Ole Preben Riis in "Methodology in the Sociology of Religion" (2011) defines religion as

"a world view, an ideology, an organization, an attitude, a set of values, as moods and
motivations, or as an ethical disposition.“ The Penguin Dictionary of Religions says
religion is "a general term used in most modern European languages to designate all
concepts concerning belief in God(s) and Goddess(es) as well as other spiritual beings
or transcendental ultimate concerns.“
Some Christians declare that Christianity as "not a religion, but a relationship with
Jesus.“ Some Muslims say "Islam is not a religion - it is a way of life.“ It used to be the
case that "most Hindus do not realize they 'belong' to that religion, for it is a name given
by outsiders. Thankfully, most adherents understand the utility of words well enough to
accept that they belong to specific religions, and nowadays there is a strong Hindu-
awareness movement that heralds a new generation of Hindus.
Many definitions of religion have been attempted but many fall foul of being too narrow,
or too wide. Aside from the definitions given earlier, religion is also explained as “the
belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or
gods.“ It is “a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe,
especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman agency or agencies,
usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code
governing the conduct of human affairs.“ Religion, then, “consists of beliefs, actions,
and institutions which assume the existence of supernatural entities with powers of
action, or impersonal powers or processes possessed of moral purpose.” Religions are
shared collections of transcendental beliefs that have been passed on from believers to
converts, that are held by adherents to be actively meaningful and serious and either
based on
(1) formally documented doctrine (organized religion) or

(2) established cultural practices (folk religion).

Actors of religion are among the oldest of transnationals, carrying words and praxis
across vast spaces, which include individuals or groups, who act on consistent
messages regarding the relationship between religion, politics and society.
How did religions crossed the local barriers? Well, globalization began 3000 years ago
as the Silk Road facilitated trade and cultural exchange (i.e. textiles, spices and even
religions were all exchanged along the Silk Road). The Silk Road presented religious
communities with the most efficient way to spread their beliefs where Missionaries often
joined caravans and traders. Buddhism was the first great missionary faith spreading
from Northern India to Afghanistan and Bengal and finally to China, Korea, and Japan,
and back to Tibet. Note that silk was extensively used in Buddhist ceremonies
stimulating the demand and facilitating trade along the Silk Road enhancing
globalization but Islam was the dominant religion among Silk Road traders for most of
the time.
Islamic scientific and medical advancements also had significant impact on Silk Road
travelers. In fact, Chinese Buddhist traders adopted Islamic medical knowledge in
wound healing and urine analysis. Thus, interconnectivity of trade, culture and religion
enhanced globalization.
The irony is that religious actors have been agents of globalization for centuries
(individualists) and yet globalization is often associated with spreading same ideas and
views (universalists). Samuel Huntington (1992) sees a clash of civilizations between
the universalists and individualists, between the West and Rest because globalization
does not lead to identical responses from all religious actors (although globalization is
sometimes actively pursued by religious actors). A perfect example of this paradox is
the Al Qaeda which opposes Westernization, but at the same time, utilizes the tools and
techniques of this phenomenon to achieve their own globalizing aim.
Huntington offers six explanations for why civilizations will clash:
1. Differences among civilizations are too basic in that civilizations are differentiated
from each other by history, language, culture, tradition, and, most importantly, religion.
These fundamental differences are the product of centuries and the foundations of
different civilizations, meaning they will not be gone soon.
2. The world is becoming a smaller place. As a result, interactions across the world are
increasing, which intensify "civilization consciousness" and the awareness of differences
between civilizations and commonalities within civilizations.
3. Due to economic modernization and social change, people are separated from
longstanding local identities. Instead, religion has replaced this gap, which provides a
basis for identity and commitment that transcends national boundaries and unites
civilizations.
4. The growth of civilization-consciousness is enhanced by the dual role of the West. On
the one hand, the West is at a peak of power. At the same time, a return-to-the-roots
phenomenon is occurring among non-Western civilizations. A West at the peak of its
power confronts non-Western countries that increasingly have the desire, the will and
the resources to shape the world in non-Western ways.
5. Cultural characteristics and differences are less mutable and hence less easily
compromised and resolved than political and economic ones.
6. Economic regionalism is increasing. Successful economic regionalism will reinforce
civilization-consciousness. Economic regionalism may succeed only when it is rooted in
a common civilization.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON RELIGION:

Religion and globalization have always shared a relation of struggle and conflict. While
globalization has generally been linked with economic and political interdependence,
which ultimately brought people closer, it also has shifted the cultural build-up of the
world that led to the formation of a global culture. As mentioned earlier, globalization has
diverse, even paradoxical implications for religion. By diminishing the barriers between
different cultures, globalization lands religion in a dilemma of conflicts. The distinct
norms, different cultures and different worshipping ways and practices will be wiped out
by globalization, which promotes homogeneity (referred to as worldwide cultures
becoming similar). Threat to traditions of religions, disintegrate traditional social norms
and values by the invasion of consumerism, cyber culture, and etc. Moreover, human
rights are becoming the main issue in the global world concerning the status of women
and ritual killings and human sacrifice. Globalization may have also implied on faith in
the following three possible impacts:

1) Religion is being eroded;

2) Religion is being strengthened; and

3) Religion is declining but it has developed new identities of hybridity.

CONFLICTS vs. COOPERATION

Many internal and external conflicts exist in this multipolar world. There is evidence of
resurgence of conservative-traditionalist religious movements that have often been
labelled as religious fundamentalism. Religious fundamentalism is best explained as: 1)
a religious phenomenon; religious is very essential as ideology, ethos, goals, leadership
of fundamentalism are founded and built on religious beliefs and practices; 2) a reaction
to and cultural changes which are experienced as a dramatic crisis so that it differs from
traditionalism; and 3) a defensive reaction which attempts to preserve or restore an
idealized or imagined former social order which is characterized by a strict patriarchal
order and moralism.

People cannot bear these uncertainties - any movements, like religious fundamentalism,
that are regarded to bring certainties back will gain its market and acceptance (i.e. the
creation of extremists and terrorists).

Essentially, all religions teach these shared principles of love, patience, peace, justice
and equality.. The phenomenon of globalization of religion has made it easier to transfer
the all-embracing message of any religion all over the world. As a result, societies are
becoming less exclusive and more multi-religious.

Social reality forces world religious communities to get rid of their exclusive attitudes
and to develop some universal orientations, which should be more accommodating to
the other. Inter- religious dialogue, therefore, can be a discourse between two or more
religious organizations for better understanding of the tenets of each religion in order to
promote peaceful coexistence among the practitioners of such religions. Thus,
interreligious dialogue will be fruitful as people of different religions and faith encounter
each other in an atmosphere of freedom and openness for each partner to listen and
understand each other.

THE SPREAD OF RELIGION VS. SECULARIZATION

The inner nature of religions and the purpose to be embraced and practiced by people
all over the world prompts it to spread throughout all the world’s geographical spaces. In
order to emerge and spread, therefore, religions make good use of the technologies of
globalization.

Having geographical boundaries and frontiers blurred and dissolved, religions find it
easy to spread and reach every part of the world. For instance, countless websites
providing information about religions have been created. This makes pieces of
information and explanations about different religions readily at the disposal of any
person regardless of his or her geographical location. In addition, the internet allows
people to contact each other worldwide and therefore hold forums and debates that
allow religious ideas to spread. Furthermore, the media plays the same important role in
the dissemination of religious ideas. In this respect, a lot of TV channels, radio stations
and print media are founded solely for advocating religions.

Taking Islam as an example, we find such TV channels as Iqrae, Ennass, Majd, El

Houda, Erahma, etc. as purely religious channels created for the strengthening and
fortification of Islam. Transportation means—as a technology of globalization as well—
have contributed considerably to the emergence, revivalism, and fortification of religion.
In this respect, Turner (2003) states that the “Islamic revivalism in Asia is related to the
improvement in transportation that has allowed many Muslims to travel to Mecca and
return with reformist ideas. Globalization technologies, therefore, have helped religions
of different forms, i.e., fundamentalist, moderate, etc., to cross geographical boundaries
and be present everywhere.

Consequently, the increase of industrialization, urbanization and rationalization would

bring about the decrease of religious faith. Religion would become less important factor
in human life of modern society and a modern secular system would be a dominant
force as theological system was falling down. Religion would eventually vanish from the
lives of modern secular society.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GLOBALIZATION AND RELIGION

Religion has always sought to spread its message beyond frontiers. While globalization
with its homogenization can disturb cultures so that some religions oppose it, some
people might seek protection from globalization impacts and foster opposition. It is
important to note that globalization does not lead necessarily to a homogenization of
groups and the rise of a universal community, because there is the desire for esteem
within a culture.

SECULARIZATION
Each religion has secularized in its own distinctive way, which has resulted in its own
distinctive secular outcome. Even if globalization increases secularization, it does not
bring one common worldview. As countermovement to US-globalization, Islam
revivalists and developing neo- Confucianism promote Asian values. Great religions see
the globalization led by the US closely connected to secularization and therefore as
threat to themselves. Special in the world view is Protestantism as it rejects hierarchy
and community and any intermediaries between the individual and God in contrast to
most other religions.

Is secularization a consequence of globalization? Let us analyze in the following table.

RELIGION IN GLOBALIZATION: ONGOING CONFLICT OR COEXISTENCE?

Mark Juergensmeyer (1995) explains why global religious resurgence is possible.
Nation-state provided a secure sense of identity, accountability, and security for a stable
society. However, nation states have lost its role.

1 Transnational economic systems undercut national structures of authority and control.

2 New communication networks made instant contact possible across the world.
3 Massive demographic shifts everywhere.

As a result, the idea of a homogenous national cultural identity became a relic of the
past. People started to regard that religious community can provide identity,
accountability, and security.

Harald Müller (2010) explains the coexistence of civilization in terms the relationship
between globalization and religion. The impact of globalization is without a doubt, a
huge change in every aspect of life. The impact to one‘s identity, however, poses
diverse responses due to unfamiliarity such that

1 Aggressive responses include religious fundamentalism and xenophobia and

2 Receptive responses include attention and adaptation, coexistence. In other words,
communication and cooperation are the keys to coexistence. But how, you may ask?
People must have common perceptions in terms of

1 Respect for human right and dignity and

2 Improvement based on peace.

In the process of cultural exchange around the globe, a peaceful relationship involves
methods for mutual trust, namely:

1 Government: Summit meeting, IGOs (more communications)

2 Economy: Trade relation (interests by cooperation)
3 Society: The role of NGO (Mediator between civilizations)

In summary, Müller’s view on religion and globalization include: 1) Different religion is

one of important elements making different culture; 2) Ignorance and repulsion on
different culture make conflicts; and 3) Communication and understanding other culture
is important for peace.

We have learned that globalization

1) provides more chances of communication, given the evolution of communication,

transportation, and migration;

2) also intensifies the economic interdependence among actors, where people perceive
the economic benefit from cooperation; and
3) Globalized NGO can hold “merciless global capital (Neo-liberalism)” in check. As a
result, these networks will help to make common values in the globe: Humanity, Mutual
Respect, and Peace,