Cuneta. 1 ABo deat) / Cute ct Aue Austria Culture Name Austrian Alternative Names Republic of Austia; Republik Osterreicn Orientation Iddentifcation. The orgins of present-day Austia can be traced back to prehistoric mes. The Danube River valley was populated as long ago asthe Paleolithic Age (50,000 8.C.€.~8000 8.C..). Austria was inhabited by Celtic peoples from prehistory untlit fell under Roman control the frst century 5.CE By the late second contury C&, peoples such as the Slavs, Germans, Huns, and Bohemians bogan to raid Austria. Christianity, which became the official religion of the Roman Empire, had become established inthe region by the ond of the fourth century. ‘Austrians call heir country Ostereich (eastern empire). The name dates to about CE, 800, when Charlemagne, emperor of the Germanic Franks, took Control of he region, naming it Eastern March because it was meant to stem invasions by marauders from the east (A march isa protective zone set up to defend a border area.) In the tenth century, German king Otto I named it Ostarichi (eastem kingdom), from which the modem German name, Osterrich, derives. The Latin name, Austria, had appeared by the twelth century Nine provinces comprise Austria, Because the county is landlocked and bordered by eight other countries with thelr own distinctive cultures, the people of each province tend tobe diferent. Surrounded by so many other cultures, Austria has often been subjected to cultural invasions," which are ‘a source ofthe differences among the provinces. Another source ofthe diversity isthe Alps, which cover 62 percent ofthe county. The distinctions ‘also occurred because diferent groups settle in Austra, In addon tothe Colts, Romans, Asians, Hungarians, and Germanic groups, many groupe ‘rom contral Europe arived during the Middle Ages (5001500), \With the advent of Communism in Eastern Europe, many people fled to Austiia from the former Czechosiovakia and Hungary. Despite pronounced provincial ferences, however, the people of Austria are proud of their country and their independent identity as Austians, Location and Geography. Located in south-central Europe, Austia isa landlocked, mountainous courte, with an area of approximately 32,375 ‘square miles (83,850 square Kilometers). It shares borders with Germany, the Czech Republi, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, tly, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, is westem portion is a narrow strip that extends between Germany and tly. The Danube River, Austria's only navigable waterway, ows trom southe land south ofthe Alps ten Germany across northern Austra, Areas of major settlement are inthe Danube valley and in the lowlands or hills north, east ‘Austia is divided into rine provinces, Vorarlberg, Trl, Salzburg, Upper Austia, Carinthia, tyra, Burgenland, Lower Aust, and Vienna, the capital city and a major river port on the Danube. ‘The Alps are the distinguishing physica feature of Austria, dominating the western, southern, and central regions of the country, withthe highest point at Grossglockner, 12,457 feot (3,797 meters) Athough the Alps usualy did not demarcate the provinces’ politcal boundaries, they were often impassable. Many inhabitants of Alpine valleys were thus isolateg and developed their own distinct dialects, dress, folklore, and architecture, and could sly deterring the ovigins of outsice A wea BS AB VOLE sa Modern mass media and mobil have diminished many of these distinctions.Domography. The 1998 population count was 8,078,449 (2000 estimate, 8,131,111), about 95 percent of wnom were ‘ethnic Austrian. Other numerically significant ethnic groups include Slovenes, Croats, and Czechs. Austria has one ofthe Wotld's lowest bithrates, and much ofthe population is under age twenty-five or over sixty-five, About 65 percent ofthe population is urban, the largest cy by far being Vienna (1.64 millon), Linguistic Aftilation. Austra isthe only country other than Germany where the offal language Is German, and approximately 98 percent ofthe population speaks High German ora dalect of t. Austrian German sounds “softer” from ‘hat of Germany, and German speakers can easily discern the difference. There are also regional aialects of German, ‘such as Weinerisch, spoken in Vienna. Austria's Slavic minority, located mostly inthe south and the eas, speak Slovenian ‘and Croatian as ther fist language. English is taught in all schools as a second language. ‘Symbolism. The black eagle on the Austrian coat of arms isthe national emblem. The civic crown on its head represents ‘Austria's middle classes; a sickle in its lft talon represents its farmers; a hammer in the right, ts artisans; and broken siver chains hanging from each talon represent freedom from Nazi German control. The red and white bars of Austria's rational flag adorn ts breast. These represent the blood stained tunic wom by Duke Leopold V of Babenberg after the Bate of Ptolemais in 1181. Austria's national anthem is “Land of the Mountains, Land on the River” ‘The edelweiss, Leontopodium alpinum, one of the most famous Alpine plants, is also widely associated with Austra. Celebrated in The Sound of ‘Musi, the edelweiss has white star-shaped flowers and grows on rocks and in crevices. History and Ethnic Relations Emergence of the Nation. Austria's geographical location atthe crossroads of Europe determined its historical multiethnic makeup. In the late ninth century, Slavs and Magyars (Hungarians) advanced westward along the Danube River valley and overran the area. They were defeated by the ‘Gorman king Otto lat the Battle ofthe Lach in 955. Ott established a strong march (protective zone) along Germany's easter border to Keep tbes to the east at bay. Many German colonists settled inthe region ‘Austia emorgod as a distinct poltical ently in 876 when Otto Il gave the area to the Bavarian nobleman Leopold of Sabenbery, largely to keep the Magyars at bay, Austia flourished culturally and economically under the three-hunded-year reign ofthe Babenberg dynasty, who bull great forvesses ‘and beautiful monasteries. The Danulbe became an important rade route, and Vienna was made the capital. Roman Catholicism and German ethnicty {0k holdin the area, \When the lat duke of Babenberg dled without an hein 1246, the Holy Roman emperor Rudolf of Habsburg wrested control in 1278, marking the beginning ofthe 640-year Habsburg dynasty, one ofthe most powerful and dynamic in European history. The Habsburgs were extremely successful in ‘expanding their empire through poltically motivated mariages. The empire became So extensive that at varous times it included Austia and ‘surounding counties, nother Italy, Spain and ils American leritories, and parts of Germany. By the seventeenth century, Austria was the foremost German stale and a major European power. The dominant theme of Austan history during this petiod was war, especialy under threats from the Ottoman Empire during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, The Otlomans launched two great sioges of Vienna (1529 and 1683), but both faled and the Turks were repelled to southeastern Europe. ‘withthe death of Charles VI in 1740, his daughtor Maria Theresa (t. 1740-1780) became rule, although she ha to fight of rivals tothe throne. Reigning over a golden age in Austria's history, Maria Theresa ruled for forty years. Although she lost Silesia to the Prussians, she—and later ner son, Joseph Il. 1785-1790}, who ruled with her jointly beginning in 1785—presided over Austria's transformation into a modem state. She established Centralized contal of th stale, set up a civil service, introduced public education, expanded industry, and reformed the miltary and the legal system. ‘The cultualife of Austia als thrived curing this period The turmol accompanying the French Revolution and Napoleon Benaparte’s ree lo power spelled A wee BS‘he ond ofthe Holy Roman Empire and also a weakening of Austria, The French revolutionary government, in an effort to expand French testy, declares war on Austra in 1792 and began to capture Habsburg tertory. Austian emperor Franz I aled with Britain, Prussia, and Russia to fight the French. The confct continued until the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815, convened ta plan a permanent settlement of European testral boundaries. ‘The congress created the Garman Confederation, a union of thity-rine small German states with Austria in permanent contol of the presidency. ‘Austria also regained much ofthe terry it had last to Napoleon, The provisions of the Congress of Vienna confirmed Austria asthe dominant European power. Even after Emporor Franz Josoph I(r. 1848-1916) suffered defeat by the Prussians in 1866, losing some lands, what became knaw as Austia~ Hungary remained a great power. On 12 November 1818, the end of World War | and aftr the dissolution of the Habsburg Empire after the assassination ofits heir, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, anew ‘German Austrian state—known as the First Republio—was established. Iwas only about one-fourth the sizeof the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In March 1938, Nazi German troops occupied Austria, renaming it Ostmark and annexing tas pat of Germany. This annexation was known as the ‘Anschluss. Ado Hil enlisted Austrian soldiers in the German army untlthe end af World War Ilin 1945. After the war, Aled forces occupied ‘Austria, which was divided into four zones. Nulifying the Anschluss, on 27 April 1945 they reestablished an independent Republic of Aust under its 1820 constitution as amended in 1928, Not unt the State Treaty of October 1956, however, di the four Alied powers—the United States, Great Brain, France, ané the Soviet Union—end their occupation of Ausra, Austia'selalus as a neuival nation was incorporated ino te constitution by the Federal Constitutional Law on Neutrality of 26 Octaber 1955, ‘National Identity. Athough Austia during the Habsburg Empire was made up of many ethnic groups, the strongest group remained the Germans, and ‘hey considered themselves German by cuture even though they were loyalt their provinces. During the late 1800s, Austrians began to support the nationalist ideal. Germans in Austria-Hungary divided into three politcal groups, called Lager (camps)—he German Liberals, the Socal Democratic Workers’ Party, andthe Christian Social Party. After World War | during Austia's First Republic, these camps grew stronger and more divisive, tothe point of armed contict by the 1830s. Aer the assassination of Chistian Social leader Engelbert Doluss by Austian Nazis, the Chistian Social Party Continued its regime under the leadership of Kurt von Schuschnigg Following te Anschluss and then Alled occupation after World War Il, Austrian poltical party leaders discussed ways to rebuld thei county and ‘overook their politcal dferences, ter the Nazi war atrocities, Ausra no longer wanted ta be a part of Germany, andthe rise of Communism in Easter Europe made pariamentary democracy more attractive than ever. However, by 1956 only one-half of Austrians saw themselves as a nation, whereas 46 percent stil identified with their German culture. By the late 1980s, nearly 80 percent of Austrians embraced their identity as a distinct nation, Ethnic Relations. Alnough the Austrian population is strongly homogeneous, there are sizable Croatian (in Burgenland), Slovene (in Carinthia), Hungarian, Czoch, and Slovak minottes, and the preservation of thelr language and culture is quarantood by Austa's constitutional law. During the late twentieth century, however, the numberof Austrians declaring membership in heir etinic groups cropped by large percentages. ‘Since 1945, Austria has accepted immigrants, relugoes, and ransmigrants seeking poltical asylum from Eastorn Europe and the Soviet Union, as well {as from South Amerca, ran, Uganda, and Afghanistan, Gypsies and Jews, who have lved in Austria for centuries, are also considered minority ‘groups. Gypsias maintain much oftheir life of freedom, and as a result have not become a pat ofthe larger socily. Some ant-Semitism sil exists in ‘Austria, but tildes changed somewhat curing tne 1980s and 1990s. ‘After World War I, workers arive from southem Europe, North Aca, and the Balkans to help rebuild northern Europe. Many are stil considered “quest worker,” although they and their families have made permanent homes in Austria In 2000, immigrants made up 9 percent of Austria's population. Austria's political conservatives unjuely blame immigrants for taking jabs from native Austians ané for rising crime, Many foreign workers hold low-paying jobs and therefore live in poorer neighoorhoods in urban areas, especially n Vienna, Because of widespread public concem about immigrants, the government tightened immigraton contvols and strengthened its borer patrol in the late 19008, Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space ‘Approximately one-hied ofthe Austrians Ive inthe five largest cites—Vienra, Graz, Linz, Salzburg, and Innsbruck—with the remainder inhabiting ‘small towns and the countryside Md urine lv In fur 0 vestry anariment bulfinas.hlah-rise huleins.osinalefamiv homes. Many nial areas are cominated by A VALE f HB VALE "59 (oni\Western provinces have wooden chalets with steep, pointed roofs, tk those in Switzerland, whereas the eastern Danubian houses exhibit mare of @ ‘Stavicintuence, with simple design and stucco plastering, Urban architecture reflects the broad architectural styles and related cultural movements that ‘A terman in Atersee. nie Aisin Mah ndustlze, redial metode and cass ar eld in high ete, have appeared throughout Europe's history including the Romanesque and Gothic styles, most notable in churches and monasteries, ofthe Middle ‘Ages. Other important historcal styles include Renaissance, rococo, historic, and modern. ‘The church, the state, andthe nobilty celebrated the ascendancy ofthe Habsburgs with extravagance, exemplified in large-scale building, The talan- Inspced architecture of the baroque period reflects a combination of religious piety and worldly opulence. Austian architec created a distinctive national syle, Ausian baroque, thal featured regular or undulating outines, dynamic use of bold and delicate colors, and rch emamentation, Vienna achieved its maderr-day loo inthe second half ofthe nineteenth century with the ris of @ prosperous mile class. The madioval wal ‘surrounding the cy was razed, fring up a large act of land that resulted in the laying out ofthe Ringstasse, a great boulevard enclosing the cly on three sides (the Danube bordered the fourth). Reviving ol architectural styles (historicism), architects and city planners erected buildings witha great diversity of retrograde styles, including Goth, High Renaissance, and Greek. Architects inthe early 1900s opted forthe functionality of modernism, especially in public Buldings and transportation systems. Vienna has been in the forefront in providing and mainlaining public housing. Aller the 19606, architects ejected functional forilusion and sensualism, focusing on architecture as structures in which incividuals “participate” "Plague columns" area distinctive type of Austian monument, erected in own squares throughout the natin in thanks to the Trinity or the Virgin Mary {or delverance from deadly plagues. Food and Economy Food In Dally Life. Ausian cooking is one ofthe most varied in Europe and includes German, Hungarian, Czech, and northern Nalin intuences. ‘Atypical Austian's day begins witn alight breakfast of coffe or milk with bread and butter or jam. Sausage served with mustard on a hard rll is @ ‘ypical midmorning snack. Lunch i usually the main meal ofthe day and consists of soup and a main course of meat—sausage, the widely popular Wiener schnitzel (breaded veal), chicken, bee, pork or fish. Fresh vagelables, dumplings, noodles, or potaloes olten accompany the main course. A salad may conclude the meal ‘Austrian ely dwellers often take a midaternoon coe break ata national inelitaton, the cofleshouse, Parl ofthe Auetrian way of lf, the coffeehouse ‘serves as a meeting place and a source for breakfast ora snack or light lunch. Most coffee-houses, which usually also serve alcohol, have thelr own distinctive atmosphere. The evering meal usually consists of light fare, perhaps cold meats, cheese, or smoked fsh wih bread and wine or beer. ‘Basic Economy. Before World War I, Austrian farmers produced 72 percent ofthe nation’s food requirements. With wider use of commercial feriizers, mechanizaton, and scientfic methods, they steadly increased that percentage to 90 by the mid-1980s, even though less than 20 percent of ‘he land s suitable or farming. Major crops are wheat and other grains, sugar beets, and potatoes. Austia also grows a variety of other vegetables ‘and fruits, as well as grapes for making wine, Most farmers breed nigs, sheep, and daly cattle, trom which they eblain meat, wool, milk, cheese, and butter. \With increased mechanization, the number of people employed in agriculture decreased, and by the mid-1980e about 7 percent ofthe population held agricultural jobs. Most farms are small and are owned and operated by families. Many farm families supplement their income by renting out rooms or ‘serving as tour gues or sk’ instructors. ‘Austria produces some petroleum and natural gas to meet is own needs, and it also mines coal, on oFe, copper, lead, zine, antimony, and graphite, used in industry ts rivers are hamessed to produce hyeroslecrc energy that provides a substantial portion ofthe nation’s energy needs, wih a ‘surplus to export to neighboring counties. Abundant forests provide materials for lumber, paper products, and fuel. Conservation has helped protect farmland trom landslides and erosion ‘Austia's basi unit of currency isthe schiling. Sanking and finance ar also an important part ofthe economy. than Land Tenure and Property. Austia's urban property market is weak, with many people renting rather than ouying housing. Mast farms a ‘iy acres (twenty hectares); nearly half are about twelve acres (five hectares) or less. About 70 percent of Austria's forestlands are privately held, with theyemainder owned by the federal and provinc'al governments and by the Roman Catholic Church. Inherited wealth is more highly respected than BS we Vets‘Tourism contributes a substantial portion tothe economy, especially sk esors in the Alps and cultural attractions in Vienna and Salzburg. Agricultural products such as wheat, com, wine, dary products, and meat are also produced fr sale. [Major Industries. Manufacturing isthe strongest sactor ofthe Austrian economy, accountng for one-third of the workforce and about 40 percent af the ‘gr0ss domestic product. Iron ore Is Austia's most important mineral resautee, and metal and metal products, especial iron and stel, lead the ‘manufacturing sector. Major products include motor vehicles, locomotives, heavy machinery and equipment, customized electronics, and tools. Other principal manufactured goods include chemicals, petroleum, graphite, wood and paper products, textile, tobacco products, beverages, and processed foods. Trade. Germany is Austria's principal trading partner, with Austria importing crude ol, machinery and equipment, chemical and manufacturing products, pharmaceuticals, ané some foods. Austria's major exports are machinery and equipment, electronics, paper products, clothing and text ‘melals, and transportation equipment, Austria joined the European Union (EU) in 1996, algo conducts wide-ranging foreign trade with Italy, ‘Switzerland, and ether EU countries, as wall as the United Sates, Japan, and other Asian countries, Division of Labor. Crallsmen sorve as apprentices for several years before becoming journeymen and, finaly, master craftsmen. Farming is done ‘mainly by familles who own the land. Immigrants from a numberof nations are employed as unsklled labor and service industry workers. Professional white collar, factory, and government jobs are held mainly by native Austrians, Social Stratification Classes and Castes. Austrian society was radtonaly highly stratified, with wel defined socal cistinctons. Inthe early 1800s, the three major socal classes were aistorals, “clizens,” and peasant-‘armers or peasant-serfs. Al the beginning ofthe twentith century a small aristocracy remained, ‘along with a small middle lass of entrepreneurs, a larger working class, and a large class of peasani-armers (about 55 percent ofthe population). During the peri between World War | and World Wa Il these classes developed separate polical ffilaions as wel dividing the people into camps based on beliefs in eter socal democracy, conservative Christian pot, or iberaism. These camps dissolved after Worle War I, and a growing middle class effected change in the social structure, Prosperity, nobly, and more government benefits in the ate twentieth century resulted ina higher standard of ting for neatly al Austrians. There are mote middle-class ctizens than any other group, and education is corsidered the means to upward mobilty. Equality is promoted throughout Austria, although forsign workers, immigrants, and Gypsies are stil generally less accepted by the mile clas ‘Symbols of Social Stratification. An older Austian family ineage and inherited wealth are sil symbols of respect in Austrian culture. Austrians \whose families have ved in the county for several generations gain mare acceptance than those who are recent immigrants. Symbols of wealth today ‘may be a second home and more material possessions, rather than land, asin earlier centuries. Political Life Government. Austria is a federal republic based on parliamentary democracy. Its constitution was adopted in 1920 and has been amended several times. The federal government has a legislative, an Many Aason ces entire pleasing lon of "08 Worl harman meer BS we VetsEach ofthe rine provinces has a provincial government that provides for enforcement of federal laws and policies, and sels laws regarding municipal affairs, education of young children, lousm, and other local mater. Leadership and Political Officials. Austra has a federal president, elected by the people, who serves as head of state. The president has the power {appoint the chancellor and members ofthe cabinet and alher government pass, to aismise members, and even, on rare occasions, to dissoWve the Natonalrat. However, governmental power rests chielly withthe chancellor (rime minister) and the cabinet, who write most laws. They in turn are responsible tothe Nationalat, which must approve all thor actions. Mombers ofthe parliament are olacted by the people. From 1945 unl 1886, two major poltical parties, the Social Democrat Party of Austia (SPO) and the Austrian People’s Party (OVP) worked together in democratic governance of Austia, As tradional poltical aliances broke down in the late twentieth century, however, more floating” voters made it possible for smaller politcal party candidates to gain a higher percentage of the vote. These partes included the controversial Freedom Party of ‘Austria (FPO), a rightswving paty headed by charismatic young leader Jorg Haider. Other, less powertul, smal partes are the Liberal Forum and the ‘enviconmentalst party the Greens. In February 2000, the OVP and the Freedom Party formed a coaltion, causing the European Union to impose sanctions against Ausra because of Haider's alleged racism and Nazi sympathies. Austians demonstrated to protest the EU's interference in ls national poles. Haider stepped down ‘rom the party, and the EU ited its sanctions in September, Social Problems and Control, Austa has radktonally been a peaceful nation with alow erime rate, Police and the law are respected, but since the 1980s some securty personnel have been accused of improper conduct and excessive use of force A variay of poltical belies are tolerated in ‘Austria, and Vienna has long been a center af peace talks between foreign nations and @ meeting place for international orgarizations such as the ‘Organization ofthe Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), As a result, violence and teroris attacks have occasionally broken out agains visting members of nations in confit, although involvement ofthe Austrian army and tough sentencing of terrorists by Austrian courts have curbed such incidents ‘Austrian police divisions are the Federal Police, whose jurisdiction includes Vienna and other urban areas, and the Gendarmerie, responsibe fr rural ‘and all other areas of Austra, The State Police is a national secret service division, ‘The criminal court system hears cases of crimes and misdemeanors. Jal and prison sentences tend not tobe lengthy, and an efforts made to rehablltate those incarcerated. Certain acts, such as vagrancy and prosttulon, have been decriminaized a the federal level but may sill be prohibited by local governments, Miltary Activity. On 26 October 1955, Aust, by constitutional law, declared its permanent neutrally tis prohibited from entering into military alliances, and foreign counties are prohibited from establishing miltary bases on Austrian sol, However, Austria's miltary does participate in some United Nations peacekseping missions in other countries. ‘Although i remain a neutral country, Austria is prepared to defend itself from attack with the Bundesheer (Federal Army), which has an air force but no navy. Miltary service ison a conscript and volunteer basis, Austrian women have never served in he miltary. Main objectives until the 1990s were {0 doter ouside forces from crossing Austria in millary campaigns agains! surrounding nations by defending Austria's "key zones" (major routes of miliary advance) and “area secur zones" (remaining Austian terry). The Austrian security policy was restuctured from 1883 to 1985, under the New Army Structure, which focuses on resolving border crises that might occur during instabiltyn neighboring nations, resulting in an influx of refugees. ‘Austria accepted observer status inthe Western European Union in 1995 and participates in the North Atantc Treaty Organization's (NATO) Partnership for Peace. It isa long-standing member ofthe United Nations, the Counc of Europe, and the Organization for Sacurty and Cooperation in Europe (OCSE). Social Welfare and Change Programs ‘Austria has one ofthe world's mest highly developed and inclusive social welare programs, funded by direct and indirect taxes. Benefits include unemployment pay and dsabily, retirement, and survivor pensions, Health insurance is requted by the stale and covers 99 percent of Austians Workers pay nto these plans, but the poor and disadvantaged receive equal benefits. Parents receive many benef’, such as monthly suppor payments for maternity and pater leave and child maintenance payments for children, from bith through completion of higher education. Unwed mothers and large low-income familie receive additional benefits, Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations ‘Austria owes much ofits success to its Socal Partnership, which brings together farmers, employers and employees, and trade unions. Trade unions ‘and professional groups help gain rights for Austrian workers as well as helping to regulate economic and social matlers. Unions use collective bargaining to help sel wages ane salaries and worker benefits. Professional groups serve to regulate quay of services, pricing, and competion within the professions. Agricultural groups work to improve farming methods and promote production. The major nongovemmental economic ‘organizations are the Austrian Trade Union Federation; the Federation of Austrian Incustialsts; the Federal Chamber of Trade and Commerce (or Federal Economic Chamber) the Conference of Presidents of the Chamber of Agriculture; the Regulation of the Professions; and the various ‘chambers of labor, which are public corporations, whereas rade unions are private, volunteer organizations. Membership in chamber of labors ‘compulsory forall workers. These organizations work together and with government through a representative council called the Paity Commission, hich sets general principles for solving economic problems. Since the late 1980s, the Social Partnership has been criteized far lack of concern over the enviconment and for social groups tat are not represented, such as pensioners, students, and many women, Ccatholl Action isthe main lay organization ofthe Roman Catholic Church, Austria's many sports organizations are affliated with the Austrian Federal By VA S i FesDivision of Labor by Gender. In spite of effors equalize the workforce, a majority of Austrians sill consider it women's work to do household chores, cook, and care for chléren. A growing number of men in younger families help wih child care, cooking, and shopping, however. Austrian ‘women hold jobs ouside the home less frequently than do women in most ater Eurapean counties, Except for thase with collage degrees, women ‘are under-tepresented in business and the professions and generally hold obs that requie less education and fewer skills, Women make up only about 40 percent of goverment workers, The Relative Status of Women and Men. Since the mic-19706, the Austin loislature has passed a number of measures aimed at equalzing tho satmant of men and women inthe workfores. However, most women are stil pad les than men for doing the same type of ob. The Women's ‘Omnibus Law, passed in 1992, provides for compensation for women who have been discriminated against inthe workplace because of thei gender ‘or who have faced sexual harassment. The Equal Troalment Law of 1979 has continued Io fight cscrimination against women, ‘Austrian men, especially among older and rural families, ae sil considered the head of the family. Men have compulsory miltary service and work in Industy, farming, trades, and professions, Austian men face stresses from unceran areas, however, as evidenced by their uncammonly high suicide rate Marriage, Family, and Kinship ‘Mariage. Austia saw a boom in marriages fom 1945 through the 1960s, a golden age for the economy. Today, however. fewer young people mary ‘more couples divorce, and more lve together and raise children without marrying, More women ate opting for having a chil but not marrying. Couples ‘marry later init, and many educates women choose ther profession over family Nel lvorce was legalized inthe 1980s, and divorce has increased, especialy in urban areas ‘Most weddings are stil held in a Roman Catholic Church, atiough religion plays a lesser part in the ves of urban residents in the late twentieth century Domestic Unit. The domestic urit varies in Austra. Added tothe basic unit of husbane, wife, and children are households with a single parent and chil, homes of civorcad or widowed women and men, single professionals, and households where a man and woman ive and raise children outside ‘of marriage. Households In rural areas are sill usually conventional, wit married couples and several children and possibly grandparents and other ‘elatves living under the same root Inheritance. nhertance of farms varies according to region, with the most common practice being the passing ofthe property to ane son. Remaining siblings then recvive cash for thor share ofthe property In other areas, one her receives the house and a large share of land, withthe rest aivided ‘among ather family members, Socialization Infant Care Infants are well cared for by Austin parents, with both mother and father allowed paid time off rom work when a child is bom. Families in urban areas tend fo be small, and each child receives plenty of atlonton. In larger farming families, slings and other relatives may be available to help care for infant. Most infants receive a traditional baptism in the Roman Catholic Church, CChitd Rearing and Education. Austians, whether martid or not, receive a special government ‘A pune nthe sa own of Kp. Many eo oA re ‘iornsted by fampouses ht hve baen ames yrs. ‘payment each month te help provide for children. This continues untl the child completes college or vocational taining. Parents of handicapped chilcen receive double payments, and thousands of children recelve fee school lunches, Children's holiday programs are organized by the government, and disabled children receive spacial taining, Austrian children are raised to reflect tho Austrian community sptt of peace and ‘compromise 2s 8 means of resolving conflct. They are taught to respect others and to appreciate the ars, their beautful environment, and their BS aS Valsstudents atlend a general secondary schoo! forfour more years, andthe remainder attend an upper-level secondary school until age eighteen. The docision about which secondary school to allend was ance made by children and their parents immediately alter prmary school, but education reforms since the 1980s have made this decision more flexible, resulting in a larger percentage of children choosing the upper-evel schools. Debate over the ‘wo-track system continued inthe 1990s, ‘ter secondary schoo, students have the option of altending a university ora vocational school o pursue a specific career. In ation to public ‘schools, the Roman Catholic Church also operates primary and secondary schools that mako up about 10 percent of Austria's school Higher Education. Students who graduate from upper-level secondary schools may apply toa university, Austria has twelve universes and sx fine arts colleges. The University of Vienna, founded in 1365, is the oldest n German-speaking Europe. A university education is free for Austians, although foreign students pay tution. Once available only to wealthy males, university training is row available to all Austrian students who pass an ‘entrance exam, A a result, since the 1960s annual enrallment at universtes has increased from about 19,000 te 200,000. Women aecount for about half ofthe university students, athough nearly all professors are male. Etiquette Most Austrians greet one another formally, by shaking hands and saying, “Gruss Got” (greet God) or "Gruss dich” (greet you). Upon leaving, they ‘shake again and say "Auf Wiedersehen" (good-bye). Older Viennese men may kis the hand ofa lady on introduction, or say “Kuss dle Han’ (I Kss yur hand) and lick thelr heels together. Women enjoy having doors opened for them. When dining, everyone atthe table joins in a toast, saying "Prost and "Guten Appell Is exchanged before beginning o eat. The formal ills Frau (for a woman) and Herr (fora man) are universally used. Religion Roligious Bolles. Freedom of religion and worship is guaranteed in Austria, About three-fourths of Austians are Roman Catholic. Many Austrians pracice "baptismal certificate Catholicism,” in which they are Catholic by baptism and religious formality but do not hold Catholic belies on central issues. Another major rligion in Austra is Protestantism, and many foreign workers are Muslim or Serbian Orthodox. There is also a small community of Jews, mostly post Word War I! immigrants ané Heir families, athough the Jews have a long history in Vienna, beginning inte tenth century Religious Practitioners. Catholic priests, islamic teachers and mosque officials, Protestant ministers, and Jewish rabbis make up the majority of religious practioner, Rituals and Holy Places. Cathecrals and churches are found throughout Austia. One ofthe most magnificent cathadrals in Austria is Saint ‘Stephen's, o Stephansdom, in Vienna, built during the fiteenth century. The Augustinian abbey and the stalue of Saint Flvian inthe town of Saint Florian are also important religious sites. Cathedrals contain carvings depicting the ie of Christ, at which worshipers stop to pray. A number of monasteries of te Cistercian order of monks, founded in the welth century, stl function. A popular pilgrimage and tourist destiny is Melk, @ Benedictine monastery on the Danube River. nthe ‘countryside, cucixes are erected at crossroads, and numerous wayside shrines offer a place to rest and pray. Death and the Afterlife. Austrians rely onthe churches for funerals, and most hold to the beliefs oftheir religious fath about the after. Austria has ‘one ofthe highest suicide rates in Europe, especialy among men. Vienna i the site ofthe large Zentaliednof (Central Cemetery), which contains the memorial lambs of such famous composers as Beethoven, Brahms, and Schubert, as well as a memorial lo Mozart. Wealthy Austrians are buried in ‘elaborate mausoloums, but nearly all graves are wel tended, wih flowers neatly arranged. Medicine and Health Care ‘Austria's heath care system fs well developed, wth 99 percent of ts people protected by heath insurance plans. These are funded by workers, ‘employers, and the federal, provincial, and local governments. Everyone covered by health insurance s eniled to free outpatient and inpatent ‘ueatment. Physicians contact with heath insurance agencies but ace fre to maintain private practices, and patients are fee to goto the doctor of their chotee. Cardiovascular diseases, cancer, crhosis of the liver, and accidents are the major causes of death Life expectancy for newbom males in 1998 was 743 years, and for females 80.7 years Secular Celebrations Major celebrations include Fasching, a Carnival celebration held the week before Lent begins, andthe Almahirieh, a September celebration of the return of herders from Alpine pastures, in which cows decorated with ribbons and bells are lad ina town in a procession, Austians also c Natonal Day on 26 October; Independence Day, 12 November; Nikalo (Saint Nicnolas) Day, Decemiver, New Year's Day, 1 January rate The Arts and Humanities ‘Support forthe Arts, The ats are highly respected in Austra, and Vienna was known during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries as a world center af culture, especially in musi. It was home to some of the greatest classical composers, including Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert and Brahms, During that te, the Habsburg family and the Roman Cathole Church were chet supporters ofthe ars. Austria is sometimes known as “the Land of Music." Annual festivals throughout the country feature Austrian orchestras, enoirs, and other groups. The best known isthe Salzburg Summer Festival, founded in 1920, Austria is famous for its Vienna Phiharmonic Orchestra and Vienna Boys’ Choir ‘The Vienna State Opera isa state insiution that supports Ausria's premier cultural home, the Vienna Opera House, one ofthe most opulent inthe wag. tt accommodates Austrians on @ budget by providing standing room on graded alsles with ralls to Support viewers during @ long oper A rx Be wD ValeLiterature. Because tis witisn in German, Austin literature is often considered a part of Garman erature, andthe fst significant iterature in ‘Gorman appeared in Austria inthe farm of epic poams and songs around 1200. Seventeenth-corlury ministr Abraham a Sancta Clara wrote prose about the social classes that left a permanent mark on Austrian Iterature. Adabert Stifter was the best-known fiction witrof the nineteenth century, ‘and Rainer Maria Rike was a ged philosophical poet of the twentieth century, Several Austian writers wrote plays and operas in addition to verse ‘and fetion. Among them were Hugo von Hofmannsthal, who, with innovative dramatist Max Reinharet, annually produced the mystery play Everyman atthe Salzburg Festival, The works of early-twentieth-century novelists Franz Werfel and Franz Katka are world famous. Well-known interwar novellsts ‘are Heimita von Daderer and Robert Musi. Thomas Bernhard and Peter Handke achieved fame inthe late twentieth century. CCoffeshouses, especially in Vienna, have ang been known as a gathering place for wrlrs and poets. Today, many coffeshouses feature lterary readings as part ofthe culture that makes them so popular Graphic Arts. As capital ofthe ilustious Habsburg Empire, Vienna was a center for the fine arts as well as for music and the theater. Realist paintor Ferdinand G, Waldmuller and painter Hans Makart were the mast famous ofthe nineleenth century, Gustav Kim painted in the unconventionally ‘sensuous “secession” style, founded in 1887. Oskar Kokoschka paintod the relies of World War In te twentieth century, artists such as Herbert Boeck! painted omamentation on residental blocs and cathedrals, Anton Kolig and Joset Mikl were abstract painters, and Emest Fuchs and Anton Lehman were known for “fantastic realism.” ‘The Albertina museum in the Hofburg quarter of Vienna houses a world famous callection of graphic ats, featuring prints, drawings, and water-colors by attsts such as Michelangelo, da Vinci, Rubers, Cezanne, Manet, Modigliani, and Schiele Performance Arts. Raligicus érama flourished, especially in Tio, during the Middle Ages. During the Counter-Reformation, Jesuit priests wrote ‘countless relsious dramas and staged plays at Jesuit schools. Vienna became the center for German-speaking drama during the 18th century. Vienna's Burgthoater was the most eminent during the nineteenth century, when playwright Franz Grilparzer’s plays were first performed there. Social dramas, folk farces, and saves also premiored during the nineteenth century, Around 1900, the Vienna School of dramatists, ld by Austian playwright Arthur Schnitzer, created @ new style of playwrting in Europe, featuring psychological drama, The Salzburg Festval showcases drama as Wall as music: The State of the Physical and Social Sciences ‘The sciences are well developed in Ausra, and every effort is made to stay inthe forefront of research and development, especially with Austria's ‘entry into the European Union in 1995. Research is divided into sclence-orented and business-oriented research. Science research is carried out mainly by the universes, whereas business research falls under independent companies and private and state-funded research instutes. ‘Among Austrians winning the Nobel Prize inthe sciences are Juius Wagner-Jauregg (1927, therapy of paralysis); Erwin Schrodinger (1933, physics); \Wetlgang Paul (1845, ‘Paull Pricple in quantum theory) and Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch (1873, Behavioral scionce). Famous psychologist ‘Sigmund Frou (1856~1839) dd most of his workin Vienna, ‘Austia participates in the European Space Agency, The European Council for Nuclear Research, the European Molecular Biology Laboratory, the ‘Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, ané Cultural Organizaton {UNESCO}, Although Austria has pledged not to acquire nuclear weapons and is votes declined the adoption of nuclear energy, Austra isthe headquarters forthe Intemational Atomic Energy Agency as center for research and negotiations. Bibliography ‘Austria in Pictures. Rev. ed., 1991. Berenger, Jean. A History ofthe Habsburg Empire: 1273 1700, translated by C. A. Simpson, 1994. Brook-Shephers, Gordon. The Austrians: A Thousand-Year Odyssey, 1997. Honan, Mark, Austria, 199. Jelavich, Barbara. Modern Austia: Empire and Republic, 1815 1986, 1987, Ladika, Susan. "Europe's Unsetting Immigrants." The World & J, 1 May 2000, p. 70. Robertson, lan. Blue Guide: Austria, 1992. ‘Sheehan, Sean, Austria, 1995, ‘Solsten, Ere, and Davie E, McClave, eds, Ausina: A Country Study, 1994 Sul, Melanie A.A Contemporary History of Austria, 1980. ‘Sweony, J, and J. Weidenholzer. Austra: A Study in Contemporary Achievement, 1988, Web Sites "Republic of Austia.* www. austra.gvatlefoestereich (htp www austia gvatleloesterreich) U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Ausra. July 2000, winw.state.goviwwwrbackground_notes/austia {tp iwu:state goviwwnbackground_notes/austa) —R OBERTH, G RIFFIN AND ANNH, S HURGIN A ra Be wD Vale