Master thesis

Master's Programme in Mechanical Engineering

(60 credits )

AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON WELD

CHARACTERISTICS FOR A SHIELD METAL ARC
WELDING WITH SS304&SS409

Thesis in Mechanical Engineering 15.00HP MT8007

Guide: Aron Chibba

Halmstad
Date: 26-05-2023
PRISTIN SUNNY
ANSAL MUHAMMED
Preface
This study is a result of Master’s thesis in mechanical engineering at Halmstad
University during spring term 2023.
The main contribution of the present work focus on the development of a significant
approach to identify the weld characteristics of two different materials. The aim of the
thesis was investigating the connecting of different materials utilizing shield metal arc
welding, as well as studying the welding characteristics and performing mechanical
tests. The goal of this study is to determine the performance of steel and the maximum
hardness of welded material, as well as the microstructure of steel. The data will be
utilized to characterize the performance of dissimilar materials.
We would like to express our gratitude to Professor Aron Chibba for his assistance,
direction and motivation to complete the thesis well. He also asked pertinent questions
that sparked new lines of research.
We are grateful to Dr. Håkan Petersson professor and examiner for enlightening and
inspiring discussion.
We like to thank our Class colleagues and also to our Master thesis opponents, who
during the seminars raised critical questions and propose their suggestions that helped
us in improving the research quality.

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ABSTRACT
The following report conducted by the theoretical research and experimental study in
the University of Halmstad.
The focus of the project is experimental investigation on weld characteristics for shield
metal arc welding with SS304 & SS409.
Welding is a joining process of similar metals but nowadays it is also joined dissimilar
metals by the application of heat. The different types of welding process are available
in industry. Welding can be done with or without the application of pressure and filler
materials in shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), an arc between a covered electrode
and a weld pool is used to accomplish a weld. As the welder steadily feeds the covered
electrode into the weld pool, the decomposition of the covering evolves into gases that
shield the pool. Austenitic stainless steel and Martensitic chrome alloys is widely used
materials in the current industrial area including higher and lower temperature
applications such as storage tanks, pressure cups, furnace equipment’s etc.
This paper concentrated to the investigate the dissimilar material joining by using
shield metal arc welding and study the welding characteristics and do the mechanical
tests. The aim of this study performance of steel and maximum hardness of welded
material, microstructure of steel on next phase of project. The results will be used to
character of dissimilar material performance.

Key words: joining dissimilar material, microstructure analysis, Hardness test.

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Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 Aim of study .................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Problem Definition ................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Limitation ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Individual Responsibility ................................................................................................. 4
1.5. Study Environment......................................................................................................... 4
2. METHOD ................................................................................................................................ 5
2.1 Alternative Method ......................................................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Design of experiments (DOE) methodology............................................................. 5
2.1.2 Case study methodology .......................................................................................... 5
2.1.3 Action research methodology .................................................................................. 6
2.2 Chosen Methodology ...................................................................................................... 6
2.3 Preparation and Data Collection ..................................................................................... 7
3. THEORY.................................................................................................................................. 8
3.1 Summary of literature study and state-of-the-art .......................................................... 8
3.1.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW ....................................................................... 8
3.1.3 Stainless Steel 304.................................................................................................. 12
3.1.4 Stainless Steel 409.................................................................................................. 14
3.1.5 Welding characteristics of SMAW .......................................................................... 15
3.1.6. HARDNESS AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS .............................................................. 19
4. RESULTS ............................................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Presentation of experimental result in structural Analysis........................................... 27
4.2 Presentation of result based on Hardness Test ............................................................ 29
4.2.1 Rockwell Hardness Test ......................................................................................... 29
4.2.2 Brinell Hardness Test.............................................................................................. 30
4.3 Mechanical properties of SS304 & SS409 at room temperature .................................. 31
4.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 32
5. CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................... 33

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 5.1 Recommendation to future activities ........................................................................... 33
6. CRITICAL REVIEW................................................................................................................. 35
7. REFERENCE .......................................................................................................................... 37
8. APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................ 38
Appendix 1 : Sensitization ................................................................................................... 38
Appendix 2 : Austenitic Stainless Steel structure................................................................ 39
Appendix 3. Physical Properties of SS304 & Carbon Steel .................................................. 40
Appendix 4: ......................................................................................................................... 40
Appendix 5 Rockwell hardeness Tester with load details ................................................... 41
Appendix 6 .......................................................................................................................... 42

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Methodology of research ............................................................................ 7
Figure 3.1 classification of welding process ................................................................. 8
Figure 3.2 operation of shield metal arc metal ............................................................. 9
Figure 3.3 electrode ................................................................................................... 10
Figure 3.4 stainless steel 304 ...................................................................................... 13
Figure 3.5 operation factor.......................................................................................... 15
Figure 3.6 Rockwell hardness testing machine .......................................................... 19
Figure 3.7 Load acting point ....................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.8 Brinell hardness testing ............................................................................. 21
Figure 3.9 Test method illustration ............................................................................. 22
Figure 3.10 micro-structure analysis Process ............................................................. 23
Figure 4.1 Joint design used, Double V ...................................................................... 26
Figure 4.2 Welding specimen ..................................................................................... 27
Figure 4.3 specimen for Analysis ............................................................................... 28
Figure 4.4 Photomicrographs of base metal and as welded specimens, welded under
different heat conditions (A) 2.2kJ/mm, (B) 3.32kJ/mm, ........................................... 29

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1. INTRODUCTION

Welding is a connecting procedure of comparable metals, but it is also used to unite

different metals using heat. Welding can be performed with or without the use of
pressure and filler materials. The edges of metal components are either melted or
converted to a plastic state during welding, and it is employed for permanent joints.
Welding is vital in all fabrication businesses. Since welding was first utilized in steel
production, its applications have grown to include construction, mechanical, and
automobile manufacture, among others. It has survived the Bronze and Iron Ages and
has spread around the world. During the 17th century, with the industrial revolution,
technology has made our lives more comfortable. Man began to use iron Man first used
iron and steel, and they have played an important role in our daily lives ever since.
There are simply metals surrounding them. As a result, it has assisted us in practically
every aspect of our life. It is the most common locales, the stuff are doing or use to
achieve our work. Fusion with the use of Arc welding is one of the strongest methods
of combining any metal. Welding can be done with a variety of energy sources,
including gas flame, electric arc, laser, electron beam, friction, and ultrasonic. This is
similar to soldering and brazing, which use melting a lower melting point material
between the work components to form a bond without melting the work pieces
themselves. M.Mohan , A.Balamurugan ,(2017) ,argues that the dissimilar metal joints
have been emerged as a structural material for various industrial applications which
provides good combination of mechanical properties like strength, corrosion resistance
with lower cost. Selections of joining process for such a material are difficult because
of their physical and chemical properties. The stainless steel and mild steel dissimilar
material joints are very common structural applications. Welding requires extreme
caution and safeguards to avoid burns, part damage, electric shocks, dangerous gases
and fumes, and exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Although it was first used in its current
form in the early twentieth century, it is rapidly displacing traditional joining processes
such as riveting and bolting. Welding is currently widely employed in the fabrication
of various components in automotive bodywork, bridges, airplane frames, chemical
plants, nuclear reactors, structural and earth moving equipment, railway wagons, pipe
and tube fabrication, ship building, general repair operations, and so on.
Dr. N. Mathiazhagan (2016) mentioned that the industries reveal with producing better
quality product at minimum cost and increase productivity. Welding is the most vital
and common operation use for joining of two similar and dissimilar parts. In the present
research work an attempt is made to
understand various welding techniques and to find the best welding technique for steel.
Almost all materials (metals, plastics, ceramics, and composites) can be welded, but
not all by the same technique; hence, a great variety of welding and associated pro-
cesses have been created to attain universality.

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 J.M. Antonini, in Comprehensive Materials Processing, 2014, defines Shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW) is the simplest, least expensive, and mostly widely used arc
welding process.

1.1 Background

Most industrially significant processes are characterized based on the nature of the heat
source and its movement, which results in spot, seam, or low or high heat. Today, robot
welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new
welding procedures and get a better understanding of weld quality. Most of the welding
work examined in seeks to anticipate or analyze the structural reaction of the welded
structure, with a primary focus on the residual.
The knowledge of how dissimilar metal welds behave is therefore very important. It is
crucial to execute a long-lasting dissimilar metal weld between 304 and 409 stainless
steel in modern steel constructions, and it is occasionally inevitable. A typical
austenitic stainless steel with a minimum chromium content of 18% and a maximum
nickel content of 8%, stainless steel 304 has a maximum carbon content of 0.08%. It is
a well-liked material for a range of applications, including food and beverage
processing, medical equipment, and architectural constructions, due to its outstanding
corrosion resistance and non-magnetic properties. Stainless steel 304 is renowned for
its excellent weldability, high strength-to-weight ratio, and simplicity of manufacture.
Additionally, it can sustain high temperatures without losing its structural integrity and
is oxidation-resistant. It can also be hot or cold worked, giving it outstanding
formability and allowing for the creation of a wide range of sizes and shapes.
C. Gaona Tiburcio, F.H. Estupiñán López, 2016, mentioned the corrosion qualities of
409 steels have become increasingly important as the automotive industry has
developed their application in various car parts. This fact led to the decision to use
stainless steels (SS), particularly in portions that are exposed to the environment, such
exhaust pipes. Ferritic stainless steel 409 has good corrosion resistance and excellent
resilience to high temperatures. It has 11% chromium and is frequently utilized in
catalytic converters, exhaust systems, and other equipment that must withstand high
temperatures. SS409 has a lower chromium content than other stainless steels, which
makes it less corrosion-resistant in particular conditions. However, it is a popular
option for many applications due to its affordable price and strong heat resistance. Due
to its extensive use in automotive exhaust systems, stainless steel 409, also known as
UNS S40900, is frequently referred to as "automotive grade" stainless steel. It is
frequently utilized in applications with high temperatures, like exhaust pipes and
mufflers, and has a maximum operating temperature of 815°C (1500°F).

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Alkahla, Ibrahim; Pervaiz, (2017) defines the Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
process is one of the most commonly employed material joining processes utilized in
the various industrial sectors such as marine, ship-building, automotive, aerospace,
construction and petrochemicals etc. Construction, manufacturing, and maintenance
are just a few of the industries that frequently use the shielded metal arc welding
(SMAW) welding method. SMAW is seen to be more beneficial than other welding
methods for a number of reasons, include great option for fieldwork and distant sites
because it is widely adaptable and can be used in a variety of settings. Moreover, the
setup and maintenance requirements for SMAW equipment are quite low. As a result,
a wider spectrum of users, including beginners and amateurs, can use it. SMAW is
frequently less expensive than other welding techniques. The consumables (electrodes)
are easily accessible and reasonably priced, while the equipment is quite inexpensive.
SMAW creates robust, long-lasting welds of the highest caliber. The method can be
used to weld in awkward positions as well, including overhead or vertical welding.
In this paper we are investigating the Weld characteristics of shield metal arc welding
with SS304 & SS409 by hardness test and to analyze the micro structure of welded
metal which help to determine morphology, phase analysis, grain size and orientation
image mapping. Hardness, tensile and ductility bend tests were carried out to determine
mechanical properties.

1.2 Aim of study

This paper focused on investigating the connecting of different materials utilizing
shield metal arc welding, as well as studying the welding characteristics and
performing mechanical tests. The goal of this study is to determine the performance of
stainless steel and the maximum hardness of welded material, as well as the
microstructure of steel. The data will be utilized to characterize the performance of
dissimilar materials.

1.2.1 Problem Definition

The following points are the general problems that are noticed.
• The different welding process is suitable for welding in similar materials so the
dissimilar material welding process is comparatively very less.
• The difficulty of welding two distinct grades of stainless steel with varied material
qualities is the issue being addressed by researching the welding characteristics of
shield metal arc welding (SMAW) using SS304 and SS409. The goal is to produce
a high-quality weld bead that is mechanically strong, corrosion resistant, and
devoid of flaws like cracks and porosity.

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• SS304 is an austenitic stainless steel that welds well, although it is susceptible to
intergranular corrosion if welding is not done in a way that protects it from oxygen.
But SS409, a ferritic stainless steel, has poor weldability and is vulnerable to
cracking because of its low ductility.
• Investigating the SMAW welding properties of SS304 and SS409 can help find the
best welding settings for maintaining the joint's integrity. The weld bead's quality
can be impacted by a number of factors, including electrode type, welding current,
and welding speed. Determining how these factors affect the weld bead's
characteristics, such as its microstructure and mechanical strength, is important.
• TIG AND MIG welding is high cost.
• Welding Characteristics is very poor performance compared to other dissimilar
material.

1.3 Limitation
This thesis investigate the weld characteristic of two different material such as SS304
& SS409. So we found the micro-structural analysis and the hardness of the weld by
using two hardness testing and by optical microscope.
The limitations were finding the other properties of weld. Brinell and Rockwell
hardness tests are used to determine the hardness of a material, which is an important
mechanical property. However, there are several other mechanical properties that
cannot be directly determined by these tests. Some of these properties include:
▪ Elastic modulus
▪ Yield strength
▪ Tensile strength

1.4 Individual Responsibility

Both the authors have put same amount of effort in this thesis. The amount of time for
the research of theoretical study, gathering information and experiment to analyze the
measurement regarding the project, also writing the report.

1.5. Study Environment

This thesis was developed by both writers using theoretical and experimental research.
The experiment was carried out with the assistance of industry in India, MAR
Fabricators India Pvt. Ltd. but the theoretical foundation of the thesis, including writing
the report, completed at Halmstad University.

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2. METHOD
The study is based on experimental investigation on weld characteristics of shield metal
arc welding with SS304 & SS409 at Halmstad university. The study of understanding
the welding characteristics of two different material is an attempt to investigate and
gain knowledge about the mechanical properties and the structure of weld part. This
work is mainly focused on characterizing the weld strength of two material by different
testing analysis.

2.1 Alternative Method

Alternative methodology can bring new and unique perspectives to research, and that
it meets the academic standards and expectations of the relevant discipline or field of
study. During the research of study, it has potential limitations and challenges
associated with alternative methodology, such as bias, subjectivity, and lack of
generalizability.

There are several methodologies that can be used for experimental investigation of
shield metal arc welding for SS304 and SS409.

2.1.1 Design of experiments (DOE) methodology

DOE is a statistical methodology that helps to systematically vary experimental

conditions and observe their impact on the outcome variable(s). In the case of shield
metal arc welding for SS304 and SS409, DOE can be used to vary welding parameters
such as welding current, voltage, and electrode type to investigate their impact on the
quality of the weld and analyze the strength of material by different hardness testing.

Advantages:
Provides control over variables
Allows for the investigation of cause-and-effect relationships
Results are more generalizable

Disadvantages:
May not reflect real-world conditions
Can be expensive and time-consuming

2.1.2 Case study methodology:

Case study methodology involves studying a specific instance of a phenomenon in
detail to gain insights into its workings. In the case of shield metal arc welding for
SS304 and SS409, a case study could involve selecting a specific welding process,
documenting the welding parameters used, and analyzing the resulting weld for quality
and structural integrity.

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Advantages:
Useful for examining real-world applications of welding
Provides in-depth understanding of specific cases

Disadvantages:
Results may not be generalizable
Can be time-consuming and resource-intensive

2.1.3 Action research methodology:

Action research is a type of research that involves collaboration between researchers
and practitioners to improve the performance of a process or system. In the case of
shield metal arc welding for SS304 and SS409, action research could involve working
with welding practitioners to identify areas where the welding process could be
improved, testing different welding parameters, and then implementing the best
practices in the field.

Advantages:
Provides a more accurate representation of real-world practices
Can identify areas for improvement

Disadvantages:
Limited control over variables
Observations may be influenced by the observer's biases and assumptions

2.2 Chosen Methodology

The chosen methodology of this research is Design of experiments (DOE)
methodology, which is a powerful tool in the experimental investigation of shield metal
arc welding for SS304 & SS409. It involves systematically varying the welding
parameters and measuring the resulting weld characteristics, such as weld penetration,
weld bead geometry, and mechanical properties, in order to identify the optimal
combination of parameters that yields the desired welding performance and understand
the hardness of welded materials.

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The methodology of research is held by following steps shown in the figure 1.

Figure 2-0.1 Methodology of research of research

Figure 2.1 Methodology
Figure 2.1 Methodology of research

2.3 Preparation and Data Collection

• Appropriate literature study, articles, international journal and other study of
similar study
• Selection of materials and welding process with right electrode.
• Weld SS304 & SS409 metal at 1.6 mm root gap by shield metal arc welding and
analyze the mechanical properties by different hardness testing (Brinell and
Rockwell Hardness Testing) from Mars Fabricators India Pvt. Ltd. and understand
the microstructure of weld part, which is performed at LPU, under the guidelines
of thesis supervisor.
• Plan for weekly meeting with thesis supervisor from Halmstad university and data
collected from experts.

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3. THEORY

The author starts with literature regards the shield metal arc welding (SMAW) and how
to measure the weld characteristics of two different materials, the author makes a deep
investigation relates to the materials and welding. The appropriate parameters are select
to analyze the mechanical properties and the literature research include books, and
other relevant documentation regarding measuring of surface structure and their
analysis, mechanical properties by hardness test.

3.1 Summary of literature study and state-of-the-art

Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts are fused together by
means of heat, pressure or both forming a join as the parts cool. Welding is usually
used on metals and thermoplastics but can also be used on wood.

3.1.1 Classification of Welding Process

Figure 3.1 classification of welding process (Srinivasa Rao,2018)

3.1.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc welding (MMA
or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding, or stick welding informally, is a manual arc
welding procedure that employs a consumable electrode wrapped in flux to lay the

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weld. An electric current from a welding power supply, either alternating current or
direct current, is utilized to generate an electric arc between the electrode and the metals
to be connected. The work piece and the electrode melt, creating a pool of molten metal
that cools to produce a joint (Srinivasa Rao,2018).

As the weld is formed, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, releasing vapors
that act as a shielding gas and forming a layer of slag that protects the weld region from
ambient contamination. Shielded metal arc welding is one of the world's first and most
common welding procedures due to its versatility and simplicity of equipment and
operation(Dietzel,W,2006). It dominates other welding methods in the maintenance
and repair company, and while flux-cored arc welding is gaining popularity, SMAW is
still widely utilized in the building of big steel structures and industrial manufacturing.
The procedure is typically used to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel), but
it may also be used to weld aluminum, nickel, and copper alloys(C.Arun,2017).

3.1.2.1 Operation of Shield Metal Arc Welding

Figure 3.2 operation of shield metal arc metal (J.G. Britto,2016).

The electrode is brought into contact with the work piece to strike the electric arc by a
very little touch of the electrode to the base metal. The electrode is then gently
retracted. This starts the arc and hence the melting of the work piece and the
consumable electrode, as well as the passage of electrode droplets from the electrode
to the pool. For novices, the most difficult skill is striking an arc, which varies greatly

9
depending on electrode and work piece composition. The orientation of the electrode
to the work piece is where most people fail; if the electrode is held perpendicular to the
work piece, the tip will likely cling to the metal, fusing the electrode to the work piece
and causing it to heat up extremely quickly. The electrode tip should be at a lower angle
to the work piece, allowing the weld pool to flow out of the arc, (J.G. Britto,2016).
The flux coating disintegrates when the electrode melts, releasing shielding gases that
protect the weld region from oxygen and other ambient gases. Furthermore, the flux
creates molten slag that covers the filler as it moves from electrode to weld pool. Slag
floats to the surface of the weld pool and shields the weld from contamination as it
solidifies. It must be chipped away once hardened to show the completed weld. As
welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically stop welding
to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the electrode
holder. This activity, along with slag removal, lowers the amount of time the welder
may spend laying the weld, making SMAW one of the least efficient welding
procedures. The operator factor, or the percentage of the operator's time spent laying
weld, is typically about 25%. The exact welding technique used is determined by the
electrode, the composition of the work piece, and the position of the welded junction.
The welding speed is also determined by the electrode and welding location. Flat welds
require the least amount of operator expertise and can be performed with electrodes
that melt fast but solidify slowly. This allows for faster welding rates.

3.1.2.2 Electrode

Figure 3.3 electrode (John smith, 2018)

The electrode used in SMAW is determined by several parameters, including the weld
material, welding location, and desired weld qualities. The electrode is covered in flux,
a metal combination that emits gases as it decomposes to avoid weld contamination,
introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weld-protecting slag to develop,

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enhances arc stability, and contains alloying components to increase weld quality (John
smith, 2018).
Electrodes are classified into three types: those meant to melt quickly (called "fast-
fill"), those designed to solidify quickly (called "fast-freeze"), and intermediate
electrodes (named "fill-freeze" or "fast-follow"). Fast-fill electrodes are meant to melt
quickly, allowing for faster welding speeds, whereas fast-freeze electrodes provide
filler metal that solidifies quickly, allowing for welding in a variety of locations by
preventing the weld pool from changing considerably before hardening. The electrode
core's composition is often comparable, if not identical, to that of the base material.
Even if there are several viable possibilities, a little change in alloy composition can
have a significant influence on the qualities of the resultant weld. This is particularly
true with alloy steels like HSLA steels. Similarly, electrodes with comparable
compositions to the base materials are frequently used for welding nonferrous materials
such as aluminum and copper. However, it is occasionally advantageous to utilize
electrodes with core materials that differ greatly from the base material (Sara
Johansson, 2019).
Stainless steel electrodes, for example, are occasionally used to weld two pieces of
carbon steel, and are frequently used to weld stainless steel workpieces with carbon
steel workpieces. Electrode coatings can be made of a variety of materials, including
rutile, calcium fluoride, cellulose, and iron powder. Rutile electrodes coated with 25%-
45% TiO2 are distinguished by their simplicity of use and the quality of the resultant
weld. They however produce welds with a high hydrogen concentration, which
promotes embrittlement and cracking. Calcium fluoride (CaF2) electrodes, often
known as basic or low-hydrogen electrodes, are hygroscopic and must be maintained
dry. They create strong welds, although the joint surface is coarse and convex.
Although cellulose-coated electrodes, especially when paired with rutile, enable deep
weld penetration, specific techniques must be taken to avoid excessive cracking due to
their high moisture content. Finally, iron powder is a popular coating addition that
doubles the pace at which the electrode fills the weld joint. The American Welding
Society created a mechanism for identifying various electrodes by assigning them a
four- or five-digit number. The prefix E is followed by the number of covered
electrodes composed of mild or low alloy steel(Jennifer Thompson,2022) .

The first two or three digits of the value indicate the weld metal's tensile strength in
thousand pounds per square inch. The penultimate digit often defines the welding
positions allowable with the electrode, with the values 1 (normally fast-freeze
electrodes, suggesting all position welding) and 2 (normally fast-fill electrodes,
implying only horizontal welding) typically being used. The last two digits combined
specify the welding current and kind of electrode covering. A suffix is used to designate
the alloying element provided by the electrode when available. The E6010, a fast-
freeze, all-position electrode with a minimum tensile strength of 60 ksi (410 MPa) that
is operated using DCEP, delivers deep weld penetration with a powerful arc capable of

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burning through mild rust or oxides on the work piece, is a common electrode. E6011
is similar, but its flux coating allows it to be utilized with alternating current as well as
DCEP.
E7024 is a fast-fill electrode that is most commonly used to perform flat or horizontal
fillet welds using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Fill-freeze electrodes such as the E6012,
E6013, and E7014 offer a balance between rapid welding speeds and allposition
welding.

316L electrodes are used for welding 18% Cr-12% Ni-2.5% Mo stainless steels when
corrosion resistance is required. This electrode has a fast deposition rate and creates a
weld deposit with a beautiful bead look and excellent fracture resistance.

3.1.2.3 Application and materials

Shielded metal arc welding is one of the most widely used welding methods in the
world, accounting for more than 50% of all welding in some countries. It is particularly
prevalent in the maintenance and repair business, and is widely employed in the
building of steel structures and industrial manufacturing because to its versatility and
simplicity. Its use has waned in recent years as flux-cored arc welding has spread in
the construction industry and gas metal arc welding has become more common in
industrial settings. However, because to the inexpensive cost of equipment and
extensive applicability, the procedure is expected to continue popular, particularly
among amateurs and small firms where specialist welding processes are uneconomical
and useless. Carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast iron, and ductile
iron are all often welded with SMAW. While it is less common for nonferrous
materials, it may be used on nickel, copper, and their alloys, as well as, in rare
occasions, aluminum.

3.1.3 Stainless Steel 304

The most prevalent stainless steel is SAE 304 stainless steel. The steel's principal non-
iron elements are chromium (between 18% and 20%) and nickel (between 8% and
10.5%)[1]. It is a stainless steel that is austenitic, Estupiñán López, 2016. It has a lower
electrical and thermal conductivity than carbon steel and is fundamentally magnetic
but not as magnetic as steel. It has a stronger corrosion resistance than normal steel and
is commonly utilized due to its ease of shaping into various shapes. W. H. Hatfield
created the formula at Firth-Vickers in 1924, and it was marketed under the brand name
"Staybrite 18/8."SAE International specifies it as one of its SAE steel grades. Outside
the United States, it is generally referred to as A2 stainless steel in accordance with

12
ISO 3506 for fasteners.[3] It is known as 18/8 stainless steel in the commercial
cookware business. It is designated as UNS S30400 in the unified numbering system.
SS304 is the Japanese equivalent grade of this material. It is also mentioned in
European standard 1.4301.

Figure 3.4 stainless steel 304(Estupiñán López, 2016)

3.1.3.1 chemical composition

Table 3.1. chemical composition

3.1.3.2 Corrosion Resistance

304 stainless steel is resistant to a wide variety of ambient conditions as well as

numerous corrosive agents. In warm chloride conditions, it is prone to pitting and
crevice corrosion, as well as stress corrosion cracking above roughly 60 °C. It is
resistant to pitting corrosion in water containing up to 400 mg/L chlorides at ambient
temperatures, falling to roughly 150 mg/L at 60 °C. At room temperature, 304 stainless

13
steel is also very sensitive to the thiosulfate anions released by pyrite oxidation (as
encountered in acid mine drainage) and can experience severe pitting corrosion
problems when in close contact with pyrite- or sulfide rich clay materials exposed to
oxidation.
When 304 stainless steel is overly exposed to pitting or crevice corrosion by chlorides
or general corrosion in acidic applications, it is usually replaced with 316 stainless steel
for more severe corrosion conditions( David,2015).

3.1.3.3 Application
304 stainless steel is utilized in a wide range of domestic and industrial applications,
including food handling and processing equipment, screws, machinery components,
utensils, and automotive headers. In the architectural profession, 304 stainless steel is
utilized for exterior accents such as water and fire elements. It is also a popular
vaporizer coil material.

3.1.4 Stainless Steel 409

Type 409 Stainless Steel Is Especially Beneficial For Applications That Require
Oxidation or Corrosion Protection Beyond What Carbon Steel And Some Coated Steels
Can Provide. Automotive and truck exhaust systems, tubular manifolds, agricultural
spreaders, gas turbine exhaust silencers, heat exchangers, and fuel filters are all
examples of current applications.

This alloy is resistant to oxidation and corrosion in automotive and non-automotive

exhaust applications. Steel 409 Ultra Form Stainless Steel Was Developed To Meet
More Severe Forming Requirements Than Typical Type 409 And Is Especially
Appropriate For Parts Requiring More Complex Shapes And Improved Weldability.

3.1.4.1 Corrosion Resistance

Type 409 has equivalent corrosion resistance to Type 410 and outperforms carbon steel
products in most applications. Both AK Steel 409 ULTRA FORM Stainless Steel and
normal Type 409 offer high wet corrosion resistance to chlorides, sulfates, and many
organic acids, making them suitable for a wide range of automotive exhaust
applications. When comparing AK Steel 409 ULTRA FORM Stainless Steel to
ordinary Type 409, very little variation in corrosion behavior has been noticed. Surface
inclusions are a common occurrence in Type 409 goods as a result of titanium
additions. Occasional red rust can form at these inclusion sites, causing aesthetic
damage. As a result, these steels are not suggested for applications where surface
appearance is a factor (M.S.S.Srinivasa Rao,2015).

14
3.1.4.2 Application

Automotive and truck exhaust systems, tubular manifolds, agricultural spreaders, gas
turbine exhaust silencers, heat exchangers, and fuel filters are all examples of current
applications. This alloy is resistant to oxidation and corrosion in automotive and non-
automotive exhaust applications.

3.1.5 Welding characteristics of SMAW

3.1.5.1 Deposition Rate:

Weight of metal deposited (Kg) in a given period of time (hour)

3.1.5.2 Deposition Efficiency (Also Called Electrode Efficiency in Arc Welding):

It is the proportion of deposited to melted weight. It is in the 60—75% range for
shielded metal arc welding, the 85—90% range for flux cored arc welding, the 90—
95% range for gas metal arc welding, the 90—100% range for gas tungsten arc welding,
and the 95% range for submerged arc welding (Alkahla, Ibrahim,2017).

3.1.5.3 Operation Factor:

It is the ratio of total actual welding time to time spent by the operator doing welding.
It ranges between 20 and 30% for shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc
welding, 50% for manual gas metal arc welding, and 100% for automatic gas metal arc
welding and submerged arc welding (Alkahla, Ibrahim,2017).

Figure 3.5 operation factor (Alkahla, Ibrahim,2017).

3.1.5.4 Penetration:
It is an important feature of fusion welding and is the ratio of weld width to depth. It
ranges from 1.25 for gas metal arc welding to 2.5 for shielded metal arc welding to 5
for plasma arc welding to 15 for electron beam welding. A higher penetrating power

15
welding procedure necessitates a narrow groove, a smaller heat affected zone and
distortion, and less filler metal consumption (Alkahla, Ibrahim,2017).

3.1.5.5 Welding Speed:

Speed at which electrode moves or deposition takes place.

3.1.5.6 Heat Input:

It is expressed as:

It is of the order of 0.1—0.6 for electron beam welding and laser beam welding, 0.3 to
1.5 for gas tungsten arc welding, 0.5 to 3 for gas metal arc welding and shielded metal
arc welding, 1—10 for submerged arc welding and 5—50 for electro slag welding.

3.1.5.7 Power Density:

It is the heat intensity represented in Watts per square meter. Weld penetration is related
to power density. It is in the 5 x 106 to 5 x 108 W/m2 range for shielded metal arc
welding and gas metal arc welding, 5 x 106—5 x 1010 W/m2 range for plasma arc
welding, and 1010 to 1012 W/m2 range for electron beam and laser beam welding
operations (Alkahla, Ibrahim,2017).

3.1.5.8 Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) in Welding:

Steel's Heat Affected Zone is the zone heated from AC1 temperature to slightly below
melting point. Material near to the weld exhibits significant heat fluctuation during
fusion welding. Some metallurgical changes do occur in the HAZ. These might be
significant matrix phase shifts or precipitation processes. Recrystallization and grain
development can occur even when there is no phase shift or precipitation during
welding. In severe service environmental circumstances, the HAZ plays a major role
in determining weld cold cracking, notch toughness, hydrogen embrittlement, and
stress corrosion cracking, among other things. As a result, a thorough examination of
HAZ is recommended. The peak temperatures acquired at discrete places from the weld
center line by experiment can be used to determine the breadth of the HAZ. Photo
macro- and micro-graphs may be used to study the change of the microstructure at
various welding zones (Pervaiz,2017 ).

The heat affected zone (HAZ) is created by the thermal cycles associated with arc
welding and submerged arc welding. Some reheat cracking has been reported in these
zones (Alkahla, Ibrahim; Pervaiz,2017 ). As a result, these are regarded as hazardous
to component integrity. However, with better base metals and welding processes (low

16
heat input of 20 kJ/cm, low angle of attack, high overlap, and use of temper bead
technique at the weld shoe), a predominant fine-grain microstructure in the butt weld
HAZ may be achieved. This fine structure achieves a high level of notch toughness
after severe quenching of the weld thermal cycle and tempering of the post-weld heat
treatment (PWHT).

3.1.5.9 Recent Trends in Welding:

A gas metal arc welding process model is being developed, which will link weld pool
shape to current, voltage, wire speed, and weld speed. A laser-enhanced electro-optical
camera is being developed to offer a view of the weld pool and electrode wire with
nearly full arc light suppression. An ultrasonic transducer that will be put next to the
welding flame to allow direct measurements of side-wall fusion and weld pool
penetration is being developed. On a pass-by-pass basis, it will also identify porosity,
lack of fusion, and fractures in welds ( D.Simhachalam 1 , M.S.S.Srinivasa Rao,2015).

3.1.5.10 Designs for Welding:

For obtaining best results, the following points should be considered while designing
the welding of any joint.
a) The surfaces which are to be joined by any welding process must be sufficiently
clean to permit clean metallic surfaces to come in contact.
b) Fluxes are to be used in welding all types of metals except mild steel, so that the
oxide formed during heating is dissolved and sound welded joints can be obtained.
c) The selection of the welded joints should be such as to satisfy the requirements of
design, cost and practical welding.

Of course the best joint is one that is least expensive and satisfies the following
points:

(а) Intensity of loading and its characteristics i.e. whether the load is produced by
tension, compression or combination of both and to what degree the bending, fatigue
or impact stresses are playing a role.

(b) The effect of warping in cooling and the ease of welding, both of which affect the
appearance of the joint.

(c) The cost of joint preparation and the actual cost of welding.

(d) The workmanship and the type of skill required.

(e)Provided that the physical properties of weld metal are equal or superior to those of
base metal, which is usually true, properly made grooved welds should not be
reinforced beyond the minimum depth of throat.

17
(f) The amount of welding specified for a welded structure should be minimum, i.e.
consistent with the stresses permissible in the component parts such as base metal, bolts
and other fasteners.

(g) Since welding in the flat position is generally faster and causes less fatigue than
welding in other positions, the structure should be designed or positioned accordingly
during welding, wherever practicable.

(h) All welds should be easily accessible to facilitate manufacturing, testing and
repairing with minimum of handling.

3.1.5.11 Quality Control in Welding:

Quality control should be prioritized for the success of welding joints. To guarantee
that no shortcuts are taken and suitable equipment and procedures are utilized to make
quality welds, a quality control manual detailing every step in quality monitoring
before, during, and after fabrication of the product must be developed (Mohammed,
Raffi; Madhusudhan Reddy,2018 ).

Welding inspector should take care of the following points:

(a) Verify that base metals and filler metals (electrodes, wires, etc.) conform to
specification, and are properly maintained.
(b) Verify that welding machines and equipment are in suitable condition to produce
acceptable welds. (c) Verify that welders have adequate experience and qualification
to do the job.

(d) Verify that joint preparation and fit up are as specified on drawings and within
tolerances.
(e) Inspect, evaluate, and mark all weld joints with a minimum of visual inspection.
(f) Verify that welders are using specified techniques for given applications, positions,
(g) Maintain required records and reports.

3.1.5.12 Inspection of Final Welds: Following features need inspection:

( i ) for fillet welds:

(a) Leg length (difference in leg length on equal-leg fillets should not exceed 3 mm).
(b) Convexity of weld crown (usually a flush to 2.5 mm convexity is permitted).
(c) Weld length.

18
( ii ) for groove welds:

(a) Penetration at the root for complete fusion (no factory edge or un-fused edge should
be visible at the root).
(b) Convexity of the weld crown (3 mm normally allowed). Additionally both fillet and
groove welds should be checked for following welding flaws. Cracks—undercut—
excessive spatter—porosity— under fill.
(c) Weld flaws are evaluated with following three determining factors: type, (slag
inclusion, cracks, etc.), size (small slag inclusion of 2 mm is permitted but rejected
beyond that) and location (discontinuities on corners or ends of welds are serious).

3.1.5.14 Welding and Its Fields of Applications:

Initially, the economic value of welding was recognized primarily for the repair and
salvage of all types of old and broken metal equipment and parts. The savings and
advantages brought about by more contemporary cutting and welding procedures
have established them as an amazing tool for production, building, and maintenance.

3.1.6. HARDNESS AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

3.1.6.1 Rockwell Hardness Test

The most generally used hardness test technique is the Rockwell hardness test method,
as described in ASTM E-18. Before trying a Rockwell test, you should get a copy of
this standard and thoroughly study and comprehend it. The Rockwell test is often
simpler and more accurate than other hardness testing procedures. Except in cases
where the test metal structure or surface conditions would create too many variations,
the Rockwell test method is utilized on all metals ( Daniel Schaeffler,2022 ).

Figure 3.6 Rockwell hardness testing machine ( Daniel Schaeffler,2022 )

19
The permanent depth of indentation generated by a force/load on an indenter is
measured using the Rockwell technique. To begin, a preliminary test force (also known
as preload or small load) is applied to a sample with a diamond or ball indenter. This
preload penetrates the surface, reducing the impact of surface finish. The baseline depth
of indentation is measured after holding the preliminary test force for a predetermined
dwell period.

After the preload, an additional load known as the main load is added to achieve the
entire needed test load. This force is maintained for a set period of time (dwell time) to
allow for elastic recovery. This primary load is then relieved, allowing the preparatory
load to resume. The ultimate depth of indentation is measured after retaining the
preliminary test force for a defined dwell period. The Rockwell hardness value is
calculated by subtracting the baseline and final depth values. This measurement is
turned into a hardness number ( Daniel Schaeffler,2022). The preliminary test force is
withdrawn, as well as the indenter from the test specimen. Preliminary test loads
(preloads) vary from 3 kgf for the "Superficial" Rockwell scale to 10 kgf for the
"Regular" Rockwell scale. Total test forces vary from 15kgf to 150kgf (superficial and
regular) to 500-3000kgf (macrohardness).

Figure 3.7 Load acting point ( Daniel Schaeffler,2022)

A=The depth obtained by the indenter after applying preload (minor load). B=Indenter
position for total load, minor and major loads. C=Indenter's final location following
elastic recovery of sample material. D=Distance measured reflecting the difference
between the preload and primary load positions. The Rockwell Hardness Number is
calculated using this distance. For tougher metals, use a conical diamond with a round
tip; for soft material, use a ball indenter with a diameter ranging from 1/16" to 12".

20
When selecting a Rockwell scale, a general guide is to select the scale that specifies
the largest load and the largest indenter possible without exceeding defined operation
conditions and accounting for conditions that may influence the test result
(J.Gowthaman3,2017).

Furthermore, to achieve exact loading, the test axis should be within 2 degrees of
perpendicular; there should be no deflection of the test sample or tester during the
loading application due to factors such as dirt under the test specimen or on the
elevating screw. Sheet metal might be too thin and soft to be tested on a specific
Rockwell scale without exceeding the minimum thickness criteria and perhaps
indenting the test anvil. A diamond anvil can be utilized in this scenario to offer a
constant impact on the outcome. Another specific circumstance in cold rolled sheet
metal testing is that work hardening can cause a hardness gradient through the sample,
therefore any test measures the average of the hardness over the depth of indentation
effect. In this instance, any Rockwell test result will be questioned since there is
frequently a history of testing using a certain scale on a specific material that operators
are familiar with and can functionally understand. More information on Rockwell
hardness testing may be found in our guide Selecting a New Age Rockwell Tester or
by contacting us.

3.1.6.2 Brinell Hardness Test

ASTM E10 defines the Brinell hardness test technique for determining Brinell
hardness. It is most typically used to test materials with a coarse structure or a rough
surface that cannot be examined using another method, such as castings and forgings.

Figure 3.8 Brinell hardness testing (J.Gowthaman3,2017 )

21
Brinell testing frequently employs a very high test load (3000 kgf) and a 10mm
diameter indenter to average out most surface and sub-surface consistencies. The
Brinell technique delivers a predefined test load (F) on a fixed diameter carbide ball
(D), which is retained for a predetermined time period and then withdrawn.
The resultant imprint is measured over at least two diameters - generally at right
angles to each other - using a specially built Brinell microscope or optical system,
and the results are averaged (d). Although the method below can be used to obtain the
Brinell number, the averaged diameter measurement is usually converted to a Brinell
hardness number using a chart. Common test forces vary from 500 kgf for non-
ferrous materials to 3000 kgf for steels and cast iron. Other Brinell scales with loads
as low as 1kgf and indenters as small as 1mm in diameter are available, although
these are rarely utilized (J.Gowthaman3,2017 ).

Figure 3.9 Test method illustration

The most common cause of mistake in Brinell testing is the measurement of the
indentation. Even under ideal settings, findings will vary due to differences in
measurement operators. In less-than-ideal settings, the variance can skyrocket. A
grinder is frequently used to eliminate surface conditions from the test surface. The
jagged edge complicates interpretation of the depression. Furthermore, when operators
are aware of the requirements limitations for rejections, they may be encouraged to see
the measurements in a way that raises the percentage of "good" tests and reduces the
need for re-testing (M.Mohan,2017).
Brinell units, which measure in accordance with ASTM E103, use Brinell hardness
parameters in conjunction with the Rockwell hardness technique. Because the vagaries
of visual interpretations are avoided by using an automated mechanical depth
measurement, this approach produces the most repeatable results (and faster).

However, because to the varied test techniques, findings may not be precisely
consistent with Brinell results when using this approach - an offset to the results may
be necessary for some materials. In those circumstances when this may be a concern,
determining the proper numbers is simple.

22
3.1.6.3 Microstructure Analysis

1. Selecting

A crucial initial step is to choose a representative test sample to appropriately define

the microstructure or characteristics of interest. Grain size measurements, for example,
are done on transverse sections, whereas overall microstructure assessments are done
on longitudinal sections. As a result, it is critical to give the laboratory with information
regarding the test specimen's orientation or rolling direction.

Figure 3.10 micro-structure analysis Process,( Yong Tian, 2017 )

2 Sectioning

To prevent modifying or degrading the structure of the materials, test samples are
meticulously sectioned. When using an abrasive saw, it is critical to maintain the
sample cold using coolant or lubrication so it does not burn or overheat. Regardless of
how meticulously abrasive sawing or electric discharge machining is conducted, a little
amount of deformation occurs on the sample surface. During the ensuing preparation
procedures, this distortion must be eliminated.

3 Mounting

After sectioning the test sample to a manageable size, it is mounted in a plastic or epoxy
substance to enable handling and the subsequent grinding and polishing operations.
Mounting media must be hardness and abrasion resistance appropriate with the sample.
Thermosetting phenolics such as Bakelite and thermoplastic polymers such as methyl
methacrylate (Lucite) are common mounting materials. The sample is mounted by
placing it in a mold and covering it with the appropriate powder. Setting or curing of
the media happens when the mold is heated and pressed to the proper conditions. The
mounted sample is taken out of the mold.

23
If the use of heat or pressure might alter the structure of the sample of interest, then
castable cold mounting materials such as epoxies are employed.

4 Grinding
Grinding comes after mounting to eliminate surface damage from the sectioning stage
and give a level surface. Grinding is typically done using water-lubricated abrasive
wheels and a sequence of increasingly finer abrasive grits. This process yields a
virtually flat surface devoid of the disturbed or distorted metal introduced by the
preceding sample preparation stages.

5 Polishing
The polishing phase eliminates the distorted metal's last thin coating. It results in a
suitably prepared sample that is suitable for assessment of unetched features such as
inclusion content or any porosity that may present.

6 Etching
Etching may be employed as a last step to reveal the microstructure of the test sample.
This procedure shows characteristics like as grain boundaries, twins, and second phase
particles that were not visible in the unetched sample.

3.1.6.4 Hardness tester Calibration Process

For the following calibration procedure description, (F.Löffler,A.Sawla,2015),
(1) Replacing the indenter with an adapter and mounting the calibration device on the
sample plate
(2) The adapter is placed into the frame and extends the spring via the legs by activating
the preliminary force setting on the hardness testing machine.
(4) Placing the measurement sensor on the baseplate and folding in the adjustment unit.
(5) Adjustment of the adapter level by adjusting the adjustment unit, and step-by-step
comparison of the measuring sensor's indication with the depth measuring device's
indication (the calibration procedure).
(6) The preliminary force is removed.
(7) Remove the calibration device and reinstall the indenter.

Appendix 5 & 6 shows the rockwell and brinell Hardness tester calibration chart and
chart. On the basis of standard DIN EN ISO 6508-1 and -2, a calibration device and an
appropriate calibration method were developed. By means of this calibration method,
the measurement values of the depth-measuring device of a hardness testing machine
are compared to those of the calibration device. The depth-measuring device is thereby
subjected to a load (preliminary test force). The function of the calibration device was
tested in a comparison measurement. The measurement on a conventional,
mechanically working hardness testing machine showed that the limiting deviation of
± 1,0 µm required by the standard is complied with.

24
4. RESULTS
Butt welding 304 austenitic and 409 stainless steel specimens along with the same
material's welding wire produced test coupons. The manual SMAW welding procedure
was employed. To begin, trial runs were performed to determine the current range to
be used, and three sets of parametric combinations were decided for various heat inputs
130 A, 170 A, and 210 A, due to the well-established fact that welding current is the
most influential variable in arc welding processes because it affects the current density
and thus the melting rate of the filler as well as the base material. The heat input from
the welding process plays a major role in the heating and cooling cycles experienced
by the weld and parent plate during welding. A high heat input is expected to result in
a slower cooling rate than a low heat input for a given plate thickness, resulting in a
softer microstructure in the HAZ that is less prone to hydrogen cracking. However, this
does not mean that welding should always be done with a high heat input, since this
causes other issues like as mechanical property loss and an increased danger of
solidification cracking. As a result, a heat input must be chosen to produce a sound
weld with the correct mechanical qualities..

Table 4.1. Heat input at different welding Conditions.

25
The welding specification and the equipment details are explained in below;

1) 316L Welding rod

316L electrodes are used for welding 18% Cr-12% Ni-2.5% Mo stainless steels when
corrosion resistance is required. This electrode has a fast deposition rate and creates a
weld deposit with a beautiful bead look and excellent fracture resistance.

2) Welding Equipment

SMAW was used for experimentation. Having following specifications.

Manufacturer: Tech Pro, India
Supply voltage: 380/415/440 V
Welding current range: 5 A –350 A (DC)
Open circuit voltage: 80 V, Weight: 280 kg

3) Welding consumables and variables

Figure 4.1 Joint design used, Double V

• Material thickness : 5 mm
• Joint design : Double V
• Root face : 1.6 mm
• Root gap : 1.6 mm
• Joint type : Butt joint
• No. of Passes : 2
• Electrode dia : 2.0 mm

26
• Electrode type : 316L
• Filler rod dia : 1.6 mm
• Filler metal : SS 304
• Machine make : Tech Pro
• Polarity : Straight
• Welding torch used : Air cooled
• Voltage = 25 V
• Welding current = 130, 170 and 210 A

Figure 4.2 Welding specimen

4.1 Presentation of experimental result in structural Analysis

Microstructural examination was performed on the cross section of the base metal,
fusion boundary including both HAZ and weld metal, and micrographs were captured
with the help of an optical microscope attached with a camera in order to determine
the microstructural changes taking place during welding under different heat input
conditions and normalizing. LPU performed microstructure examinations.

27
 Figure 4.3 specimen for Analysis

The microstructure of weld metal exhibits delta ferrite in an austenite matrix, whereas
the parent metal exhibits equiaxed austenite grains. Stringers of ferrite are apparent as
dark streaks in the sample welded at a minimum heat input of 2.20 kJ/mm.

28
Figure 4.4 Photomicrographs of base metal and as welded specimens, welded under different heat conditions (A)
2.2kJ/mm, (B) 3.32kJ/mm,

4.2 Presentation of result based on Hardness Test

4.2.1 Rockwell Hardness Test

One of the several hardness tests used to describe a material's reaction to surface
deformation is the Rockwell B hardness test. A harder substance is more brittle and
does not scratch readily, whereas a softer material deforms under local surface tension
and is often more ductile. The harder the material, the higher the Rockwell hardness,
but to what extent depends on how it compares to other metals on the same scale. The
Rockwell B hardness of 304 steel is 70; by comparison, the Rockwell B hardness of
copper, a soft metal, is 51. Simply put, 304 steel is not as hard as some of its stainless-

29
steel siblings, such as 440 steel (for more detail, check our page on 440 steel), but it
still holds its own as a durable general purpose steel. The elastic moduli of type 304
steel vary depending on the kind, however they all fall within the range of 193-200
GPa.
There are several considerations for Rockwell hardness test
- Require clean and well positioned indenter and anvil
- The test sample should be clean, dry, smooth and oxide-free surface
- The surface should be flat and perpendicular to the indenter
- Low reading of hardness value might be expected in cylindrical surfaces
- Specimen thickness should be 10 times higher than the depth of the indenter
- The spacing between the indentations should be 3 to 5 times of the indentation
diameter
- Loading speed should be standardized.

Test Result
SL Specimen Type of indentor RHN Average RHN
NO
1 SS304&409 Ball(1/6’’) 93 93

4.2.2 Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test involves indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter
hardened steel or carbide ball under a 3000 kg force. To avoid excessive indentation,
restrict the weight to 1500 kg or 500 kg for softer materials. In the case of iron and
steel, the entire load is generally applied for 10 to 15 seconds, and for at least 30
seconds in the case of other metals. A low powered microscope is used to measure the
diameter of the indentation left in the test material.
The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface
area of the indentation.

30
Hardness testing has always appeared attractive as a means of estimating other
mechanical properties of metals. There is an empirical relation between those
properties for most steels as follows:
UTS = 0.35*BHN (in kg/mm2)
This equation is used to predict tensile strength of steels by means of hardness

measurement. A reasonable prediction of ultimate tensile strength may also be obtained

using the relation:
Where VHN is the Vickers Hardness number and n is the Meyer’s index.
The 0.2 percent offset yield strength can be determined with good precision from
Vickers hardness number according to the relation: (Hint: For steels, the yield strength
can generally be taken as 80% of the UTS as an approximation)

Test Result
SL NO Specimen Total Load(P) Indentor BHN
Kg-F Diameter(mm)
1 Stainless Steel 304&409 250 2.5 205

4.3 Mechanical properties of SS304 & SS409 at room temperature

Grade Tensile Yield Elongation Hardness
strength strength (% in 50
(MPa) (MPa) mm) Rockwell B Brinell
Min. Min. Min. Max. Max.
304 515 205 40 92 202
409 450 240 25 75 131

31
4.4 Discussion
Welding of SS304 and SS409 using the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process
can provide valuable insights into the weld characteristics and properties of the
materials. By conducting hardness testing using Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests,
as well as microscopic analysis, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of the
weld quality and its microstructural features.
The parameters which are important to perform the SMAW process to create weld
joints between SS304 and SS409. After completion, visually examine the welds for any
visible defects such as cracks, porosity, or lack of fusion. The macroscopic examination
can provide an initial assessment of the weld quality.
The hardness of the base materials (SS304 and SS409) can vary depending on their
specific composition and heat treatment. Generally, stainless steels like SS304 and
SS409 have different hardness levels. SS304 is an austenitic stainless steel known for
its excellent corrosion resistance and is typically characterized by a relatively lower
hardness compared to SS409, which is a ferritic stainless steel known for its higher
hardness and good elevated temperature oxidation resistance. The table show the RHN
and BHN values of each material and the weld zone. So we can see the weld zone to
have a higher hardness compared to the base materials.
During the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) process, the localized heat input and
thermal cycles can influence the microstructure and consequently the hardness of the
weld zone. The weld zone usually exhibits different hardness compared to the base
materials due to the metallurgical changes that occur during the welding process, such
as solidification, grain growth, and phase transformations.
Microstructure analysis techniques, such as optical microscopy, allow for detailed
examination of a material's microstructural features, such as grain boundaries,
inclusions, and phase distribution. The parent metal has equiaxed austenite grains and
delta ferrite in the austenite matrix in the microstructure of the weld metal. The
noticeable dark streaks are ferrite stringers, which were welded in the sample at a
minimum heat input of 2.20 kJ/mm.

32
5. CONCLUSION

The properties of material and welding characteristics of were studied. The various
mechanical tests such as Rockwell hardness test, Brinell hardness test and
microstructure are completed and result will be possible to using dissimilar material
joining to future. So, from here after performing different tests on the welded regions
of SS 409 and SS 304 and concluded that after performing SMAW welding, this
dissimilar material with property of high corrosion resistant and thus this ferritic
material provides better facility of corrosion resistant which gives the opportunity of
using it on different fields which are highly prone to corrosion areas and so it can use
on different fields like on chemical industries, to make machines, engines etc. As the
SS 409 and SS 304 has high corrosion resistant property but the difference is SS 304
has better corrosion resistance than SS 409 and also the cost is high than the SS 409.
So now the result has succeeded in welding both the materials by performing different
test this combination can use it now indifferent fields by the combination of both the
material with the help of SMAW welding. It is concluded that the heat produced during
the welding is about 3000inch is shown by the red color on the photograph. It is
observed that the heat is travelling throughout the plate. Whereas this temperature will
not affect the metal to change its form but it shows that its thermal conductivity is quite
higher. From the simulation for heat flux, it is observed that the heat flux generated
over the beveled region during welding is about 8.2102e5 W/m2 which is given by the
red color on the photograph. It travelled over the whole plate from the weld pool and
is least at the corners of the plate which is given by blue color and is about 9906.7
W/m2. whether there is any defect or not. During microscopic examination or
microstructure analysis, the structure of a material is studied under magnification.

5.1 Recommendation to future activities

Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests are used to determine the hardness of a material,
which is an important mechanical property. However, there are several other
mechanical properties that cannot be directly determined by these tests. Some of
these properties include:
Elastic modulus: Brinell and Rockwell tests do not provide information about the
elastic modulus, which represents a material's stiffness and its ability to deform under
stress.
Yield strength: The yield strength is the point at which a material undergoes
permanent deformation.

33
Tensile strength: Tensile strength is the maximum stress a material can withstand
without breaking under tension. It is a critical property in applications where
materials experience tensile forces.
Shear strength: Shear strength is the maximum stress a material can withstand before
it fails along a plane parallel to the direction of the applied force.
Fracture toughness: Fracture toughness is a measure of a material's resistance to crack
propagation. It is crucial in assessing a material's ability to withstand brittle fracture.
Fatigue strength: Fatigue strength is the ability of a material to withstand cyclic
loading without failure. It is important in applications subject to repeated loading.
Brinell and Rockwell tests do not determine fatigue strength.
These properties require specialized testing techniques or additional tests beyond
Brinell and Rockwell hardness tests to accurately determine them.

34
6. CRITICAL REVIEW

Performing a critical review of a thesis on the experimental investigation of weld

characteristics of SMAW with SS304 and SS409 requires considering various aspects,
including ethics, social impact, economic implications, environmental factors, and
operational health and safety. Here's an analysis of each aspect:
Ethics: The thesis address ethical considerations related to the research and
experimentation process. This includes obtaining necessary permissions, ensuring
informed consent when involving human subjects and adhering to ethical guidelines
for research involving materials and welding processes. Ethical considerations also
extend to the responsible use and disposal of hazardous materials and waste generated
during the experiments.
Social Impact: The thesis discusses the potential social impact of the research findings.
Understanding the weld characteristics of SMAW with SS304 and SS409 can
contribute to improving welding practices, which, in turn, can enhance the quality and
reliability of welded structures. This can benefit industries that rely on stainless steel
welding, such as construction, automotive, and manufacturing sectors, by promoting
safety, durability, and performance.
Economic Implications: The thesis explore the economic implications of the
experimental investigation. Analyzing the weld characteristics of SMAW with SS304
and SS409 can provide insights into optimizing welding parameters, reducing defects,
and improving weld quality. This optimization can lead to cost savings in terms of
material usage, rework, and overall production efficiency. Additionally, understanding
the weld characteristics can help in selecting appropriate welding procedures and
materials for specific applications, contributing to cost-effective solutions.
Environmental Factors: Consideration should be given to the environmental impact
associated with the research and the welding processes being investigated. The thesis
discusses measures taken to minimize environmental harm, such as proper disposal of
hazardous materials, waste management practices, and adherence to relevant
environmental regulations. Furthermore, the research findings may have implications
for sustainability by potentially promoting more efficient and reliable welding
techniques, which can lead to resource conservation and reduced material waste.
Operational Health and Safety: The thesis addresses operational health and safety
aspects related to the experimental investigation. This includes following safety
protocols for working with welding equipment, handling hazardous materials, and
conducting experiments in a controlled and safe environment. The thesis emphasize

35
the importance of proper personal protective equipment (PPE), risk assessment, and
adherence to occupational health and safety guidelines throughout the research process.
Overall, a comprehensive and critical review of the thesis evaluate how the research
addresses ethical considerations, social impact, economic implications, environmental
factors, and operational health and safety. The thesis demonstrate a commitment to
responsible and ethical research practices while considering the broader implications
of the findings on society, industry, and the environment

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7. REFERENCE

1. D.Simhachalam 1 ,M.S.S.Srinivasa Rao 2 ,B.Naga Raju 3 Evaluation of

Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steel (SS 304) by TIG Welding at Heat affected
Zone (2015)
2. Alkahla,Ibrahim;Pervaiz, Salman Sustainability assessment of shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW) process(2017)
3. Mohammed,Raffi; Madhusudhan Reddy, G.; Srinivasa Rao, K mechanical and
corrosion properties of high nitrogen stainless steel shielded metal arc welds(2018)
4. P.S.Gowthaman1, P.Muthukumaran2, J.Gowthaman3, C.Arun4 Review on
Mechanical Characteristics of 304 Stainless Steel using SMAW Welding (2017)
5. M.Mohan,A.Balamurugan,B.Saravanakrishnan, E.Venkatesan Experimental
Investigation and Weld Characteristics of GMAW with EN 8 and SS 409(2017)
6. J.G.Britto,Mageshwaran Govindaraj,K. Rajesh,Jeya Jeevahan Study and analysis
of welding of dissimilar metals 409 stainless steel and 439 stainless steel by TIG
welding(2016)
7. Dr.N. Mathiazhagan,R. Rajasekar ,V. Sathishkumar,R. Ayyasamy Experimental
Analysis and Optimization of Weld Characteristics and Bead Geomtery Analysis for
Stainless Steel 409 by GMAW Process (2016)
8. Surya.SR ,Prasad. M,Vijay Abishek. K, Pradeep.R, Maria Jackson.A Optimisation
of welding parameters of Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW) of EN 24 & SS409
stainless steel for better Tensile strength and Hardness.
9. Srinivasan,P.Bala;Muthupandi,V.Sivan,V.Srinivasan,P.Bala;
Dietzel,W.Microstructure and corrosion behavior of shielded metal arc-welded
dissimilar joints comprising duplex stainless steel and low alloy steel (2006)
10.Tahir, Abdullah Mohd; Lair, Noor Ajian Mohd; Wei, Foo Jun Investigation on
mechanical properties of welded material under different types of welding filler
(shielded metal arc welding), 2018

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8. APPENDIX

Appendix 1 : Sensitization

Figure. Grain boundary microstructure in sensitized austenitic stainless steel.

Figure: Micrographs showing grain dropping due to intergranular corrosion.

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 Figure. Effect of carbon contents in steel on the sensitization conditions.

Appendix 2 : Austenitic Stainless Steel structure

Figure. General microstructure of austenitic stainless steel.

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Appendix 3. Physical Properties of SS304 & Carbon Steel
Table 7.1 Influence of physical properties on welding austenitic stainless steel
compared to carbon steel.

Appendix 4:
Table. Specification of welding Rod

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Appendix 5 Rockwell hardeness Tester with load details

Load and indenter chart

Figure .rockwell Hardness tester

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Fig.: Result of the comparison measurement in the range from 0 to -100 µm. The
correction value derives from the indicated value of the measuring sensor minus the
value of the standard measuring device.

Appendix 6
Table. Brinell calibration test chart

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PRISTIN SUNNY
Masters in Mechanical
Contact - +46769635918
Email – pristinsunny0605vv@gmail.com

ANSAL MUHAMMED
Masters in Mechanical
Contact - +46761507228
Email – ansalemly@gmail.com

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