Chapter 2: Atoms, Elements, and Compounds - Notes *Note - refer to the textbook while studying with these notes 1. Elements Elements are fundamental substances in chemistry, and they are made up of only one type of atom. There are about 118 known elements, each with its own unique properties. Elements are classified on the periodic table, where they are organized by increasing atomic number. © Example: Oxygen (0), Hydrogen (H), Carbon (C) ‘* Explanation: These are pure substances made up of only one type of atom, 2. Atom - the Smallest Particle Atoms are incredibly small, with sizes on the order of nanometers (10-9 meters). ‘The nucleus, at the center of an atom, contains protons and neutrons. Electrons orbit the nucleus in energy levels or electron shells, ‘The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus. © Example: A carbon atom (C) © Explanation: Atoms are the smallest units of matter. A carbon atom is composed of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with electrons orbiting the nucleus. 3. Molecules Molecules are formed when two or more atoms chemically combine through covalent bonds. Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms. Molecules can be simple, like 02 (oxygen gas), or complex, like DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Example: Oxygen gas (02), Hydrogen molecule (H2) Explanation: Molecules are formed when two or more atoms chemically bond together. ‘Oxygen gas consists of two oxygen atoms (02), and a hydrogen molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms (H2).4, Compounds Compounds are substances made up of two or more different elements chemically bonded together. Chemical bonds in compounds can be covalent (sharing electrons) or ionic (transfer of electrons) Compounds have unique chemical formulas representing the types and ratios of atoms within them, «Example: Water (H20), Sodium chloride (NaC!) © Explanation: Compounds are substances composed of two or more different elements chemically bonded together. Water consists of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0), and sodium chloride consists of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl). 5. Formulae Chemical formulas are concise representations of compounds. ‘They consist of element symbols and subscripts indicating the number of atoms of each element. Example: Carbon dioxide (C02), Methane (CH4) Explanation: Chemical formulas represent compounds. Carbon dioxide is represented as. C02, indicating one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Methane is CHA, signifying ‘one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. 6. Balancing Chemical Equations Chemical equations describe chemical reactions, showing reactants turning into products. Balancing equations is crucial to ensure the conservation of mass and charge. Coefficients are used to balance equations, adjusting the number of molecules or atoms on both sides. Example: The combustion of methane: CH4 + 202 + CO2 + 2H20 Explanation: Chemical equations describe reactions. Balancing ensures that the number of atoms on each side is equal. Here, we balance by adjusting coefficients to make the equation balanced7. Mixtures. Mixtures are combinations of substances that are physically mixed but not chemically bonded. Components of mixtures can be separated through physical processes such as filtration, distilation, or evaporation, Examples include air (a mixture of gases) and saltwater (a mixture of salt and water) Example: Air (a mixture of gases), Salad (a mixture of vegetables) Explanation: Mixtures are combinations of substances that are physically mixed but not chemically bonded. Air consists of gases like nitrogen and oxygen. A salad combines various vegetables. 8. Difference between Mixtures and Compounds Compounds have fixed compositions and distinct properties, while mixtures can vary in composition and retain the properties of their individual components. Compounds require chemical processes for separation, whereas mixtures can be separated by physical means. Example: Air vs. Water (H20) Explanation: Air is a mixture because it's a combination of gases that can be separated physically. Water (H20) is a compound with a fixed composition; its elements (hydrogen and oxygen) are chemically bonded. 9. Proton Number and Mass Number, ‘The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus, defining the element. ‘The mass number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but different mass numbers, © Example: Carbon-12 (12C) ‘* Explanation: Carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons (atomic number) and 6 neutrons in its nucleus, making its mass number 1210. lons ons are charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons. Cations are positively charged ions formed when atoms lose electrons. Anions are negatively charged ions formed when atoms gain electrons. Example: Sodium ion (Na+), Chloride ion (Cl) Explanation: lons are charged particles. Sodium ion has lost an electron and carries a positive charge (cation), while chloride ion has gained an electron and carries a negative charge (anion) 11. Isotopes Isotopes have the same number of protons (same element) but different numbers of neutrons. This leads to variations in atomic mass among isotopes of the same element. Isotopes are often used in radiometric dating and medical diagnostics. © Example: Carbon-14 (14C), Carbon-12 (12C) ‘Explanation: Carbon-14 and Carbon-12 are isotopes of carbon, both with 6 protons but different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses. 12. Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) is the average mass of naturally occurring isotopes of an element, relative to the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Itis expressed in atomic mass units (amu) and is a weighted average based on the abundance of each isotope. Numerical Example for Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) Calculate Ar for carbon with two isotopes: 12C (98.89% abundance) and 13C (1.11% abundance). Ar= (12 * 0.9889) + (13 * 0.0111) = 12.01 (rounded to two decimal places). Explanation: Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) is the weighted average of isotopes’ masses based on their abundances.13. The Arrangement of Electrons in Atoms Electrons occupy specific energy levels (K, L, M, N shells) around the nucleus. Each energy level can hold a specific number of electrons (2, 8, 18, and so on). Electrons fill lower energy levels before moving to higher ones, following the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. Example: Carbon atom (C) Explanation: In a carbon atom, electrons occupy energy levels (shells) around the nucleus. Carbon has 6 electrons arranged as 2 in the first shell and 4 in the second shell following electron configuration rules. 1. Aufbau Principle ‘The Aufbau principle is a guideline for filing electrons into the energy levels (shells) of an atom, It states that electrons occupy the lowest energy level first before moving to higher levels. Imagine energy levels as a building with floors. Electrons start from the ground floor and fill it completely before moving to the next floor, ‘The order of filing energy levels is typically given as 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, and so on. 2. Pauli Exclusion Principle: ‘The Pauli exclusion principle is a rule that desoribes how electrons behave within an energy level or orbital. It states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of quantum numbers, which means they must have different "addresses" within an energy level Electrons have four quantum numbers: n (energy level), | (sublevel or type of orbital), m (orientation in space), and s (spin). ‘The most crucial part of the Pauli exclusion principle is that electrons must have opposite spins (one “up” and one "down") 3. Hund's Rule: Hund's rule is another principle that helps explain the arrangement of electrons in an atom, It states that electrons will fil orbitals of the same energy level one at a time before pairing up. ‘Think of orbitals as seats on a bus. Electrons prefer to sit alone in different seats before they reluctantly share a seat, This results in electrons filing one orbital in a sublevel before pairing up in the same orbital with opposite spins,In summary, the Aufbau principle tells us the order in which energy levels are filled, the Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of quantum numbers (including their spins), and Hund's rule explains how electrons prefer to ‘occupy orbitals one by one before pairing up. These principles help us understand the arrangement of electrons in atoms, which is essential in chemistry to predict the chemical behavior and properties of elements.