the new shape of the patella in the axial view
is difficult to determine the amount of articulation – This case calls into question the necessity of
for each facet and exactly where the ridge is to be performing patellar osteotomies to fit the
placed. patella into the new trochlea. The Closing
wedge patellar osteotomy can be helpful in
combination with trochleoplasty in patients
6 Is There an Indication for Patella with patellofemoral instability due to trochlear
Osteotomies? and patellar dysplasia.
– In the patellofemoral joint, patellofemoral con-
The indication for patella osteotomy is excep- gruence and smooth kinematics are much more
tional. We should only perform it in cases of an important than normal articular cartilage [6].
important patellofemoral mismatch after per- – Caution must be exercised when performing a
forming a trochleoplasty, as occurs in the clinical surgical indication in a patient with patello-
case that we have presented. The goal is that the femoral instability. This patient had been
congruence between the patella and the newly operated on several times without any
formed sulcus angle is the best possible. The improvement and the result was patellar
final decision for patella osteotomy is taken instability along with PFOA. The patient had
during surgery by means of direct observation of gone through several episodes of instability of
the tracking of the PFJ after trochleoplasty. the contralateral knee, but it has not been
The Patellar closing wedge osteotomy was operated on and there is no osteoarthritis
first reported by Griss [3]. Koch and colleagues (Fig. 2). This case should serve as a warning
[4] presented 2 patients out of 85 trochleoplasties of the damage that inappropriate surgery can
performed. At 2 years follow-up, both patients cause.
showed a stable patella with correct tracking.
Both patients considered their functional result
excellent. However, Badhe and Forster [5] pre-
sented 4 patients suffering from patellar insta- 8 Conclusion
bility due to an underlying trochlea dysplasia and
treated it with elevation of the lateral femoral This is an example of the challenging PFJ
condyle according to Albee in combination with preservation surgery in a borderline case. This
a Dorsal closing wedge patellar osteotomy. The case asks us to question whether articular carti-
result was fair. The patella was stable but patients lage is in fact essential in the PFJ. In other words,
experienced residual patellofemoral pain in the does the PFJ truly need articular cartilage?
absence of necrosis or non-union. Elevation of
the lateral condyle as described by Albee pro-
vokes and increment in PFJ pressure. Dejour References
does not recommend this technique.
1. Vasta S, Castelhanito P, Dejour D. Trochleoplasty
techniques: deepening Lyon. In: Dejour D, et al.
editor. Patellofemoralpain, instability and arthritis.
7 What Has This Case Taught Us? Springer;2020.
This Case Shows 2. Dejour D, Le Coultre B. Osteotomies in patello-
femoral instabilities. Sports Med Arthrosc.
– Not all PFOA are associated with severe pain. 2007;15:39–46.
3. Griss P. Modification of sagittal osteotomy of the
– TT-TG distance cannot be calculated in all the patella as treatment of excentric chondromalacia or
cases, especially in those in which there is a retropatellar arthrosis. Preliminary communication.] (in
severe trochlear dysplasia, as in this case. German). Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb. 1980;118: 822–4.
656 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. C. Monllau
4. Koch PP, Fuchs B, Meyer DC, et al. Closing wedge 6. Blønd L, Donell S. Does the patellofemoral joint need
patellar osteotomy in combination with trochleoplasty. articular cartilage? Knee Surg Sports Traumatol
Acta Orthop Belg. 2011;77(1):116–21. Arthrosc. 2015;23(12):3461–3.
5. Badhe NP, Forster W. Patellar osteotomy and Albee’s
procedure for dysplastic patellar instability. Eur J
Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2003;13:43–7.
Case # 8: Extensor Mechanism
Reconstruction After Resection
of a Soft Tissue Sarcoma
that Infiltrates the Patellar Tendon
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658 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
the reconstruction. A knee orthosis in full if it were necessary. Furthermore, the free flap is
extension was put in place for 8 weeks, and then less aggressive than the gastrocnemius flap and,
rehabilitation began. We did not allow any flex- there is a minimal donor site morbidity.
ion during that period. The main difficulty with this case was per-
forming the anastomosis with total knee exten-
sion as the knee is not flexed intraoperatively
2.3 Third Step—Skin Coverage after the extensor mechanism reconstruction
(Fig. 4) according to the surgical protocol published by
Burnett and colleagues [2]. For this reason, we
Adequate soft tissue coverage is necessary for a performed the arterial anastomosis end-to-end to
successful extensor mechanism allograft recon- the posterior tibial artery (instead of end-to-side).
struction. Although most wounds around
the knee can be managed by medial gastrocne-
mius muscle flap, we opted for a free flap in this 3 Outcome—The Key
case. for a Successful Reconstruction
A perforator anterolateral thigh (ALT) free of the Extensor Mechanism
flap from the contralateral thigh was chosen [3]. of the Knee
We prefer the free graft for various reasons. One
of them is that the skin defect that we must close At the 6-month follow-up, she had functionally
is very large because we must resect 2 cm at least adequate knee flexion (Figs. 5 and 6). More
of skin per side. We must also consider that the importantly, she can raise her leg without an
female gastrocnemius is shorter and more extension lag.
atrophic than that of the male. Therefore, it may Burnett and colleagues evaluated two tech-
not be sufficient to close the skin defect in our niques of reconstruction of the extensor mechanism
case. Another advantage is that a free flap heals of the knee using an extensor mechanism allograft
sooner. That being the case, radiotherapy could [4]. They described Group I with the allograft
be done in the third or fourth week after surgery minimally tensioned and Group II with the allograft
Case # 8: Extensor Mechanism Reconstruction After Resection … 661
tightly tensioned in full extension. They demon- tensioned in full extension can restore active knee
strated that the results of surgery depend on the extension and result in clinical success. They con-
initial tensioning of the allograft. The loosely ten- cluded that an extensor mechanism allograft
sioned allograft results in a persistent extension lag transplantation will be successful only if the graft is
and clinical failure. Allografts that are tightly initially tensioned tightly in full extension.
662 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Erik Montesinos-Berry
A 47-year-old male came to our institution When we need to unload lateral and/or distal
complaining mainly of disabling left anterior painful chondral lesions, even in advanced iso-
knee pain. He works as a police officer, now lated patellar lateral facet arthrosis, in cases with
doing mostly desk work because of his disability, a lateral patellar subluxation and a TT-TG dis-
he also walks with a cane because of it. The pain tance of more than 20 mm, a Fulkerson’s
was located on the anterolateral aspect of the osteotomy might be a good solution (Fig. 1).
knee. The inferior pole of the patella was not Obviously, proximal and medial healthy cartilage
painful upon examination. The pain was recal- onto which to transfer load is mandatory. Dif-
citrant to an appropriate conservative treatment fuse, proximal or medial patellar lesions or cen-
for more than two years. The patient was hesitant tral trochlear lesion are contraindications for
to undergo a surgical procedure on his knee Fulkerson’s osteotomy.
because he was not completely satisfied with the In our case, during the arthroscopic exami-
results of a tibial tubercle medialization osteot- nation, a severe lateral facet chondropathy and a
omy performed on his right knee in 2011. mild medial facet chondropathy was confirmed
The imaging study showed no malalignment (Fig. 2). Therefore, a tibial tubercle anteromedi-
in the coronal plane or any torsional abnormali- alization osteotomy (Fulkerson’s osteotomy) was
ties. The CT-scan showed a TT-TG distance of performed.
21 mm. MRI exam showed a stage IV lateral
facet chondropathy.
3 Outcome
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664 E. Montesinos-Berry
Fig. 1 Left knee postoperative radiographs and CT scan. The inferior pole of the patella was not painful
Fig. 2 During arthroscopic examination. Severe chondropathy of the lateral facet, and mild chondropathy of the medial
facet
Robert A. Teitge
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V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_51
668 R. A. Teitge
in 6° of valgus compared with normal. The tibia or require addition of femoral and tibial
mechanical axis was tilted medially a normal 3°. component augments.
(2) Medial patellofemoral ligament
reconstruction.
First question: Is there an alignment (3) Coronal plane osteotomy will require 15°
deformity? correction.
Answer: Yes. Knee valgus
Second question: How much?
Answer: 15° Valgus deformity Decision Making (see Figs. 3 and 4).
Third question: Where is the (1) Revision of well-fixed components will
deformity? likely result in greater bone loss and still
Answer: 15° valgus deformity could be present the challenge of making perfect
at 3 sites: femur, joint and tibia. In this case: femoral and tibial cuts. The possibility of
femur = 9° (102−93 = 9); joint = 0°; and creating varus-valgus instability will
tibia 6° (93−87 = 6). The mechanical axis is increase.
inclined 3°. The joint line is horizontal. (2) MPFLR is not guaranteed to prevent further
dislocation in the presence of genu valgum.
(3) Osteotomy of just the femur or tibia will
2 What to Do in Such a Situation? create an undesirable joint line obliquity.
(4) Osteotomy of the femur and tibia will
Options maintain a horizontal joint line.
(5) Closing wedge osteotomy of femur and tibia
(1) Revision of femoral and tibial components
should not create varus-valgus instability.
will require resection of more femur and
Fig. 4 Radiological
evaluation after double level
osteotomy
Fig. 5 Patella infera, valgus limb alignment, lateral rotational deformity, there is evidence of prior tibial
compartment osteoarthritis. The knee points forward, with tubercle osteotomy and tibial diaphyseal fracture
the foot pointing outward indicates an external tibial
5 Diagnoses
Vicente Sanchis-Alfonso
and Jose María Baydal-Bertomeu
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676 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. M. Baydal-Bertomeu
may seem good at reducing pain might have an correct visualization by the cameras. Two of the
adverse mid-term and long-term effect on the markers are placed on the lateral condyle and on
knee joint (knee osteoarthritis). the lateral malleolus respectively to determine
the position of the knee and ankle joints.
To evaluate the way the stair descent is per- To do the test, the subject starts in a standing
formed we use kinematic information, registered position with both arms crossed over the chest for
through photogrammetric instruments and kinetic the first step. The test involves descending the
information, picked up on dynamometric plat- two steps of the staircase. First, the subject puts
forms. Both systems are combined to determine one foot on the first step, which has one of the
the most relevant variables that characterize platforms underneath it. Then, the other foot is
going down stairs. placed on the floor where the other platform is.
The test is repeated four times (two with each leg)
for this analysis. Participants are given a visual
3.1 Instruments—Motion Analysis demonstration of the task prior to testing. Fol-
System—Dynamometric lowing a verbal cue, the participants perform the
Platforms task (Fig. 3). To ensure that the task is always
performed in the same fashion, we always posi-
A four-camera computer-aided video motion tion some examiners beside the subject to instruct
analysis system1 and two independent dynamo- him/her on how to perform the task correctly and
metric platforms that register the force exerted by to make sure he/she follows the instructions while
the foot on the floor in the three directions of carrying out the task. We also have a video
space are used for this test. Dynamometric plat- camera recording our patients to confirm that it is
forms are placed as indicated in Fig. 1. To carry performed correctly. To avoid the possible effects
out the test, a portable two-step wooden stair- of footwear on gait when descending stairs, all
case, and passive markers2 are needed. Three subjects undergo data collection in their barefeet.
boxes with the following dimensions are used: Apart from standardized stair descent, the patient
20 cm high step riser and 40 cm footprint, performs a free one, meaning going down the
forming a two-step staircase (Fig. 1). The box stairs the way he/she feels more comfortable.
that serves as the first step was built to adapt
perfectly to the dynamometric platform to avoid
vibrations when stepping on it. Sixteen reflecting 3.3 Kinematic and Kinetic Variables
markers are used, eight for each leg. They
determine the spatial position of the segments of The video-photogrammetric system provides the
the lower limb. The markers are placed tracing coordinates of the markers. From this raw data,
two triangles in each segment (leg and thigh), the finite displacements from the body-reference
with the apex in opposing directions in each of position were computed using an in-house
the segments (Fig. 2). All the markers are placed developed software based on the algorithms
on the lateral aspect of the leg to allow for a described by Woltring [2]. This software pro-
vides angular displacements expressed as the
1
Motion analysis. Interpretation of computerized data that attitude vector. The projection of the attitude
documents an individual’s lower and upper extremities, vector on the medio-lateral and antero-posterior
pelvis, trunk, and head motion during ambulation.
2 axis provides an estimation of the flexion-
Passive markers. Joint and segment markers used during
motion analysis that reflect visible or infrared light in extension and abduction-adduction angle based
contrast with active markers that emit a signal. on the procedure described by Page and
Kinetic and Kinematic Analysis in Evaluating Anterior Knee … 677
colleagues [3]. Using the spatial position and the (2) stance phase duration—time during which the
forces registered with the dynamometric plat- subject is in contact with the first step and is
form, the knee joint moments were calculated. measured in seconds; (3) normalized3 heel con-
We have used a smoothing technique based on a tact force—ground reaction force (GRF) that
local polynomial-fitting. The width of the win- appears on the platform when the heel strikes on
dow was optimized in each measurement for the
minimum self–correlation of the residuals [3]. 3
The forces are measured in N and they have been
The variables specific to the test are (Table 1): normalized for subject weight; therefore, it is a dimen-
(1) knee flexion angle—measured in degrees; sionless magnitude.
678 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. M. Baydal-Bertomeu
the first step; (4) normalized oscillation force— extension moment—maximum torque on the
GRF that appears on the platform when the sagittal plane6 that is produced during the foot
contralateral leg is oscillating; (5) normalized heel-strike phase on the platform; and (9) toe-off
toe-off peak force—GRF that appears on the flexion-extension moment—maximum torque on
platform when the foot steps off of it; (6) heel the sagittal plane that is produced during the foot
contact abduction-adduction moment4—maxi- take-off phase on the platform.
mum torque on the coronal plane5 that is pro- Kinetic and kinematic variables are expressed
duced during the foot-strike phase on the on a curve. In each graphic, a band of normality
platform; (7) toe-off abduction-adduction (color, light blue), the control group’s mean
moment—maximum torque on the coronal value (a dotted line) and the mean value of our
plane that is produced during the foot take-off patients (a black line) are presented (Figs. 4, 5, 6,
phase on the platform; (8) heel contact flexion- 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11).
4
The moment is measured in Nm, it has been normalized
for subject weight and knee height; therefore, it is a
dimensionless value.
5 6
Coronal plane. The plane that divides the body or body Sagittal plane. The plane that divides the body or body
segment into anterior and posterior parts. segment into the right and left parts.
Kinetic and Kinematic Analysis in Evaluating Anterior Knee … 679
arm of the ground reaction force is shortened. increment in PFJ stress due to the altered patellar
Consequently, the knee extensor moment is tracking. Finally, another fact to justify not
reduced, with equilibrium being achieved by finding a decrease of the flexion angle might be
fewer quadriceps contractions. Although we have how long the pain has been felt. It makes sense to
observed a decrease of the flexion angle in most think that some time is required for the patient to
of our cases, it has not been a uniform finding. In develop adaptive measures like flexion reduction.
this sense, there are authors who have found a Other strategies besides a decrease in knee
decrease in the flexion angle during stair descent flexion to reduce the extensor moment would be
[11, 12], while others have found no significant the decrease in the vertical ground reaction force
differences in the flexion angle during stair des- in comparison to the healthy limb (Fig. 7). This
cent [7–9, 13, 14] in AKP patients. The decrease may reflect an apprehension to load the knee
of the knee flexion angle during stair descent is joint at the beginning of the stance phase.
therefore not a constant adaptive strategy or According to Salsich and colleagues [8], other
defense mechanism. It could be possible that the strategies employed to reduce the knee extension
lack of a decrease of the flexion angle during moment could be the decrease in the stance time
stair descent is because this activity may not duration and the pace. This way, the decrease in
cause enough pain in some people to cause them the vertical ground reaction force or the speed at
to use compensatory strategies like knee flexion which he/she performs the stair descent might
reduction. Another possible reason for this lack contribute to the decrease in the PFJRF. There-
of knee flexion reduction with stair descent could fore, the patient may not need to reduce knee
be the activation instant of the VMO when flexion during stair descent.
compared to the VL. Crossley and colleagues According to Hinman and colleagues [15],
[11] have demonstrated that those subjects with a quadriceps dysfunction may be important in the
higher deficit in the activation moment of the development and progression of structural changes
VMO when compared to that of the VL show a in osteoarthritis. Quadriceps dysfunction may
higher reduction in knee flexion during stair compromise the protective mechanisms of the
descent. This is because these patients show an knee. The decrease in the extensor moment, which
Kinetic and Kinematic Analysis in Evaluating Anterior Knee … 681
is a strategy to reduce pain, can have destructive the knee. There is growing evidence that sub-
long-term effects on the knee joint. In this sense, the chondral bone and its turnover may play a causal
decrease in active shock absorption10 during role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis as well as
weight-bearing from the eccentric quadriceps its related symptoms, especially in the knee. This
muscle contraction [4, 11, 13] means greater shock data supports the findings by Naslund and col-
absorption through the bone and cartilage that leagues [16] using bone scintigrams in patients
could explain tibiofemoral pain. It might also be a suffering from AKP. They found that tracer accu-
predisposing factor to tibiofemoral osteoarthritis of mulation occurred as often in the proximal tibia as
in the patella.
10
Shock absorption. The progressive damping of an We have been able to demonstrate a decrease
applied force. Damping is a complex, generally nonlinear, in the knee abduction (valgus) moment while
phenomenon that exists whenever energy is dissipated.
682 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. M. Baydal-Bertomeu
walking downstairs in almost all cases in AKP abduction moment is lower than when it is done
patients when it is compared to a healthy pain- following a standard protocol. This is confirma-
free knee (Fig. 8). The decreased abduction tion that the decrease in the abductor moment is a
moments around the knee seen on the coronal defense strategy. The increment in the knee
plane may help to reduce joint loading, which abduction moment would cause a lateral tibio-
may be a mechanism that prevents degeneration. femoral overload. In this way, Elahi and col-
We have found that when the patient goes leagues [17] correlate PFOA with increased
downstairs with his best comfort strategy, the valgus knee alignment.
Kinetic and Kinematic Analysis in Evaluating Anterior Knee … 683
5 Case Studies: A “Snapshot” scale). She also had evident instability during
activities of daily living. She went up and down
Case #1. Disabling AKP in a Multi-operated the stairs one step at a time and was very limited
Young Patient With a Chronic Patellar Ten- in her activities of daily living. The patient even
don Rupture and Loosening of the Femoral had difficulties getting up from a chair without
Component of the Patellofemoral Prosthesis using the armrest (Preoperative Lysholm 26,
preoperative IKDC 25, preoperative Tegner
Here, we cite a 29-year-old woman whose left
activity scale of level 1). She used to work as a
knee was operated on 7 times beginning at the
hairdresser but can no longer do it because she is
age of 20 (arthroscopic shaving, patella osteot-
unable to stand up for long periods of time. She
omy, tibial tubercle anteromedialization with
only tolerates activities where she can sit.
lateral patellar retinaculum release, and finally a
A kinetic and kinematic study during stair
patellofemoral arthroplasty with primary repair
descent test revealed the following defense
and augmentation of a chronic patellar tendon
mechanisms: a reduction in the extensor moment
rupture). She had severe and constant left AKP
(Fig. 9), a reduction of the ground reaction force
even during rest (8 in the visual analog pain
(Fig. 10). We also found an increase in the abductor
Fig. 9 Physical examination shows a patella alta. Lateral radiograph of the left knee showing a patella alta and a
patellofemoral arthroplasty. Knee flexion-extension moment during stair descending test
Kinetic and Kinematic Analysis in Evaluating Anterior Knee … 685
Fig. 11 Standard Technetium 99 methylene diphosphonate (Technetium-99m MDP) bone scan showing increased
osseous metabolic activity in femoral condyles. Knee abduction moment during stair descending test
moment, hence a tibiofemoral overload (Fig. 11). therapy. She had severe PFOA. A reconstruction
The extensor moment reduction entails the sup- of the lateral retinaculum using fascia lata was
pression of one of the impact absorption mecha- performed following the technique described by
nisms of the knee. This is clearly going to favor the Jack Andrish.
development a tibiofemoral osteoarthritis. Kinetic and kinematic analyses were per-
formed during stair descent (Fig. 12). They
Case # 2. Severe Patellofemoral Osteoarthritis
showed that the patient had: (1) a stair descent
and Medial Patellar Instability in a Multi-
pattern with knee extension (strategy to avoid
operated Young Patient
instability and therefore pain), (2) a decrease in
A 41-year-old female came to our institution the stance phase duration on the platform,
complaining mainly of disabling right patellofe- (3) reduced values of the extensor moment (with
moral instability and of severe right AKP that the subsequent reduction in quadriceps contrac-
had not improved with appropriate physical tion and therefore, a reduction of the PFJ reaction
686 V. Sanchis-Alfonso and J. M. Baydal-Bertomeu
A B
C D
Fig. 12 Knee kinetics and kinematics during stair C Flexion-extension knee moments during stair descent.
descent. A Knee joint angle during stair descent. D Abduction-adduction knee moments during stair
B Ground force reactions during stair descent. descent
require some time to develop and may remain 8. Salsich GB, Brechter JH, Powers ChM. Lower
even when pain disappears, which weakens extremity kinetics during stair ambulation in patients
with and without patellofemoral joint. Clin Biomech.
the usefulness of this measurement tech- 2001;16:906–12.
nique as a treatment progression evaluation 9. Grenholm A, Stensdotter AK, Hager-Ross CH.
method. Kinematic analyses during stair descent in young
– Kinetic and kinematic analysis helps us to women with patellofemoral pain. Clin Biomech.
2009;24:88–94.
understand some of the mechanisms behind 10. Powers CM, Landel R, Perry J. Timing and intensity
the development of knee osteoarthritis in AKP of vastus muscle activity during functional activities
patients. in subjects with and without patellofemoral pain.
Phys Ther. 1996;76:946–55.
11. Crossley KM, Cowan SM, Bennell KL, et al. Knee
flexion during stair ambulation is altered in individ-
uals with patellofemoral pain. J Orthop Res.
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7. Brechter JH, Powers ChM. Patellofemoral joint stress osteoarthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43:1874–80.
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Patellofemoral Instrumented Stress
Testing
A. Leal
CMEMS—Center for MicroElectroMechanical R. Pereira
Systems, University of Minho, Campus Azurém, Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, Porto,
Guimarães, Portugal Portugal
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 689
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_53
690 A. Leal et al.
(patellar tilt), (3) patellar subluxation as expres- patellofemoral laxity. It has thus a crucial role in
sed as excessive distance between the tibial objectifying, quantifying and standardizing the
tubercle and the trochlear groove (TT-TG), and assessment of individuals with patellofemoral
(4) patella alta. Although these risk factors show disorders.
reasonable sensitivity, there are limited by poor
specificity in patients with patellofemoral insta-
bility [2], compromising their discriminative 2 Instability Versus Laxity
capabilities. Moreover, trochlear dysplasia is
usually considered the most reliable discrimina- Joint instability is a symptom that the patient
tor of patellofemoral instability [2], but patellar describes as the joint feeling unstable when
morphology and morphometry is highly variable moving, walking, running, jumping or twisting.
in knees with and without patellofemoral insta- Frequently, patients will refer that the joint
bility and there is minimal association between “gives away”. Instability is subjective and only
morphometric measurement and trochlear dys- reported by the patient. Conversely, joint laxity is
plasia [3]. the passive response of joint movement as a
A myriad of other anatomical and biome- result of an externally applied force or torque.
chanical factors has been identified in the litera- Joint laxity is an objective and measurable
ture [2, 4–9], but most notably for patellofemoral parameter. Human joints may present physio-
instability is the insufficiency or rupture of logical laxity (normal laxity) or pathological
structures of the medial patellofemoral complex: laxity (abnormal laxity). Physiological joint lax-
medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL), medial ity is normal within any human joint as a result of
quadriceps tendon femoral ligament (MQTFL), joint movement. Abnormal joint laxity occurs
medial patellotibial ligament (MPTL) and medial when there is more joint movement than what
patellomeniscal ligament (MPML) [10–13]. All can be considered as physiological laxity.
these factors—isolated or combined—can lead to Instability and laxity are thus different and not
unbalanced biomechanical behaviour of the interchangeable clinical terms, which may or
patellofemoral joint that promotes abnormal may not exist concomitantly—i.e., we may find a
patellofemoral tracking and altered joint contact patient with feeling of instability without joint
forces which can result in patellofemoral insta- laxity, a patient with pathological laxity but
bility and/or joint degeneration [14, 15]. without joint instability, or even a patient with
The etiopathogenesis of patellofemoral insta- both joint instability and pathological laxity. The
bility is thus multifactorial and complex. There joint laxity profile varies among individuals.
are currently many limitations in the physical Inter-individual differences in joint laxity can
examination of patellofemoral instability that will arise from differences related to age and sex,
underscore the capability of an accurate diagno- bone morphology and morphometrics, soft tissue
sis. Most notably, the current techniques and insufficiency, and among other factors.
tools to only provide an approximate and sub-
jective estimation of patellofemoral joint laxity.
The physical examination has poor repro- 3 Clinical and Imaging Assessment
ducibility and reliability [16, 17] and the imaging of Patellofemoral Joint Instability
techniques lack validity to measure joint laxity.
Instrumented-assisted biomechanical testing Diagnosis of patellofemoral instability is firstly
of patellofemoral joint laxity contribute to better made through a clinical history survey and physical
understand the dynamic role of the soft tissues examination [18–20]. The clinical diagnosis is then
and their active interplay on the pathomechanics reinforced by imaging exams, including radiogra-
of patellofemoral instability. Instrument-assisted phy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and/or
examination emerges as a clinical solution to computed tomography (CT) [19, 21]. The final
overcome the current limitations in measuring diagnosis of patellofemoral instability is then
Patellofemoral Instrumented Stress Testing 691
patellofemoral laxity [23–31], but the currently possible to assess, within the same exam, the
available methods show high heterogeneity in the joint laxity and any structural damage to the
methods for assessing patellofemoral laxity and ligaments or cartilage.
report variable measurement outcomes [32].
These existing instrument-assisted methods are
additionally limited regarding its reproducibility 5 Porto Patella Testing Device
as some of these methods apply the stress man- (PPTD)
ually (subjective variability in the force applied),
and all lack precision and accuracy as the mea- The Porto Patella Testing Device (PPTD) is an
sure the joint laxity is made externally to the joint MRI-compatible laxity testing device, made of
(i.e., measured visually or using electronic tools), an inert polymer, for the measurement of patel-
which only provides an approximation of the true lofemoral joint laxity (Fig. 1). The PPTD oper-
(intra-articular) patellar displacement. Only one ates through two modular components with
study [30] reported an arthrometer aided by movable activators that are triggered by air pump
radiography to measure the patellar displace- systems with compressed air cylinders to stress
ment. However, stress radiographs imply expo- the patella in multiple directions. One activator
sure to radiation and are not able to induces a medio-lateral translation of the patella
concomitantly provide imaging evidence of and the other an external tilt to the patella. The
structural damage. force is applied progressively and is usually up to
Safety, validity, reproducibility, precision and a maximum of 0.5 Bar—converted to approxi-
accuracy are key factors when developing a mately 52.5 N load—which is a safe range to
measuring device to enable a screening system prevent damage to the MPFL (which has a tensile
with clinical usefulness that is supported by its strength of 208 N [33]). The operator can man-
sensitivity and specificity. We acknowledge that ually control the magnitude of force transmission
majority of clinical tests and testing principles and the force applied is also subjectively con-
yields value. Even that manual testing has its trolled by feedback from patients or by noticing
limitations and pitfalls, it still provides a safe and any signs of patient’s apprehension. After the
valid approximate estimation of joint laxity. movements are applied to the patella, by using
However, if reproducibility, precision and accu- anatomical landmarks at the MRI/CT images as
racy are lacking, the outcome can be deceptive reference points, it is possible to measure the
(misdiagnosis) and is not a reliable measure patellar bony displacement (in relation to its
when comparing with the contralateral side, resting position) and infer the joint laxity.
among different patients or assessors, and to use
as a reference value for benchmarking during
post-treatment assessments. 5.1 PPTD Operation Protocol
The variability found in the literature [32]
reinforces the need to develop a simple and The PPTD evaluation protocol starts with the
universally applicable instrument that is able to patient positioning. The patient is placed in the
reliably and objectively quantify the patellar device with the knee in full extension, without any
mobility, and thus standardize the patellofemoral rotation or flexion of the hip and ankle joints. All
laxity assessment. The precision and accuracy of patients are instructed to avoid muscle guarding
instrumented joint laxity measurements can be which could interfere with joint laxity. The
improved when it is combined with imaging patient’s anatomical axis (interline of the knee
assessment. Due to the limitations identified joint) is aligned with the mechanical axis of the
above for radiographs, the combination of laxity PPTD and the modular components are adjusted
measurement with MRI or CT seems the obvious to the size of the patient. The lower limb is then
next step [19]. Moreover, by combining the fixed to the PPTD using velcro straps at the thigh
instrument-assisted assessment with MRI, it is and foot to restrict lower limb movement.
Patellofemoral Instrumented Stress Testing 693
The first set of MRI/CT sequences are made PPTD lateral actuator is placed at 70 degrees (in
after patient positioning, but without the appli- relation to the patellar horizontal plane) and the
cation of any stress at the joint. These first patella is pushed in an oblique anteroposterior
sequence is made to set the resting position, direction at the extreme of its anterolateral facet
which will be used latter for benchmarking when to apply an external tilt movement (Fig. 2C).
making the measurement of patellar displace-
ment (Fig. 2A). Then, the second set of MRI/CT
sequences is taken after being applied a medio- 5.2 Measurement Protocol
lateral force to the medial border of the patella
with the medial activator at 30 degrees (in rela- All MRI/CT sequences are taken in the axial
tion to the patellar horizontal plane) to apply a plane. If using MRI, the measurements are done
lateral movement to the patella (Fig. 2B). Lastly, with sets of 1 mm spacing within the MRI slices.
the medio-lateral stress is withdrawn and with the Patella position is calculated as the distance
A B C
Fig. 2 Porto Patella Testing Device (PPTD) setup for patella at rest; B patella stressed on its medial facet for
stress-testing evaluation within imaging equipment: A ini- lateral translation; C patella stressed at the extreme of its
tial setup without any stress to obtain the position of the anterolateral facet for external tilt
694 A. Leal et al.
A B C
Fig. 3 PPTD sequential stress testing of a patient with (moved to 18 mm and 30°); C lateral tilt, the patella
recurrent patella dislocations, with the left knee with an displaced 19 mm medially and increased 10° (moved to
MPFL tear: A patella rest position (2 mm and 22°); −17 mm and 32°)
B lateral transition, the patella displaced 16 mm and 8°
patellofemoral instability, but without any dis- with PPI display greater stiffness (a higher force
location episode) and patients with OPI (those was required to displace the patella) than those
with clinical history of patellar dislocation) dis- with OPI [35]. The stiffness pattern can also be
play a similar stiffness pattern, which differs from useful to compare with the contralateral unin-
the stiffness pattern seen in patients with anterior jured side (Fig. 5) or after MPFL reconstruction
knee pain. When comparing both types of (Fig. 6) or any patellofemoral joint corrective
patellofemoral instability (PPI and OPI), those surgery.
Fig. 5 Graphical illustration of force–displacement the knee with OPI (red line) and the asymptomatic
curves (stiffness) for a representative case of a patient contralateral knee (green line)
with OPI (recurrent dislocations), showing the curve for
696 A. Leal et al.
Besides patellofemoral instability, the PPTD in the therapeutic decision-making and surgical
can be used to assess any ligament insufficiencies planning.
in other patellofemoral disorders. We have pre- The PPTD can play an important role in
viously found that patients with idiopathic uni- establishing cluster profiles of patellofemoral
lateral anterior knee pain and with joint laxity as it combines the assessment of both
morphologically equivalent knees display greater “anatomy” and “function”. For example, the
lateral patellar translation in the painful knee MRI exam might identify absence of MPFL tear
[36], suggesting a potential insufficiency or after a patellar dislocation, but the addition of the
imbalance of the medial static patellar stabilizers. PPTD assessment can reveal incompetent MPFL
to provide stability to the patellofemoral joint
that warrants conservative or surgical interven-
5.4 PPTD Possible Clinical tion. Using the PPTD, we may identify subclin-
and Research Applications ical groups of patellofemoral instability that may
require differentiated or additional surgical
The ability of the combined evaluation of the interventions and thus refine our surgical indi-
PPTD with the MRI to visualize the soft tissues cations and individualize the treatment. For
concomitantly with the accurate and precise example, we may identify a patient with exten-
measurement of joint laxity allows to correlate sive patellofemoral joint laxity that may benefit
the structural integrity of the ligaments with its from combined reconstruction of the MPFL with
functional competence. Moreover, it allows the MQTFL [10] or with the MPTL [37]. Even-
within the same evaluation to identify any dam- tually, we may establish joint laxity cluster pro-
age to other structures, such as the articular car- files that are able to provide prognostic value for
tilage, as also to correlate with bony each subclinical group with patellofemoral
morphological and morphometric features (such instability.
as, trochlear dysplasia and patella alta or baja). The PPTD can also have clinical value to
Ultimately, this combined evaluation provides a evaluate the joint laxity outcomes of patients
precise and complete assessment of the patello- with patellofemoral instability that underwent
femoral status that will be helpful for diagnostic ligament reconstructive surgery. With the PPTD,
purposes of patellofemoral disorders. Therefore, we can prospectively monitor the patellofemoral
the PPTD adds diagnostic value and contributes joint laxity and evaluate if there is any residual
Patellofemoral Instrumented Stress Testing 697
laxity in the operated knee by comparing to the anatomic risk factors for patellofemoral instability.
pre-surgery laxity profile of the operated knee Orthop J Sports Med. 2021;9:2325967120988690.
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Anterior Knee Pain and Functional
Femoral Maltorsion in Patients
with Cam Femoroacetabular
Impingement
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 699
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_54
700 M. Tey-Pons et al.
moment of the knee, with an overload on the should be carefully analyzed. This chapter will
external patellofemoral joint that initiates the analyze how these morphological variations of
pathophysiological process that will lead to pain, the hip alter the biomechanics of the limb, in the
as has been amply explained in previous chapters. same way as torsional changes, so we call them
There is a broad consensus on the association of functional torsional alterations, having as clinical
PFP with Gluteus Medius weakness and hip manifestation some local signs at the hip level,
external rotation deficit. Meira et al. in an and some distal signs at the knee level.
exhaustive review conclude that the relationship
between hip position and anterior pain is clear,
finding several references to increased hip 3 Biomechanical Conflicts
adduction and internal rotation in relation to of the Hip
anterior pain [9], despite the bias since most of the
studies have been carried out in a female popula- Osteoarthritis of the hip is a highly prevalent
tion and runners and the causal relationship is not pathology, classically labeled as primary or of
established. Other studies, such as that of Boling, idiopathic etiology. With very well-known
identify increased external rotation strength in exceptions, such as avascular necrosis, post-
runners with anterior knee pain compared to traumatic deformity, rheumatic or depositional
controls. Therefore, the question arises as to diseases, and some systemic diseases with joint
whether patients with abductor weakness have involvement, hip osteoarthritis has been consid-
greater patellar pain or whether patellar pain ered linked to aging, but without a clear cause to
generates more abductor muscle exhaustion. justify it. The Stolzalpe school represents a
Tibial torsional disorders involve a rotational paradigm shift, since it defines osteoarthritis of
disturbance in the frontal plane of the patella [10], the hip in young adults, that which occurs before
which is radically different from rotational disor- the age of 50–55 years, as secondary to identi-
ders of the femur in which the patella undergoes a fiable processes in 95% of the cases. Among the
translational disturbance [10]. Rotational disor- identifiable causes, mechanical conflicts play a
ders result in joint pressure increases at the patella, prominent role, accounting for 70% [12].
while patients with femoral torsional disorders The progressive development of hip preserva-
experience an adaptive disorder, whereby they tion surgery techniques led by the Bern school has
alter limb rotations at the hip to compensate for the increased the interest and study of biomechanical
rotational disturbance, thereby altering the rela- conflicts, as they represent a potentially treatable
tionship between hip position and patella, related pathology that could change the natural history of
to anterior knee pain. osteoarthritis. These biomechanical conflicts are
Alterations of the hip and proximal femur may divided into two large groups, according to the
favor some of the force balance disorders alteration of joint kinematics, although with
responsible for the increased abductor moment of important kinetic implications, ultimately respon-
the knee, causing the onset of patellar pain. One sible for favoring and initiating joint degeneration.
could think of the proximal femur as a distant On the one hand, we find the dynamic conflicts of
cause of the PFP, or of anterior knee pain as a space, where the articular kinematic excursion is
distant symptom of proximal femoral imbalances. diminished by alteration of the femoroacetabular
In the approach to hip pathology proposed by relationship, or by morphological alteration of one
Kelly, in which a layered analysis is established, or both parts. On the other hand, dynamic stability
the last layer is the kinematic chain [11]. conflicts are described, where the joint loses its
According to this, the semiology at a distance congruence during movement, due to a lack of hip
from the original problem is analyzed, and ante- stabilizing mechanisms, favored by an alteration in
rior knee pain should be recognized as a symptom the joint contact area or in the acetabular coverage
of the pathology of the proximal femur. This of the femoral head. These conditions imply an
could be presented as a purely semantic discus- alteration in the articular kinematics, with the
sion, but it has important clinical implications that alteration of the normal articular mobility and
Anterior Knee Pain and Functional Femoral Maltorsion … 701
conflict of the periarticular soft tissues, and of the by biomechanical studies [10] and proven in
articular kinetics, with an abnormal distribution of routine clinical practice.
articular loads. This alteration of loads, together Biomechanical conflicts of the hip may be
with the lesion of periarticular soft tissues, will be responsible for the occurrence of anterior knee
responsible for initiating the joint degenerative pain by several mechanisms. Femoral internal
process, the ultimate evolution of these conflicts as rotation (or increased femoral antetorsion) leads
we announced [13]. to mechanical disadvantage for the abductor
Dynamic space conflicts have been grouped musculature, which loses leverage and increased
under the SFAI, in which the patient experiences internal rotation of the hip as a compensatory
groin pain associated with a conflict between the mechanism for muscle fatigue to increase the
femur and acetabulum. Initially described by moment of force. The alteration of the sphericity
Ganz as a biomechanical imbalance attributed to of the femoral head, called cam morphology due
a morphological alteration of the femoral head to the kinematic alteration it produces, responds
(cam-type SFAI) and/or an alteration of the to a particular type of morphology of the proxi-
acetabular coverage (pincer-type SFAI) [14], but mal femur which in biology is called coxa recta.
later extended to other causes of mechanical hip It is the hip presented by mammals adapted to the
space conflict, either intra- or extra-articular savannah, with a powerful hip for running, in
causes such as Subspine Impingement, Ischiofe- which there is a decreased cervical-cephalic off-
moral Impingement or torsional disorders [15]. set or a loss of sphericity of the femoral head,
with an increased radius in the anterior and lat-
eral region of the femoral head [19]. However,
4 Anterior Knee Pain this powerful proximal femur has a more limited
in Biomechanical Conflicts range of motion, and impinge with the anterior
of the Hip acetabular rim at flexion with internal rotation.
Damage to the soft tissues may start pain and it is
Morphological alterations of the proximal femur known as SFAI. Image 1 shows a patient with
can favor a biomechanical conflict in the hip as cam-type femoral head during hip arthroscopy
explained. The clinical picture is determined by before and after osteochondral resection. Damage
the joint impingement, such as the alteration of to femoral cartilage explains how impingement
the normal range of motion, the suffering of limits flexion and why external rotation is needed
articular tissues such as the acetabular labrum or to increase flexion without impinging. An
the articular cartilage, but also by the adaptive abnormal gait with increased external rotation,
mechanisms that are put in place to compensate similar to patients with femoral retrotorsion can
for the conflict. Thus, in patients with hip dys- be observed.
plasia, with insufficient anterolateral femoral The cam-type morphology of the proximal
coverage, the gait pattern is altered [16] unbal- femur may not only be responsible for an alter-
ancing the normal biomechanical functioning, ation in hip joint kinematics but produces an
responsible for the appearance of pain due to adaptive disorder of the entire lower extremity,
overload or misuse in the groin, but also in the as has been demonstrated by gait studies. The
posterior and lateral aspect of the hip [17]. alteration in gait produced by FAI cam leads to
Similarly, patients with SFAI have groin pain an increase in external rotation, similar to
due to anterior joint impingement but may also femoral retrotorsion [20–22]. Therefore, when
experience pain in the gluteal region or on the analyzing the muscle imbalance produced by
lateral aspect of the hip [18]. The impact of tor- cam-type SFAI and the subsequent increased
sional disturbances on hip muscle balance and abductor moment of the knee, it can be assumed
thus on the imbalance of the knee extensor as a functional femoral retrotorsion. If we
apparatus, with increased knee abductor moment understand anterior knee pain as a distant
and the occurrence of PFP is well demonstrated symptom of cam-type SFAI, in the same way as
702 M. Tey-Pons et al.
Image 1 A Cam-type femoral head with damaged hip from anterolateral portal. B Osteochondroplasty is
cartilage (black arrow) due to impingement with the performed and impingement has been eliminated
acetabular rim. View of peripheral compartment of right
it is in femoral retrotorsion, SFAI should be Cam-type femoral head may produce SFAI
considered in patients with cam morphology, because of anterior impingement.
without groin pain but with anterior knee pain. Cam-type femoral head may produce external
rotation to avoid impingement, with secondary
muscle imbalance similar to that produced by
5 Take-Home Messages retrotorsion.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 705
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_55
706 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
C D
surgical gestures, for example, a trochleoplasty Systèmes, Suresnes, France). Initially, we simu-
can be added. This means that distinctly different late the patella as an elliptical disc. Subsequently,
surgical simulations can be performed for each the specific parameters of the patella that are
patient. In this way, one can determine what the going to be analyzed (thickness and major and
best surgical approach for a specific patient is, at minor diameters) are introduced. Then, different
least from the biomechanical point of view. The cuts are made to give the patella the appropriate
objective of this chapter is to analyze the role of a shape to obtain a geometry that is like the
PM of the PFJ in evaluating MPFLr. geometry of the patella that is going to be eval-
uated. Then, the patellar cartilage is created using
the geometry of the patella. A fixed thickness of
2 Parametric Model of the PFJ— 3 mm is assumed. The femur geometry is based
Our Protocol (See Video) on four main elements: a revolution shape that
defines the bottom geometry, a solid loft for the
First, a reconstruction of the knee under study irregular section, a revolution shape in the pos-
using MIMICS software (MIMICS, Materi- terior geometry and two revolution shapes that
alise NV, Leuven, Belgium) is made. Next, the represent the femoral epicondyles. Then, the
patella is isolated and its maximum mid-lateral femoral cartilage consists of a revolution shape
and proximal–distal length as well as its thick- for the bottom geometry and a combination of
ness are measured. In addition, the geometry of elements that makes it possible to define the
the patella is also evaluated. That means the upper region. Again, a fixed thickness of 3 mm is
shape of the patella. The PM is developed using assumed. Finally, the finite element mesh is
ABAQUS FEA, the model simulation software created (Fig. 2). Next, the same process is repe-
(Abaqus/CAE v.6.14 software, Dassault ated with the femoral trochlea. If, for example,
Finite Element Technology in Evaluating … 707
the patient has grade D dysplasia in conformity thickness did not significantly affect patellar
with the Dejour classification, it can be incor- contact pressure, the differences being less than
porated into the PM. In short, a PFJ like that of 0.005 MPa [1]. The cartilage is a multiphasic,
the patient for whom we want to simulate surgery inhomogeneous and anisotropic structure. Due to
is obtained. Besides the MPFLr, the model also the computational costs and the time required to
permits the simulation of other procedures done perform modelling with 3D FE, the cartilage has
in association with MPFLr like trochleoplasty. been considered a homogeneous and isotropic
An important parameter to consider in the material with linear elastic behavior from the
design of the model is the thickness of the car- computational point of view [4–8]. Interstitial
tilage because it can theoretically influence the fluid flow is not considered despite it being a
contact pressure. In the present case, as previ- poroelastic material.
ously indicated, a uniform cartilage thickness of Once the bone structures (distal femur and
3 mm is considered as it is widely accepted in the patella) and the femur and patellar cartilage have
specialized literature [3]. A prior sensitivity been modelled, the ligaments (MPFL and lateral
analysis, making simulations with thicknesses of retinaculum-LR-) and the tendons that surround
2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 and 4 mm, showed that the cartilage the patella (quadriceps and patellar tendons) are
Fig. 2 Parametric geometry of the four main parts of the V, Alastruey-López D, Ginovart G, et al. Parametric finite
PFJ model: A Patellar cartilage; B patellar bone; element model of medial patellofemoral ligament recon-
C femoral bone; D femoral cartilage; E geometric struction model development and clinical validation.
parameters of the patellar bone; F geometric parameters J Exp Orthop. 2019; 6 (1), 32. © The Authors)
of the femoral bone (Reproduced from Sanchis-Alfonso
708 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 3 Final model reconstruction including the joint versus dynamic medial patellofemoral ligament recon-
ligaments and tendons. (Reproduced from Sanchis- structions using a finite element model. J Clin Med. 2019;
Alfonso V, Ginovart G, Alastruey-López D, et al. Eval- 8 (12), pii: E2093. © The authors)
uation of patellar contact pressure changes after static
introduced into the PM as beam elements distribution more uniform. In the FE models
(Fig. 3). The LR ligament has the same position designed for the study of the PFJ, emphasis is
in all the simulations. It is defined as a group of placed on achieving an adequate orientation of
six beam elements that connect the patella and the quadriceps and patellar tendons. This
the femur through six of their nodes. The MPFL maneuver aims to prevent a valgus alignment
is defined as a group of two beam elements that that would result in a lateral displacement of the
connect the patella and the femur through two of patella. From a mechanical point of view, valgus
their nodes. The femoral insertion of this liga- alignment increases lateral pressure in the patella
ment is different for each reconstruction tech- due to the increase in the so-called Q angle. In
nique. The quadriceps tendon (QT) and patellar the present model, uniform pressure distribution
tendon (PT) are modelled as a group of four and was achieved in the patella because the patellar
two truss elements, respectively. The material and the quadriceps tendon were introduced. It
properties of these ligaments and tendons are ensures that there is no pathological valgus that
sourced from the specialized literature [9–11]. can skew the results obtained. All the structures
The inclusion of the patellar tendon and the are in a situation of balance in our model.
quadriceps tendon in the current model is crucial One of the most complex points in this kind of
for two reasons. The first reason is because its model with different parts (the patellar bone,
presence helps stabilize the patella. If these ten- patellar cartilage, femoral cartilage and femoral
dons are not included in the model, it will cause bone) is defining how all the parts interact. In this
excessive rotation of the patella when tension is study, bone (patella and femur) is considered a
applied to the ligaments. However, the rotational rigid part. Therefore, its geometry remains non-
movement of the patella upon applying tension to deformable when loads and displacement are
the surrounding ligaments will be practically applied. On the other hand, the cartilages are
non-existent when the tendons are present. The deformable solids. When the interactions are
second is because the presence of these two defined, it is necessary to assign a master or slave
tendons aids in making patellar contact pressure behavior to each contact surface. Therefore, the
Finite Element Technology in Evaluating … 709
Fig. 4 Initial patellar cartilage contact pressure (MPa) (right)—Contact pressure after applying tension to the ligaments
(middle)—Relative contact pressure (left) (L = lateral; M = medial)
two main different interactions are patellar bone techniques can be compared under the very same
with patellar cartilage and femoral bone with conditions. In a previous work, the changes in
femoral cartilage. The interactions are modelled graft length used to reconstruct the MPFL with
as a tie constraint between bone and cartilage (a knee flexion were analyzed and it was shown to
tie constraint implies the union of two regions differ in each type of MPFLr [12]. Particularly,
without regard to whether the meshes created on the static and the dynamic types of MPFLr were
their surfaces are similar or not). Patellar carti- analyzed in prior studies done by our group [1, 2].
lage with femoral cartilage is modelled as a
surface-to-surface contact with a friction coeffi-
cient of 0.02.
We generate different models for each degree 3 The Clinical Problem—What is
of knee flexion [1]. The first thing is to draw the Going to Happen with the PFJ
patella to the femur to generate contact (initial in the Long-Term After a MPFLr?
contact pressure). Then, the ligaments and ten-
dons are brought into play. Next, tension is Currently, MPFLr is the procedure of first choice
slowly and progressively applied to the liga- for the treatment of patients with chronic lateral
ments. Tension is applied according to the vari- patellar instability (CLPI). An MPFLr technique
ation in graft length during knee flexion [12]. is good when the clinical result is good, which is
With this, the initial contact pressure is increased. when pain and instability disappear and no new
To this final contact pressure value, we subtract problems like patellofemoral chondropathy or
the initial contact pressure. With that, we are even patellofemoral osteoarthritis (PFOA)
really evaluating the relative contact pressure develop over the long term. PFOA is the result of
value (Fig. 4). Specifically, the pressures result- an excessive increase in PFJ pressure due to an
ing from the incorporation of the MPFL to the inappropriate MPFLr. It has been shown that the
model are evaluated. This is the reason negative femoral attachment point in MPFLr is of utmost
pressures are found. In this way, different surgical importance for MPFL-graft length change during
710 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
knee flexion and relative graft length [12]. Both stress distribution on the patellar cartilage and the
factors influence the long-term success and fail- MPFL stresses in their different configurations,
ure rate of the MPFLr surgery [12]. Graft depending on the different surgical techniques
overtensioning and/or non-anatomic positioning that can be simulated. Therefore, our simulations
of the femoral attachment point during MPFLr allow us to compare the different surgical tech-
increases PFJ contact pressures [13–15]. This niques to evaluate a likely patellofemoral chon-
increment in PFJ contact pressure might lead to dropathy or even PFOA in the long term.
joint degeneration [13, 16].
In the medical literature, there are many sur-
gical MPFLr techniques published with different 4 Native MPFL Evaluation Using
fixation points and different types of grafts that FEM Technology. The Ideal MPFLr
have shown good short-term clinical outcomes. It from a Biomechanical Standpoint
seems like they are all good, but they certainly
are not. These techniques have noticeably short In a native knee with an intact MPFL, the max-
follow-ups and have been evaluated only by imum patellar cartilage contact pressures are
means of clinical tests that are not sensitive 0.18 MPa at 0º and 0.016 MPa at 30°. The
enough to evaluate a surgical technique. MPFLr contact pressures at 60°, 90° and 120° are
assessment using FEM is more sensitive than exceptionally low compared to those at 0° and
evaluations using only clinical or radiological 30°. The maximum MPFL stress at 0° is
tools. FEM can demonstrate the validity of a 8.85 MPa and at 30° it is 0.78 MPa. At 60°, 90°
surgical technique in the long term since it and 120°, the MPFL is loose. There is no tension.
enables one to determine whether a specific Therefore, we should reproduce both the patellar
technique will lead to an increase in PFJ contact pressure and the graft tension behavior of a
pressure, which is closely related to the future native knee when doing an MPFLr. Nevertheless,
development of PFOA. it is logical to think that we are risking a new
An important question arises here. What is rupture if we perform the reconstruction with a
going to happen with the PFJ in these MPFL graft that has the same maximum stress as the
reconstructions techniques in the long run? We one that just tore. Therefore, we should use a
do not know. To respond to this question, we graft that is stronger than the native MPFL to
could use the PM of the PFJ developed with compensate for the anatomical factors predis-
FEM technology using the computed tomogra- posing to patellar dislocation. Those factors
phy images (CTs) of patients with patellar include an increased tibial tuberosity-trochlear
instability. Therefore, we would have those with groove (TTTG) distance, patella alta, femoral
the specific anatomical characteristics of a knee anteversion, external tibial torsion and trochlear
with a CLPI. This technology would give us the dysplasia. However, it is especially important not
ability to evaluate PFJ pressures after an MPFLr to increase the maximum MPFL-graft stress by
in the entire range-of-motion of the knee (0- increasing the patellar contact pressure, because
120º). Additionally, we would be able to com- it will result in an injury to the cartilage that
pare the new pressures with the ones found in a would eventually cause PFOA in the long term.
normal knee with a native MPFL (gold standard). Patellar chondropathy is quite common in
This technology also provides the means to patients with CLPI. Therefore, it is particularly
determine the maximum stress of the MPFL graft important not to increase the patellar contact
in all the knee flexion–extension positions. Our pressure at high degrees of knee flexion after an
evaluation tool makes it possible for us to com- MPFLr because it will aggravate the previous
pare the maximum stress of the graft with the chondropathy. This chondropathy could be
maximum stress of a native MPFL (gold stan- responsible for AKP after MPFLr. In short, an
dard). Our FE model of the PFJ predicts the ideal MPFLr technique must combine a perfect
Finite Element Technology in Evaluating … 711
A B C
Fig. 5 Static and anatomic MPFLr (A). MPFLr using the pressure changes after static versus dynamic medial
AMT as a pulley (B). MPFLr using the quadriceps tendon patellofemoral ligament reconstructions using a finite
as soft attachment point (MQTFL reconstruction) (C). element model. J Clin Med. 2019; 8 (12), pii: E2093. ©
(Reproduced from Sanchis-Alfonso V, Ginovart G, The authors)
Alastruey-López D, et al. Evaluation of patellar contact
balance between optimal patellar pressure and 120° are very low. We must note that increased
maximum graft stress, making a new tear less patellofemoral contact pressure helps to stabilize
likely. the patella. The objective would be not to exceed
the safety levels for pressure so as not to induce
patellofemoral chondropathy and finally PFOA.
5 Analysis of the Types of MPFLr The problem is that we do not know the safety
Using FEM Technology level for contact pressure in the PFJ. The maxi-
mum MPFL-graft stress at 0° and 30° is higher
We have evaluated three types of fixation tech- than in a native knee. Moreover, as occurs in a
niques: (1) Static and anatomic MPFLr in which native knee, the MPFL-graft is loose at 60°, 90°
both graft attachments are fixed rigidly to the and 120°. It has no tension. Many orthopedic
bone; (2) Dynamic MPFLr using the adductor surgeons recommend robust grafts to compensate
magnus tendon (AMT) as a pulley and for predisposing anatomical factors for a dislo-
(3) Dynamic MPFLr using the quadriceps tendon cation. If we use an anatomical technique with a
as one of the attachment points, medial quadri- semitendinosus autograft, the maximum patellar
ceps tendon-femoral ligament (MQTFL) recon- contact pressures at 0° and 30° are a bit greater
struction (Fig. 5) [1, 2]. than with using a gracilis autograft (Fig. 6).
However, the contact pressures at 60°, 90° and
120° are quite low. The maximum MPFL stress
5.1 Static and Anatomic MPFLr—The at 0° and 30° is greater than when the gracilis is
Type of Graft Does Matter used. At 60°, 90° and 120° the MPFL is loose. In
other words, the type of graft does matter, at least
Currently, the most widespread surgical tech- from a biomechanical point of view.
nique for MPFLr is the anatomical technique In a number of cases, the static MPFLr is not
using a gracilis tendon autograft with bone anatomic because of a surgical mistake. In these
anchoring in both the femur and patella. With cases, we can see two biomechanical patterns.
this type of reconstruction, the patellar contact Firstly, there is a non-anatomic but physiometric
pressures at 0° and 30° are greater than in a MPFLr. This type of reconstruction behaves
native knee (Fig. 6). Likewise, as occurs in a kinematically, like a native ligament [12]. The
native knee, the contact pressures at 60°, 90° and clinical results of this type of reconstruction are
712 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
Fig. 6 Contact pressure (MPa) on the patellar cartilage. allograft (M = Medial; L = Lateral). (Reproduced from
A Intact knee. B Anatomic MPFLr with a semitendinosus Sanchis-Alfonso V, Ginovart G, Alastruey-López D, et al.
autograft. C Anatomic MPFLr with a gracilis autograft. Evaluation of patellar contact pressure changes after static
D MPFLr with a semitendinosus autograft using the AMT versus dynamic medial patellofemoral ligament recon-
as a pulley. E MPFLr with a gracilis autograft using the structions using a finite element model. J Clin Med. 2019;
AMT as a pulley. F MQTFLr with a semitendinosus 8 (12), pii: E2093. © The authors)
autograft. G MQTFLr with a posterior tibial tendon
Finite Element Technology in Evaluating … 713
good [12]. Second, we have a non-anatomic, biomechanical standpoint, in the long term. In
non-physiometric reconstruction. This type of the static and anatomic technique, the maximum
reconstruction behaves kinematically in a manner MPFL-graft stress at 0° and 30° was higher than
opposite to that of a native ligament [12]. This in a native MPFL. However, at 60°, 90°, and
provokes high patellar contact pressures at 120° the MPFL-graft was loose, that is, it had no
high degrees of knee flexion that can lead to tension, like a native ligament. Then again, the
patellar chondropathy and finally PFOA. The maximum stress of the MPFL-graft at 0° was less
clinical results of this type of reconstruction are than that of a native ligament in the dynamic
quite bad [12]. MPFLr using the AMT as a pulley. However, at
30°, the maximum MPFL-graft stress was sig-
nificantly more than in a native ligament. After
5.2 Dynamic MPFLr 30° of flexion, the MPFL-graft loosened, like a
native knee. In the dynamic MQTFL recon-
FEM validates using the AMT as a pulley in struction, the maximum stress of the MPFL-graft
MPFLr in our clinical practice [2]. From a was much greater at 0° and 30° than that of a
biomechanical point-of-view, it is a good tech- native MPFL. After 30° of flexion, the MQTFL
nique. It does not increase patellar contact pres- graft also loosened as does the native knee.
sure when it is compared to the pressure in a The MPFLr using the AMT as a pulley is the
native MPFL. Moreover, the maximum MPFL most common dynamic MPFLr technique in
stress is like the native ligament. It is an current use [17–21] There are authors that have
exceedingly good technique in cases without evaluated the validity of this surgical technique
severe predisposing factors to CLPI. Moreover, and found satisfactory clinical results in the
FEM also validates MQTFL reconstruction in short-term follow-up. From a biomechanical
our clinical practice [2]. From a biomechanical point of view, this is a good technique in cases
perspective, it is an excellent technique. It does without severe predisposing factors to patellar
not significantly increase patellar contact pres- dislocation like severe trochlear dysplasia. Alm
sure when it is compared to the pressure in a and colleagues [19] found an elevated redislo-
native MPFL. Moreover, the maximum ligament cation rate after MPFLr in children and adoles-
stress is greater than that of the native ligament, cents with this surgical technique. The authors
which could compensate for the anatomical fac- concluded that this technique could only be
tors predisposing to patellar dislocation. In the recommended in the absence of additional
MQTFLr, the posterior tibial allograft has a patellofemoral maltracking, caused by an ele-
greater stress to failure relative to a semitendi- vated tibial tuberosity-trochlear groove (TT-TG)
nosus graft without increasing the patellar con- distance (>15 mm), patella alta, or especially
tact pressure [2]. In theory, a new tear is less severe trochlear dysplasia. Monllau and col-
likely with a posterior tibial allograft. leagues obtained satisfactory results with this
technique, but it was associated with realignment
surgery in 56% of their cases [18]. This approach
5.3 Static Versus Dynamic MPFLr. might explain their satisfactory clinical results.
Clinical Relevance To obtain satisfactory results after an MPFLr
using the AMT as a pulley, the associated risk
The patellar contact pressures from 0° to 30° of factors for dislocation must be addressed during
knee flexion after a dynamic MPFLr were like surgery. Otherwise, this technique as an isolated
those of the native knee, whereas the static and procedure should only be used in patients with-
anatomic reconstruction resulted in greater pres- out severe trochlear dysplasia. Recently Marot
sures. This may eventually increase the risk of and colleagues [21] have published a multicenter
PFOA after a static MPFLr, at least from a longitudinal prospective comparative study to
714 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
compare the functional outcomes after an iso- image. Moreover, the MPFL is tense at 60°, 90°
lated MPFLr using either a quasi-anatomical and 120° of knee flexion and it is completely
technique (elastic femoral fixation) or an loose at 0° and 30° of knee flexion in this case.
anatomical MPFLr. Patients with trochlear dys- This tension pattern projects the presence of
plasia types C and D were excluded from this lateral patellar instability as was seen upon
study. They concluded that an isolated quasi- physical examination. This tension pattern is
anatomical MPFLr using a gracilis tendon auto- typical of a non-anatomic and non-physiometric
graft provides outcomes as good as the isolated MPFL reconstruction. In fact, in this case, we can
anatomical MPFLr at the 2.5-year follow-up in a observe a very incorrect femoral attachment
selected subgroup of patients with CLPI and with point in the 3D-CT.
no severe trochlear dysplasia. In the case of Fig. 8 (case # 2), the compu-
MQTFLr described by Fulkerson and Edgar tational simulation projects remarkably high
[22] fulfills all the criteria for an ideal MPFLr, contact pressures at 60°, 90° and 120°. In theory,
biomechanically. It combines a perfect balance this will lead to PFOA. During revision surgery,
between optimal patellar contact pressure and we observed an evident PFOA with exposed
maximum graft stress. While the MPFLr using bone in the medial facet of the patella. Indeed,
the AMT as an elastic femoral fixation is a non- the maximum patellar contact pressure was in the
anatomic technique, the soft tissue technique medial facet of the patella. This patient com-
using the quadriceps tendon as the soft tissue plained of disabling AKP. Moreover, the tension
fixation point is an anatomic technique as it pattern is typical of a non-anatomic and non-
reconstructs the MQTFL. This technique also physiometric MPFL reconstruction. You can
shows good clinical results in the short term [22]. observe a very anterior and superior femoral
The question is which surgical technique is fixation point in the 3D-CT. Moreover, the ten-
better. Is it the static or dynamic? To definitively sion pattern justifies the lateral patellar instability
answer this question, we must consider not only that we can see during physical examination
biomechanical factors but also the number of re- (Fig. 8).
dislocations with each technique as well as the
functional results as well as the ability to return
to sports practice. However, there are currently 7 Clinical Relevance of FE
no high-quality clinical studies that allow us to Technology—Discussion
conclusively answer this question. Well-designed
prospective studies with a substantial number of FE technology shows that the native MPFL is
patients and a longer follow-up are necessary to more tense during the first 30° of knee flexion,
allow us to answer this question. and then loses a considerable amount of tension
with higher degrees of knee flexion [1]. After
30°, the ligament loosens and the patellofemoral
6 Examples Demonstrating contact pressure, which also contributes some-
the Good Correlation Between what to patellofemoral stability and is already
Computational Predictions low during the first 30 degrees (0.23 MPa),
and Clinical Evaluation decreases considerably (0.0046 MPa) [1]. This
indicates, as shown by previous studies [23–25],
In the case of Fig. 7 (case #1), the computational that the MPFL contribution to resisting lateral
simulation projects high contact pressures at 60°, patellar dislocation is greatest during the first 30
90° and 120° of knee flexion compared with the degrees of knee flexion. Precisely after 30° of
native knee. In theory, this will lead to patellar knee flexion, lateral patella stability depends
chondropathy and finally AKP. In fact, our more on the femoral trochlea than on the MPFL.
patient had disabling AKP and severe patellar The current tendency is to perform static
chondropathy, as can be seen in the arthroscopic anatomic MPFL reconstructions. Sanchis-
Finite Element Technology in Evaluating … 715
TENSION PATTERN
Flexion Angle Maximum MPFL Stress (MPa) Maximum LR Stress (MPa)
60 59.03 1.62
90 119.2 5.38
120 252 7.06
Fig. 7 Case # 1. Surgical failure secondary to an anterior loose. There is no tension. (Reproduced from Sanchis-
femoral attachment point. Contact pressure (MPa) on the Alfonso V, Alastruey-López D, Ginovart G, et al. Para-
patellar cartilage. L = lateral, M = medial (A). Parametric metric finite element model of medial patellofemoral
model of this patient (B). Femoral attachment point is too ligament reconstruction model development and clinical
far anterior (black arrow) (C). Severe patellar chondropa- validation. J Exp Orthop. 2019; 6 (1), 32.© The Authors)
thy during arthroscopy (D). At 0° and 30° the ligament is
Alfonso and colleagues [1] have demonstrated would be beneficial in the classic anatomic
that there is an increase in patellar contact pres- reconstruction. Thus, a discrete increase in con-
sure at 0° and 30° of knee flexion after a static tact pressure, as we have observed, is desirable.
anatomic MPFLr (2.17 MPa at 0° and 0.14 MPa There is an ongoing debate about the exact
at 30° when using the semitendinosus as a graft) clinical consequences of a non-anatomical
when compared to the pressure found in a non- MPFLr. There are only two papers that corre-
operated knee (0.18 MPa at 0° and 0.016 MPa at late the femoral fixation point with clinical
30°). This leads us to consider the possible results of MPFLr surgery [12, 27]. Servien and
deleterious long-term effects from slightly greater colleagues [27] found no negative effects on the
patellar contact pressures. However, in theory, clinical results from a non-anatomical femoral
the patellar contact pressures found in the static fixation point after a 2-year follow-up. A reason
anatomic MPFL reconstructions are not great for this might be that the femoral fixation point
enough to cause symptomatic PFOA since they was not so malpositioned from its ideal position
are lower than those causing knee osteoarthritis to have a negative effect. In our series, we have
[26]. The objective would be not to exceed safe only found clinical consequences with fixation
levels of patellofemoral pressure so as not to points that were too anterior. Another reason for
induce patellofemoral chondropathy and, ulti- which Servien and colleagues justify the fact that
mately, PFOA. It should also be remembered that no correlation was found between the non-
the increase in patellofemoral contact pressures anatomical femoral fixation point and the clini-
helps to stabilize the PFJ. Therefore, this factor cal result is because of the short follow-up of
716 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
TENSION PATTERN
Flexion Angle Maximum MPFL Stress (MPa) Maximum LR Stress (MPa)
60 19.51 4.56
90 29.52 7.54
120 34.70 8.37
Fig. 8 Case # 2. Surgical failure secondary to anterior and 30° of knee flexion, the ligament is loose. There is no
femoral attachment point. Contact pressure (MPa) on the tension. (Reproduced from Sanchis-Alfonso V, Alastruey-
patellar cartilage. L = lateral, M = medial (A). Parametric López D, Ginovart G, et al. Parametric finite element
model of this patient (B). Femoral attachment point is too model of medial patellofemoral ligament reconstruction
far anterior (black arrow). Severe grade D trochlear model development and clinical validation. J Exp
dysplasia according to the classification of Dejour (red Orthop. 2019; 6 (1), 32. © The Authors)
arrow) (C). Severe PFOA during arthrotomy (D). At 0°
their patients (2 years). This is particularly rele- pressure increase mainly occurs on the medial
vant relative to the risk of developing PFOA. patellar facet. What is not known is whether this
Currently, what is being discussed is the precise increase in pressure results in chondropathy in
clinical consequences of from the physiological the long run and ultimately in symptomatic
point of view of the non-anatomical techniques PFOA. As far as we know, there is no study of
for the MPFLr in which the MPFL-graft behaves the PFJ that has determined the contact stress
like a native MPFL (physiometric behavior). threshold that is predictive of symptomatic
Servien and colleagues [27] and Sanchis-Alfonso PFOA. In 2009, Segal and colleagues [26]
and colleagues [12] found no negative clinical observed that a threshold of 3.42 to 3.61 MPa
effects after 2 years when using these recon- had a 73.3% sensitivity with specificity ranging
structions, which could be due to the short from 46.7% to 66.7% for the prediction of
follow-up in both cases. In this type of recon- symptomatic knee osteoarthritis. Obviously,
struction, the FEM shows an increase in patel- these values cannot be extrapolated to the PFJ,
lofemoral contact pressure at 0° and 30° of knee which is the joint with the thickest cartilage in
flexion in comparison to these pressures in the the human body. It is logical to think that the
native knee (2.77 MPa at 0° and 1.91 MPa at 30° pressures causing symptomatic PFOA would be
vs 0.18 MPa at 0° and 0.016 MPa at 30°). This greater. In non-anatomical MPFL
Finite Element Technology in Evaluating … 717
reconstructions, the maximum patellofemoral of stabilizing the patella in the 0° to 30° range,
contact pressures are on the order of 2.77 MPa, thusly avoiding the previously mentioned
values that are considerably below the cut-off problems.
point mentioned above. Therefore, it is likely that Another interesting finding using FE tech-
a non-anatomical but physiometric reconstruc- nology is that the type of graft does matter, at
tion would not have long-term negative effects least from a biomechanical perspective. Our FE
on the PFJ. Consequently, it would seem more parametric model study showed significant dif-
important for the ligament to be “physiometric” ferences in terms of patellar contact pressure and
rather than perfectly anatomical. With the FEM, the maximum MPFL graft stress. For example,
it is possible to predict which MPFLr has an the gracilis autograft has been recommended in
increased risk of severe patellofemoral chon- the MPFLr using the AMT as a pulley because
dropathy resulting in symptomatic PFOA and the gracilis tendon appears to be long and strong
requiring active treatment. In the cases in which enough to duplicate the MPFL function [18].
PFOA occurred, it was because the MPFL-graft However, based on the results found using the
was loose, with knee flexion from 0° to 30°, and FE method, the semitendinosus tendon has
was tense from 60° onward. In these cases, the greater stress to failure relative to the gracilis
patellofemoral contact pressures were over without significantly increasing the patellar con-
5 MPa from 60° onward, the femoral attachment tact pressure. In theory, a new tear is therefore
point being extremely non-anatomical (too far less likely with a semitendinosus tendon
anterior) and the MPFLr was not physiometric. autograft.
The predictive value of the parametric model of
the PFJ has made its clinical validation possible.
Our findings could have meaningful potential 8 Take Home Messages
implications for clinicians in terms of MPFLr
surgery. In theory, a healthy knee with a native – The use of a parametric finite element model
isometric MPFL during the knee’s entire range- of the PFJ enables us to evaluate different
of-motion should have no negative repercussion types of surgical techniques for MPFLr rela-
on the PFJ, since the native MPFL is not a robust tive to the effect on patellofemoral contact
structure. A healthy PFJ shows no underlying pressure, the kinematic behaviour of the
chondropathy. However, a degree of chon- MPFL-graft with knee flexion and the maxi-
dropathy of the medial facet of the patella is mum MPFL-graft stress with knee flexion.
frequently found in a knee with a chronic lateral – The patellar contact pressures after dynamic
patellar instability. If, on top of this, we consider MPFL reconstructions are like those in the
that the graft we use to replace the MPFL is more intact situation. Therefore, a dynamic MPFLr
robust and rigid than the native MPFL, we could may be a safer option than a static recon-
expect that maintaining isometry during the struction, reducing the chance of PFOA in the
entire range-of-motion of the knee would pro- long term.
duce greater patellofemoral compression in a – From diagnostic images like a CT, for
joint with a pre-existing medial patellar chon- example, we can simulate different surgical
dropathy, which would evidently worsen. treatments and choose the most optimal
Therefore, it would be desirable to have ligament technique for each patient. That is, we can
isometry just from 0° to 30° in a knee with a customize treatment for individual patients.
chronic lateral patellar instability. It is what – A PM of the PFJ is useful in predicting sur-
Thaunat and Erasmus [28] called a “favorable gical outcomes and reducing complications
anisometry.” With it, we would achieve our goal after MPFLr surgery.
718 V. Sanchis-Alfonso et al.
knee osteoarthritis development in the MOST cohort. 28. Thaunat M, Erasmus PJ. The favourable anisometry:
J Orthop Res. 2009;27:1562–8. an original concept for medial patellofemoral liga-
27. Servien E, Fritsch B, Lustig S. In vivo positioning ment reconstruction. Knee. 2007;14:424–8.
analysis of medial patellofemoral ligament recon-
struction. Am J Sports Med. 2011;39:134–9.
Biomechanical Analysis
of the Influence of Trochlear
Dysplasia on Patellar Tracking
and Pressure Applied to Cartilage
John J. Elias
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 721
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_56
722 J. J. Elias
2 Biomechanical Analysis
Fig. 3 Schematic
representation of a knee
attached to an in vitro testing
frame to simulate knee
function. (Adapted from
Elias JJ et al. Computational
assessment of the influence of
vastus medialis obliquus
function on patellofemoral
pressures: model evaluation.
J Biomech. 2010;43:612–7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jbiomech.2009.10.039)
724 J. J. Elias
trochlea to simulate dysplasia [18]. The study did dysplasia limits patellar stability in response to a
not find a significant change in patellar kine- direct lateral force acting on the patella.
matics related to representation of trochlear Groove-deepening trochleoplasty has also
dysplasia. One study modeled a shallow trochlear been represented with cadaveric knees to deter-
groove and the corresponding change in the mine the influence on patellar tracking and sta-
shape of the patella to represent trochlear dys- bility. Trochleoplasty was shown to restore the
plasia [19]. Articular surfaces of the patella and force needed to translate the patella 10 mm lat-
femur were replaced with 3D printed compo- erally to approximate the stability of a normal
nents to represent normal anatomy, Dejour type knee [18]. For patellar tracking with simulated
A trochlear dysplasia, and Dejour type B tro- muscle forces, however, position of the patella
chlear dysplasia. This study also did not find a was unexpectedly more lateral following
variation in patellar kinematics related to tro- trochleoplasty than for the dysplastic condition.
chlear dysplasia. Another study also used 3D Some studies included pressure sensors to
printed components to represent a normal tro- characterize patellofemoral contact pressures.
chlear groove with Dejour types A through D Two studies measured contact pressures while
included in representation of trochlear dysplasia using 3D printed surfaces to represent trochlear
[20]. The study represented two types of knee dysplasia. One study showed that trochlear dys-
motion: knee squatting and open chain extension. plasia tended to shift patellofemoral contact for-
For knee squatting over a range from 35° to 75°, ces from the medial facet of the patella to the
patellar internal rotation and lateral tilt were lateral facet from 50°–70° of knee flexion, but
larger for representation of trochlear dysplasia the contact forces did not increase [19]. This
than for a normal trochlear groove. For knee study included variation in patellar shape while
extension over a range from 5° to 65°, patellar representing trochlear dysplasia. The other
internal rotation, lateral tilt and lateral shift were showed that trochlear dysplasia tended to
larger for the trochlear dysplasia group than for decrease contact area and increase contact pres-
representation of a normal trochlear groove. sures, with the highest contact pressures noted
Overall, these studies indicate the influence of for Dejour types B and D [20]. The changes were
trochlear dysplasia on patellofemoral kinematics largest with the knee flexed for knee squatting
is limited, primarily noted for patellar rotation and the knee extended for knee extension. This
and tilt, with lateral shift also noted for repre- study did not vary the shape of the patella as the
sentation of knee extension. trochlear shape changed. Another study showed
Some studies focused particularly on patellar that anterior osteotomy of the lateral femoral
stability related to trochlear dysplasia. For a condyle to deepen the trochlear groove increased
study that manipulated the trochlear groove to patellofemoral contact pressures [22]. The
represent trochlear dysplasia, the lateral force cadaveric specimens used to deepen the trochlear
required to shift the patella laterally decreased by groove were not dysplastic. Overall these studies
approximately 50% with the knee at 30° of seem to indicate that trochlear dysplasia influ-
flexion, with smaller significant differences at ences the distribution of patellofemoral contact
lower and higher flexion angles [18]. Similar forces, but the primary factor that increases
results were obtained for another study that contact forces is altering the normal congruence
quantified the translation in response to a 100 N between the patella and trochlear groove.
lateral force [20]. Another study that also
manipulated the trochlear groove to represent
trochlear dysplasia similarly showed that repre- 2.2 Functional Imaging
sentation of trochlear dysplasia decreased the
force required to laterally displace the patella Functional imaging characterizes patellar track-
despite representation of reconstruction of the ing and pathologic anatomy for patients being
MPFL [21]. These studies show that trochlear treated for patellar instability. Functional
Biomechanical Analysis of the Influence of Trochlear Dysplasia … 725
imaging addresses several limitations of in vitro Some functional imaging studies create com-
simulation. Functional imaging focused on putational models for 3D representation of the
patients being treated for patellofemoral disor- knee rather than identifying anatomical land-
ders includes representation of pathologic anat- marks directly on slices from the acquired
omy, including trochlear dysplasia. Other forms imaging [26–28]. A 3D model of the knee,
of pathologic anatomy, including patella alta and including bones, cartilage surfaces and ligament
a lateral position of the tibial tuberosity are also attachments, is created from a high resolution
included. In vivo motion of the knee is also MRI scan performed with the knee extended and
evaluated, without approximating muscle forces unloaded. Computational models of the bones
or orientations. Functional imaging studies are are also created from imaging performed with the
limited by the activities that can be performed by knee at multiple flexion angles. One computa-
patients within a diagnostic scanner. Also, anat- tional representation of the knee is developed
omy cannot be controlled, so studies rely on including bones, cartilage, relevant soft tissue
variations between subjects to relate anatomy to attachments, fixed anatomical landmarks, and
patellar tracking. Functional imaging studies reference axes. Shape matching techniques are
have been based on dynamic CT, dynamic MRI, used to align the model with the landmarks and
and static MRI at multiple flexion angles. Knee reference axes to the bones at each position of
motion has been represented by knee extension knee flexion to represent each position of knee
against gravity or an MRI-compatible load frame flexion with a consistent set of landmarks and
has been used to apply resistance to knee axes. This approach eliminates potential error
extension at the foot. related to repeated identification of landmarks.
For functional imaging, trochlear dysplasia is The reference axes are used to measure patello-
characterized by a measure of trochlear depth femoral and tibiofemoral kinematics, while the
determined from anatomical landmarks. The landmarks are used to characterize trochlear
studies also typically utilize measures of patellar depth and patellar tracking.
tracking characterized from anatomical land- For patients being treated for patellar dislo-
marks. The most common measures used to cations, multiple studies have shown that lateral
characterize trochlear depth are lateral trochlear patellar maltracking is correlated with a shallow
inclination and sulcus angle. The two primary trochlear groove. The relationships between
parameters of patellar tracking are bisect offset patellar tracking and trochlear depth were pri-
index and patellar tilt (Fig. 2). Bisect offset index marily observed with the knee at low flexion
characterizes patellar tracking with respect to the angles [26–28]. The studies also showed that the
trochlear groove. Bisect offset index is measured strongest relationships were established between
as the portion medial/lateral width of the patella trochlear depth and patellar tilt. For the most
lateral to the deepest part of the trochlear groove, recent study, with the knee at full extension,
measured in an axial plane at each position of lateral trochlear inclination accounted for 46% of
knee flexion. The patella tends to be in the most the variation in bisect offset index and 60% of the
lateral position with the knee extended, particu- variation in patellar tilt [26]. For the vast majority
larly for patients being treated for patellofemoral of patients, bisect offset index and patellar tilt
disorders. The average bisect offset index with with the knee extended would be considered
the knee extended is 0.55 to 0.6 for healthy knees lateral maltracking. The study further showed
[23]. A bisect offset index of 0.75 is considered a that the influence of trochlear depth on patellar
cut-off between normal patellar tracking and tracking was particularly prominent for knees
maltracking [24]. Patellar tilt is measured as the without patella alta (Caton-Deschamps index <
angle between the medial/lateral axis of the 1.2). In absence of patella alta, the patella is
patella and the posterior condylar axis. Patellar engaged with the trochlear groove at low flexion
tilt on the order of 15° or higher is considered angles, so the depth of the trochlear groove plays
maltracking [25]. a large role in resisting lateral forces applied to
726 J. J. Elias
Fig. 4 Patellar tracking with the knee extended deter- Conry et al. Influence of tibial tuberosity position and
mined by functional imaging for two knees without trochlear depth on patellar tracking in patellar instability:
patella alta. A shallow trochlear groove results in lateral Variations with Patella Alta. Clin Biomech.
maltracking while a deep trochlear groove provides 2021;87:105,406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.
normal patellar tracking. (Adapted with permission from 2021.105406)
the patella (Fig. 4). For these subjects, lateral Overall, these studies indicate that lateral
trochlear inclination accounted for 84% of the patellar tracking increases as the depth of the
variation in bisect offset index between subjects. trochlear groove decreases for healthy knees and
Studies focused on healthy control subject and knees being treated for patellofemoral pain and
subjects with patellofemoral pain have also patellar instability. These relationships are
identified relationships between lateral patellar observed with the knee at low flexion angles. The
tracking and a shallow trochlear groove. A study relationship between a shallow trochlear groove
including subjects with and without patellofe- and patellar tracking is stronger for patellar tilt
moral pain found similar correlations between than patellar shift due to the lateral facet of the
sulcus angle and both bisect offset index and patella articulating along the lateral ridge of the
patellar tilt at low flexion angles [29]. For this trochlear groove. The relationships can also be
study, bisect offset index and patellar tilt would influenced by other parameters, such as being
be considered lateral maltracking for a small stronger for knees with normal patella height,
minority of the subjects. The influence of sulcus with the patella engaging the trochlear groove at
angle on lateral patellar tracking was strongest low flexion angles.
with the knee at full extension, and generally
stronger for patellar tilt than patellar shift. The
results were similar for another study focused on 2.3 Dynamic Simulation of Knee
healthy subjects and patients with patellofemoral Function
pain [30]. The study used measurements of
patellar lateral shift and tilt from six degree of For dynamic simulation of knee function, com-
freedom kinematics. For healthy control subjects putational models are also used to characterize
and subjects characterized as lateral maltrackers, the relationship between patellar tracking and
lateral trochlear inclination was significantly trochlear depth, but the motion is simulated
correlated with lateral patellar shift and tilt near based on finite element analysis or multibody
full extension, with the relationships strongest for dynamic simulation. Dynamic simulation models
patellar tilt. can be made to represent patients being treated
Biomechanical Analysis of the Influence of Trochlear Dysplasia … 727
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 731
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_57
732 M. Beser-Robles et al.
The first objective of this chapter is to show fMRI has been widely used in patients with
that rsFC networks are different in AKP patients neurological or psychiatric disorders, to analyze
compared with healthy subjects, mainly among the differences in synchronous and spontaneous
those brain areas involved in affective and cog- fluctuations of various networks compared with
nitive stimulus processing and in regions healthy matched control subjects. Both task-
involved in pain modulation. Moreover, we will based and resting state studies have been per-
define the rsFC changes related to the feeling of formed for this purpose. In comparison to
catastrophizing. In addition, we will explore the specific task-based fMRI, resting state fMRI (rs-
predictive ability of fMRI analyses with a clinical fMRI) is acquired in the absence of a stimulus or
decision support system (CDSS), providing a task, being therefore focus on the spontaneous
complementary tool to help clinicians in the alterations of the brain BOLD signal. The
clinical assessment of this condition. absence of a task makes rs-fMRI particularly
attractive for understanding the inherent con-
nectivity patterns of interoperable brain regions
1.1 Functional Magnetic Resonance in patients suffering from neurological, neuro-
Imaging surgical, or psychiatric diseases and their differ-
ences with healthy controls, to improve the
Pain related changes can be captured by objec- understanding of these diseases [3, 4].
tive markers of functional brain activity. Blood
oxygen-level-dependent imaging, or BOLD-
contrast imaging, is a method used in fMRI to 1.2 Pain Neuromatrix
determine where and when brain activity occurs.
The BOLD signal change is the keystone of It has been shown that several functional brain
fMRI, being used to construct spatial parametric regions are activated in a coordinated manner
maps indicating which brain regions are activated when pain occurs, constituting what is known as
by certain tasks or react to specific stimulus. the “pain neuromatrix” [5]. This functional net-
Neurons do not contain any internal stores of work is the basis of the multidimensional expe-
energy, either in the form of glucose or oxygen. rience of pain. Specifically, under chronic pain
Therefore, when a brain region is activated, conditions, the main regions being affected are
adjacent capillaries provide it an increased the primary and secondary somatosensory cortex
regional blood flow through a hemodynamic (S1 and S2), spinal cord, thalamus, insula, ante-
response with a large increase in oxygen supply. rior cingulate cortex (ACC), posterior cingulate
This inflow causes a change in the level of cortex (PCC), the medial and dorsolateral pre-
oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin balance frontal cortex (mPFC/dlPFC), amygdala, nucleus
that can be detected using their differential accumbens, and various mesencephalic areas
magnetic susceptibility, as deoxyhemoglobin is such as the periaqueductal grey matter (PAG)
strongly paramagnetic. and the cerebellum [6].
fMRI is a safe and noninvasive image tech- The human brain is intrinsically organized into
nique able to map and measure regional brain dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks [5].
activity. fMRI is used to determine which brain It has been found that there are four main
regions and networks are activated during dif- brain networks whose dynamic interactions are
ferent process by evaluating the increase in related to chronic pain [7]. One of them, the
oxygen consumption. This technique improves Salience Network (SN), comprises the anterior
our understanding of how the brain operates, insula and the ACC, and is responsible for the
which regions are activated during specific reception of sensory stimuli and the production
mental tasks or at rest, and how these regions are of affective responses. The Default Mode Net-
organized into networks [2]. work (DMN) consists of the PCC and the mPFC
Brain Network Functional Connectivity Clinical Relevance … 733
and it is mainly activated during resting state, as painful stimulus occurs, peripheral nociceptors
the “automatic pilot” of the brain, it is related are activated and ascending fibers transmit this
with introspection. The third pain-related system stimulus to the spinal cord. Ascending pathways
is the antinociceptive system (AS), which is transmit the painful stimulus from the spinal cord
classically associated with pain modulation and to the brain carrying sensory information from
includes a hub of multi-connected regions in the the body to the brain. In addition, descending
periaqueductal gray matter of the brainstem. pathways are established in mesencephalic areas
Finally, the sensorimotor network (SMN), which such as the PAG, descending down the spinal
consists of the basal ganglia, thalamus, posterior cord and has a role in the modulation of pain [9].
insula, SI and SII, relates to the awareness of The mechanism of pain transmission can be
bodily sensations and generation of appropriate oberved in Fig. 2.
motor responses. Although these are the most Patients with chronic pain have increased
relevant, other functional networks such as lim- BOLD oscillations in DMN regions such as the
bic, attentional, and central executive, are also mPFC and, to a lesser extent, the PCC [4, 10]. In
active during the processing of pain stimuli [8] addition, chronic pain has been shown to influ-
(Fig. 1). ence the functional connectivity of the ACC,
Pain pathways comprise a complex sensory insula and SII. These regions are known to
system, which is activated to provide protective receive nociceptive information from the
responses to noxious stimuli. Inputs regarding periphery and are involved in pain perception
noxious stimuli are transmitted from nociceptors and modulation [11]. Furthermore, it has been
via primary afferent fibers to the brain. When a suggested that weaker communications appear
PFC
B S1/S2 ACC
A
Thalamus NAc
Brain
AMG
PAG
LC
Brain
Stem
RVM
Dorsal Spine
Spinal dorsal
horn
Nociceptor
Painful sƟmulus
Fig. 2 A Anatomical sites showing functional changes in dorsal horn to the rostral ventral medulla (RVM) and
patients suffering chronic pain. Sensorimotor, periaqueductal grey matter (PAG). They are then trans-
emotional/affective, cognitive/integrative, and modulatory mitted to the thalamus, where they are sent to higher brain
regions are involved in the complex processing of pain, centers, such as the primary and secondary somatosensory
with some areas participating in more than one pain cortices (S1/S2), prefrontal cortex (PFC), anterior cortex
domain. An example is the thalamus, which contains a (ACC), amygdala (AMG), and nucleus accumbens (NAc).
somatotopic representation of pain and processes the Descending pathway (red line), involves important areas
emotional aspects of the pain experience. B Ascending of the brainstem such as the RVM, PAG, and locus
pathway (blue line): Pain signals ascend from the spinal coeruleus (LC)
between the DMN and SN networks in patients SN's ability to inhibit the DMN, due to a con-
with chronic pain, making difficult for individu- tinuous input of nociceptive information.
als to “switch off” their pain [5]. In healthy
subjects, there is a negative correlation between
DMN and SN. That is, when the DMN is active 1.3 Clinical Decision Support System
the SN is inactive, and vice-versa. As the SN (CDSS)
coordinates the activation of the DMN and the
central executive network. However, in chronic A CDSS has the aim to improve healthcare
pain patients, there is a reduce in this anticorre- provision by refining medical decisions accuracy
lation. The cause of the increase of correlation with specific clinical knowledge and imaging
between the DMN and the SN can be due to an extracted information. To obtain a direct clinical
alteration of the normal functioning of the SN decision gain, the characteristics of an individual
because a constant state of attention given by the patient must be compared against a computerized
continuous input of nociceptive stimuli, so that clinical knowledge database, and then specific
the introspection capacity of the DMN decreases assessments or recommendations are presented to
as it needs the coordination of the SN for its the clinician to help taking decisions on that
correct functioning. So, we can see a loss of the patient [12]. Validated CDSS have been shown
Brain Network Functional Connectivity Clinical Relevance … 735
to increase the capacity of healthcare profes- Demographic recorded variables which can
sionals in a range of patient care decisions and influence the brain functional network were
tasks, and nowadays actively support the provi- recorded (age, dominant hand, scholarship, and
sion of quality care. In our scenario, the CDSS pain duration), and participants completed a self-
aims to predict whether a subject has chronic reporting questionnaires regarding neuropathic
AKP or not. pain, anxiety, depression, kinesiophobia and
Machine learning is a field of artificial intel- catastrophizing. Clinical pain intensity was
ligence based on the paradigm that systems learn obtained by asking subjects to rate their pain on a
from data, identify patterns, and provide deci- Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) [14]. Anxiety and
sions with minimal human intervention. In our depression were evaluated using the Hospital
example, we will define a machine learning Anxiety and Depression Subscale (HAD) [15].
classification algorithm, which is a supervised Pain-related fear associated with avoidance of
learning technique. In this type of algorithm, the movement and physical activity was measured
program learns from previously classified using the Tampa Scale for Kinesiophobia
observations and with this information it classi- (TSK) [16], and catastrophizing was measured
fies a new one [13]. using the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS) [17].
acquiring the whole brain volume with a tem- 2.4 Image Analysis
poral resolution of 2 s per partition.
An atlas-based ROI-to-ROI analysis represented
the level of partial correlation between all pairs
2.3 Image Processing of brain ROIs, using a general linear model
(GLM) to estimate the strength of connectivity
To increase reproducibility, all MR images were between brain areas by analyzing the correlation
preprocessed using the CONN and SPM12 of the BOLD signal of each pair of brain ROIs.
toolboxes. The rs-fMRI images were corrected The effect sizes are represented by Pearson's
(intra-patient registration) from slice time and correlation coefficients (r) with a Fisher's z-
patient movement, normalized to MNI space, transformation.
registered with the structural images and In the statistical analysis, significant clusters
smoothed. Artefact detection was used to depict were determined by two thresholds, one at voxel
intensity peaks and excessive patient movements level and one at cluster level (grouping of vox-
by using ART-repair software and a component- els). The significance level was defined by a
based noise correction method (CompCor). voxel-level threshold of p < 0.001 uncorrected to
Acquisitions showing a mean image shift greater control for cluster spread, and a cluster-level
than 0.9 mm or global BOLD signal changes threshold of p < 0.05 corrected for false discov-
greater than 5 standard deviations were flagged ery rate (FDR), for multiple comparisons across
as possible outliers. the whole brain [18]. The first analysis consisted
The intensity level of BOLD timeseries was of a between-group comparison to study signifi-
normalized and images were spatially registered cant unbiased differences in functional connec-
towards a standardized MNI space, with 2-mm tivity of each pair of regions between patients
isotropic voxels for the functional data and 1 mm and controls, adding laterality, scholarship, anx-
for the structural. Segmentation GM, WM and iety, and depression as covariates in a GLM-
CSF was applied before the Harvard–Oxford based regression statistical analysis. The second
probabilistic atlas brain parcellation on 91 corti- analysis was a study of significant differences in
cal and 15 subcortical regions of interest (ROI), functional connectivity related to the level of
plus 26 cerebellar regions defined by the Auto- catastrophizing in patients. For both analyses, a
mated Anatomical Labelling (AAL) atlas. Com- student’s t statistic was used, considering as
monly characterized networks were obtained by significant only pair of regions presenting a p-
seed-areas on known networks (SN, DMN, value that fulfills the above conditions.
Dorsal Attention Network-DAN, Sensorimotor
Network-SMN, Visual Network-VN and Cere-
bellar Network-CN). Spatial smoothing was used 2.5 Classification Model
to minimize sharp edges for multi-subject aver-
aging, to increase the BOLD signal-to-noise With the aim of identifying AKP patients using a
ratio. clinical decision system, we trained and evalu-
The main confounder effects (24 parameters ated 6 supervised learning classifiers: Logistic
for head movement obtained from the ART- Regression (LR), Linear Discriminant Analysis
repair programme and intensity effects that do (LDA), K-neighbors (KNN), decision Trees
not correspond to the grey matter) were included (DT), Gaussian Naive Bayes (GNB) and Support
in a linear regression model, with a bandpass Vector Machine (SVM). All were implemented
filtering (0.008–0.09 Hz) to obtain BOLD time- with the Scikit-learn machine learning library.
series signal free of unwanted effects. These algorithms use as inputs the significant
Brain Network Functional Connectivity Clinical Relevance … 737
results of the correlation analysis between pairs were also observed in smaller amounts. Patients’
of regions and their correspondence with patients demographics and clinical evaluation are sum-
or controls, learning to classify any new data as marized in Table 1.
patient or control. As each classifier uses a dif- Regarding the functional connectivity analy-
ferent learning method, we evaluated the most sis, significant differences in regions and net-
optimal by analyzing the accuracy of the 6 works (p-FDR < 0.05) were found between AKP
models [19]. patients and matched healthy controls (Table 2).
When dealing with supervised learning mod- For most functional connectivity changes, a
els, data must be separated into the training set higher correlation in absolute terms was observed
and the test set. To avoid bias due to the splitting between patients’ ROIs compared to controls,
of the data set, a cross-validation approach was except for the sensorimotor network and the
used to ensure that results are independent of the temporal planum with their respective ROIs,
partition between training and test data. There are where a lower correlation was observed in
many methods of cross-validation, although the chronic pain conditions. We do highlight the
leave-one-out (LOO) maximizes the robustness fMRI changes produced in the mPFC, as a region
of the classifier. This method consists of training of the DMN, and the superior regions of the
the classifier with the n-1 observations and test- SMN, because of their role in the processing of
ing with the remaining one, doing this as many pain stimuli, which has been seen in different
times as the number of observations in the study studies [20]. We also observed differences in the
sample. To build our CDSS, we trained and thalamus, which acts as a transmitter of the
evaluated the 6 models determining their accu- nociceptive stimulus to the rest of the higher
racy and area under the curve (AUC), which structures. Also, the role of the cerebellum was
measures the classifier's ability to distinguish highlighted as many regions showed FC alter-
between classes. ations. A visual representation of these signifi-
cant differences in FC is shown in Fig. 3.
In the analysis performed to evaluate the
2.6 Results effect of catastrophizing, statistically significant
differences (p-FDR < 0.05) were observed in FC
Regarding the clinical data collected from the in different regions (Table 3). A lower correlation
pain patients, the mean VAS score obtained was in absolute value was observed when patients
6.84 ± 1.7. In addition, a large proportion of present catastrophic ideas, except in the posterior
patients presented results compatible with kine- cingulate gyrus (PC) with the Vermis area. We
siophobia (75%) and catastrophic thoughts can also highlight the changes produced in the
(55%). Anxiety (30%) and depression (10%) mPFC and some regions of the cerebellum, and
Table 2 FC AKP patients vs. Controls. ROI1 and ROI2 constitute the pair of evaluated regions on which the rs-fMRI
connectivity showed significant differences between patients and controls. ß values for Patients and Controls represent
the correlation between ROI1 and ROI2. Columns 2 and 4 indicate the spatial location of the regions in the Montreal
Neurologic Institute (MNI) coordinates. The correlation strength represents the behavior of the correlation between the
two ROIs, whether it increases or decreases in the case of patients
ROI 1 MNI ROI 2 MNI ß ß T p-FDR Correlation
coordinates coordinates Patients Controls Student strength
Thalamus r (10, 2, 8) LG r (20, −44, −0.06 −0.13 4.54 0.0118 " in patients
−8)
Cereb45 r (−8, −32, pSTG l (−57, −47, −0.16 −0.25 4.32 0.0219 " in patients
−12) 15)
mPFC (1, 55, −3) PO r (51, −30, −0.10 −0.17 4.31 0.0224 " in patients
28)
Cerebellar Network (0, −79, LG l (−18, −42, 0.03 −0.07 4.19 0.0322 " in patients
(posterior) −32) −6)
SMN-Sup (9, −31, lPFC l (−43, 33, 0.03 0.08 −4.81 0.0053 # in patients
67) 28)
PT l (−60, −30, Ver9 (1, −55, 0.04 0.14 −4.35 0.0201 # in patients
8) −35)
Table 3 FC AKP Catastrophizing subjects. ROI1 and ROI2 constitute the pair of evaluated regions on which the
rsfMRI functional connectivity has shown significant differences between patients and controls. ß represents
the catastrophizing patient’s correlation between ROI1 and ROI2. Columns 2 and 4 indicate the spatial location of the
regions in the Montreal Neurologic Institute (MNI) coordinates. The correlation strength represents the behavior of
the correlation between the two ROIs, whether it increases or decreases in the case of catastrophizing patients
ROI 1 MNI ROI 2 MNI ß T p-FDR Correlation strength
coordinates coordinates Student
PC (1, −37, 30) Ver8 (1, −64, −34) 0.13 4.03 0.0211 " with
catastrophization
PC (1, −37, 30) Cereb3 (−9, −37, −0.13 −4.36 0.0159 # with
l −19) catastrophization
rPFC (30, 48, 9) Cuneal (−12, −90, −0.08 −4.20 0.0256 # with
l 22) catastrophization
mPFC (1, 55, −3) Cereb1 (−36, −66, −0.07 −4.12 0.0328 # with
l −30) catastrophization
in the PC as a region of the SMN. A visual After testing the 6 supervised learning classifi-
representation of these significant differences in cation models, the K-nearest neighbors
FC is shown in Fig. 4. (KNN) model was chosen as it gave the best
Finally, the significant correlations results results from the accuracy and the AUC curve
between regions and AKP patient networks were (Table 4).
used as inputs to feed the classification models.
740 M. Beser-Robles et al.
Table 4 Classification System Results. Shows the accu- a region of the SII which has been involved in
racy and AUC classifier results for each supervised the discriminative sensory aspect of pain. These
learning model. LR: Logistic Regression; LDA: Linear
Discriminant Analysis; KNN: K-neighbors; DT: Decision results are in line with those of Pujol and col-
Trees; GNB: Gaussian Naive Bayes; SVM: Support leagues [23], where we can see that in chronic
Vector Machine. The best result obtained in accuracy pain condition there is an increased connectivity
and AUC has been highlighted in green between the SII and DMN. In addition, previous
Supervised learning model Accuracy AUC studies reported that cortical prefrontal areas are
tested (%) involved in cognitive functions, such as plan-
LR 57.5 0.55 ning, decision making and detection of unfa-
LDA 65 0.67 vorable outcomes, avoidance of risky choices
KNN 67.5 0.70 based on emotions, and goal-oriented behaviors
DT 57.5 0.52 [24, 25].
The role of the thalamus in chronic pain is
GNB 57.5 0.62
also relevant, showing a higher correlation with
SVM 67.5 0.60
the right part of the lingual gyrus (LG r). The
thalamus is one of the most important regions in
the development of chronic pain, as it receives
projections from multiple ascending pain path-
3 Discusion ways and modulates ascending nociceptive
information [26], while the LG is involved in
Patients with AKP have significant rsFC differ- sensorimotor integration [27]. The increased
ences compared to matched healthy subjects. anticorrelation between these regions has also
Comparing rsFC between patients and controls, been shown in previous studies [28, 29].
there is an absolute increment in the correlation On the other hand, previous studies [30, 31]
between regions appear for AKP patients, high- have shown that the role of the cerebellum seems
lighting the connections of mPFC/POr, Thalamus very important in the development of chronic
r/LG r, Cereb45/pSTG and the posterior part of pain, since there are alterations in the correlation
the cerebellar network with the LG l. Moreover, of the cerebellum with multiple regions. Here, we
absolute decreases in the correlation between found an increased correlation of two cerebellar
regions appear for AKP patients in the regions of regions with different regions (pSTG and LG l)
PT/Ver9 and the superior part of the SMN with and a decreased correlation between area Vermis
the lPFC. Catastrophizing has an effect on the 9 (structure located between the cerebellar
rsFC of AKP patients, with an increase in the hemispheres) and PT l. Evidence suggests that
correlation between PC/Ver8 and a decrease in specific nociceptive activation is processed in the
the correlation between the regions of deep cerebellar nuclei, the anterior vermis and
PC/Cereb3, rPFC/cuneus and mPFC/Cereb1. In bilaterally in lobules IV, V and VI of the cere-
addition, the connectivity between regions was bellar hemispheres [30]. This suggests that cog-
able to reach a 68% cross-validation accuracy to nitive processing areas in the cerebellum may be
discriminate AKP patients from controls. related to pain encoding.
Several other studies have found functional In patients with AKP we have also observed
nodes involved in the development of chronic an increased correlation between regions of the
pain, mainly in the DMN, SMN and SN [21, 22]. superior part of the somatosensory network
The mPFC is one of the most important regions (postcentral gyrus, precentral gyrus and supple-
in the DMN, being related to pain modulation mentary cortex) with the dorsolateral prefrontal
and emotional appraisal. mPFC presents a sig- cortex (lPFC), a region that is part of the central
nificant increase in correlation with the POr in executive network and is related to pain modu-
patients against controls, increasing the existing lation and regulation [32]. These regions are
anticorrelation between these regions. The POr is correlated in healthy subjects, and a decrease in
Brain Network Functional Connectivity Clinical Relevance … 741
the correlation between them could indicate fMRI images allowed the construction of a
lower suppression of nociceptive impulses, due classifier with an accuracy of 67% for the iden-
to the chronic pain condition. tification of AKP patients. Although these
Catastrophizing is the most important aspect promising results need external validation to
among all the psychological factors affecting assess reproducibility, they show that the infor-
AKP patients, being significantly related to pain mation provided by rs-fMRI analysis can be use
and disability (see Chap. 6). Pain catastrophizing for pattern detection. This clinical decision sup-
is a psychological construct that includes cogni- port tool may be a step towards improving our
tive, emotional, and behavioral processes (fear- understanding of pain mechanisms. Insurance
avoidance behaviors, altered mood and motiva- companies and legislation have a great interest in
tion) that amplify perceived painful sensations objective measurements of pain-related disabil-
and predispose to the perpetuation of pain [33]. ity, but we still have a long way to go before
When studying this in AKP patients, significant brain imaging can be used as a diagnostic tool
differences were found in the FC of AKP patients after validation and regulatory acceptance. These
showing catastrophizing. Patients with catastro- issues are being addressed from different per-
phizing showed, in general, a decrease in corre- spectives, including neuroethics. If valid objec-
lation between regions, especially between tive processes can be established to detect/define
regions of the cerebellum and the DMN. We pain, this would have huge implications for the
highlight the effect of the posterior cingulate insurance industry and the legal field, as a sig-
gyrus (PC) region with different areas of the nificant number of cases are related to pain,
cerebellum, showing a significant increase in the suffering and disability. In addition, it will pro-
correlation with the Vermis 8 area, and a sig- vide patients with objective evidence of their
nificant decrease in the correlation with the third condition and its evolution over time [36].
lobe of the cerebellum. We can also observe a Regardless of the wide impact that patellofe-
decrease in different regions of the prefrontal moral pain has today, there are few studies that
cortex. On the one hand between the mPFC and focus on this specific area to depict the implica-
the first lobe of the cerebellum, which as we have tions that chronic pain has on brain connectivity.
seen is a key region in the development of We have demonstrated that chronic patellofe-
chronic pain. On the other hand, between the moral pain altered the FC in regions of the DMN
rostral prefrontal cortex and the cuneus, which and the SMN. These areas can also be observed
has the function of integrating and processing in other types of widely studied chronic pain,
somatosensory information. These results are in such as low back pain [37]. As a difference,
line with previous studies showing changes in the regions such as the insula or the ACC are not so
connectivity patterns of different areas, including affected in the patellofemoral pain model. This
the PC, mPFC and cerebellum [30]. The deacti- study is in line with a previous one [27], showing
vation of the mPFC and PC during nociceptive that in AKP sensorimotor regions and thalamus
stimulation has been associated with the atten- acquire greater importance than SN regions. As a
tional capture of pain [32, 34, 35], which is result, pain‐disrupted sensorimotor connectivity
enhanced by negative pain cognitions, such as may influence patients with patellofemoral pain
catastrophizing. This suggests that patients with perception of function, pain, and fear of move-
high catastrophizing scores may have increased ment, and that it can be resultant to altered cen-
attentional capture by pain and, thus, an inability tral neural processes. This could be due to the
to divert their attention away, resulting in a fact that in this type of pain the sensory and
decreased ability to modulate their pain. cognitive components acquire greater relevance.
Development of a predictive diagnostic model However, to determine the specific differences
using a pattern of FC to differentiate subjects between the different mechanisms of chronic
with chronic pain is relevant in clinical practice. pain, future studies comparing these conditions
Significant results obtained from the analysis of are needed.
742 M. Beser-Robles et al.
A major limitation is the transversal design as – Chronic pain has a disruptive effect on some
the study does not track individuals before the functional brain networks. FC is altered in
onset and through the development of pain. patients with AKP compared to matched
Therefore, the observed rs-fMRI changes cannot control subjects, having a generalized impact
be specifically determined to be caused by the on global brain function.
presence of chronic pain. In addition, the number – The level of catastrophization presented by
of patients and control subjects in our study was the patients conditioned new alterations in
relatively small. But based on a previous study functional connectivity.
about the minimum sample size [38], and esti- – Functional brain networks alterations allow
mating an effect size of 0.15 and a minimum the use of a clinical decision support system to
AUC around 0.70 as an acceptability cut-off, we help clinician to accurately identify patients
would need a sample size between 38 and 46 suffering from chronic pain. This could be a
subjects, which is very close to our 40 subjects. first step towards the objectification and
We do believe that the magnitude of the effects identification of pain.
balance the small sample size; moreover, larger
samples are necessary given that the variability in
symptomatology of these patients is large. Age,
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Robotic-Assisted Patellofemoral
Arthroplasty
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 745
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_58
746 J. C. Brinkman et al.
accuracy and precision relative to manual tech- techniques may exist; however, multiple studies
niques [12]. Success in total, as well as uni- have demonstrated that surgeon comfort with
compartmental, knee arthroplasty has prompted robotic systems develops quickly without a
recent interest in applying robotic technology to learning curve impact on component alignment
patellofemoral arthroplasty. This technology [21–23].
allows for preoperative and virtual PFA tem-
plating utilizing the patient’s computed tomog-
raphy (CT) as a reference. Intraoperatively, a 2 Indications and Contraindications
robotic arm assists with bone cuts and correct
positioning of the components. The goal with Success with PFA is known to depend on proper
these measures is to optimize the sizing, align- patient selection [19]. Generally, PFA is reserved
ment, and positioning of the components relative for young, active patients with severely limiting
to the patient’s patellofemoral anatomy. As poor pain and evidence of isolated PFOA. These
results of manual PFA are typically due to patients typically report anterior knee pain with
excessive internal rotation of the trochlear com- activities that load the knee such as descending
ponent, these features of RA-PFA are believed to stairs, squatting, or sitting for a prolonged period
contribute to improved reproducibility and suc- [24]. Classically, pain is less severe with ambu-
cess of the procedure [13, 14]. Investigations of lation on even surfaces or when the knee is in the
RA-PFA are few, but outcomes have demon- fully extended position. Surgical management is
strated accurate alignment and functional benefit considered in patients who have failed extensive
in short-term follow-up studies [15]. Addition- attempts at nonoperative management including
ally, minimally invasive RA-PFA is associated activity modification, non-steroidal medication,
with smaller incision size, faster recovery, and physical therapy, and bracing. Extensive chon-
reduced soft-tissue disruption [16–18]. drosis, malalignment of the PFJ, and dysplasia-
The procedure also has downsides that should induced OA are also relative indications for PFA
be considered. First, PFA, either robotic or [25]. It is believed that the procedure is most
manual, is often considered a temporizing repair appropriate for patients between the ages of 40
reserved for young, active patients in whom and 60 [19, 26].
TKA would significantly limit functional capac- Several contraindications also exist. Primarily,
ity. It is believed that many of these patients will the surgery relies on native knee kinematics
eventually require TKA as a result of tibiofe- created by a stable joint, functional ligaments,
moral arthritis advancement. In these cases, and intact soft tissue structures including the
performing PFA with a fair likelihood of even- menisci. These are considered a fundamental
tual TKA increases the patient’s exposure to a requirement for successful PFA. Tibiofemoral
second procedure, operative risk, anesthetic, and arthritis is reported as a common cause of PFA
carries a significantly greater use of resources failure and the most common contraindication
[19, 20]. Widespread adoption of RA-PFA is also [25]. As PFA does not address the soft tissues
limited by capital and infrastructure factors as it affecting the joint, a significantly increased Q-
carries increased costs associated with robotic angle is a contraindication as this would indicate
arm installment, maintenance, and operation. patellofemoral malalignment that cannot be cor-
Many centers may be unwilling to invest in these rected with PFA. However, retinacular releases
systems given the above factors without studies and patellar osteoplasty can be performed to
evaluating long-term outcomes, survivability, address milder patellar subluxation or tilt forces
and cost–benefit analyses. Further, the presence [24]. Contraindications also include inflamma-
and availability of CT scanners for preoperative tory arthritis, active infection, or complex
planning is a requisite for adoption of robotic- regional pain syndrome. Mechanical limb axis
assisted techniques. Lastly, apprehension malalignment of >8 degrees valgus or >5 degrees
regarding the learning curve for robotic of valgus requires alternate intervention, as does
Robotic-Assisted Patellofemoral Arthroplasty 747
patella baja [27]. Obesity, although not an full knee range of motion. The authors prefer to
absolute contraindication, does portend poorer utilize a nonsterile tourniquet and the limb is
results and is, at times, utilized as a relative prepped and draped in standard sterile fashion.
contraindication [28]. Utilizing robotics is up to For robot positioning, the robotic arm is typically
the discretion of the surgeon. Generally, indica- positioned on the operative side to allow for
tions and contraindications do not vary signifi- optimized and independent use by the surgeon.
cantly from manual techniques, though The computer referencing monitor and stand is
consideration of longer operative time should be placed on the opposing side. The monitor is
included in decision-making. ideally placed at a comfortable and easily visible
location for the surgeon. It is imperative that the
nonoperative side of the patient is free of any
3 Preoperative Planning obstructions as a clear line of sight is required for
robotic tracking. The camera is angled toward the
A standard series of X-rays should first be operative knee, using laser alignment if available.
obtained. These include standing AP, flexion PA Lastly, the guidance module should be placed
(Rosenberg), lateral, and sunrise views of the where a robotic representative can easily main-
knee in addition to full-length standing radio- tain visibility of the surgeon.
graphs (Fig. 1). The sunrise view may be taken at
various degrees of flexion in order to evaluate for
patellar subluxation tilt, or femoral trochlear 4.2 Operative Technique
dysplasia. Typically, 30 degrees of flexion is
sufficient [29]. The lateral view affords investi- After induction of anesthesia, an examination
gation for patellofemoral joint space, alignment, under anesthesia is performed to assess for range
and patellar size. The full-length standing radio- of motion, patellar tracking, crepitation, and knee
graphs allow for evaluation of complete lower stability. Prior to incision for arthroplasty, a
limb alignment. If desired, this can be further diagnostic arthroscopy (DA) should be per-
investigated with CT scan or Magnetic Reso- formed. Standard anteromedial and anterolateral
nance Imaging for formal measurement of the portals are utilized to arthroscopically assess
tibial tubercle-trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance each of the three knee compartments with a
may assist in operative decision-making as it special focus on evaluating the cartilage integ-
relates to the need for tubercle osteotomy. In rity. This scrutinization ensures that cartilage
order to create a preoperative template for use in integrity reflects that of preoperative imaging and
the robotic system, a CT scan must be obtained ensures that cartilage to the tibiofemoral articu-
in order to identify bony landmarks that can be lation is preserved, thus not contraindicating
later referenced to ensure reproducible intraop- PFA. Additionally, diagnostic arthroscopy
erative findings. allows for assessment of the soft tissues of the
knee, including the cruciate and collateral liga-
ments. Again, confirmation of isolated PFOA is
4 Surgical Technique required prior to proceeding with PFA.
Upon completion of the diagnostic arthro-
4.1 Patient Positioning scopy, a medial parapatellar approach to the joint
is initiated. This is started approximately 3 cm
The patient should be placed supine on the above the superior pole of the patella and extends
operative table. A post of the surgeon’s prefer- distally to the tibial tubercle. In the MAKO
ence is placed on the operative side to assist in (Stryker, Kalamazoo, MI) system, two reference
maintaining leg positioning while allowing for pins are then inserted into the anterior femur
748 J. C. Brinkman et al.
A B
Fig. 1 Isolated patellofemoral osteoarthritis plain radiographs as demonstrated on sunrise (A), lateral (B), and
anteroposterior (C) radiographs
Robotic-Assisted Patellofemoral Arthroplasty 749
Fig. 2 Mako guide pins attached through right femur with receiver in place
proximal to the incision percutaneously (Fig. 2). Articular surfaces are mapped by marking points
Registering the femur may then be performed with the sharp-tipped probe. Two points are
utilizing the reference pins, allowing the robotic marked on the superior edge of the trochlea, one
system to overlay the intraoperative data with the medial and one lateral. Five points are marked
preoperative CT. Arthrotomy then allows further along the trochlear groove. Finally, three points
visualization of the articular surface. Care is are marked on each side of the medial and lateral
taken to avoid disrupting the menisci, inter- transition zones. These points are matched with
meniscal ligaments, and articular cartilage. The preoperative CT. The sharp probe can be used to
infrapatellar and suprapatellar fat pads can be push through the cartilage for accurate mapping,
partially removed to allow for lateral patellar as cartilage is not detected on the preoperative
subluxation. Care should be taken to avoid CT scan.
removing soft tissue medial to the patella in Preoperative templating may then be adjusted
anticipation of eventual soft tissue balancing. according to the intraoperative mapping that has
Next, a rongeur can be utilized to remove any been performed. The robotic arm may then be
visible osteophytes, soft tissue adhesions, or advanced into position over the operative field,
chondral defects. with centering of the robotic base at the patient’s
Mapping is started at the trochlea. Mapping is hip, located one to two meters away from the
achieved using both a blunt- and a sharp-tipped operative table. The cutting handle is also
probe and Knee End Effector Array (Fig. 3). brought in and placed approximately 10 cm
Calibration of these systems to ensure accurate directly above the knee joint. Once in position,
triangulation of the position of the probe is vital beginning with the burring arm, bone over the
for adequate intraoperative mapping of the joint. trochlear surface is removed in accordance with
750 J. C. Brinkman et al.
Fig. 3 Intraoperative mapping of the patellofemoral joint. Mako Registration to sync to preoperative computed
tomography as seen from the navigation console
the future trochlear implant (Fig. 4). Of note, the to only plunge once to create lug holes in order to
robotic burr does not allow removal of bone avoid creating excessively large lug holes. The
outside of the templated plan. Implant lug holes trochlear implant may then be trialed to ensure
are created using the burr with special attention adequate sizing and smooth patellar tracking.
Robotic-Assisted Patellofemoral Arthroplasty 751
A B
Fig. 4 The robotic arm guides preparation of the joint. A postresection with retractors in soft tissue to allow for
Robotic arm in position for trochlear resection view from visualization. Three peg hole burr cuts visible
professional representative’s monitor; B Trochlea status
patellar tracking and transitioning through flex- layer of #0 vicryl suture in a running locking
ion and extension. fashion. Again, soft tissue balancing and patellar
Once the trials are deemed acceptable, they tracking is confirmed with range of motion.
are removed to allow for irrigation of the bony Layered closure is then performed, with the
surfaces. Cement can then be mixed and applied authors’ preference for #0 vicryl followed by #2–
to the trochlear implant and resected trochlear 0 vicryl sutures. Skin closure is typically per-
notch. The trochlear implant is then placed and formed with staples. A soft dressing is placed in
impacted, followed by removal of excess cement. accordance with the surgeon’s preference.
The implant is manually held in place until the
cement is fully cured, as can be deemed by
manufacturing time or the hardening time of an 5 Postoperative Course
additional sample of cement. Cementation is then
performed of the resurfaced patella, peg holes, Rehabilitation following robotic-assisted PFA
and patellar implant. The patellar component is should follow the same protocol as manual PFA.
then positioned and held in place by clamping to Weight-bearing as tolerated with an emphasis on
allow for an adequate compression force of the range of motion exercises may be initiated in the
patellar implant. Again, excess cement is resec- immediate postoperative period, with gradual
ted followed by clamp removal once fully cured. increase in activity. Physical therapy may be
The joint is then irrigated and taken through initiated based on surgeon preference within the
another manual range of motion check. There first 1–2 weeks. Patients are generally permitted
should be no patellar tilt or subluxation as the to stationary bike at 4 weeks, with gradual return
knee is put through flexion and extension. to full activity within 6–8 weeks. During follow
Arthrotomy closure is made using ethibond up, postoperative radiographs should include
figure-of-eight sutures followed by an additional standard anteroposterior, lateral, and merchant
A B
view imaging (Fig. 6). Alignment can be asses- assess the outcomes, survivability, and issues not
sed with patellar symmetry, patellar tilt, and appreciable in shorter term follow up. Addition-
subluxation distance [16]. ally, RA-PFA requires a significant financial
investment into the robot itself as well as pre-
operative CT scanning. This financial cost is
6 Discussion further increased at institutions that prefer to
always undergo arthroscopic evaluation of the
Robotic-assisted patellofemoral arthroplasty is a knee prior to PFA. Together, these capital costs
viable approach to operative management of may limit its availability to all institutions.
isolated patellofemoral osteoarthritis. It offers
several unique advantages when compared to
manual PFS (Table 1). Pre-operative planning 7 Conclusion
using 3-dimensional reconstructed images allows
for more accurate appreciation of joint condition, Robotic-assisted patellofemoral arthroplasty is an
alignment, and eventual implant sizing. Intraop- emerging treatment for isolated patellofemoral
erative cartilage mapping then affords repro- arthritis. It has the potential to allow for more
ducible joint alignment and positioning. These accurate and anatomic implant sizing and posi-
advantages may avoid sources of inconsistency tioning. Although further studies are required to
or error that could cause ongoing symptoms in determine its long-term outcomes, it appears to
patients that undergo PFA. have favorable short-term survivability, out-
Owing to the recency of the robotic applica- comes, and joint alignment. Comparable studies
tion to PFA, outcome studies are few. Turktas to non-robotic PFA will afford data that can be
et al. examined 30 RA-PFA knees with a follow utilized in cost–benefit analyses and to better
up of 15.9 months. In this series, there were no inform its future role.
patients with patellar mal-tracking or misalign-
ment. Additionally, there was a significant
increase in post-operative Oxford Knee Score 8 Take Home Messages
when compared preoperatively. Similar increases
in outcome scores were also demonstrated in a • Patellofemoral arthritis is common and can be
study by Ackroyd et al. These studies suggest a debilitating condition for which treatment
that RA-PFA offers a reliable procedure that options typically include total or isolated
affords patients predictable benefit in functional patellofemoral knee arthroplasty.
outcomes. However, its associated limitations • Standard patellofemoral arthroplasty is asso-
should also be acknowledged. Longer term fol- ciated with several issues including patellar
low up studies are still needed in order to fully mal-tracking and inconsistent alignment.
• Robotic-assisted patellofemoral arthroplasty 7. Blazina ME, Fox JM, Del Pizzo W, Broukhim B,
was recently developed in order to address Ivey FM. Patellofemoral replacement. Clin Orthop
Relat Res. 1979;144:98–102.
issues with standard arthroplasty and allows 8. Tauro B, Ackroyd CE, Newman JH, Shah NA. The
for patient-specific templating for implant Lubinus patellofemoral arthroplasty. A five- to ten-
size, alignment, and positioning. year prospective study. J Bone Joint Surg Br.
• Outcomes of robotic patellofemoral arthro- 2001;83(5):696–701.
9. Kooijman HJ, Driessen APPM, van Horn JR. Long-
plasty are promising and demonstrate low term results of patellofemoral arthroplasty. A report
rates of malalignment and mal-tracking in of 56 arthroplasties with 17 years of follow-up.
addition to encouraging outcome scores J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2003;85(6):836–40.
• Several operative pearls including avoiding 10. Krajca-Radcliffe JB, Coker TP. Patellofemoral
arthroplasty. A 2- to 18-year followup study. Clin
oblique reference pins, achieving appropriate Orthop Relat Res. 1996 Sep;(330):143–51.
soft tissue balancing, and checking for lateral 11. van der List JP, Chawla H, Zuiderbaan HA,
facet deficiency are key to reliable outcomes. Pearle AD. Survivorship and functional outcomes
• Further longer-term studies will assist in full of patellofemoral arthroplasty: a systematic review.
Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc. 2017;25
analysis of the outcomes, results, and cost– (8):2622–31.
benefit nature of robotic patellofemoral 12. Deckey DG, Rosenow CS, Verhey JT, Brinkman JC,
arthroplasty. Mayfield CK, Clarke HD, et al. Robotic-assisted total
knee arthroplasty improves accuracy and precision
compared to conventional techniques. Bone
Joint J. 2021;103-B(6 Supple A):74–80.
13. Cobb J, Henckel J, Gomes P, Harris S, Jakopec M,
9 Key Message Rodriguez F, et al. Hands-on robotic unicompart-
mental knee replacement: a prospective, randomised
controlled study of the acrobot system. J Bone Joint
• Robotic patellofemoral arthroplasty appears to Surg Br. 2006;88(2):188–97.
be a reproducible, beneficial, and feasible 14. Law J, Hofmann A, Stevens B, Myers A. Patellofe-
treatment for isolated patellofemoral arthritis. moral arthroplasty technique: Mako. In: Lonner JH,
editor. Robotics in Knee and Hip Arthroplasty:
Current Concepts, Techniques and Emerging Uses
[Internet]. Cham: Springer International Publishing;
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15. Turktas U, Piskin A, Poehling GG. Short-term
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Modern Patellofemoral Inlay
Arthroplasty—A Silver Lining
in the Treatment of Isolated
Patellofemoral Arthritis
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 757
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_59
758 M.-C. Rupp et al.
Fig. 1 Modern patellofemoral inlay prosthesis (Kahuna Prosthesis, Arthrosurface, Franklin, MA, USA)
5 Surgical Technique
6 Rehabilitation
Fig. 4 The implant bed is reamed employing a guide
block All patients are discharged once they are able to
flex the knee joint to a minimum of 90° and can
medial/lateral as well as superior/inferior offsets climb stairs on crutches safely. All patients are
are measured using specific measurement limited to partial weight bearing with 20 kg for
instrumentation. Next, the implant bed is reamed two weeks until the healing process of the soft
three-dimensionally using a guide block (Figs. 4 tissue is consolidated. Early rehabilitation
and 5). Subsequently, the screw fixation stud is includes lymphatic drainage and continuous
advanced into the bone. The trochlear component passive motion for the first two weeks as toler-
is then aligned with the appropriate offsets of the ated. Patients are then allowed to increase weight
implant holder and placed onto the taper of the bearing in a step-wise fashion until full weight
Fig. 5 The correct positioning of the implant is confirmed by positioning of a trial implant that will be used for
positioning the tape post
Modern Patellofemoral Inlay Arthroplasty … 761
Fig. 6 Postoperative radiographs of the inlay implant in three planes routinely obtained to confirm implant positioning
bearing is achieved approximately six weeks patellofemoral instability and malalignment fol-
after surgery. Full active range of motion is lowing the PFIA procedure [14–17].
typically allowed two weeks after surgery. As of biomechanical studies, peak pressure
following patellofemoral arthroplasty signifi-
cantly increases compared to the native joint [5,
7 Clinical Outcome 18]. As such, if patellar resurfacing is not per-
formed at index surgery, non-physiological
The results after PFIA are mainly influenced by pressure conditions may predispose for an abra-
the patient selection, the surgical technique and sion of the native patellar cartilage in contact
the arthroplasty design. Early complications are with the inlay arthroplasty [5]. This may conse-
common and mainly caused by implant mis- quently lead to a progression of retropatellar
placement and/or postoperative patella mal- cartilage degeneration resulting in pain as wells
tracking or patellofemoral instability, while long- as poor postoperative results and may require
term failures are mainly the result of progression revision surgery. This finding was confirmed by
of tibiofemoral osteoarthritis. a multi-center case series, in which the lack of
An adequate patient selection may be the key patellofemoral resurfacing at the index surgery
factor in achieving favorable outcomes following was significantly correlated with failure [16].
PFIA. As such—according to the current state of Interestingly, the presence of primary OA of
knowledge—risk factors for inferior clinical the patellofemoral joint also seems to be a risk
outcome include an increased body mass index factor for inferior outcome after implantation of a
(BMI) prior surgery, an etiology of primary PFIA as compared to patients with secondary
PFOA as compared to secondary PFOA, presence PFOA. In this regard, a prospective case series
of degenerative changes in the tibiofemoral joint reported that there is a significant progression of
compartments, lack of retropatellar resurfacing tibiofemoral OA in patients with primary PFOA
during the PFIA procedure as well persistent while the tibiofemoral compartments remains
762 M.-C. Rupp et al.
relatively unchanged in patients undergoing improvements were observed across all patient
PFIA for secondary PFOA [15]. Patients with reported outcome measures and similarly, no
secondary PFOA due to patellofemoral instabil- radiological progression of tibiofemoral OA was
ity, in which the anatomical risk factors predis- noted. Around 10% of the patients were con-
posing for patellofemoral instability were verted to TKA, again with persistent pain being
addressed during PFIA implantation, were shown the main reason for failure.
to benefit significantly more from undergoing In the largest series to date, including a total
PFIA than patients with primary PFOA [15]. of 263 patients (49 ± 12 years) at mid-term
Potentially patients with primary OA are more follow-up, 93% of the patients included in the
prone to degenerative changes in the tibiofemoral final analysis were satisfied with the procedure
joint compartments as part of the inflammatory with a mean transformed WOMAC Score of
reactions that occurs within the joint during pri- 84.5 ± 14.5 points, a mean KOOS Score of
mary OA [13]. This is in accordance with sub- 73.3 ± 17.1 points, a mean Tegner Score
sequent outcome studies that reported of 3.4 ± 1.4 points and a mean VAS pain of
significantly better results following PFIA in the 2.4 ± 2.0 points. With an overall failure rate was
presence of secondary OA due to trochlear dys- 11% (28 patients), the authors concluded that
plasia with concomitant patellofemoral instability PFIA shows high patient satisfaction with good
[19–21]. functional outcomes at short- to mid-term follow-
An increased BMI was identified as a further up.
independent factor in PFIA predictive of unfa- However, the outcomes reported following
vorable clinical outcome postoperatively [16, isolated PFIA are heterogenous throughout the
22]. As such, obesity may lead to rapid pro- literature. In a prospective case series of 18
gression of tibifemoral OA and predispose for an patients [25], a significant progression of OA in
early conversion to TKA. According to the cur- the medial tibiofemoral compartment caused a
rent literature, this is still the main reason for the total of 5 implants (28%) to fail within six years.
failure of PFIA [14, 17, 23]. However, even when acknowledging for this
When respecting these risk factors during high failure rate, clinically significant improve-
patient selection, the PFIA procedure is a viable, ments were observed for clinical and functional
minimally invasive alternative to the traditional outcomes; with an improvement in the the
TKA procedure for isolated PFOA. In a study American Knee Society Subjective Score
regarding the midterm outcome following PFIA (AKSS) of more than 20 points in 91% of the
[24], the patient reported outcome scores patients. The relatively high revision rate repor-
improved significantly both at short- and mid- ted in this case series [25] highlights the neces-
term follow up with no significant difference sity for careful preoperative patient selection.
between the two time points. In this case series, A recent review article analyzing the clinical
17.1% of the patients failed leaving a survival outcome following patellofemoral arthroplasty
rate of 83% after five years, reflecting the early depending on the size of the respective center
experiences with modern generation PFIA. In proposed found that the outcome in specialized
patients who did not fail, no changes in the centers with substantial cumulative experience
vertical patellar alignment or significant pro- with the procedure may be superior, highlighting
gression of tibiofemoral OA were observed until the multifactorial complexity of the management
final follow up. The main mode of failure of PFOA [26].
reported in this case series was persistent knee This notion is highlighted retrospective cohort
pain. An independent case series on the early of 20 patients who underwent PFIA. 55% of the
experiences of modern generation PFIA, who patients with an increased patellofemoral con-
evaluated the outcome after a mean follow-up of gruence angle and an elevated Insall–Salvati
35 months following PFIA, confirmed the index and showed an initial satisfactory result,
promising clinical outcome. Significant but failed due to pain during follow-up after a
Modern Patellofemoral Inlay Arthroplasty … 763
median time of 25 months. Beckmann et al. 6. Tanikawa H, et al. Influence of total knee arthro-
concluded that patients with craniolateral types plasty on patellar kinematics and patellofemoral
pressure. J Arthroplasty. 2017;32(1):280–5.
of PFOA as well as a patella alta should be 7. Odgaard A, et al. The mark coventry award:
treated with an patellofemoral onlay arthroplasty, patellofemoral arthroplasty results in better range of
as this type of implant is superior in covering the movement and early patient-reported outcomes than
proximal part of the patellar track as compared to TKA. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2018;476(1):87–100.
8. Dahm DL, et al. Patellofemoral arthroplasty versus
the PFIA design [27]. total knee arthroplasty in patients with isolated
Accordingly, Feucht et al. [28] found that patellofemoral osteoarthritis. Am J Orthop (Belle
preoperative patellofemoral anatomy is signifi- Mead NJ). 2010;39(10):487–91.
cantly associated with clinical improvement and 9. van Jonbergen HP, Werkman DM, van Kampen A.
Conversion of patellofemoral arthroplasty to total
failure rate after isolated inlay PFA. It was knee arthroplasty: a matched case-control study of 13
demonstrated that less clinical improvement and patients. Acta Orthop. 2009;80(1):62–6.
a higher failure rate must be expected in patients 10. Kamikovski I, Dobransky J, Dervin GF. The clinical
with patella alta (ISI > 1.2 and PTI < 0.28), outcome of patellofemoral arthroplasty vs total knee
arthroplasty in patients younger than 55 years.
absence of trochlear dysplasia, and a lateralized J Arthroplasty. 2019;34(12):2914–7.
position of the tibial tuberosity (TT-PCL dis- 11. Walker T, Perkinson B, Mihalko WM. Patellofe-
tance > 21 mm), further highlighting the neces- moral arthroplasty: the other unicompartmental knee
sity for an adequate patient selection for the PFIA replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2012;94
(18):1712–20.
procedure [28]. 12. Dy CJ, et al. Complications after patello-femoral
Overall, when respecting risk factors associ- versus total knee replacement in the treatment of
ated with inferior outcomes during a concise isolated patello-femoral osteoarthritis. A meta-
analysis. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc,
diagnostic work-up and careful patient selection
2012;20(11):2174–90.
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treatment of large, full-thickness cartilage lesions
Virtual Orthopaedic Examination
in Patellofemoral Disorders
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 765
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6_60
766 C. L. Wright and M. J. Tanaka
and can be performed either within a tele- visit, should be discussed at the time of scheduling.
medicine platform or through a screen capture X-rays performed in advance of the visit should be
process. Virtual goniometers are an effective tool made available for review prior to or at the time of
to standardize measurements across patients and the visit. If images are performed at a facility
are available in a variety of formats. They are outside of one’s institution, those images should
available as browser extensions (Protractor, ben. be submitted in advance so they may be uploaded
builingham), smartphone applications for review prior to the start of the encounter.
(DrGoniometer, CDM s.r.l., Milano, Italy [7]), Adequate audiovisual capabilities on the part
and through the use of a standard goniometer of the patient can significantly improve the
during a virtual visit, including to assess a quality and flow of the examination. Patients can
screen-captured image [8]. Virtual goniometers be instructed to visit a remote verification site to
demonstrate compatibility with multiple tele- confirm they have the appropriate software and
health platforms utilized as a browser extension audiovisual capabilities to participate in the
[6]. Several studies have demonstrated high appointment. Educational materials sent to the
reliability in range of motion measurements patient in anticipation of the virtual visit should
obtained virtually [7–10]. Dent and colleagues set appropriate expectations and include written,
reported success with the use of a standard photographic, or video instructions of the phys-
clinical goniometer to assess individuals during ical examination maneuvers to be performed
virtual encounters, which is applicable regardless (Tables 1 and 2) Instructions provided in advance
of telemedicine platform [8]. They noted high of the visit allows patients to familiarize them-
agreement between elbow flexion and extension selves with the upcoming examination, advises
measurements taken during an in-person of the expectations of the patient during the visit,
encounter and when using the same goniometer and allows the patient to prepare for the visit. A
during a teleconference (Pearson coefficient in standardized protocol for both the preparation for
flexion: 0.93, in extension: 0.86). Some studies and performance of the virtual visit can improve
suggest digital knee range of motion assessments the diagnostic accuracy and efficiency of the
using still images have equivalent accuracy and evaluation.
increased precision compared to both visual
assessment and standard goniometry [11, 12].
The goals of this chapter are to highlight the 3 Inspection
considerations when performing evaluation of
the patellofemoral joint through a telemedicine Similar to in an in-person evaluation, the virtual
visit. We discuss the examination workflow, examination begins with inspection, which can
modifications of standard examination maneu- be easily performed with the patient standing and
vers, benefits and limitations of the virtual visit, facing the camera. Thorough inspection should
as well as guidelines for optimizing the efficiency note skin changes, erythema, incisions, scars, and
and efficacy of the virtual examination. the presence of an effusion. Asymmetries in
patellar position, or muscle bulk and tone may be
noted. As with other musculoskeletal assess-
2 Preparation for the Telemedicine ments, it is helpful to utilize the contralateral leg
Visit as a control throughout the examination. How-
ever, physicians should be mindful that many
Preparation for the telemedicine visit by both the patients with patellofemoral disorders may have
patient and physician are integral to ensuring a bilateral involvement, which may influence
successful and efficient visit. Protocols for the examination findings [13, 14]. In a recent ran-
virtual visit, including payment policies, consent, domized control trial of 112 patients with patel-
technology requirements, and instructions for the lofemoral pain syndrome, Hott and colleagues
Virtual Orthopaedic Examination in Patellofemoral Disorders 767
Table 1 Example of patient instructions to prepare for a virtual visit (Adapted from Tanaka et al. JBJS 2020 [6])
How to prepare for a virtual visit
After speaking with a physician or provider regarding your symptoms, he or she will guide you through a physical
examination. To improve the success of the visit, please ensure you conduct the virtual appointment in a space that
allows for the following:
Privacy: Please conduct the visit in a quiet space with minimal background noise in which you are able to speak
privately with your physician regarding your health concerns
Space: The visit should be conducted in a space that allows for the camera to be positioned 6 feet (1.8 m) in front of
you on a low surface (2–3 feet off the ground), such as a chair or low table. This allows for appropriate visualization of
your knees during the examination. Sufficient floor space for 6–8 strides should be available for assessment of your
gait
Camera: The camera should be positioned on a table top or chair such that it does not need to be held during the
encounter, yet can be repositioned as needed throughout the examination
Lighting: Adequate lighting is crucial to ensure your provider is able to visualize the necessary details of the physical
examination. Please minimize backlighting by facing the camera away from windows and light sources
Seating: It is best to utilize a swivel chair or easily moveable chair during the examination that will allow you to
transition from facing the camera to having your side facing the camera. The physician will also need to evaluate you
while you are lying down, so it is necessary to either have a couch or adequate floor space available for you to lie
down
Clothing: For appropriate visualization, please wear shorts that end 3″ above your knees and remove your shoes and
socks
Table 2 (continued)
The virtual examination
Range of Motion
• Hip abduction and adduction (frontal view)
• Hip flexion and extension (lateral view)
• Knee flexion and extension (lateral view)
Muscle Strength (frontal and lateral view)
• Single-leg knee bend
Seated or laying on Range of Motion (lateral view)
ground • Hip flexion and extension (side-lying or supine)
• Hip abduction and adduction (side-lying)
Muscle Strength (lateral view)
• Hip abduction (side-lying)
• Hip flexion (straight leg raise) (supine)
• Knee flexion (prone)
found 72% of included patients had bilateral each knee beyond −10°, as well as one point for
symptoms [13]. the ability to place both palms flat on the floor
Muscular atrophy is an important finding to while standing with the knees extended. A score
identify in patellofemoral disorders. This can be of four or greater indicates hypermobility, which
assessed virtually by assessing for side-to-side may contribute to instability. A recent study
differences between the symptomatic and con- comparing 82 individuals with recurrent patellar
tralateral leg. Atrophy can be assessed in the dislocation to age- and sex-matched controls
seated, standing, or supine position. The use of found those with a history of patellar dislocations
digital pixel measurements, aided by a browser were more likely to have generalized joint laxity
extension such as Page Ruler Redux (rocha.codes) (24% vs 10% of controls, P = 0.013) [21].
can be incorporated to detect subtle differences as Among 174 patients who underwent isolated
a percentage relative to the contralateral side MPFL reconstruction, 55.1% had a positive
(Fig. 1). Vastus medialis oblique (VMO) atrophy Beighton score, although this was not found to
has been associated with a variety of patellofe- influence post-operative outcomes [22].
moral disorders [15, 16], and discordant atrophy
between the VMO and vastus lateralis has been
shown contribute to lateral patellar instability [17]. 4 Lower Extremity Alignment
In patients with patellar maltracking, patellar tilt
has been correlated with the differential activation Assessment of lower extremity alignment is an
of the vastus lateralis and medialis [18]. VMO integral aspect of the patellofemoral exam, as the
inhibition has been noted to occur at smaller vol- presence of malalignment can contribute to
umes than for other quadriceps muscles, resulting instability and pain [23]. For assessment of limb
in a dynamic quadriceps imbalance [19]. Identi- alignment and symmetry, the patient should
fication of muscular atrophy can serve as the basis assume a bipedal stance facing the camera with
for a targeted rehabilitation protocol. equal distribution of weight between each foot
Assessment for hypermobility should be per- and toes pointing forward (Fig. 2). The presence
formed using the Beighton scale [20]. During of “squinting patellae”, where the patellae appear
scoring, one point per side is assigned for the to be internally rotated, can indicate the presence
ability to extend each fifth metacarpophalangeal of excessive femoral anteversion or tibial torsion
joint beyond 90°, to touch each thumb to the [24].
forearm with the wrist flexed, to hyperextend The Q angle is the angle formed by the
each elbow beyond −10°, and to hyperextend intersection of two lines drawn from the anterior
Virtual Orthopaedic Examination in Patellofemoral Disorders 769
A B
Fig. 1 Pixel measurements can aid in side-to-side measures 73 pixels (A) and the left thigh measures 69
comparison of muscle bulk and can be described as a pixels, indicating 95% symmetry (B)
percentage. In this image, the patient’s right thigh
A B
Fig. 2 Standing alignment is assessed from both the frontal (A) and lateral (B) views
770 C. L. Wright and M. J. Tanaka
superior iliac spine (ASIS) to the center of the can be asked to place their thumb or index finger
patella and from the center of the patella to the on their anterior superior iliac spine to aid in
tibial tubercle. Genu valgum, lateralization of the obtaining this measurement. The patient should
tibial tubercle, increased external tibial torsion, be instructed to relax their quadriceps muscles
and increased femoral anteversion can increase prior to measurements being taken. It should be
the Q angle. The relationship between the Q noted that lateral subluxation of the patella may
angle and patellofemoral disorders remains con- falsely decrease the Q angle measurement.
troversial [25–31] as it may be influenced by the Assessment of hip range of motion can be
lack of standardization in how the Q angle is helpful in detecting rotational abnormalities. Hip
measured. Consequently, Merchant and col- internal and external rotation can be measured
leagues proposed a validated protocol for the with the patient seated in a chair facing the
assessment of a “Standard Q Angle” to improve camera and the knees flexed to 90° (Fig. 4). The
inter- and intra-observer reliability [32]. During addition of digital lines overlying the image may
the virtual examination, adaptation of this tech- assist in comparison of leg lengths, while mus-
nique consists of measuring the Q angle using a cular atrophy may again be assessed using
web-based goniometer with the patient in the comparison of pixel measurements. Careful
standing position facing the camera and the attention should be paid to noting modifiable
patellae pointing forward. (Fig. 3). The patient asymmetries, which may be addressed through
treatment options such as orthotics or tailored
rehabilitation programs [6].
An assessment of patellar height, while com-
monly performed on radiographs, has also been
described clinically by noting whether the patella
faces superiorly (alta) or inferiorly (baja) while
viewing the knees of a seated patient from the
front with the knees in 90° of flexion [33]
(Fig. 5). Patella alta is an important risk factor
for instability as it hinders engagement of the
patella in the trochlear groove during early flex-
ion (0–30°), predisposing to lateral subluxation
and tilt in extension [34]. While the severity of
patella alta is confirmed using radiographic
measurements, the presence of patella alta on
examination can help identify patients in whom
lower extremity malalignment may be con-
tributing to their symptoms [35, 36].
Foot pronation, resulting in internal tibial
rotation, can affect dynamic patellofemoral
alignment [37] and has been shown to correlate
with patellofemoral pain [16, 38, 39]. Barton and
colleagues found individuals with PFPS demon-
strated significantly greater foot pronation as
Fig. 3 The Q angle can be measured on the frontal
standing view as the angle between a line connecting the
detected by longitudinal arch angle (effect size,
anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) to the midpoint of the 0.90) and foot posture index (effect size, 0.71)
patella and another connecting the midpoint of the patella [38]. Foot pronation may be assessed using
to the tibial tubercle. Asking the patient to place their standing heel position or navicular drop, which
thumb or index finger on the ASIS enables its
identification
are adaptable to the virtual visit. Foot pronation
may be quickly assessed using hindfoot valgus
Virtual Orthopaedic Examination in Patellofemoral Disorders 771
A B
Fig. 4 During seated range of motion testing, hip internal and external rotation can be measured with the knee at 90° of
flexion
with the patient facing away from the camera in ICCs > 0.86 [39]) and can identify a modifiable
the bipedal standing position. To assess navicular risk factor that can be addressed through the use
drop, the patient can mark the proximal aspect of of an orthotic support.
the navicular tuberosity on the symptomatic leg
(Fig. 6). The distance from the mark to the floor
should then be measured while the patient is 5 Gait
seated in a relaxed position with the foot resting
on the floor [39]. For adequate visualization, the Assessment of gait from the front and back
chair should be oriented 90° from the camera allows for evaluation of antalgia, asymmetry,
with the medial aspect of the examined foot stride length, patellar orientation, alignment, and
facing the camera. The measurement is then pelvic tilt. Assessing 6–8 stride lengths is gen-
repeated in a weightbearing single leg stance, erally sufficient and can be performed during the
using a chair or wall for balance only. While a virtual encounter, provided the encounter is
ruler or calibrated sheet of paper may serve as a conducted in an area with adequate floor space
reference to enable more accurate measurements, [6]. A shortened stance is suggestive of ipsilat-
the proportion of navicular drop may provide an eral leg pain. Circumduction, which can be
estimate of foot pronation. Assessment of foot assessed on either the frontal or posterior view,
pronation utilizing the navicular drop test has may indicate difficulty with knee flexion. Pelvic
been shown to have good inter- and intra- tilt, on the other hand, suggests contralateral hip
observer reliabilities (ICCs 0.73–0.91 [40]; abductor weakness, which often results in
772 C. L. Wright and M. J. Tanaka
7 Range of Motion
A B
Fig. 6 Navicular drop, a measure of foot pronation, can images, navicular height measures 30 pixels in the
be assessed by measuring the height of the navicular unloaded position and 23 pixels in the loaded position,
tuberosity in the unloaded and loaded positions. In these indicating a 23% change
9 Patellar Tracking
A B
Fig. 8 Frontal and lateral views of the patient performing a single-leg squat can provide information regarding lower
extremity strength by evaluating for changes in coronal and sagittal alignment
A B C
Fig. 9 Patellar tracking can be assessed in the frontal displaces laterally in extension and can be quantified by
plane by having the patient extend (A) and flex (B and quadrants of patellar motion
C) the knee. The J sign is observed when the patellar
776 C. L. Wright and M. J. Tanaka
Fig. 10 Patellar apprehension can be evaluated in the flexion. The patient should then be assessed for verbal and
seated position with the ankle of the examined leg resting non-verbal apprehension while applying a laterally-
on the contralateral ankle and the knee in 20–30° of directed force to the patella
Virtual Orthopaedic Examination in Patellofemoral Disorders 777
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Epilogue
The pathology of the patellofemoral joint has been the access for high-quality medical orthopaedic
a major concern amongst the orthopaedic com- services for the population.
munity, with a high prevalence in the athletic and Dynamic CT enhances our diagnostic arsenal
general population. Anterior knee pain and patellar and helps us to better measure the individual
instability often creates diagnostic and treatment contribution of anatomic and pathomechanic fac-
challenges to the orthopaedic surgeon, with recal- tors on the course of patellar tracking during the
citrant and enigmatic cases that are difficult to full knee range of motion. The dynamic 3D CT
resolve. The pathophysiology of these challenging will improve our ability to identify which biome-
cases is nowadays more comprehensively—but not chanical deficiencies that need to be corrected and
fully—understood under multifactorial models which are the most adequate surgical approaches to
(anatomical, biomechanical, neuromuscular, restore normal patellar tracking. This technique
genetic, psycho-emotional, environmental and can also be used postoperatively to evaluate the
socioeconomic factors) of complex interplay of the results of the different patellofemoral corrective
diverse contributing modifiable and techniques.
non-modifiable risk factors. Recent predictive Instrumented evaluation of patellofemoral laxity
diagnostic models into the brain network func- is also an important step to dynamically assess
tional connectivity of patients with anterior knee patellofemoral instability. These devices have the
pain is also shedding some light on the pathways potential to overcome the limitations of measuring
and drivers of pain which can help explain why in laxity during physical examination (qualitative
a subgroup of patients with structural abnormali- assessment under manual exam) and available
ties, some have pain and others do not, as well as imaging procedures (which are mostly static
to potential links to other predisposing factors. evaluations). The Porto Patellofemoral Testing
A manyfold of new research developments have Device (PPTD) has emerged as clinically relevant
also contributed to significant and important tool to standardly quantify patellar position and
advances in the diagnosis, management and treat- displacement under external stress to the patella.
ment of patellofemoral pathological conditions. The compatibility of the PPTD with CT and MRI
The available diagnostic options are today more offers the clinician a device able to measure
advanced, reliable and precise. Not only we have a patellofemoral laxity with high reliability, accu-
more complete understanding of the several con- racy and precision, and with low intra- and
tributing factors, but we are also better equipped to inter-individual variability. The PPTD has shown
assess their prevalence and potential impact on the clinical application in identifying anatomic and
patellofemoral joint. Emerging techniques are now pathomechanic factors in both anterior knee pain
available that can help the orthopaedic surgeon in and patellar instability. It can also be a helpful tool
the diagnosis process, as well as in the in evaluating any residual laxity after corrective
decision-making of the best course of treatment surgery and better understand the surgical out-
and better plan surgical procedures. comes of the available surgical techniques.
With recent events, the relevance and usefulness The use of finite element modelling (FEM) al-
of virtual consultation and tele-rehabilitation has lows to evaluate the kinematic behavior of patel-
gain ground and have become increasingly popu- lofemoral joint and simulate morphological
lar. The recent developments on virtual orthopae- changes of different pathological conditions using
dic examination will play an important role in the patient-specific models. The FEM helps the clini-
future, allowing clinicians to reach a wider range cian to better understand the contributing factors
of patients that, for many different reasons, are not that causing the patellofemoral disorder, it has its
available to attend physical consultations. This will most relevant potential to improve the surgical
be one of the stepping-stones for higher equity in approaches. Using FEM, orthopaedic surgeons can
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 781
Switzerland AG 2023
V. Sanchis-Alfonso (ed.), Anterior Knee Pain and Patellar Instability,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09767-6
782 Epilogue
better prepare their surgical planning by simulating MPFL reconstruction. Robotic-assisted surgery is
different techniques and fixation points under the already a reality and something to eagerly look for
patient-specific morphology, which will individu- in the future to improve the outcomes of patello-
alize the surgical procedure to the specific needs of femoral replacement.
each individual. The path to better manage patellofemoral dis-
Several clinically relevant advances have also orders may still be tortuous and often enigmatic,
been accomplished in surgical techniques for but with recent developments in this field, the
patellofemoral disorders. Although patellar carti- future that lies ahead it is also bright. The key for
lage injuries still pose a challenge to orthopaedic improved care will rely on better understanding of
surgeons, we have today a larger range of available the several predisposing factors that interplay in
and advanced techniques to deal with chondral and the physiopathology of patellofemoral disorders
osteochondral patellar lesions and thus to treat the and in the individualization of treatment to the
patient’s symptoms and associated disability, while patient-specific needs. We keenly look forward for
aiming to prevent further damage to the cartilage what the future may hold…
and delay the early onset of osteoarthritis. With
enhanced understanding of the medial patellofe- João Espregueira-Mendes, MD Ph.D., Porto,
moral ligament complex of the previously neglec- Portugal.
ted role of the medial quadriceps-tendon femoral Director of Clínicas Espregueira – FIFA Medical
ligament (MQTFL) and the individual contribu-
tions of other relevant ligamentous structures
Centre of Excellence.
(medial patellotibial and medial patellomeniscal Vice-President of ISAKOS.
ligaments) has also nudged orthopaedic surgeons to President of ESSKA 2012–2014.
innovate and improve their surgical techniques of