Ministry of Higher Education

And Scientific Research

University of Technology
Dep. of Production Engineering
And Metallurgy

Study of the Investigation on the strain distribution in

the part produced by square deep drawing
A project Submitted to the Department of Production
Engineering and Metallurgy / University of Technology

By

Sajjad Ahmed Abdulrasool & Ahmed Qassem Hassan

B.Sc. Production Engineering / University of Technology

Supervised by
Assist.Prof. Dr. Adnan Ibraheem Al-jarjary
Lec. Adil Shbeeb Jaber

2023‫م‬ 1444 ‫هـ‬

 DEDICATION

This study is wholeheartedly dedicated to our beloved parents, who have been our
source of inspiration and gave us strength when we thought of giving up, who
continually provide their moral, spiritual, emotional, and financial support. To our
brothers, sisters, relatives, mentor, friends, and classmates who shared their words
of advice and encouragement to finish this study. And lastly, we dedicated this book
to the Almighty God, thank you for the guidance. strength, power of mind, protection
and skills and for giving us a healthy life. All of these, we offer to you.
 Abstract
The deep drawing process of square cup is widely used in sheet metal forming,
but there are various associated defects, such as earing, wrinkling, tearing, etc. A
problem that has more attention in this work is the studying of the effect of the
different parameters such as drawing speed and lubrication on the thickness and
strain distribution as well as drawing force on the square deep drawing process. Low
carbon steel (1008-AISI) was chosen to carry out the research. In order to study the
effect of some parameters on deep drawing processes, circular blank shape with
diameter 80mm and thickness 0.5mm, punch profile radius of (5mm) and die profile
radius of (5mm) have been chosen. the blank holding force was determined as the
minimum to prevent wrinkling by trial and error it was (15KN). Three drawing speed
(50, 100, 150mm/min), and three types of lubrication (oil, oil plus graphite, without
lubricant) were used to study the its effects on the strain and thickness distribution.
The important points to be considered in forming square cups are that the
deformation states vary along the die cavity. Square cup corners experience more
excessive deformation than that of the side walls cup, therefore during deformation,
the flow of metal at the cup side walls is more uniform and easier than that in the
cup corners. The best results were obtained from the circular blank, with 150mm/min
and by using mixture oil and graphite powder according to the uniform strain and
thickness distribution and minimum drawing force.
 CONTENTS

Item Title page

Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Metal Forming 1
1.2 Sheet metal forming 2
1.3 Deep drawing process 3
1.4 The aim of research 7

Chapter Two
Literature Survey
2.1 Introduction 8

Chapter Three
Theoretical
3.1.1 Introduction 14
3.1.2 Strains 17
3.1.3 Contact regions evolution 20
3.1.4 Drawing Force 21
3.1.5 Blank Holder Force 23
3.2 Measure of Drawing 24
3.2.1 Limiting drawing ratio (LDR) 24
3.3 Percent reduction 26
3.3 parameters affecting drawing operation 26
3.3.1 Die profile radius 26
3.3.2 Punch profile radius 27
3.3.3 Radial clearance 27
3.3.4 Blank size and thickness 28
3.3.5 Friction 30
3.3.6 Material to be drawn 30
3.3.7 Drawing speed 31
3.3.8 Tool surface finish and Lubricants 31
3.3.9 Defects in deep drawing 31
3.3.10 Wrinkling 32
3.3.11 Tearing and necking 34
3.3.12 Earing 35

Chapter Four

Experimental work
4.1 Introduction 36
4.2 Material selection 36
4.3 tensile test 37
4.4 Experimental tooling 39
4.5 Deep drawing test 40
4.6 Strain measurement 40

Chapter Five
Results and Discussion
5.1 Effect of speed 44
5.1.1 Effect of lubricant 48
5.1.2 Difference between the thickness distribution at face and 52
corner direction
References
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Chapter One
Introduction

1.1 Metal Forming

Metal forming includes a wide range of manufacturing processes, in which
force is applied to work piece to modify its shape and size to conform the geometry
of the used die, instead of removing of material. The applied force stresses the metal
beyond its yield strength, causing the material to plastically deform without failure
(greater than yield strength, but less than ultimate tensile strength, of the material).
The type of force may be compressive, tensile, bending or combination of these.
This is very economical process, where the required shape, size and surface finish
can be obtained without any significant loss of material. It is very important to
distinguish between the terms "deforming" and "forming". In the case of
uncontrolled plastic strain, the term deforming should be used, whereas the term
forming should be used with controlled plastic straining to obtain a specific shape
for the product. Forming process is required very fine control over the material
properties, because to obtain desired shape and size of formed part it is required to
maintain ability of material to flow plastically in solid state without deterioration of
their properties [1, 2].
Metal forming processes can be classified according to the size and shape of
the work piece into two main categories: Bulk deformation processes and sheet metal
forming processes, each of these two groups can be divided into different kinds of
shaping operations as shown in figure (1.1) [3].

1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Figure (1.1) Classification of Metal Forming Processes [3].

1.2 Sheet Metal Forming (SMF)

Sheet metal forming (SMF) is one of the most common used manufacturing
processes to produce a wide variety of products in many industries. The reason
behind SMF gaining a lot of attention in recent technology is due to the easiness of
metal to be formed into useful shapes by plastic deformation processes whereas the
mass and volume are conserved and metal is displaced from one location to another
[1]. In SMF, tensile forces are mainly used in the plane of the sheet to achieve the
process, whereas compressive forces which are generated in the transverse direction
as a result of the tension may cause folding or wrinkling of the sheet. The important
concern in all SMF processes is to avoid excessive decreasing in thickness that may
lead to necking and tearing. The characteristics of SMF processes are; the surface of
the deforming metal and of the tools in contact, and friction between them may have
major influences on metal flow [4, 5].
By SMF techniques can produce many useful parts such as car body parts,
household utensils, food or beverage containers and countless other products. In
accordance with different requirements of the products such as geometry, volume,
material quality, etc, sheet metal can be formed using different techniques, the most

2
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

common types are: spinning, stretching, bending, shearing and deep drawing, as
shown in figure (1.2) [6].

Figure (1.2) The Most Common Sheet Metal Forming Techniques:

(A) Bending, (B) Stretching, (C) Spinning, (D) Shearing [6].

1.3 Deep drawing process:

The sheet metal forming processes have an important role in industries such as
automobile, airplane, and electric appliance due to their advantages in reducing
development time and final cost of the products. In general, sheet metal forming may
involve stretching, drawing, repetition of bending and unbending or various
combinations of these basic modes of deformation.
Deep drawing process, one of sheet metal forming methods, is very useful in
industrial field because of its efficiency. The production of optimal products using
this process is dependent on the process variables such as blank shapes, profile radii
of punch and die, and formability of materials [7].

3
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Most parts made by this sheet metal forming process are either cylindrical- or
box-shaped like kitchen utensils, beverage cans, pots, etc. These parts are made by
forcing a flat sheet blank into a die cavity by a punch. The sheet metal blank is held
between the die and the blank holder, the blank holder is loaded by a blank holder
force (bhf) to prevent wrinkling and to control the flow of the sheet metal. The sheet
metal takes the shape of the punch and the die when it is pushed into the die cavity
by the punch, thus forming a cup, see Figure (1-3).
As the punch moves downward, the outer annulus of the blank, known as the
flange, moves radially inward. The flange has a tendency to fold upwards, but is
restrained by the blank holder or hold down ring. As the flange moves radially
inward, its inner edge bends over the rounded corners of the die transforming a flat
blank into a box. The flange and the torodial section around the corner of the die
undergo plastic deformation, see Figure (1-4). In plastic deformation, constancy of
volume is generally assumed. This means that for a given constant volume element,
a change in dimensions on one side, will affect the dimensions on the free sides,
normal to the forced change. Thus, the flange, while moving radially inward, is
reduced in circumference and therefore tends to increase slightly in thickness [8].
Deep drawing technology for non-axisymmetric components is used in many
industrial areas, such as construction, automobile manufacturing, aerospace, and
electrical power engineering. For instance, square cup deep drawing is used in a wide
range of applications such as manufacturing of car parts, making household items
such as stainless-steel kitchen sinks.
The deformation mechanism of square cups is slightly different from that of the
circular cups. Square cup forming process experiences very complicated
deformation mechanism. The important points to be considered in forming square
cups are that the deformation states vary along the die cavity. Square cup corners

4
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

experience tension and biaxial compression in the flange while simple uniaxial
tension is dominant in the corner- walls. Nevertheless, the cup-side walls experience
a simple bending and straightening sequence which is accompanied by uniaxial
tension. Therefore, during deformation, the flow of metal at the cup side walls is
more uniform and easier than that in the cup corners. Due to the tangential
compression and the variation in the metal flow rate of the blank into the die cavity,
material congregates in the cup corners. Almost deformation is concentrated at cup
corners and causes cup fracture [9].
Deep drawing is characterized by tensile/compressive stresses. The primary
deformation zone occurs in the flange of the deforming cup which is undergoing
radial tension and circumferential compression. The secondary deformation zone is
the bending around the die radius while the tertiary deformation zone is the
stretching in the cup wall. Since deep drawing is a combination of all three
deformation modes, it becomes a relatively complex process to analyze. One major
characteristic of deep drawing is that the mean normal stress is tensile. This limits
the maximum possible strains that can be achieved before failure. The majority of
the deformation occurs in the flange of cup.
Once the material overcomes the compression of deep drawing through the
flange, it must bend and unbend over the die radius. The punch pressure is
transmitted from the bottom of the cup to the region of plastic deformation via
tension in the wall of the cup [10]. This tension must remain in the elastic region to
avoid excessive stretching. Thus, fracture occurs in the cup wall just above the punch
radius which is transmitting the largest forces [8].

5
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Figure (1-3)
(a) Schematic illustration of the deep drawing process.
(b) Variables in deep drawing process. Ref. [7].

6
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

Figure (1-4) The regions of deformation of deep drawing process. Ref. [8].

1.4 The aim of research

1.Study some process parameters such as drawing speed and lubrication which effect
on the part quality.
2. Study the effect of these parameters on the strain distribution along the obtained
cups.
3- Study the effect of these parameters on the thickness distribution along the
obtained cups.
4- compare the deformation severity between the face and corner sides of the square
cup.

7
Chapter two LITERATURE SURVEY

Chapter two
Literature survey
2.1 Introduction
Deep drawing is a class of sheet metal forming processes used for manufacture of
cups, beverage cans etc. Major defects in deep drawing are wrinkling, tearing and
earing, wrinkling and tearing which restrict the depth of drawing. Wrinkles are
surface defects in the form of small waves and folds, wrinkling of the flange or the
edges of the cup results from the buckling of the sheet as a result of circumferential
compressive stresses. While the earing defect is defined as the formation of waviness
on the top of the drawn cup, ears are formed due to uneven metal flow in different
directions. The other common failure is the thinning near the punch radius, which
may lead to fracture. Thinning depends upon die, punch radius and blank holder
force. Prediction and prevention of wrinkling, earing, and necking defects require a
few of the most important steps for the deep drawing process design [11].

R. K. Saxena, P. M. Dixit [2009] [12] deal with the finite element simulation
of earing defect in deep drawing. In this study, a recently proposed anisotropic yield
criteria of Barlat et al. is implemented in an in-house FE code, for rolled sheets is
used to model the anisotropy for simulating the earing defect in square and circular
cup drawing processes. The effect of the tooling geometry and process parameters
on the ear formation is studied. It is shown that, in the square cup, the uneven metal
flow rate, rather than the material anisotropy, is mainly responsible for the flange
earing. Finite element formulation, based on the updated Lagrangian approach, is
employed for the analysis. Isotropic hardening is assumed. The Newton–Raphson

8
Chapter two LITERATURE SURVEY

iterative technique is used to solve the nonlinear incremental equations. The

conclusions of this study are as follows:
– The maximum ear height in a circular cup is significantly affected by the
material anisotropy. Further, it decreases with an increase in the punch or die profile
radius.
– The material flows more smoothly in the punch/die corner region of a square
cup with an increase in the punch or die profile radius. This decreases the maximum
width of the flange earing.
– The sheet thickness and the blank holder force, in general, do not have any
influence on the shape and size of the earing profile in deep drawing.

F. Ayari et al [2009] [13] deal with the FEA of the sheet metal forming process
that involves various nonlinearities. The goal is to develop a parametric study that
can lead mainly to predict accurately the final geometry of the sheet blank and the
distribution of strains and stresses and also to control various forming defects, such
as thinning. The numerical FEM simulations of the square cup deep drawing process
were conducted with the ABAQUS/Explicit commercial code, and then compared
with experimental results, to check the validity of the results computed by deep
drawing simulations, the influence of some important numerical parameters is
investigated. These parameters refer to the FE mesh, the friction behavior; it appears
also that the influence of the coefficient of friction for contact surfaces is relatively
small in comparison with other parameters use in this study. Hadfield steel, Mild
steel and Aluminum materials are used in this study for comparison, it is found the
blank displacement and earing profile predicted by the numerical models are
generally in fair agreement with experimental results.

9
Chapter two LITERATURE SURVEY

Paunoio et al (2012) [14] presented an analysis of the multi stage deep

drawing process considering the two deformation schemes namely direct and reverse
redrawing. The analysis is based on numerical simulation using the finite element
method. The DYNA FORM solution package is used to study the issues stated
above. The result of numerical simulation is experimentally validated. The two cases
of redrawing were analyzed in terms of strain, thickness and axial force variations.
It is shown from the result that a more uniform deformation in thickness direction in
the wall region occurs in case of reverse drawing. In addition, the force required for
reverse redrawing is smaller than the direct force. Also, it was found that the
presence of wrinkles is more marked in the case of direct redrawing.

A multi stage deep drawing simulation of an industrial part has been presented
with finite element method by Anaraki et al (2012) [15] and then the result is
compared with experimental results. Deep drawing experiment consists of four
stages for drawing cylindrical cup. Material used is sheet of aluminum alloy
AA7075-O is one of the high strength aluminum alloys and is very difficult to be
formed by deep drawing process. The entire production steps with additional
operations such as intermediate annealing and spring back have been simulation by
ABAQUS software under axisymmetric conditions. Hence, the tool deformations
are negligible and have been modeled as discrete rigid parts and only the surface
geometry of the forming tools is included in simulation models. The simulation
results such as sheet thickness distribution, punch force, and residual stress have
been extracted in every stage and sheet thickness distribution is compared with

10
Chapter two LITERATURE SURVEY

experimental results. It was found through comparison of thickness distribution in

produced parts with simulated deep drawing parts, the finite element model has
proven to be in qualitative agreement with those of experimental in primary steps,
but because of the changes in plastic behavior of initial sheet, errors were increased
in last step. Maximum errors in this simulation were up to (10%) on the punch corner
in fourth step. It was found also, through FE simulation that the predicted punch
force is in good agreement with calculated punch force from formula in die design.
In addition, it is noticed that the residual stresses are less in central area of blank and
those are rising with proceeding in next stages.

M. El Sherbiny et al. [2014][16] developed a Finite Element (FE) model for

the 3-D numerical simulation of mild steel sheet metal deep drawing process
(Parametric Analysis) by using ABAQUS/EXPLICIT Finite Element Analysis
(FEA) program with anisotropic material properties and simplified boundary
conditions. The FE results were compared with experimental results for validation.
The developed model could predict the thickness distribution, thinning, and the
maximum residual stresses of the blank at different die design parameters, including
both geometrical and physical parameters. They recommended that the die shoulder
radius had to be about 10 times sheet thickness, the punch nose radius had to be
greater than 4 times sheet thickness, the thicker sheet metal was softer due to its
increased volume which increased the thinning in sheet metal leading to increasing
the maximum residual stresses, the radial clearance had to be greater than the value
of the sheet thickness to avoid ironing (thinning) and Blank holder force (BHF) had
to be less than 3 tons to avoid the increase in thinning and excessive increase in
maximum residual stresses

11
Chapter two LITERATURE SURVEY

Shah et al. [2014][17] presented the most critical process parameters that
caused defects and thinning in the blanks, and the effect of them, by using Statistical
as well as Experimental methods. They concluded that the blank holding force had
the major influence in the deep drawing process. The die radius also had an influence
in the process which was followed by punch nose radius. The failure in the
component i.e. tearing in the cup was observed due to less punch nose radius.
Wrinkling in the formed part was also seen during the experiments which occurred
due to less blank holding force. ANOVA analysis technique that used to determine
the percentage contribution of individual parameters on deep drawing showed that
the percentage contribution of die radius was 36.44 %, Punch nose radius was 8.48%
and blank holding force was 53.39 % and the error was of 1.69 %. This error was
due to human ineffectiveness.

Chen et al. (2018) investigated the effect of blank holder force on the formability of
square deep drawing of stainless-steel sheets. The study used experimental and
numerical methods to investigate the effect of blank holder force on the forming
behavior and quality of the formed square cups.

Al-Gheethi et al. (2020) studied the effect of process parameters on the formability
of square deep drawing of aluminum alloy sheets. The study used finite element
simulations to investigate the effect of punch speed, die speed, and punch
displacement on the forming behavior and quality of the formed square cups.

Alavi-Nasab et al. (2019) investigated the effect of die clearance on the forming
behavior of square deep drawing of copper sheets. The study used experimental and
numerical methods to investigate the effect of die clearance on the forming behavior
and quality of the formed square cups.

12
Chapter two LITERATURE SURVEY

Hu et al. (2020) conducted a study on the microstructure and mechanical properties

of the deep-drawn square tubes made from Al-Mg-Si alloy. The study investigated
the effect of the blank thickness and drawing ratio on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of the formed square tubes.

Ye et al. (2020) studied the effect of the process parameters on the formability of
aluminum alloy square cups in deep drawing. The study used a combination of
experiments and numerical simulations to investigate the effect of the punch speed,
blank holder force, and friction on the forming behavior and quality of the formed
square cups.

Ren et al. (2020) conducted a study on the formability of the square deep drawing
process using a high-strength low-alloy steel sheet. The study investigated the effect
of the process parameters, such as the blank holding force and the punch speed, on
the formability of the formed square cups.

Shi et al. (2020) conducted a study on the effect of surface topography of the die on
the formability of the square deep drawing process. The study investigated the effect
of different surface topography, such as the micro-texture and the nano-patterns, on
the friction behavior and the formability of the formed square cups.

Wang et al. (2020) conducted a study on the wrinkling behavior in the deep drawing
of square-shaped components. The study investigated the effect of the process
parameters and the material properties on the occurrence and the severity of the
wrinkling defects in the formed square cups.

13
 Chapter Three Theoretical

Chapter Three
Theoretical
3.1.1 Introduction
Deep drawing is a technological process during which a flat sheet of metal
(called blank) is shaped into a three-dimensional object, as shown in figure (3.1).
During the process of drawing, the blank is forced to follow the movement of a
punch, which pulls it along, on its way through the die. There, the shape of the part
and sometimes even the thickness of it are altered [18].

Figure (3.1) Illustrates a Cylindrical Cup Drawing Operation [3].

During deep drawing the metal at the center of the blank is subjected to biaxial
tensile stress due to the action of the punch and is thinned down. Metal in the outer
portion of the blank is subjected to a compressive strain in the circumferential
direction and a tensile strain in the radial direction, as a result of these principal
strains, there is a continual increase in the thickness as the metal moves inward. Cup
drawing besides its importance as forming process also serves as a basic test for the
sheet metal formability [19].

14
 Chapter Three Theoretical

The essential independent factors that can be affected the deep drawing process
are; blank material Properties, blank thickness, drawing ratio, clearance between the
punch and the die, punch and die corner radii, blank holding force and friction.
Because of these factors, the common defects which can occur during the process
are; Tearing, necking, wrinkling, earing and spring back. Tearing and necking are
caused by the tensile stresses and they are types of tensile instabilities. Another
failure is wrinkling, caused by compressive stresses unlike to tearing and necking.
When the radial drawing stress exceeds a certain value compressive stress in the
circumferential direction becomes too high, so plastic buckling occurs. Earing
caused by the difference in amount of plastic deformation in different angles due to
anisotropic properties of material. Spring back can be briefly defined as a
dimensional change in the part, which occurs due to the elastic recovery after the
deep drawing operation [20]. The process includes many aspects that affect the final
product. In order to understand deep drawing, one must investigate all these
variables and their effect on the process. Without extensive knowledge of all these
variables, achieving a defect free deep drawn product is hardly possible [21].
The drawing operation starts when the punch moves down, pressing the blank
into the die cavity. During the operation, the blank experiences a complex sequence
of stresses and strains continuously as it is altered into the required shape. The
drawing operation involves different forming stages, as shown in Figure (3.2). At
the beginning, the applying force is transmitted to the blank by the punch, causing a
bending action in the metal over the die and punch corners. In this stage the metal
under the holding plate is drawn slightly towards the die axis to produce an initial
shallow cup. While the punch is kept moving downwards, the metal that bent
previously just over the around corner of the die is drawn into the radial clearance
between the punch and die, where it must be straightened to form the side wall of

15
 Chapter Three Theoretical

the final cup. More metal is drawn from the flange portion towards the die cavity
in order to replace the metal that has already been used in forming the side wall, also
to keep the metal at the die corner not stretched excessively. Consequently, the outer
portion of the blank is drawn continuously towards the center of die, resulting in
diminishing perimeter diameter of the blank [55, 56].

Figure (3.2) The Progressive Stages of Cup Drawing Process [57].

16
 Chapter Three Theoretical

3.1.2 Strains :
The direction of the principal stress coincides with the strains in the radial,
circumferential, and normal directions. the finished cup shows the following strains
[22]:
r
Radial strain  r  ln ..… (3.1)
ro
t
Thickness (normal) strain  t  ln ..… (3.2)
t0
Hoop (circumferential) strain    ( r   t ) .… (3.3)
Where the volume constancy condition requires that;
r   t    0 ..… (3.4)
(to) is the original thickness of the blank
(t) is the instantaneous wall thickness,
(ro) is the original radius of ring element
(r) is the instantaneous radius of the ring element
With the assumption that the principal strain directions and the ratio of the
incremental stains dεr: dεt: dεθ remain constant, an equivalent strain (effective strain)
can be computed [22].

|ε |= ε +ε +ε ..… (3.5)

Immediately after contact between the punch and the blank, deformation is
limited to the area under the punch. As the punch progresses, the material in this
region is stretch-formed with superimposed bending over the round edges of the
punch and the die. This description explains why the strains in the bottom of the cup
(A-B) are not zero everywhere, as shown in fig (3.3). Radial strain (εr), increases
17
 Chapter Three Theoretical

continuously between (A) and (C), while circumferential strain (εθ) decreases. The
numerically largest strain (εmax) occurs at the top of the cup at point (D) [23].

Figure (3.3); A- Strain Distribution in the Cup, B- Strain direction in the flange
of cup [22, 24].

The normal strain in the thickness direction is always negative in the bottom of
the cup, that is, the sheet is thinned here. While at the cup wall the normal strain
increases continuously such that the wall thickness at the top edge is generally
greater than the initial sheet thickness. The wall thickness distribution throughout
the cup wall depends among other parameters, on the drawing ratio, the tool
geometry, the blank holder pressure, and the properties of the sheet material
(anisotropy) [22, 25, 26]. Figure (3.4), presents the thickness distribution through a
cross-section of the drawn cup.

18
 Chapter Three Theoretical

Figure (3.4) Cross Section through the Drawn Cup [18].

With various simplifications, it was stated that the maximum thickness at cup
edges excluding flange is [24]:
t max  t o B for deep drawing with a blank holder ...… (3.6)
and
t o ( B  1)
t max  for deep drawing without a blank holder ...… (3.7)
2
Where: (tmax) maximum thickness at cup edges
(to) original thickness of the blank
(B) drawing ratio

19
 Chapter Three Theoretical

3.1.3 Contact Regions Evolution

In deep drawing friction arises from contact between the tool and the sheet
when a relative motion exists between them. Figure (3.5) schematically shows the
most important contact regions in the deep drawing of a cylindrical cup. It can be
identified that six different regions marked in figure (3.5). The region (1) is located
between the blank holder and the sheet, and the region (2) is between the die and the
sheet. Together they are called flange region and the nominal pressure here is about
ten times lower than in region (3). This one characterizes the contact between the
die radiuses and the sheet. Here, the tension force is high and stretching play an
important role. The region (4) corresponds to the contact between the punch flank
and the sheet. In this region the sheet is stretched, although no real contact occurs.
The contact between the punch radius and the sheet occurs in region (5) where the
tension force also attains high values. The last region (6) describes the contact
between the punch’s bottom and the sheet. In this region the sheet is mainly
subjected to stretching [27].

Figure (3.5) Contact Regions in Deep Drawing [27].

20
 Chapter Three Theoretical

The sixth and fourth regions do not have a significant influence in the deep
drawing process. The friction in fifth region must be sufficiently high to ensure that
the sheet follows the punch movement. On the other hand, the friction in the first,
second and third regions must not be too high, because a high friction leads to higher
punch forces, resulting more easily in fracture [28].

3.1.4 Drawing Force

The force on the punch required to produce a cup is the summation of the ideal
force of deformation, the frictional forces, and the force required to produce ironing
(if present). Figure (3.6) illustrates the way in which these components of the total
punch force vary with the stroke of the punch. The ideal force of deformation
increases linearly with punch stroke, due to an increase in strain on the metal and
also because the material gets strain hardened. A major contribution to the friction
force comes from the blank holder pressure. This force component peaks early and
decreases with the increasing travel because the area of the blank under the blank
holder is continually decreasing. Ironing force operates during the later part of the
process, as sufficient thickening has to occur. An additional factor is the force
required to bend and unbend the metal around the radius of the die. About 70% of
the total force goes into the radial drawing of the material, 17% into bending and
unbending around the die radius and 13% into overcoming friction. [29].

21
 Chapter Three Theoretical

Figure (3.6) Punch Force vs. Punch Stroke for Deep Drawing [29].

G. Sachs has given an approximate expression for total drawing force, as a

function of the blank diameter at any stage in the process:
 D  Dp   (
F   D p t 0 (1.1 av ) ln 0   2HB   e 2)
B …. (3.8)
 Dp  Do  

Where F total punch force

σav average flow stress
DP punch diameter
D0 blank diameter
HB holding force
B force required to bend and restraighten blank
to wall thickness
µ coefficient of friction
In equation (3-12) the first term expresses the ideal force required to produce
the cup, and the second term is the friction force under the blank holder. The

22
 Chapter Three Theoretical

exponential term considers the friction at the die radius, and the quantity B accounts
for the force required to bend and unbend the sheet around this radius [29].
The drawing force varies throughout the movement of the punch, usually
reaching its maximum value at about one-third the length of the punch stroke [55].
However, an expression for maximum punch force is given by:

D 
Fmax  D p t o ( u ) o  G  ..… (3.9)
 Dp 
 

Where Fmax maximum drawing force (N)

to original blank thickness (mm)
u ultimate tensile strength of the material (Mpa)
Do blank diameter (mm)
Dp punch diameter (mm)
G constant to cover friction and bending. Its value: (0.6 – 0.7)

3.1.5 Blank Holder Force

A deep drawn part’s quality is affected significantly by the flow of metal into
the die cavity. Blank holder force (BHF) plays a key role in controlling material flow
in deep drawing. The BHF serves to suppress the formation of wrinkles in the
deformed part and thus to apply surface traction forces, through friction, which
stretch the material and control the flow into the die throat. A too high value for the
BHF leads to early fracture or failure of the part, or at least in a highly non uniform
strain distribution. On the other hand, a too low BHF allows the sheet wrinkling,
excessive amounts of draw-in, or insufficient straining of the material in the formed
part such that the sheet does not conform to the tool profiles. Thus, the proper
variation and control of the BHF during the forming stroke can improve the

23
 Chapter Three Theoretical

drawability and quality of the formed part [30]. Figure (3.7) simplifies the effect of
BHF in deep drawing process as it is exceeding or insufficient due to depth of draw.

Defect Free Parts

Figure (3.7) Effect of BHF in Deep Drawing Operation [31].

The maximum limit for holding force is generally to be one third of the drawing
force.

3.2 Measure of Drawing

3.2.1 Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR)
The limiting drawing ratio (LDR) is commonly used as a measure of the
drawability of the blank material. It can be defined as the ratio between the maximum
blank diameters that can be drawn successfully to the cup diameter (usually taken to
be equal to punch diameter). Thus, higher drawability term implies that the blank of
larger diameter can be drawn [35]. LDR is influenced by many factors like the tool
geometry, the amount of blank holding forces, lubrication conditions, sheet
thickness, and material properties. Drawing ratio can be expressed by the following
equation:

24
 Chapter Three Theoretical

Db
DR  ..… (3.10)
DP

, the blank thickness and the punch diameter affect the LDR. It has been found
that the LDR decreases as the relative punch diameter increases, as shown in figure
(3.8) [21].

Figure (3.8) Effect of Relative Punch Diameter on the Limiting Drawing Ratio [58].

The procedure for drawing square cups isn't different a lot from that of the circular
cups and that why it is good to use the same drawing ratios used for circular cups
[32].

25
 Chapter Three Theoretical

3.2.2 Percent Reduction

In addition to the limiting drawing ratio, the drawability of sheet metal can be
represented in another way by adopting the percentage reduction in area. The amount
of straining or the drawability can be expressed as the percentage reduction
according to [36].
d
% R  100(1  ) ..... (3.11)
DO
Where: %R = percentage reduction, d = inner diameter of drawn cup (mm)

DO = blank diameter (mm)

The stresses which can be imposed on the work material during the drawing
process limits the amount of reduction in the blank diameter [37]. The value of
reduction ratio depends on the relative sheet thickness, the drawing condition (with
or without blank holder), the diameter, and shape of the work, the geometries of the
punch and die, the kind of material, etc. [38, 39]. Theoretically, it is possible to get
a percentage reduction at the first draw up to 50 but, is practically limited to 40 [40].

3.3 Parameters Affecting Drawing Operation

3.3.1 Die Profile Radius
Theoretically, the radius on the draw die (draw ring) should be as large as
possible to permit full freedom of metal flow as it passes over the radius. Die radius
(Rd) is usually about 10 times the blank thickness [42, 41]. However, the shaper the
die profile radius, the greater is the maximum punch load, because of the increased
process work due to plastic bending under tension. Consequently, decreasing the die
profile radius below a value of 10 times the blank thickness lowers the LDR.
Increasing the die profile radius above 10 times the blank thickness causes negligible
improvement in drawability, while a greater tendency towards wrinkling is apparent

26
 Chapter Three Theoretical

on the drawn cups. This is due to the early removal of the guiding influence of the
blank-holder, and it sets a practical upper limit to the die profile radius in terms of
the blank thickness [23].

3.3.2 Punch Profile Radius

There is no set rule for the size of the punch radius (Rp). A sharper radius will
require higher forces when the metal is folded around the punch nose and may result
in excessive thinning or tearing at the bottom of the cup [42, 26, 41]. While more
generous the punch radius, the more gradual is the rise of punch load and the longer
the punch travel, but the maximum punch load is almost unaffected [43]. A general
rule to reduce the thinning is to design the punch with a radius of from (4-12) times
the blank thickness [42]. The punch radius should be larger than the die radius;
otherwise, the punch might pierce the blank material. When several redraws are
required, the punch radius for each redraw should be proportionately smaller than
that of the preceding shell [26, 44].

3.3.3 Radial Clearance

Radial clearance is a significant variable, formulated as the difference between die
radius and punch radius (C= Die radius – Punch radius). It may affect the drawing
process directly by controlling the freedom of the walls either to thicken or to taper
and pucker [23]. Clearance should be (10-40) % larger than the initial blank
thickness. [42]. It has been found that a net radial clearance of about (30%) of metal
thickness is suitable for general purposes, with free drawing and a reduction of, say,
(50%), and this has the sanction of practical experience. On other hand, where
ironing between punch and die can be tolerated, the net clearance may be well as
low as (10%) [45]. If clearance is too large, the component does not form a true

27
 Chapter Three Theoretical

cylinder, but the upper edge of the cup remains expanded (bell - mouth), which
would be objectionable if the cup is required to undergo redrawing operation. If
clearance is too small, ironing can take place, increase the drawing load and increase
the danger of cracking; further more cold welding between the die and the work
piece is possible [44].

When drawing the square cups, the stresses varying along the die cavity (flat
sides, corners) [59]. Therefore, clearance between the punch and die for a rectangular
shell, at the sidewalls, is about the same as, or slightly less than, that for a circular
shell, while clearance at the corners may be as much as 50% greater than stock
thickness to avoid ironing in these areas and to increase drawability [60].

3.3.4 Blank Size and Thickness

Blank diameter plays a potential role in evaluating the formability of blank
material utilized in deep drawing processes, due to the friction force depends
strongly on the contact area of the blank required to deform with the forming tools.
It has been found that for any given drawing conditions, the punch load increases
with the blank diameter in an approximately linear manner over the whole of the
useful range with a slight tendency to droop near the limiting drawing ratio [23].
The inappropriate selection of blank size can result in adverse effects on sheet
forming, such as the formation of large "ears" at relatively un deformed boundary
regions of a blank. Earing can prevent draw-in and cause fracture to occur at a very
shallow punch depth [30]. It is often difficult to find a blank of the exact size
required for making a given shell, because of thinning and thickening of sheet during
drawing. The following set of equations considers the size of blank diameter for

28
 Chapter Three Theoretical

simple cylindrical shells to be dependent on the ratio of the shell diameter to the
corner radius d/Rp [18].

D b  d 2  4dh When d/Rp is 20 or more .… (3.12)

D b  d 2  4dh  0.5R p When d/Rp is between 15 and 20 ..… (3.13)

D b  d 2  4dh  R p When d/Rp is between 10 and 15 ..… (3.14)

Db  d  2R 
p
2
 4dh  R p   2ππ p d  0.7R p 

When d/Rp is below 10 ..… (3.15)

Where:
d = shell diameter
Db = blank diameter
h = shell height
Rp = corner radius or punch radius

The effect of the blank thickness on the drawability of sheet metals is also
important. In general, with an increase in blank thickness, the LDR increases, as
shown in figure (3.9) [46].

Figure (3.9) Effect of the Blank Thickness on LDR [46].

29
 Chapter Three Theoretical

Slightly thicker materials can be gripped better during the drawing process.
Also, thicker sheets have more volume and hence can be stretched to a greater extent.
However, the drawing force will increase with the sheet thickness [47]. Closely
coupled with the BHF is the blank thickness. An increase in the blank thickness has
the beneficial advantage of increasing its resistance to wrinkling. However, an
increase in blank thickness also results in increased material weight and cost of the
component [48].

3.3.5 Friction
The force of static friction between the work piece (blank) and draw die
surfaces must be overcome in a drawing operation. The force of the blank holder
adds significantly to the force of static friction. Friction results in complex wear
mechanisms at the contact surfaces between the die and the work piece. During
forming operations, sliding friction conditions apply where lubrication is used.
Always coefficient of friction (µ) is used in describing the friction in sheet metal
forming, and it is expressed as the friction force divided by the normal force. The
best drawing practice aims to increase friction between the blank and punch bottom
and punch profile radius regions and to minimize it at the blank and die-lip surface
[34].

3.3.6 Material to be Drawn

The characteristics of the material to be drawn have a great influence on the
success of a drawing process. Ductility and yield strength are the most important.
Low yield strength is desirable so that metal flow can begin easily without tearing
near the punch radius.

30
 Chapter Three Theoretical

3.3.7 Drawing Speed

Drawing speed is the velocity at which the punch penetrates the work piece. It
has a definite effect on drawing operation; sufficient punching speed allows time for
materials to flow through the tools. Corner cracking will always occur if press speed
is too fast, on the other hand slower speed allows better metal flow during operation.
Proper die design, proper lubrication helps to increase the permissible speed of ram
travel. The speed with which drawing operation is carried out depends upon the type
of material and type of press used [37, 41].

3.3.8 Tool Surface Finish and Lubricants

They are important to reduce the friction between the tool surfaces and metal
being drawn, thus allowing materials to flow through tools more easily. When two
metals are in sliding contact under pressure, as with the dies and the work material
in drawing, galling (pressure welding) of the tools and the work metal is likely to
occur. When extreme galling occurs, drawing force increases and becomes unevenly
distributed, causing fracture of the work piece [41]. So, a lubricant is generally
applied to reduce friction and wear in drawing operation.

3.3.9 Defects in Deep Drawing

Deep drawing technique has some noticeable defects such as wrinkling, tearing
and necking, earing, as shown in figure (3.10). These will be discussed in the
following subsections.

31
 Chapter Three Theoretical

Figure (3.10) Modes of Failure in Deep Drawing Process.

3.3.10 Wrinkling
Wrinkling is one of most severe defects in deep drawn product. Wrinkling may
be defined as the formation of waves on the surface to minimize the compression
stresses. There are two regions where wrinkling may take place; the first one is
flange and the second one is cup wall [20]. Flange Wrinkling occurs due to
compressive buckling in the circumferential direction, especially when thin sheet
metal is drawn or when the blank holder force is too low, which results in the
material flow which is not restricted and more material is trying to flow inside the
die cavity. On the other hand, wall Wrinkling takes place when wrinkled flange is
drawn into cup or if the clearance is very large, which results in large unsupported
region. These two types of Wrinkling are shown in figure (3.11) [42, 49].

32
 Chapter Three Theoretical

(a) (b)

Figure (3.11) Wrinkling Types: (a) Flange Wrinkling; (b) Side Wrinkling.

The mechanism of wrinkling initiation and growth in the cylindrical cup deep
drawing process is shown figure (3.12) There are several factors that lead to the
wrinkling formation like the part geometry, holding conditions, interface friction and
lubrication state, the geometrical parameters of the die, the material characteristics
and anisotropy, the contact conditions and the mechanical properties of the material,
etc. Wrinkle formation can be prevented by pressing a blank holder with sufficient
pressure against the work piece [45, 50].

Figure (3.12) Schematic Diagram of the Mechanism of Wrinkling Formation [50].

33
 Chapter Three Theoretical

3.3.11 Tearing and Necking

In deep drawing operation tearing and necking are types of tensile instabilities and
they are caused by high tensile stress, which causes thinning and failure of the metal
in the cup wall. various factors that lead to necking and tearing, like excessive
holding force, excessive punch force, excessive interface friction between blank and
tools, inadequate clearance between punch and die and too small punch or die profile
radius. [42, 50]
Furthermore, the drawing ratio has a significant impact on thinning and tearing
of the metal in the deep drawing operation, hence larger drawing ratio means the
higher punch force required to draw the cup. If this force exceeds the material plastic
limit, tearing will occur. As for the punch and die profile radius, it can be observed
that too small die or punch profile radius, causes the required force to form the blank
will be increased. This causes the radial tensile stresses on the cup wall to increase,
that eventually resulting in necking and tearing at the critical region [50]. In practice,
the drawn part always tears either at the shoulder of the die or at the shoulder of the
punch as shown in figure (3.13) [51].

Figure (3.13) Tearing (a) at Die Shoulder (b) at Punch Shoulder [51].

34
 Chapter Three Theoretical

3.3.12 Earing
Earing is the formation of a wavy edge on the top of a drawn cup. Thus, top
edges of the cup perimeters consist of peaks and valleys, as shown in figure (3.14).
These features along the top edges of the drawn cup are called ears. Usually two,
four, six or even eight ears will be formed, but the most common are four ears. Earing
is due to planar anisotropic behavior of the blank material. Besides that, the angular
position and height of the ears are directly correlated with the planar anisotropy
parameter ΔR, shown in equation (3-35)
R 0  2R 45  R 90
R  ..… (3.16)
2

Figure (3. 14) Earing in a Deep Drawn Cup [50].

The height of the formed ears will increase as the value of R increases. This
can be often interpreted that, at angular positions with low R-values, more thickening
occurs, so the wall heights are lower, while at positions of high R-value, the walls
are thinner and higher [52, 53]. In general, when the value of ΔR =0 there is no ears
form, ΔR >0 ears form at 0˚ and 90˚with respect to rolling direction of the sheet
metal, and ΔR <0 ears form at ±45˚ [54].

35
 Chapter four Experimental work

Chapter four
Experimental work

4.1 Introduction:

This chapter aims to describe the experimental procedure in which is used to

study the effect of some process parameters on the square cup deep drawing
operation. The following is summary of the parametric process in this work:

 one types of shape of blank was used in this study:

1-Circular blanks with diameter (D = 80 mm).

Figure (4-1) shape of used blank.

4.2 Material selection:

The characteristics of the material to be drawn have a great influence on the

success of a drawing operation. Low carbon steel was used for stamping application,
such as fuel tank and other applications. The sheet metal thickness, to =0.5mm.

36
 Chapter four Experimental work

4.3 tensile test:

To determine the properties of the sheet metal (blank), specimens were

machined and tested according to ASTM (American society for testing and
materials) standard E8M specification as shown in Figure (4-3). The specimens were
tested along the three directions, with the direction of rolling (0o), diagonal (450),
and perpendicular (900) to the rolling direction. The specimens were loaded until
fracture occurred. Tensile test was carried out at cross head speed (2mm/min), by
using a tensile test machine type (WDW200E). Mechanical properties for low
carbon steel are shown in Table (4-1), Figure (4-4) shows the relationship between
true stress-true strain curves for mild steel material at different angles (0o, 45o and
90o) with respect to the rolling direction, and a chemical composition test was
carried out by using spectrometer device to check the manufacture certificate of
(1008-AISI) low carbon steel as shown in Table (4-2).

Figure (4-3) The dimensions of tensile test specimen according to ASTM standard
E8M specification.

37
 Chapter four Experimental work

Table (4-1) The material properties.

material Young's Tangent Yield Poisson's

modulus, E modulus, Et stress, бy ratio, ν
(GPa) (GPa) (MPa)

L.C. St 200 0.5 203 0.3

Table (4-2) Chemical composition of (1008) low carbon steel.

C Si Mn S P Cr Ni Mo V Cu Al

% % % % % % % % % % %

0.08 0.02 0.32 0.021 0.015 0.03 0.03 0.002 0.001 0.09 0.05
true stress(Mpa)

RD90
RD45
RD0

true strain

Figure (4-4) True stress-true strain curves at different angles with respect to rolling
direction for 1008-AISI Low Carbon Steel.

38
 Chapter four Experimental work

4.4 Experimental tooling:

Punch and die were designed and built to produce square cup, as shown in
Figure (4-5). They are made from tool steel, and were machined by milling machine.
after machining, these components were polished in order to obtain finer surface
finish.

The rigid square punch is 40 mm by 40 mm, the profile radius is 5 mm and

punch corner radius is also 5 mm which gives radial clearance of (1.1to) at assembly
with the die which has a flat surface with a square hole 41.1 mm by 41.1 mm, the
profile radius is 5 mm and the die corner radius is 5 mm. Blanking die is used to
produce circular blank, and cutting machine to produce square and octagon blanks,
with a thickness of t = 0.5 mm.

Figure (4-5) Schematic representation of rig deep drawing tooling .

39
 Chapter four Experimental work

4.5 Deep drawing test:

Deep drawing experiments are carried out to obtain square cup by the
construction, as shown in Figure (4-6), and tool set as shown in Figure (4- 7), where
deep drawing die is placed on the universal testing machine which has a capacity of
(200KN). After putting blank on the blank holder surface, die will drop towards the
punch, and this means inverted drawing die use. Different drawing speed equal to
(50-150 mm/min) was selected to draw for the low carbon steel material. The blank
holding force were determined as the minimum to prevent wrinkling by trial and
error, they were (15 KN) for low carbon steel material. The circular blanks were
drawn to study the effect of these parameters on the thickness, strain distributions in
the square cup.

4.6 Strain measurement:

In order to study the strain distribution within the cup during drawing operation,
a grid pattern of (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, …. mm) radii circles, was printed (along
8 intersecting lines, 45 degrees apart) on undeformed blanks, by using mechanical
grid marker as shown in Figure (4-8). In order to measure the cup wall thickness, the
drawn cup was divided into two parts by using a diamond saw as shown in Figure
(4-9). Digital thickness micrometer and tool microscope were used to measure the
cup wall thickness and the changes in the grid circles during the deformation.
Thickness strain and radial strain distribution were derived from the measured
thickness and deformed grid circles using the incompressibility condition by using
equations (3.2) and (3.3), respectively, and then hoop (circumferential) strain by
using equation (3.4).

40
Chapter four Experimental work

Figure (4-6) The construction of machine tool used.

41
Chapter four Experimental work

Figure (4-7) The tool set of drawing.

RD

45

TD

Figure (4-8) The rolling direction, transverse direction, and 𝟒𝟓° from rolling
direction on undeformed blank.

42
Chapter four Experimental work

TD 45 RD

Figure (4-9) The sample of divided cup.

Figure 4-10) The distortion of grid circles on the cup square bottom .

43
 Chapter five Results and discussion

Chapter five
Results and discussion

5-1 Effect of speed:

To investigate the effect of drawing speed on deep drawing process three

speed are chosen (50, 100, 150) mm/min.

Figure (1) illustrates the effect of drawing speed on drawing force. It is clear from
this figure that at an increase in drawing speed from (50 to 100) mm/min no effect
on drawing force will occur, but when drawing at speed of (150) mm/min, it is
noticed that the maximum drawing force will increase. This occurs because of the
increase of strain hardening of material with drawing speed, which leads to an
increase in drawing stress, and finally increasing drawing force.

Figure (2) represents the effect of drawing speed on the cup wall thickness. It
is clear from the figure that the thickness remains constant under the punch face (cup
bottom) for all the speeds, where no deformation occurs in this area due to friction
which prevent any deformation of the metal under the punch. At the next zone
(punch corner) thinning will occur, and maximum thinning will occur at a high
drawing speed of (150) mm/min due to an increase stretching exerted by the high
tensile stress in this area. Afterward at the cup wall thickness will increase because
of the applied compressive stress in this region which has approximately the same
thickness at all speeds.

Figure (3) represents the effect of drawing speed on strain distribution over
the cup wall, for the same previous variable. It is clear from the figures that the strain
distribution of drawing speed at (50 and 100) mm/min are similar in shape, and

44
 Chapter five Results and discussion

approximately have the same value. This may happen since the difference between
these speeds is not large enough to be observed, thus the difference in the strain
values is very small. But at drawing speed equal to (150) mm/min, it is noticed at
the cup corner (necking point), the values of all strain are larger than the other two
previous drawing speeds. This is due to the sever deformation in this area at high
drawing speed while at the cup wall the values of strain have the same behavior and
approximately the same values for the three drawing speeds.

60 [p6d6] die profile radius configuration

Blank hodling force=10KN
50
V = 50 mm/min
V = 250 mm/min
Punch Load (KN)

40
V = 500 mm/min

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Punch Strocke (m m )

Figure (1) effect of drawing speed on punch load

for low carbon steel

45
Chapter five Results and discussion

[p6d6] die profile radius configuration

0.7
Blank hodling force=10KN
0.65

Cup w all thickness (m m )

V = 50 mm/min

0.6 V = 250 mm/min

V = 500 mm/min
0.55

0.5

0.45

0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

Figure (2) effect of drawing speed on cup wall thickness

for low carbon steel

[p6d6] die
0.6profile radius configuration
Drawking speed=50mm/min

0.4
Ex
Ey
0.2 Ez
Strain

E effective
0

-0.2

-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

46
Chapter five Results and discussion

[p6d6] die
0.6profile radius configuration
Drawking speed=250mm/min

0.4
Ex
Ey
0.2 Ez
Strain

E effective
0

-0.2

-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

[p6d6] die
0.6profile radius configuration
Drawking speed=500mm/min

0.4
Ex
Ey
0.2 Ez
Strain

E effective
0

-0.2

-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

Figure (3) distribution of strain over the cup wall with different drawing speed for
low carbon steel

47
 Chapter five Results and discussion

5-2 Effect of lubricant :

Good drawing practice aims to increase friction between the blank and the punch
bottom and radius, and minimize it at the blank and die lip surface. Thus, lubricant
with high slip properties must be applied to the die surface and blank surface face to
die.

In this work, to investigate the effect of lubricant on deep drawing process two types
of lubricants are chosen (motor oil C40 and mixture of oil and graphite powder).

Figure (4) shows the variation of the drawing force with the punch stroke with
and without using lubricant. It is clear from the figure that the maximum drawing
force decreases when using lubricant and the reduction in maximum force for
mixture of oil and graphite powder is more than the reduction when using motor oil,
where the use of motor oil lubricant leads to a reduction drawing force about (3.17)
percent while the mixture of oil and graphite powder leads to a reduction in drawing
force about (6.5) percent.

Figure (5) represents the effect of lubricant on the cup wall thickness. It is evident
that the initial thickness at the region of a flat bottom face (cup bottom) does not
change and remains almost constant with and without using lubricant. This occurs
because the element which matches the punch face (cup bottom) does not undergo
initially any deformation. At the next zone (punch corner) thinning will occur
because of stretching exerted by tensile stress and it’s clear that the effect of lubricant
not large, afterward at the cup wall thickness tends to increase, and this is caused by
the compressive stress applied to this region and approximately have the same values
for all the cases.

Figure (6) shows the strain distribution over the cup wall of the completely drawn
part, with same previous condition. It is obvious from the figure that the strain

48
 Chapter five Results and discussion

distribution of all cases chosen are similar in shape, and has the same trend and
approximately the same value. This may be due to the fact that the difference
between these lubricant properties is not large enough to be observed, and hence the
difference in these values is very small. The whole strains (Ex, Ey, Ez and Eeff) have
approximately a value equal to zero at the cup bottom, since there is very small
deformation at this zone which cannot be observed. Under punch profile radius
(away 20 mm) form cup center, the radial strain (Ex) begins to rise to get a maximum
value of (0.16) at the cup rim, because of tension at this direction. The thickness
strain (Ey) also starts to change at the punch profile radius and have a negative value
due to stretching, and then an increase occurs because of circumferential
compressive stress to reach a maximum value of (0.18) at the cup rim.
Circumferential (hoop) strain (Ez) begins increase at punch corner (expanding
circumference) due to small tensile in this area and then at the next zone cup wall
begins to decrease and has a negative value of (0.31) at the cup rim because of the
compression exerted at the circumference of the cup. Effective (equivalent) strain
(Eeff) has a tensile behavior since it is the resultant of the three strains, under punch
profile the effective strain increases due to sever deformation in this area and then
continue increase to reach a value of (0.31) at the cup rim.

49
Chapter five Results and discussion

[P6D6] Die profile radius configuration

50
Blank holding force =10 kn

40
Without Lubricant
Pun ch Load (KN) 30
Motor Oil (C 40)

20 Mixture of oil and graphite

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Punch Strocke (mm )

Figure (4) effect of lubricant on punch load

for low carbon steel.

0.7 [p6d6] die profile radius configuration

blank holding force=10KN
0.65
Cup w ill thickness (m m )

Without Lubricant
0.6 Motor Oil (C40)
Mixture of Oil and Graphite
0.55

0.5

0.45

0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

Figure (5) effect of lubricant on cup wall thickness

for low carbon steel

50
Chapter five Results and discussion

[p6d6] die
0.6profile radius configuration
without lubricant

0.4
Ex
Ey
0.2 Ez
Strain

Effective
0

-0.2

-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

[p6d6] die
0.6profile radius configuration
Motor Oil (C40)

0.4
Ex
Ey
0.2 Ez
Strain

Effective
0

-0.2

-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

51
 Chapter five Results and discussion

[p6d6] die
0.6profile radius configuration
Mixture of oil and graphite

0.4
Ex
Ey
0.2 Ez
Strain

Effective
0

-0.2

-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from cup center (m m )

Figure (6) distribution of strain over cup wall with and without lubricant for low
carbon steel

5-3 Difference between the thickness distribution at face and corner direction:
The square die cavity has straight and corner side and when the meta flow along
the die cavity will subject on excessive deformation in the corner than that in the
straight side, therefore the thickness in the conner will be less than thickness along
the straight side as shown in figure 7.

Figure (7) difference thickness distribution between straight and corner side.

52
 References

[1] K. Shah, D. Bhatt, T. Panchal, D. Panchal, B. Dogra" Influence of the Process

Parameters in Deep Drawing" International Journal of Emerging Research in
Management &Technology ISSN: 2278-9359, Vol.-3, 2014.
[2] Grote K.H., Antonsson E.K.,"Springer Handbook of Mechanical Engineering",
Springer Science and Business Media, 2008.
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 ‫الخﻼصة‬
‫تُستخدم عملية السحب العميق للكوب المربع على نطاق واسع في تشكيل الصفائح المعدنية ‪ ،‬ولكن هناك العديد‬
‫من العيوب المرتبطة بها ‪ ،‬مثل التأذن ‪ ،‬والتجاعيد ‪ ،‬والتمزق ‪ ،‬وما إلى ذلك‪ .‬والمشكلة التي تحظى باهتمام‬
‫أكبر في هذا العمل هي دراسة تأثير مختلف المتغيرات مثل سرعة السحب والتشحيم على توزيع السماكة‬
‫واﻻنفعال باﻹضافة إلى قوة السحب على عملية السحب العميق المربع‪.‬‬
‫تم اختيار الفوﻻذ منخفض الكربون )‪ (AISI-1008‬ﻹجراء البحث‪ .‬لدراسة تأثير بعض المتغيرات على‬
‫عمليات السحب العميق ‪ ،‬تم اختيار شكل دائري غفل بقطر ‪ 80‬مم وسمك ‪ 0.5‬مم ‪ ،‬نصف قطر جانبي خرامة‬
‫يبلغ )‪ 5‬مم( ونصف قطر مقدمة فتحة القالب )‪ 5‬مم(‪.‬‬
‫تم تحديد قوة اﻹمساك لغفل كحد أدنى لمنع التجعد عن طريق التجربة والخطأ كانت )‪ .(15KN‬تم استخدام‬
‫ثﻼث سرعات سحب )‪ 150 ، 100 ، 50‬مم ‪ /‬دقيقة( ‪ ،‬وثﻼثة أنواع من التزييت )زيت ‪ ،‬زيت زائد الجرافيت‬
‫‪ ،‬بدون مادة تشحيم( لدراسة تأثيرها على توزيع اﻹجهاد والسمك‪.‬‬
‫النقاط المهمة التي يجب مراعاتها في تشكيل أكواب مربعة هي أن حاﻻت التشوه تختلف على طول تجويف‬
‫القالب‪ .‬تتعرض زوايا اﻷكواب المربعة إلى تشوه مفرط أكثر من تشوه كوب الجدران الجانبية ‪ ،‬وبالتالي أثناء‬
‫التشوه ‪ ،‬يكون تدفق المعدن على الجدران الجانبية للكوب أكثر اتساقًا وأسهل من ذلك الموجود في زوايا‬
‫اﻷكواب‪.‬‬
‫تم الحصول على أفضل النتائج من الغفل الدائري بمعدل ‪ 150‬مم ‪ /‬دقيقة وباستخدام خليط الزيت ومسحوق‬
‫الجرافيت حسب توزيع اﻻنفعال والسماكة اﻻكثر انتظاما ً وقوة السحب اﻻقل قيمة‪.‬‬