CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background of The Study One of man’s needs since creation has been that of mobility. This need brought about a systematic progress from paths to roads, from streams ane! rivers to the ocean, from the rails to the sky. is known as transportation. In any socio-economic system, transport development is one of the indispensible catalysts for activating and stimulating the tempo of economic, social, political and strategic development. The development of an efficient, Aeexible and dynamic transport system is therefore very vital for meaningful socio-ecanomic development and for binding the various components of any society. It contributes significantly to the value and utility of goods and services by moving them from where they are produced to where they are needed, In a socio-political context, transport provides part of the instrument for enhancing human interaction, blending of cultures and tradition as well as integration of socio-political entities In view of the foregoing, jable resources to t is imcumbent on every country to use her avail develop a functional, appropriate and reliable transport system. Nigeria, having 4 total ind area of 923,772km? and with more than 10,000km of navigable waterways and a reasonable long coastline. is therefore a good terrain for development of urban, urban and inter-urban roads, motorways and a good network of railway tracks is in a position to harness the potentials of all known nodes of transportation via, road, rail, water, pipe and air.Water twansportation amongst the above-mentioned is the oldest. A noticeable feature of water transportation is that it is the cheapest mode of transport because unlike other modes, nature plays a significant role in water transportation in provision of the basic infrastructiine, which is the watercourse. Utilization of these resources only requires keeping the watercourse navigable, This is because two third of the Earth is water, which is usually a natural medium. Water n has been a 1 uansportati ternational trade and human explorat | part of domestic ani for thousands of years. The advent of water vessels allowed peopte to circumnavigate the globe, expand their ranges, and take advantage of unprecedented opportunities. Societies are neatly always located near water, both for the resources it provides and because water transport is easier than travelling over land, And in recent decades especially, water transport has become an important part of tourism and recreation, This research is as such focused on irculation, improving water mobility in terms of reducing congestion caused by poor Inland waterways are made up of navigable rivers, lakes, coastal creeks, lagoons and canals (Aderemo and Mogaji, 2010). The movement of goods and services along inland waterways is one of the oldest means of transporting goods and services from point to point (Fellinda, 2006). This is largely due to the fact that inland water transport offers the most economical; energy efficient and environmentally friendly means of transporting all types of cargo from place to place (Qjile, 2006). It also offers safer and cheaper rates in areas where water exist turally, thus facilitating commerce, promoting wealth creation, poverty alleviation, and creates job opportunities for youths within these regions. The ancillary sector of boat building industries also generates employment through active engagement of the youths in welding and fabrication process (Gray, 2004). For instance, in the United States, waterways have beendeveloped and integrated into a world-class transportation system that has bee in the country’s economic development. Terminals are transportation centres where goods and people are transfered onto and off vehicles. Terminals include ports, airports, bus stations, and train stations, Terminal is defined as the end of « carrier line (such as a railroad, trucking, shipping line or airline, with accompanying dockyard facilities, management offices, and storage shades, freights and st ms. (Gove, 1976). He goes further to define a Terminal differently as a freight or passenger station that is central to a considerable area or serves as a junction at any point with other lines, Because transportation is the engine room of the growth of a nation’s economy, it was the objective of the National wansportation policy to remove any obstacle that could cause a deterrent to. growth in insportittion, As such, a well-developed waterfront (the terminal and surrounding fa nation of both ities) and how its space is utilized (owing that it is a com land and water and circulation i involved) will encourage participation in whatever activities that are carried out in waterfronts, A Terminal complex is the cardinal of transport inter-mod: y. Thi + an exchange point between maritime and road transport modes, Without building Boat Terminals, the development of Inland water ways is of no use because there is no interface for the two modes. Mariti ¢ Transport Terminal comprises terminal building and jetty. This infrastructure is used for handling the berthing of passenger and cargo vessels, passenger embarkation and disembarkation and the loading and off-loading of cargo. This research will seek to give attention to the development of the Calabar waterfront with respect to circulationwithin the fa ity as it promotes tourism and fosters a paradigm shift in modes of transportation from the all to0 conventional land transportation to water transportation, And it will also give attention to spatial utilization module that will be geared at maximizing land lise in activities that are solely water oriented all ina bid to encourage public water transportation. 1.1 Statement of Architectural Problem In Nigeria, Ezenwaji (2010) noted that inland waterways transverse 20 out of the 36 states within the nation and that areas adjacent to the navigable rivers represents the nations’ most important agricultural and mining regions. This creates an urgent need for innovative actions and strategies which can radically improve the sector so that it continues to. remain the bedrock of trade, industrial and economic growth, It has been observed that Bost Terminals have failed to meet the needs of combining retail and service areas, public parks/recreation areas, marinas and other river-oriented activities within a planned development, Such development is intended to be designed to provide for an internally oriented group of activities which are functionally rekwed to land uses, water ~ bound uses, vehicular and pedestrian circulation and the arrangement of structures., so that the architectural problem of circulation emerges. In addition, poor infrastructure has also limited flexibility in Boat Terminal design and planned diversification in the relationships in of and types of uses; poor development of circulation systems, land uses, ities; no provision for more usable and suitably locuted open space facilities and common facilities than would otherwise be provided under conventional land development procedures.For any medium of public transportation to be effective, there is a need for it to have a functional operational base, and proper circulation contributes to a functional Boat Terminal. With regards to proper circulation, it should be noted that there is the unavailability of shore- side property, and therefore important to ensure maximizing utilization of available space. 1.2 The Aim of the Study ‘The primary aim of this study is the development of public water transportation terminals to improve on the experience of boat transportation commuters and of operators by the application of architectural planning and design strategies at the terminals to enhance a smooth merge between land activities and water-bound activities. As it relates to achieving spatial utilization coupled with flexi ity of activities and optimal circulation. 1.3 The Objectives of the Study ‘This research focused on achieving the following objectives; i. To promote proper vehicular and pedestrian flow outside sind inside the Boat Terminal Complex. ii, To utilize architecture in fostering socio-economic sector and as well as further broaden the tourism potential of Cross River state. To promote Architectural determinants for building forms and articulating spatial characteristics of various units for the design of a Boat Terminal complex. iv. To formulate architectural design framework for inland waterways and address Architectural issues related eriteria for inland waterways and address Architectural issues related to waterfronts development, by way of establishing a principal and funetional componeint for the planning, design and construction of Boat Terminals,v, To deal with peculiarities (in terms of structures) in a Boat Terminal that is, the use of construction materials that are not susceptible to corrosion 14 Research Questions i. How do the people of Cross River state feel about water transportation either with respect {o transporting individuals, cargo or for tourism purposes? ii, Commuters who use the existing terminal, how convenient is it, how comfortable do they feel about using this boat terminal, How can the fat in the existing terminal become more functional? iv. What are the planning requirements that make the planning of a boat terminal mode v. What functional requirements can be applied (o this design project to make it more functional, spatially? vi. Why do people choose to go on land or transport their goods by land when they can actually do same for a cheaper price and less hectic conditions? 1.5 Scope of Project ‘The scope of this study is all encompassing, because just ax the project topie implies, itis a combination of different design ideas or concepts. A combination of both water bound and land bound designs merging to form one holistic Terminal Complex concept. ‘The following facilities are proposed to give the Boat Terminal Complex that holistic perspective: i. Terminal building facility (the main terminal building for ticketing, wait 2, arrival andl departure concourse, administrative offices) Warehouse facilities (warehouse store, offices for controllers of warehouse, restaurant and cloakroom).iii, Storage facilities (storage of goods for embarkation or disembarkation), iv. Safety facilities (safeguard, first aid department and boarding security department). ¥. Social facilities (parks, recreationall areas, sit outs), vie Sailing and jetties Getties for cargo travel, passenger travel of for boat cruises). The Jetty design is restricted to small-medium capacity (1 10 about SO people) passengers boat and small-medium size facilities for Tugboatsbergs and focal boats to convey goods such as food stuff, building material etc, 1.6 Study Area www theodore comimaps: Plate 1,1 Map of Nigeria showing Cross River State (Proposed lacation for project), ‘Source: Google Bari,Plate 1.2 Map of Cross River slate (Proposed losation for projest. ‘Source: Google Earth Pilate 1.3 Map showing an Arial view of the proposed site Source: Goagle Earth 8Cross River is the main river in southeastern Nigeria and gives its name to Cross River State. tori ates in Cameroon, where it takes the name of the Manyu River. Although not long by African standards its catchment has high rainfall and it becomes very wide. Over its last 80 kilometres to the sea its flows through swampy rainforest with numerous creeks and forms an inland delta near its confluence with the Calabar River about 20 kilometres wide and 50 kilometres long between the cities of Oron on the west bank and Calabar on the east bank, more than 30 kilometres from the open sea. The delta empties 0 a broad estuary which it shares with a few smaller rivers. At its mouth in the Atla Gcean, the estuary is 24 kilometres wide.shonrs stare Seale: 1250.00, femme nnn Phite 14 Map shawing the flow ofthe Cross River ‘Souince: Internal Revenue Cross River Si Cross River state lies between latitudes 4° and 8° and 6” 55° North and longitudes 7° S0° and 9° 28° east of the Greenwich meridian within the tropical rainforest belt of Nigeria, The eastern side of the estuary is in the neighboring country of Cameroon, 10‘The major tributary of Cross River is the river Aloma coming from Benue State to merge with the cross river in Cross River State. Cross River State is connected with a major highway to its sister state Akwa Ibom, The distance between Oron and Calabar is 21 kilometres by boat and about 200 kilometres by road, The population of the lower Cross River traditionally uses water transport and Calabar has long had a major seaport about 55 kilometres from the sea, The ltu Bridge on the Cross River is along Itu-Calabar highway and is reported to be one of the landmark achievements of the Gowon administration when it was completed in 1975. ‘The successful eliminating of hazards experienced in water transportation would be achieved by providing a functional boat terminal in Cross River state and it would enhance the rapid development of the Calabar Water-front as well as improve internally generated revenue for state, 7 Definition of Terms Boat Terminal: It is a location on a waterfront that contains one or more jetties, where boats can dock and transfer people or goods from and to land. Ware-house: A Warehouse is a commercial building for storage of goods. Warehouses are used by manufacturers, importers, exporters, wholesalers, transport business (terminals), customs ete, Berth: The general name given to a point where water vessels stop at the end of a journey, it comprises of fa +s for anchoring or mooring these water vessels. 1Breakwater: It is a rubble mouind or a reinforced concrete structure erected to break the force of the sea (wave action) and to protect or provide shelter for water vessels lying inside the harbor area. Access Channel: This isa stretch of water linking the basin of a terminal to the open sea. IWT: Inland Water Transport. Nautical mile/Knot: The measurement of the distance covered by a water vessel. Speed of water going vessels where | knot (nautical mile per hour) = 1852m (609f7). ‘Quay/ Wharf’ The stone or concrete structure platform constructed on navigable water used for loading and offloading a vessel at the terminal. There are basically two types namely; marginal and projected. Jetty: A high structure which projects out to deeper waters and serves as the specifie sloping of passengers and a discharge points for vessels. It could be constructed of local wooden pile, metal structures driven construction and abil y to withstand load. Gangway: This is a passage constructed between the Jetty and Quay. Usually, the gangway is fitted with protective devices as waiting to prevent users from falling into the water. It could also connect the Jetty to the terruinal building. Mooring: A system of fastening a vessel to the shore or sealed by means of ropes or chains such as quick release hooks and charts, mooring rings and bollards, 2CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ‘The movement of goods and people dates back to earliest times. It was the early man’s best means of extending the range of his ies, broadening his horizon and improving his living standards by securing raw materials, exchanging goods and culture between himself and other people. The ancient Egyptians, down to Chinese literature and modern technology all relate various modes of transportation shaped by environmental factors, technology and demand, In Nigeria, various studies have idemified the lack of adequate transport network as representing 4 major bottleneck for economic development and ineflicient movement of a nation’s commerce and people. The Marine transport syster is a very complex and large- scale sociotectnical environment comprising human and man-made entities that interact with cach other and operate in a physical environment (Mullai, 2004), ‘The main elements of the system are objects of transport, means of transport, circulation, infrastructures and facilities, which are linked by the information system and transport related activities. Historically, water transportation is as old as the early period of man’s existence, The exact time, in which marine activities stared, cannot be ascertained, However, Egypt civilization whieh is one of the world’s carly ‘ilizations is related to transportation on the river Nite, Bowen (1972) highlighted that scientific network of established sites and findings has clarified and augmented the ancient literary sources which first provided clues as to early marine activities. Evidem gleaned from numerous archeological sites illustrates. the 13ingenuity of prehistoric navigators who avoided sailing around stormy headlands in the frail= skin boats by disembarking on one side of the peninsula and then moving overland to the other side before restiming their journey by water, Ever since he devised the primitive boats, man hits made use of winos tides and currents in order to migrate explore and initiate trading routes on a scale that over land travel will not permit. Fig. 2.1 Paradig of Water Transportation (source: Author's Field work 2017) 2.1 Historical Development of Water Transportation ‘Travelling by water was among man’s earliest and best means of extending the range of his activities, broadening his horizon, and improving his living standards by securing raw materials and exchanging goods. One of the most important attributes of water transport is the relatively small effort needed to moor floating craft. A heavy boat or a barge weighing several tons can be moved through water slowly bul steadily by one man, Ifthe same barge were mounted on wheels, a man would be unable to push it along the road or even along rails. 14An airplane of the sarhe weight as the barge would require engites of 1,000 hursepower or nore in order to fly. ‘The earliest boats were probably built as a result of primitive man’s need to transport himself and his implements across water barriers. There are no dates to act as signposts for us in the dawn of history, but it is reasonably certain that men of the new Stone Age hid both the ingenuity and the tools to make boats, ‘The prehistoric man learnt that floating legs could be used collectively as.a raft. He further learat that by attaching animal signs to one ot more poles and fastening it to his raft, he could move acrass a river using the wind as the propellant. In those days men consiniéted canoes and ships from an assemblage of wooxt carcasses which they paddle over water as means of transport, These Wooden canoes were later transformed into larger cargoes and passenger vessels most of whieh were powered by slave men of those days, Rafts, made by lashing several logs together, were another early stage in boat building. They enabled far heavier and bulkier loads to be ferried but were unwieldy and difficult to stecr. Boat construction, rather than the adaptation of ee truiks, probably began in areas where there were no trees. In treeless countries they are fretiuently cattle, or, further north, seals, With the skins of these animals stretched over a wicker form workmen built coracles, canoes and kayaks, so that they could extend the range of their hunting and fishing, Slowly im the course of thousands of years, tools and skills improved and men leamed to build plank boats. (Zuofa, 2005). 15,Phate 2.1 Raft (sources Author's Field work 2017) The immediate gains from boat building were two-fold, Firstly, water, which had been a barrier, became a highway, Secondly, Water transport gave freedom of movement, and led to an inerease in the food supply and in the opportunities for barter and trad Water transporiation is a sector of transportation which can be seen as the pioneer in mans” quest for civilization, Thi fact is evident in the fact that ancient ci vation was foun places that were either located on a river bank or within close proximity to a fiver. These waterways were generally used as a means of communication between the people that dwell close to it. Even today, when we can go anywhere quite easily by railways, ear or air craft, travel and transport by water still has one big advantage: it is relatively cheap (Okio, 2046). All over the world where navigable rivers exist, they have always been use for travel and commerce. And with these, towns and cities located along rivers flourished with activity and transformed i trade centres, Thus, at the dawn of civilization man had already developed 16the sail boat, Subsequent important contributions to water transportation were also made by the four great civilizations of early human which evolved in close dependence on rivers and fertilefeasily worked soils, These four were the Sumerians on the Tigris and Euphrates River of ancient Iraq (40008), the Chinese on the Hwang Ho (yellow river) 2500BC, and the Harrapnas on the Indus River in Parkistan (3000BC) and finally the Egyptians on the famous River Nile (3500BC), ‘The earliest boats with sails, oars, and rudders of which we have a record are those of the ancient Egyptians. ‘This is not surprising considering that early civilization of Egypt began along a river valley. Models of ships which journeyed up and down the Nile have been found in tombs of the Pharaohs dating about 2000 B.C. Drawings from an even earlier period suggest that the Egyptians had properly built boats of crude sort as long ago as 4000B.C. Egypt is almost treeless and for that reason the first boats on the Nile were papyrus bundles lashed together. When stronger and heavier versions were built the Egyptian shipwrights used timber, both aeucia and cedar, but these trees provided the shipbuilders with only short irregular pieces of wood so they were not able to lay down long keels. The Egyptians, for all their wisdom, did not know how to harness draft horses, and, until 1600 BC, were without cles, Land transport was slow and costly. The Nile however, was a natural highway, which united the long valley. Boats provided the Egyptians with their only means of long-distance transport for the great masses of granite and basalt needed to build their pyramids and temples. Along the Nile, too, came supplies of corn for the cities, (Zuofa, 2005), WPlate 22 Boat with wooden hull (souree: Author's Field work 2017) ‘The Egyptians did not make considerable progress in shipbuilding and this can be attributed lo the nature of Egypt's waterways, It was only on the shores of an open sea that shipbuilding could be leamed, ‘The first great sea furing and trading people, the Phoenicians, founded colonies all along the shores of the Mediterrancan, yet there are little known about their ships. ‘The Greeks and Romans had large merchant fleets, but the most familiar ships from those civilizations are the war galleys, light aid elegant in Greck days, and study and powerful in Roman times. 18The Greeks and the Romans civilization (8" centu BC) also made improvements in terms of size and efficiency, The Spanish scientists in the 14" century invented the mariner's compass which boosted w ler transportation, Modernizs nin water transportation was further boosted by the introduction by the Am 15 of the float boats and ke eri -boat (1804), which were followed by the steam boat from 1811 ~ 1812, These early boals were rowed, paddled, poled or sailed. After the Second World War in 1946, Americans introduced the pontoons and assaults rafts, Téday, not only do we have pontoons, but also. various passengers, cargo and military ships as well as sophisticated navigation equipment highly skilled personals in the water transportation sub-sector making tray ing more enjoyable. The great age of discovery, with the vay: s af exploration, largely motivated by the search for gold and silver to pay for goods imported to Europe from the Middle and Far East, put 19enortious pressures on shipbuilders that hastened the development of the sailing ship. The seas were infested with buccaneers and faster ships were wanted to out sail them, Larger vessels able to carry bigger cargoes were alsa needed to make long voyages worthwhile, This period saw the introduction of the Clippers. With the clippers, the loveliest of all ships, the sailing ship reached the furthest point in its evolution. The job of the clippers was to carry valuable cargoes over long distances at high speed nd For years they were superior to the steamships of the mid 19th century. Plate 2.4 The elipper (source: Author's Field work 2017) ‘The hovercraft, invented by Sir David Cockerei in the 1950s, referred to as an aircraft by some, has played a growing part in passenger transport, Hovercrafts have shown themselves to be able to work over ice, snow, swamps and river delta where other craft could not penetrate. 202.2 Barly Development of The Transportation Plannistg Process In 1953, a major breakthrough was achieved with the work of Robert Mitchel and Chester Rapking of the University of Pennsylvania (Mitchell and Rapking, 1954) following an analysis for movement and land use date for Philadelphia, they expounded the thesis that different type of land use generate different and variable traffic flows. This approach brought about fundamental change: in the study and understanding only to improve the various elements of transportation problems such as congestion, delay, poor accessibility and accidents by produ ig proposal for capital investment in new transportation facilities or in supporting existing transportation services such as public transportation. This is in fact the main objective of the Chicago study (Chicago Area Transportation Study, 1959). During the sixties, this traffic functional planning. process. was gradually modified to incorporate a consideration of alternative future land uses. In fact, this approach confirm the general held view that “Urban Transportation planning is designed to develop and continuously evaluate short and long range wayswaterways transportation plans” (Bureau of Public Roads, 1970) ‘The primary aim of the transportation planning. process és to provide information necessary for long-term planning of urban areas. The initial aim of the transportation planning process was purely traffic function, circulation as the core factor. That it was aimed both | improve those obvious inefficiencies of the current transportation system, and to produce’ proposal for capital investment and construction in existing and new transportation facilities, which will improve the operating conditions of the estimated future movement flows where they are expected 10 overload most seriously on the ing transportation network, 222.2.1 Stages in the Transportation Planning Process The principal stages or steps in urban transportation planning process are: 1) Inventor: Which comprises the development of a data base for evaluating existing travel demand and exis ig transportation performance and a basis for producing demand ‘and future system requirement? 2) Land Use Forecast: Which involves forecasting the future urban system the transportation network is designed to serve. This requires the estimation of intensities and bution of population, employment, economic and social activities and land use. 3) Trip Generation: This is the process that estimates the total number of trips being made. It is used to estimate the number of trips generated or attracted by each zone and these are sel up as a function of the socio-economic and location structure, 4) Model Split: It is the proportional division of the total number of trips between different modes of trivel. It is based on the assumption that for a given travel demands, the proportion carried by car, bus rail or boat will depend on the standing of each mode of transport in relation to its competition. 3) Network Planning and Trip Assignment: Network planai aims to develop alternative Waterways/Highway and public transport network for the selected land use plan while traffic assignment allocates a given set of trip interchanges to a specific transport network or system. 6) Evaluation: Involves the testing and evaluation of alternative networks in terms of each alternative. The most common technique for evaluation is the use of cost-Benefit Analysis, Modeling is 10 dete whetlier or not a specific Solution will have a particular effect when implanted in the system. 232.3 TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT Afier centuries of gradual development in ship building and seafaring, the industrial revolution opened a new era of rapid change in water transport. The introduction of the steam engine in the late 18 Century ted to the development of the steamboats, The steamboat first was used mainly on rivers. By the iast half of the 19” Century, steamships were taking the place of slower sailing vessels on the open seas, Place 2.6 Steamship (source: Author's Field work 2017) During the century that followed, passenger and cargo fleets and powerful navies were built following the swift and remarkable advances in marine technology. Particularly popular is the molded fibre glass boat, in which fibre glass is combined with liquid resin under heat and pressure to produce a one-piece, leak proof hull that is durable and resistant to marine borer's 24and to rot. During the 1960s fibre glass replaced wood us the most popular coristruction material for small sailboats and power boats. On the other hand, wooden hulls were replaced first by iron and then by steet hulls, Plate 2.7 Fibre Glass Boul (source: Author's Field work 2017 ) ‘The paddle whee! gave way to the serew propeller = steam turbines displaced the early reciprocating engines, wood and coal fuels were succeeded by oil and nuclear power. The submarine was developed for war 25Technolog’ es in the late 18th and early 19th century. particularly the coming of steam and the building of ships of iron, and later, of steel brought about changes in propulsion and construction that were to Head to the emergence of the world’s merchant fleeis as they existed up to World War I. Early in the 19th century, the successful hamessing of steam to ship propulsion was exploited by traders who were quick to re: ize the advantages of speed provided by steam over sail 26Plate 2.9 Propeller Boat (source: Author's Field work 2017} 272.4 Water Transportation Target ‘Transport has always been a necessary part of man’s lite, The adequate implementation of his activity has always depended on his abil ¥y Lo transport, and rate of transporting himself, The American motorcar manufticturer, Henry Ford, reflected this in his remark, “Transportation is civilization”. When we consider the saying “time is money”, we tend to view the process of transportation as @ necessary inconvenience, It would be ultimately desirable if we could reduce transportation time to zero; subsequently we would be opportune to spend more time implementing other activities. The businessman would be very appreciative if he could disappear from his origin and reappear at his intended destination instantly. The concept of teleportation is an expression of this desire in man. Apart from leisure purposes, like the appreciation of scenery, and other abstract reasons, the most desirable duration of transportation is no time at all, Another consideration in man’s transportation is: the economic factor; transportation cost is another undesirable feature in the process of transportation, hence, man is constantly trying to reduce this cost considerably. Also notable fare the phys sul-safety factors, experienced in the amount of energy needed to implement this process. We can thus adjust our previous statement thus: he is constantly trying so hard to reduce transportation time to the barest possible minimum, within the most attainable safety limits, at the lowest possible financial cost, with as much case as he can, 2.5 The Objectives of the National Transportation Policy The social and economic needs of a country determine the roles of the transportation system und indicate the problems to which the transportation policy should respond. The Nigerian transportation system is very complex, and so are the problems associated with it, For example the transportation infrastructure grows at a much lower rite than the rate of growth in the social and economic sector, which the system services. Resources available in thetransportation sub-sector are insufficient to meet the increasing need of the system, The transportation policy acknowledges these complexities and provides a consistent general approach and guide for the solution of these problems, ‘The Nigerian transportation prilicy therefore addresses the following goals, whieh are the main thrust of the transportation policy. i. Adequacy: Aims at ensuring that transportation infrastructure and services are adequate to meet social and economic goals of government Effi ney: Concerns the most efficient use of these resources and the overall improvement of the sector's productivity. Safer Requires that in the design of transportation infrastructure and the provisions of transportation services, safety issues are given priority. iv. Reliability: Aims at attracting specific importance to the role of transportation as a catalyst for economic activities, Improvements in transportation sector productivities lead directly to economic gains, v. Self Reliance: Aims at reducing the reliance on materials and technologies sourced abroad since this imposes a constraint on the economy by spending a large proportion of foreign exchange to provide these materials and technologies. 2.6 History of Water Transportation in Nigeria before the Colonial Rule ‘The history of transportation is intimately tied to the long history of mankind. It is a story of man's courage and ingenuity in overcoming obstacles to conquer the land (in ease of land transportation), to conquer the air (in ease of air transportation) and to conquer the sea (in case of water transportation). ‘The history of water transportation in Nigeria did not occur in isolation from other parts of the world. 2927 Review of Studies on Inland Waterways Transport in Nigeria Fig. 2.2 Inland River Ports in Nigeria ‘Source: Nigerian Inland Waterway Authority (NIWA). 2012 Research and publications on inland water transport in Nigetia probably dates back to the pioneering warks of Professor R.K. Udo in the 1970s. Udo (1970) noted that water is one of the natural resources which Nigeria has in abundance and that the country has the opportunity to service most landlocked countries in West Africa such as Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali and Niger. Nigeria is richly endowed with surface water resources and that over $000 kilometers of the inland waterways are navigable,Plate 2.10 Cruise Boat (source: Author's Ficld work 2017) Several other researchers such as Adetota (1971), Etw-Effeotor and Odidi (1983) Badejo (1995) Adams (1998, 1999, 2004), Qlogunorisa (1999), Douglas (2001), Anyam (2003), jie (2006), have written on various aspects of Inland Water Transport in Nigeria such as the origin, advantages, neglect, management, problems and potentials of inland water transportation. For instance, Badejo (1995) established tha he River Niger, after which the country is the named, and Benue, its largest tributary, are the main rivers whose channels proviile the longest waterways into the hi jerland of the country, Both rivers rise outside the country but meet at Lokoja confluence and later enter the gulf of Guinea through a large network of creeks and distributaries which form the 1 Delta, They also noted that rapids and falls are common along many Nigerian rivers and that these are parily responsible for the fact that navigation is not possible along certain parts of these rivers. 31In another study, Badejo (1995) discovered that the capacity of Nigerian navigable waterways has increased to about 10,000 kilometers plus an extensive coastline of about 852 kilometers. Based on this, he noted that the country has a huge potential to move goods and massengers from the coast t the hinterland by water, Also he regretted that the immense opportunities which the Nigerian inland waterways provide for business is yet to be tapped by potential investors, He established that despite her huge potentials, inland water transport is yet to become an alternative means of transportation to road and air such that passengers and cargo can sustainably and efi tly be moved to their dest through water. Similarly, he lamented that inland water transport is yet to receive the attention it deserves from the federal government particularly in the win areas of funding and infrastructural development. He outlined the physical impediments to improved performance in the sector to include non- channelization and dredging of navigable rivers, inadequate construction and rehabilitation mn of river ports, limited water transported infrastructures (comfortable boats, jetties and quays) and safety and security concerns along these navigable waterways, land Ezenwaji (2010) focused on the poor use of "r§ as transport routes in Nigeria. He compared the percentage share of that transport mode to others in Nigeria and elsewhere. He noted that Bangladesh water transport constitutes 32% of the transport sector (Rahmam, 199: : 20% in Philippines (Fellinda, 2006); 3% in Sicrra Leone (Kimba, 2008); 0.15% India (Raphuram, 2004) and only 0.08% in Nigeria despite the country's rich endowment of inland waterways (that cover over 8.575 kilometers) and some innovative initi ives introduced by the Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA). He established, like earlier researchers (Aderemo and Mogaji, (2010), that several natural factors negatively affect the utilization of inland waterways as transport routes in Nigeria, 32In a recent study, Obed, (2013) established that the viable opportunities which inland water transport offer to investors include facility management, jetty operations and boat building. He agreed with an earlier observation that security concerns discourage potential investors from tapping into the viable business opporwnities, which the Nigerian Inland Water Transportation provides. There have also been several reports of consultancies by development agencies and firms, aspects of which have dealt with diverse Inland Water ‘Transport development issues such as river channels dredging and maintenance, private sector involvement in the water transport sector, construction and rebabilitations of river ports, acquisition of passenger ferries, security boats, building of channels buoys and other projects. The conclusions reached are that investment apathy on the part of investors and conflicts between federal and state agencies involved in supervising Inland Water ‘Transport in Nigeria are some of the factors limiting the development of Nigerian’s Inland Water Transport. From the above review, it is erystal clear that the spatial structure of inland water transport operations, its major contributions, socio-cultural constraints-limiting its operations and policy thrusts andl targets are relegated to the background in Nigeria's economy, Hence, the need for this study to reemphasize the numerous benefits of the inland water transport sector in Nigeria, 2.8 Inland Waterways in Nigeria ‘The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) was established by Decree No. 13 1997 with a clear mandate to manage Nigeria's vast inland waterways resources, The Decree vested in the National Inland Waterways Authority, the absolute power of exclusive management, direction and control on the Nigerian inland waterways. This power is 33,exercised on Nigeria’s 3000km navigable waterways from the Nigeria/Niger and Nigeria/Cameroon borders to the Atlantic Ocean, so Nigeria's inland waterway transportation was suitable for North-South movement of people and goods. These waterways comprises of the main river system (Rivers Niger and Benue which form a confluence in Lokoja), creeks, lagoons, lakes and intra-coastal waters. 2.9 — Functions of the National Inland Waterways a) Regulatory Services ‘The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) issues licenses for Inland navigation, piers, jetties and dockyard; examine and survey inland watercraft and shipyard operators, grant permit and licenses for sarid dredging, pipeline construction, dredging of slot and approve designs and construction of inland river crafts, b) Transport Services ‘The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) is equipped with @ number of vessels, enabling operation of ferry services (for economic goods and passengers) and run cruise boats (for tourism and leisure). Many boats and ferries are refurbished and deployed 10 respective routes by NIWA in a bid to fulfill its key function of operating safe and efficient water transportation. ‘The importance of ports and inland waterways cannot be over-emphasized. It does not only serve'as a shelter for ships and goods but also perform other socio-economic functions in any society. The ports generate foreign and local revenue and investment to any government. Goods are usually imported and exported through ports and the investors pay duties and taxes to the port administrators, It creates room for employment in the society. The port serves as a tourist centre for people and nations of different backgrounds — be it economic, social,political and cultural, as they come together to use these services. Businessmen, students and all sorts of persons visit the ports for excursion, leisure and business activities. Due to the hazardous nature of some goods like oil, gas, petroleum products and industrial equipment, it is more convenient to transport them through the ports and inland waterways than by roads. Ponts activities help to promote urbanization and industrialization of any city and to ease traffic congestions, In spite of the importance of ports and inland waterways, it has some disadvantages, such as the use of it for arms deals, drug trafficking and other forms of social vices. 210 ‘The Contribution of Inland Water Transport to the Nigerian Economy ‘eld investigations revealed tha jand water transport, expecially in the deltaie areas of Lagos, Rivers, Cross River, Bayelsa and Akwa Ibom, plays a key role in rural development. Its use w move goods and services was found to fuel the economic growth and rural development of the local, coastal communities especially where it is the only means of transport available. An official of The Nigerian Inland Waterways Authority (NIWA) posited that Inland Watcr Transportation forms an integral part of the region social Fabric and plays a pivotil role in assisting the people, especially the poor, in gaining access to social services, employment opportunities and in benefiting from the nations’ economic agenda. Inland Water Transportation enhances rural productivity and it is necessary for the continued existence of the dispersed settlements in the region, ‘There were indeed reported and widespread evidences especially in the coastal states that Injand Water ‘Transportation promotes ail facets of agro and other businesses- ranging from crop production through fishery, production of basic materials, processing of timber products to the promotion of rural development. Findings revealed that this mode of transport 35,Promotes the growth of rural economies, both through its direct positive impacts on commerce, agriculture ancl industries. In addition, it offers hundreds of millions of people the opportunity to produce ot purchase suflicient food, fish and other goods, especially in the remote coastal communities where it remains the only means of transport available, Chief Madueke, « one-time minister of Transport in the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2001) said that transport isto the Nigerian economy what artery is to the blood circulation system of the body. Without maritime transport, Nigeria would have been landlocked and its economy stagnant, Over 96% of the transportation of Nigeria’s extemal trade is by maritime transport. The significant importance of the maritime transport to the Nigerian economy can be identified in the fallowing areas of its contribution namely: i, ‘Transportation The development of waterbome transport in Nigeria is induced und faci its geo-physical features in which there are navigable inland waterways, direct access to the Atlantic Ocean, but also because its economy is highly dependent on the exportation of agricultural products and crude oil atid the importation of niachinery. equipment and raw materials for its indusiries and finished goods. Therefore, if Nigeria had been without mi ‘time transport and so a lindlocked country, it woukl have been difficult and expensive for its residents to engage in international and domestic trade and this would have created a. great strain on other modes of transportation. It is maritime transport that relieves other means of transport like rail, road and air and their infrastructure of available infrasiniicinte of avoidable presstite and congestion that they would otherwise have been under, so maritime transportation curries those heavy cargo at less expensive costPromotion of Traile and Commerce: Nigeria heavily reties om extemal trade to sustain its domestic economy through importation of raw materials and equipment, machinery vised by mantfacturers and. for the exportation of its crude oil and agricultural ancl manufactured products, The essentials of a reliable and cheap means of transportation which muritime transport offers does not only make the landing cost of these cargoes lower but also makes it possible for large quantity of tonnage to be carried over long distance and landed in Nigeria, thereby reducing the cost of the imported and manufactured goods since transportation cost is one of the variable costs of production, Maritime transport zones are known for étiracting numerous export companies; manufacturers that provide employment opportunities to indigenes apart from revenue generation, iii, Promotion of Tourism: During festive periods and Holidays, many in Nigeria emuise to beaches for pienies, musical shows, entertainment and other relaxation purposes. Tourism, whici maritime transportation encourages and facilitates is an avenue through which the state and federal governnient realizes revenue. channeled to developmental projects. Development of related Economic activities: Maritime transport has catised the springing up of new developments and growth of economic activitios to service the maritime industry by way of multiplier effects Banks also show interest in financing the acquisition of vessels and in their charter whilst surahice companies provide variotis insurance covers to cargo, freight, sips, hull and machinery and other marine risks, The construction industry including the quantity 37Surveyors, building engincers are engaged in the construction, expansion and repairs and dredging of ports and infand waterways, Information technologists are engaged to supply and maintain computers, marine radio communication and radar systems for safe navigation, pilots and sailors are engaged where necessary Whilst freight forwarders, shipping agents, shipping consultants, maritime lawyers arise to supply the needed services for the maritime sector, The increased turnover of those engaged in businesses relating 10 maritime transport contributes to the gross domestic product and increased economic acti ¥. Creation of employment and job opportunities: Maritime transport is also of significant importance to the Nigerian economy because it creates employment opportunities for Nigerians thereby ensuring engagement of workers and reduction of sovial problems induced by employment. The shipbuilding and repairs industry employs workers to mee ious needs; seafarers/seamen, master, engineers etc, are employed to meet the demands of the ship-owners, ship operators and demise charterers for the operation and manning of the vessels, The business made available by maritime transport to the various maritime (ransport-related Nigerian professionals duces the need for the training of and availability of specialized personnel and manpower to service the maritime industry. It has been argued that the maritime industry in both its public and private sectors provides 10% of the job opporwnities available in Nigeria. Chukwuma (2014) opined that the available jobs in the maritime industry have a multiplier effect on the development of other economic ¢ like freight forwarding, dock working, stevedoring operations, towage, pilotage, warehousing. marine insurance,banking, bonded warehousing and cargo handling all of which depend on the maritime sector for survival. It has also induced economic activities in the informal sector such as pelly trading, hawking and food vending all of which gainfully engage Nigerians, vi. Industrial growth and development: Industrialists prefer 10 build factories, industries and warehouses near waterfronts in order to reduce transportation costs especially in the case of those industries that depend heavily on imported raw materials and equipment in order to manufacture finished goods for the domestic and foreign markets. This reduction in transport costs also reduce the costs of their finished goods which in turn increases the sales of their products leads to high annual tumovers and enhances their growth. As a result of the Calabar port, the Calabar Free Trade Zone was set up pursuant to which a lot of industries including foreign companies have been established and are still being established there in order to manufacture goods for export there. Industries engaged in manufacture of goods are also being deliberately sited by seaports and waterfronts in order to take advantage of the attendant low cost of transportation of their manufactured goods and production. Badejo (2000) revealed that 70% of industrial activities of Nigeria were sited around the port cities of Lagos, Warri, Port Harcourt and Calabar, consequently, the presence of ports due to maritime transport stimulates the development and growth of industries, which facilitates the growth of the Nigerian economy. 39vii, Institutional Development: tutions have been established in order to service the maritime sector and which have been substantial contribution to the Nigerian economy because of maritime transport, Some of these institutions are involved in the traising and education of manpower resources including seafarers and engineers for the maritime sector and include Maritime Academy, Oron and the Nigerian Institute of Transport Technology, Lagos International relations and peaceful co-existence: Nigeria is a member of Intemational and regional maritime organizations including International Maritime Organization, United Nations Environmental Programe, Maritime Organization of West and Central African States from which it has been deriving immense benefits because of maritime transport, Through its membership in these organizations, Nigeria establishes and ma mains friendly relations with co-members of them and Nigeria cooperates with them in matters of safety of maritime transport and ¢ environment to the benefits of protection and preservation of the mari economy. ‘The establishment and equipment of the Nigerian navy because of the presence of maritime transport has enabled the Nigerian Navy to play active peace-keeping and peace-enforcement roles in the West African countries of Liberia and Sierra Leone. ix, Socio-politieal harm There have been cases of inter-tribal and inter-national marriages involving seafarers of various nationalities conducted on Nigerian vessels or foreign vessels within Nigerian territorial waters because of the presence of maritime transport. This has encouraged the unity of the various ethnic nationalities in Nigeria and encourages socio-politicalharmony. Foreigners and foreign séafaters bringing their cultral attimdes to Nigerian ports had also enhanced cultural exchanges due to the presence of ports and ma transport, x. Defense and Security ~ Territorial Protection: Badojo (2000) opined that the defense and security of the Nigerian territory from extemal hostile espionage from aggressions and incursions through its territorial waters is in its national interests and is facilitated by maritime transport, Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, up to the contiguous zone, Nigerian Customs and Immigrations can put their border ports for their activities including checking of smuggling. The Nigerian Navy is able to repel any such external aggression because of the existence of maritime transport, 2.10 The Decline of Water Transportation in Nigeria ‘The Nigerian eivil war (1967 to 1970) disrupted water transport severely as the lower Niger and Delta waterways were in war theatre. Produce from the northern paris of the country therefore had to fiid an alternative route to the Seaports for export. To a large extent, road transport filled the gap. ‘The reconstruction period after the war saw the Federal Government of Nigeria making relatively large investment in road development. This resulted in significant improvement and expansion in our road network. Our waterways received no such vestinent and had no provement. Some of the shipping companies lost most of their floating and cargo handling equipment in the war and needed to repair/replace them to operate, Also, the fact that road transport requires comparatively much smatter initial investment and relatively simple organization to operate on small scale brought land transportation business within the reach of many Nigerians. aL2.11 Water Transportation in Cross River State Apart from the ancient dugout canoe, the major modes of water transportation are the outboard engine boat, the in-board engine boat and the speedboat, Although the speedboat is the smallest of them all, itis the fastest and the most flexible in spatial operation, essentially because of its shallow draught. The out-board engine boat on the other hand is generally the slowest but is usually more flexible than the in-board engine boat, The advantage of th board engine boat lies in its carrying capacity. It has the largest carrying capacity when compared to the speedboat and the out-board engine boat. Whereas the speedboat is strictly a passenger vessel, the other types carry both goods and passengers. ‘The operators of the motorized boats are almost exclusively private entrepreneurs, Where goveniment is involved, the operations have been insignificant atid largely unreliable (Ikporukpo, 1994), Generally, the most tised mode is the out-bourd engine boats, This is very closely followed by the speedboat, which leads in terms of the frequency of patronage by individuals. The most important reason For mode choi is ready availability, However, cost, comfort and speed are other reasons (Ikporukpo, 1994). The reasons for mode choice are to a large extent related to the nature of transportation problem in the area, Consequently, the irregularity in operation and cost are the mast important criteria, a22.12 General Planning Principles 2.12.1 Terminal Planning Principles The allocation and arrangement of both outdoors and indoors spaces in a Boat terminal requires some basic planning principles. These principles are ied below: i, The terminal building should have be the core area or principle focus of the terminal since it serves the primary function of the terminal, which is meeting the terminal needs of transit passengers, originating passengers and terminating passengers. ii, Planning efforts should be geared towards optimizing the site focus ~ size, shape, topography etc. iti, Waterside and Jandside activities should be separated iv. Departure and arrival flow systems must be separated within the terminal. v. ‘The site must be planned to enhance the visual image of the terminal, vi. Terminal facilities, especially the terminal building should be located so. as to guarantee good view of the activities at the waterfront. 2.13 Planning Requirements 2.13.1 Transit facilities inimum distances from berthing area if they must transit passengers. Security checks should be installed on all passengers’ arvival/departure routes, iii, Transit facilities should aid for easy access evacuation, iv, It should also aid easy transit between waterside and landside areas, 432.15.2 Maintenance Facilities i ‘The maintenance workshop should have easy access to the berthing area. It should be closely related to the fuel depot. ji, Wt should be relatively open on the sides to encourage natural lighting and ventilation. iii, ‘The roof of the workshop should be high enough to accommodate ferries due for repairs. 2.13.3 Outdoor Facil i. Outdoor facilities should be planned to encourage tourism and visual satisfaction 2.13.4 Prevailing Winds ‘The direction and velocity of prevailing winds over the surface of the water will be the controlling factor in determining the direction af water lanes, When the water landing area consists of a single lane (covering two wind directions) the greatest percentage of wind coverage should be obtained. In many cases these single lane operating areas cannot be oriented to take maximum advantage of the prevailing winds, In this regard, a shifting of the direction of the water lane should be effected so as to utilize the greatest possible wind coverage in conjunction with water currents and approach conditions, The influence of approach zones and currents is explained under these two respective headings that follow, Where all-way landings and takeoffs can be provided, a study of the wind conditions will indicate the primary and secondary water-lane directions2.13.5 Arrivals and Departure Zones For boat terminal operations the ideal approach zone is one which pei unobstructed approaches over walter at a ratio of 40 :1 or flatter, with ample jcarance on either side of the approach zone center line, ‘The width of the zone should increase from the ends of the water lanes so that at a distance of | mi from the end of the water lane, the zone is approximately the width of the water lane plus 1,000 ft. Under fayorable temperature conditions a water-borne boat will leave the water and move a distance of approximately 400 fit. before kicking off with speed. Furthermore, for obvious safety reasons, arrivals and departures should not be made over populated areas, beaches and similar shore developments. 2.13.6 The Shoreline Area Shoreline installations are partly on land and in the water, They are required to perform wo general functions: i. To provide servicing, loading and unloading, handling and tie-up faci ies fo boats without removing them from the water, and ii, To provide haul-out facilities for removing boats from the water. ‘The types, size, and arrangement of these installations will be determined by water conditions, the topography of the land adjacent to the water, the configuration of the bottom of the water area, the nber and type Gf boats to be docked or removed fram the water, an wind conditions. The tallation will wary from a simple wood-plank platform to the more elaborate ramps with railway facilities, piers, and floats. 452.13.7 Ramps ‘The simplest form of ramp consists of a wood-plank platform approximately 15 by 20 ft. lay on a sloping shore, with half ils length in water. A device such as this will allow a small boat to taxi Up and out of the water. The use of such a ramp is predicated upon a relatively constant water level and the shore slope no steeper than 8 to 1. ‘The slope of any ramp should not be greater than 7 to 1, with gradual slopes down to 10 to 1 being preferred. Slopes less than 10 to 1 usually are too long and hence costly to construct. Chapter 4 shows the maximum draft of seaplanes of various weights and types. These data are useful in determining the depth to which the submerged ends of a ramp roust be lowered. A depth of ramp toe of 4 fl. will provide sufficient depth for most types of waterborne craft in use today; a depth of 3 ft, will permit handling of all but the heaviest type of amphibians. For small, light, boats a depth of about 18 in. is adequate. In all eases, this dimension should be established for mean low water, 13.8 Piers 1s oF fixed over-water structures can be utilized where the variation in water level is 18 in, or less. The pier should extend into the water to a point where the water depth is adequate for the types of boats to be handled, ‘The usual design for a pier incorporates an access walk approximately 5 ft. im width with hand railings on both sides and an open-decked handling area approximately 30 by 50 ft. at the walk’s end, An oper-docked area of this size will provide tie-up space for four small oF three large boats, On long piers where the walking distance is too great for convenient handling of service equipment, small storage shed may be located near the open-decked area. Fueling and lubrication facilities should also be located at the end of the pi 46