Issues in Development Praxis

UNIT 14 GRASSROOTS INITIATIVES*

Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Inclusive Development and Grassroots Initiatives
14.3 Institutions and Grassroots Initiatives’
14.4 Grassroots’ Initiatives
14.4.1 Nazdeek
14.4.2 SEWA
14.4.3 SAHAYOG
14.4.4 MNREGA
14.4.5 MSME Schemes
14.4.5.1 MSME Sampark
14.4.5.2 MSME Samadhaan
14.4.5.3 Technology Centre Systems Program (TCSP)
14.5 Let Us Sum Up
14.6 Key Words
14.7 Specimen Answers to Check Your Progress
14.8 Further Readings

14.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:

Discuss grassroots initiatives and their relationship with the process of

inclusive development;

Describe different aspects of grassroots innovations and their relationship

with institutions; and

Examine the various grassroots initiative programs’ by various groups and

government.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
We have already discussed Livelihood and Sustainability in the previous unit, in
this unit we will be looking at the grassroots initiatives and their relevance in the
process of development.

To meet hopes and aspirations of people in the post- Second World War era,
development was a primary concern for most nations, especially the newly
independent Afro-Asian countries. Since per capita income in these newly
independent nations was low, they opted for programs which could provide them
a high growth rate in little time. There were many other listed priorities but
assumption was that once high growth rate is achieved the trickle-down effect
would ensure everyone getting benefit out of it. The policy makers relied on the
growth enhancement programs which would also lead to less unemployment,
194 * Written by Dr.Uzma Azhar, Independent Researcher, Delhi
poverty alleviation and other problems getting resolved. Economic growth and Grassroots Initiatives
economic development were used interchangeably. The reality soon became
manifest and in the post 1960s era economists from the developing world like
Amartya Sen, Samir Amin and Andre Gunder Frank criticized the Western world
dominated economic growth model which led to further growth of economic
inequalities in the society. Problems like poverty, unemployment, literacy, health
issues, etc. for the developing and underdeveloped world especially for their
marginalized population became huge challenges to deal with. The concept of
‘development’ itself has gone through lots of changes, now development means
along with economic growth, improvement in the social sectors (education, health,
literacy, gender equality, less conflicts on cultural issues, etc.), human
development (measures for all around growth of human personality) and
sustainable development (nature or environment friendly growth). For Gunnar
Myrdal (1960) development is an upward movement of the whole social system
by providing better living condition, viz. adequate food, better housing, improved
facilities for health, education and training, and the general improvement of
cultural facilities, which are all desirable.

Let us now see how grassroots initiatives are an important component of inclusive
development.

14.2 INCLUSIVE DEVELOPMENT AND

GRASSROOTS INITIATIVES
According to Amartya Sen (1999), a country can grow rapidly but still do badly
in terms of literacy, health and life expectancy. Sen interprets development as a
process that expands what he terms, the entitlements and capabilities, of the
people. He opined that instead of concentrating on national product or aggregate
income, development economists should concentrate on the entitlements of people
and the capabilities these entitlements generate.

Social indicators such as education, health, women’s empowerment and

participation by the socio-economically backward people in the development
process promote faster development. Therefore, social inclusion is, today,
considered as one of the important factors of growth and development.
Development cannot just be about utilities and growth in income.

Development should include ‘….several distinct but interrelated components,

such as economic facilities, political freedoms, social opportunities, transparency
guarantees and protective security… The process of development is influenced
by these interconnections. Corresponding to multiple interconnected freedoms
there is a need to develop and support plurality of institutions, including
democratic systems, legal mechanisms, market structures, education and health
provisions, media and other communication facilities. The institutions can
incorporate private initiatives as well as public arrangements and also more mixed
structures such as non-governmental organisations and corporate entities. (Sen,
1999, pg. 53)

As we try and understand Indian informal sector which dominates the grassroots
initiatives mostly. We also need to know the section of population that comprises
it.

195
Issues in Development Praxis NSS 55th Round Survey on Employment-Unemployment identified close to half
a billion people involved in the informal sector, with over 90% unregulated jobs.
According to a 2010 Oxfam report on “Social discrimination in India” Dalits
and Adivasis constitute the highest proportion of the population” in the informal
sector workforce, with 89% of them distributed across four poverty groups: the
extremely poor, poor, marginal, and vulnerable. Also, the report says, 85% of
Muslims in the informal sector “find themselves in lowest four income groups”.
The informal sector also includes 95%women working in it.

We are going to discuss Inclusive growth now which, by very definition, implies
an equitable allocation of resources with benefits accruing to every section of
the society.For inclusive growth and development we have to understand
initiatives from the lower strata of society creating innovations due to
necessity,hardships and challenges in their lives. Grassroots innovation may refer
to an informal environment where individuals may innovate to solve local
problems, produce and transform with indigenously available materials. They
may also involve non-banking and micro financing institutions which may include
helping with local products like bamboo, coconut, arecanut cocoa, spices’
plantations and their harvesting, processing, packaging, sales, etc.

Grassroots innovations can also include socially inclusive processes which may
be innovative at their source.

The institutionalization of grassroots initiatives’from their emergence in the

informal environment in India has had specific features:

The process of institutionalization in India is built on ‘bottom-up’ principle,

completely conditioned by reality(based on locally available resources) and
demand based, maintaining efficiency and utilization of resources.

Grassroots’ initiatives’supporting and promoting local organizations are

horizontal, based on networking principles(not hierarchical). It is also a
way to save time and resources hence cooperation becomes faster and more
effective.

For local people working in the informal environment,formalization by

organizations within this institutional architecture is to provide internal
(within the informal environment) and external (with the formal sector)
communication to enable innovative product development (scouting,
verification, validation, testing, prototyping, IPR protection,
commercialization, technology transfer, social diffusion) and decreases
transaction cost at all stages.

The institutionalization of grassroots initiatives makes it possible to scale it

on the regional, national and international levels leading to economic growth
and development as entrepreneurs and creativity promoters.
Check Your Progress I
1) Define development.
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196 .......................................................................................................................
2) What does inclusive growth imply? Grassroots Initiatives

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3) What are grassroots’ innovations?

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4) Mention two features of institutionalization of grassroots initiatives’ from

their emergence in the informal environment in India.
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14.3 INSTITUTIONS AND GRASSROOTS

INITIATIVES
In India, the institutionalization of innovations from the grassroots’ based informal
environment has been awareness of the imaginative and inventive capacity of
the informal sector and appreciation of the population who were generally
considered as much useful for the national economy.As equal participants, the
formal sector integrated national innovation system with the ability of grassroots
innovators.

The one who is at the local (bottom level) must be given freedom and means to
exercise their power and plans with less bureaucratic interventions from the
top.The ‘bottom’ up’ approach has been found to be a more successful approach
to facilitate faster development leading to decentralization of power.With regard
to grassroots innovations,the centralized top-down approach is less participatory,
more instructive and too bureaucratic in nature.

Figure: 1: The Top Down approach showing power and authority flowing from
the Central /National government to state to district to panchayat level
(centralization). Bottom’Up approach shows power and authority flowing from
local panchayat/district to state to national government (decentralization) 197
Issues in Development Praxis
National Government

State Government

Local Self Government

Recent years have seen the shift from the highly centralized system towards the
decentralized system. Besides outlining their functional activities,Constitution’s
(73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 provided constitutional status to the local bodies
in rural areas. In Article 243(6) of the Constitution, the entrustment of functions
to the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are mentioned, that the area of
development and planning would be the primary role of Panchayats, and
implementation of economic development and social justice programs are to be
the focal points of all their activities.

It is through decentralized planning which incorporates the needs at the level of

micro-unit, be it the area of a Gram panchayat or a cluster of villages. It is the
most desirable system to promote the expression of the citizens’ views in shaping
official policy.

National government works as a facilitator and encourages convergence of

technologies and facilitates functioning of rural knowledge centers without having
to go through governmental clearances, in the scenario of decentralization. Local
rural knowledge centers’functioning at the grassroots is strengthened by
community-based organizations, Panchayati Raj institutions, NGOs and self-
help groups which function as ‘knowledge centers’ at the village level.

At village level, ‘knowledge centers’ are where generic information to local

specific knowledge where new internet medium, with other usual mediums like
television, radio, vernacular newspapers are used by men and women trained to
process information for their and community’s benefit. For example, knowledge
regarding availability of financial resources with government agencies, CSR
(corporate social responsibility) funds, other donations from international NGOs
and government schemes and related information.

Lately, Government of India has been making efforts for promoting cash-less
economy and to provide the facility of seamless digital payment to all citizens of
India, especially the poor covered under various schemes in a convenient, easy,
affordable, quick and secure manner.

And since, we are taking about micro enterprises’ here, if we look at the
distribution of enterprises’ categories through urban and rural through data
released by Government of India in its Micro, Medium and Small enterprises
(2018-19), we see micro enterprises dominating in both urban and rural areas.
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 Grassroots Initiatives
Distribution of Enterprises Category Wise (Numbers in lakh)*

Sector Micro Small Medium Total Share (%)

Rural 324.09 0.78 0.01 324.88 51

Urban 306.43 2.53 0.04 309.00 49

All 630.52 3.31 0.05 633.88 100

*Source: Government of India Micro, Medium and Small Enterprises Annual Report 2018-19

The numbers across urban and rural show how the informal sector through micro
enterprises’ is at the core of grassroots’ initiatives’.
Check Your Progress II
1) What is top-down approach?
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2) Mention two main functions of Panchayat.

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14.4 GRASSROOTS INITIATIVES

Let us now look at some of the grassroots’ initiatives in detail. We had talked
about the idea of inclusive growth and development, i.e. marginalized groups
should be given opportunities for their skill enhancement so they become self-
sufficient on their own.

According to estimates 90 percent of all women workers are self-employed in

India. They are generally skilled in traditional crafts or occupations, are usually
very poor, and have little to no assets. It was the UN Decade of Women (1975-
85) that had put the focus on pay equity, gendered violence, land holding and
other human rights of women in India as well.Despite their productivity until the
1980s, women’s contributions to the informal sector remained unrecorded. Even
today,self-employed women have no job security and are not protected by any
effective legislation.

199
Issues in Development Praxis Largely engaged in the agricultural and tertiary sectors, self-employed women
can be grouped as: (a) home-based producers: those who weave fabric etc., make
pottery, bidi, agarbati, papad and produce ready-made garments, spin yarn and
do embroidery work; (b) small vendors and hawkers, selling vegetables, fruits,
and other household items from their carts or makeshift stores; and (c) providers
of services’: manual laborers such as agricultural laborers, construction workers,
contract laborers, laundry and domestic workers. They also include rag pickers
and workers who gather forest products (SEWA, 1995, p. 1,quoted in Datta 2003).

Against the overall backdrop of women’s labor in India, the case of self-employed
women has to be examined. According to an estimate there are 314 million people
in the workforce, ninety million of whom are women. Most, i.e. almost 90 per
cent of these women are employed in agriculture and related activities, which
include work in informal household industries, petty trades and services, and
construction. There are no government agencies or procedures to determine wage
structure, working hours, working conditions, grievance management, or
retirement and other benefits for self-employed women in the informal sector.
Employers are at liberty to set parameters in the informal sector, there are no
standards, contracts or recourse for women workers when they are mistreated or
wages promised them are unpaid. (Datta 2003)

With regard to support for women’ we have a lot of women’s groups working on
the grassroots’ initiatives’ promoted under Development of Women and Child in
Rural Areas (DWCRA), Womens’ Development Programs (WDP), Mahila
Samakhya, Water and Sanitation Board, Bank Credits (self-help groups), Dairy
projects, Forestry,Handicrafts, etc. mainly at government initiatives, etc.

There are large number of village-based groups mobilized by a registered women’s

cooperative/ society located elsewhere around credit, non-formal education,
income generating activities etc. having informal affiliation to the latter.The
awareness generation program of the Central Social Welfare Board and the Mahila
Samakhya Programme of the Ministry of Education are other examples of the
government attempts grassroots’initiatives’ and empowerment. While the first
programme was almost totally dependent on NGO intermediaries, the second
programme involves both government and NGO intermediaries.

Maharashtra faced its worst drought in more than 40 years last year. While nothing
can ultimately wring water from desiccated land, Swayam Shikshan Prayog
ensured that more than 72,000 women were empowered to effectively navigate
the conditions. For years, the organization has promoted sustainable agriculture,
enabling women to obtain land and engage in a form of mixed-crop, organic
farming that uses little water. For many women, it gave them economic
independence and allowed them to build cooperatives with like-minded women.

14.4.1 Nazdeek
Formed in 2012, Nazdeek is a legal empowerment organization for Adivasi (tribal)
womenvolunteers, who identified and reported cases of maternaland infant health
care violations occurring in teaplantation areas in Sonitpur District, Assam (as
part of their End Maternal Mortality Now Project). Through this initiative, women
could report violations through text message, using numeric codes corresponding
to specific locations and types of violations. Like the CEGSS project,the cases
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 Grassroots Initiatives
were mapped onto a publicly accessibleUshahidi platform (endmmnow.org).
Locations included facilities run by tea plantation managers,which are legally
required to provide basic healthcare to their workers; as well as public
facilities,such as hospitals; Anganwadi centers (communitycenters providing
health and food services to womenand children); and ration shops. To
implementthe project, Nazdeek worked with a local organizationand an
international partner.

14.4.2 SEWA
The Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) was formed in 1972 in
Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Its membership has grown rapidly from 30,000 in 1996 to
318,527 in 2000 (SEWA, 2000) since its inception. Membership stands at 205,985
in the state of Gujarat alone.

Two-thirds of SEWA’s members are based in the rural areas. The organization
crosses lines of religion and caste, as one-third of the members are Muslim and
another third are scheduled castes. SEWA organizes women into cooperatives
and operates like a trade union. Apart from the work,it also provides various
services such as banking, child-care, legal aid, and vocational instruction. SEWA
defines self-employed women to include workers who earn a living through their
own small businesses or wage labor and do not receive regular salaries like formal
sector workers.

SEWA set up by Ela Bhatt (since 1972), has transformed itself from a trade
organization of poor, self-employed workers to a labor, cooperative and women’s
movement, which has contributed significantly to the economic and social well-
being of large numbers of women and households. SEWA focuses on women’s
struggle to address these issues. Its support to self-employed women is geared
toward achieving remuneration, career prospects, and skill development in sectors
where these are marginal or nonexistent (Varma et al., 1996, p. xxv). Focusing
on the idea of self-help, SEWA also strengthens women’s bargaining power, offers
new alternatives, and succeeds in organizing women to enter the mainstream of
the economy

14.4.3 SAHAYOG
In 1992, SAHAYOG was established, awomen’s health and rights organization
based in Uttar Pradesh (UP). SAHAYOG is composed of approximately12,000
poor, rural women leaders from Dalit,Muslim, and tribal communitieshas a long-
standingcollaboration with community-based organizations(CBOs) throughout
UP and with a grassroots women’s forum (MahilaSwasthyaAdhikarManchor
MSAM). In 2011, the government initiated a scheme to ensure free comprehensive
maternity care, and the UP state government requested that civil society
organizations monitor its implementation independently. In 2012, SAHAYOG
launched a project to use interactive voice response to document health
providerdemands that women make informal payments for maternal health care
services they were entitled to receive free of charge. A two-district pilot version
of the project was evaluated in 2013, and then the project was refined and scaled
up to four districts in 2014.

201
Issues in Development Praxis 14.4.4 MNREGA
Government led grassroots’ initiative, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is the world’s largest works-based
social protection scheme which has covered all of India since 2006 and aims at
enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of
guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult
members volunteer to do unskilled manual work (Kaur et al., 2017). The scheme
ensures social inclusion and strengthens Panchayati Raj (local government)
institutions,it also provides improved productive assets and livelihood resources
in rural areas, proactively. The assigned projects may include public works linked
to natural resource management (mostly watershed-related projects), improving
conditions of assets for vulnerable sections of society, and building common and
rural infrastructure.
MNREGA’s key characteristics of the program are:
employment for all rural households (one member per household) who are
willing to work (100 days/year),
free registration with a job guaranteed within 15 days of application,
fixed minimum wage with weekly payments,
at least a third of employees must be women.
MNREGA implementation program in a country with over 833 million people
living in rural areas requires a massive effort. It comes under Ministry of Rural
Development (MoRD) which is responsible for ensuring the adequate and timely
delivery of resources and funds to the states and for reviewing, monitoring and
evaluating the use of these resources.

In the recent past, 2020 migration of laborers due to pandemic has led to renewed
interest in MNREGA for ensuring rural employment for the marginalized poor.

14.4.5 MSME Schemes

We had discussed about the Micro, Small and Medium enterprises (MSMEs)
above, let us look at a few grassroots’ initiatives for promotion of MSMEs.

14.4.5.1 MSME SAMPARK

A job portal launched on 27.06.2018, is a digital platform wherein jobseekers
(i.e. passed out trainees / students of MSME Technology Centres and recruiters
can register themselves for mutually beneficial interaction.

14.4.5.2 MSME SAMADHAAN

To address the issue of Delayed Payment to MSEs Sections 15-24 of The Micro,
Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006 deals with
Delayed Payments to Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) by the buyers to the
MSE supplier.
Beyond 45 days delay in payment gives MSEs suppliers the option of approaching
the Micro and Small Enterprises Facilitation Council (MSEFC) constituted under
the Act in all States/UTs. Under Section 16 of the MSMED Act, delayed payment
202 to supplier units, attracts compound interest with monthly interests at three times
of the bank rate notified by the Reserve Bank. To further the objectives of MSMED Grassroots Initiatives
Act, 2006 Ministry of MSME launched a portal (http:// samadhaan.msme.gov.in/
) on 30th October, 2017. The portal gives information about individual CPSEs/
Central Ministries, State Governments etc. and other buyers regarding the
payments pending with them in respect of the MSEs.The portal also facilitates
MSEs to file their delayed payments related complaints online. After 15 days of
online filing of the case, it is automatically registered with the MSEFC concerned.

MSME SAMADHAAN portal, since its launch on i.e. 30th October 2017, MSEs
have filed 18509 applications related to delayed payments. Apart from cases
where delayed payments were settled mutually between seller and buyers, 4682
applications were converted to cases by 11.6.2019.

14.4.5.3 Technology Centre Systems Program (TCSP)

Ministry of MSME is implementing Technology Centre Systems Program (TCSP)
to expand and upgrade the network of Technology Centres (Tool Rooms and
Technology Development Centres) in the country.Its objectives’ are :

1. Establishment of Physical Infrastructure: This includes establishment of 15

New Technology Centers. 2. upgradation/ modernization of existing Technology
Centers. 3. Engaging the services of world class Technology Cluster Manager
(TCM) to help enhance the technical capabilities of sector specific TCs and
thereby helping them in linkages with the MSMEs and institutions.
Check Your Progress III
1) Discuss the different categories of self employed women.
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2) What is Nazdeek program? When was it started and for whom?

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3) Discuss SEWA’s work model.

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Issues in Development Praxis
4) Howdoes MNREGA lead to livelihood security for the poor?
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14.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we started with the discussion on the process of inclusive development
and the relevance the grassroots initiatives have in the process of development.
We looked at different aspects of grassroots innovations and their relationship
with institutions of the state. Then, we learnt about the various grassroots initiative
programs’ like, NAZDEEK, SEWA, SAHAYOG and MNREGA, MSME
schemes, in detail being run by various groups/ organizations and by the
government for various marginalized categories and groups of people.

14.6 KEY WORDS

Development: Development is a process that expands the entitlements and
capabilities of the people.

Inclusive growth: It implies an equitable allocation of resources with benefits

accruing to every section of the society.

Grassroots innovations: It may refer to an informal environment where

individuals may innovate to solve local problems, produce and transform with
indigenously available materials.

14.7 FURTHER READING

Banerjee N.K. (2016) Grassroot Empowerment(1975-1990):A Discussion
P a p e r h t t p s : / / w w w. c w d s . a c . i n / w p - c o n t e n t / u p l o a d s / 2 0 1 6 / 0 9 /
GrassrootEmpowerment.pdfaccessed on 18th April,2020

Datta,Rekha(2003)From Development to Empowerment: The Self-Employed

Women’s Association in India, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and
Society, Vol. 16, No. 3, Toward Gender Equity: Policies and Strategies pp. 351-
368

Ustyuzhantseva Olga V. (2015)Institutionalization of grassroots innovation in

India, Current Science Association, Vol. 108, No. 8, pp. 1476-1482 .

Porras Ina and Kaur, Nanki (2018) India’s Mahatma Gandhi Guaranteed
Employment programme, International Institute for Environment and
Development, London.

Sen,Amrtya (1999) Development as Freedom, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.
204
 Grassroots Initiatives
14.8 SPECIMEN ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR
PROGRESS
Check Your Progress I
1) Sen interprets development as a process that expands what he terms, the
entitlements and capabilities, of the people. He opined that instead of
concentrating on national product or aggregate income, development
economists should concentrate on the entitlements of people and the
capabilities these entitlements generate.

2) Inclusive growth implies an equitable allocation of resources with benefits

accruing to every section of the society.For inclusive growth and
development we have to understand initiatives from the lower strata of
society creating innovations due to necessity, hardships and challenges in
their lives.

3) Grassroots innovation may refer to an informal environment where

individuals may innovate to solve local problems, produce and transform
with indigenously available materials. They may also involve non-banking
and micro financing institutions which may include helping with local
products like bamboo, coconut, arecanut cocoa, spices’ plantations and their
harvesting, processing, packaging, sales, etc.

4) a) The process of institutionalization in India is built on ‘bottom-up’

principle, completely conditioned by reality (based on locally available
resources) and demand based, maintaining efficiency and utilization of
resources.

b) Grassroots’ initiatives’ supporting and promoting local organizations

are horizontal, based on networking principles (not hierarchical). It is
also a way to save time and resources hence cooperation becomes faster
and more effective.
Check Your Progress II
1) Top down approach means the shift from highly centralized system towards
the decentralized system where the local (bottom level) must be given
freedom and means to exercise their power and plans with less bureaucratic
interventions from the top. The ‘bottom’ up’ approach has been found to be
a more successful approach to facilitate faster developmentleading to
decentralization of power.

2) Panchayat Functions: the primary role of Panchayatsis in the the area of

development and planning, implementation of economic development and
social justice programs.
Check Your Progress III
1) Self-employed women can be grouped as: (a) home-based producers: those
who weave fabric etc., make pottery, bidi, agarbati, papad and produce
ready-made garments, spin yarn and do embroidery work; (b) small vendors
and hawkers, selling vegetables, fruits, and other household items from
their carts or makeshift stores; and (c) providers of services’: manual laborers
205
Issues in Development Praxis such as agricultural laborers, construction workers, contract laborers, laundry
and domestic workers. They also include rag pickers and workers who gather
forest products.

2) Formed in 2012, Nazdeek is a legal empowerment organization for Adivasi

(tribal) women volunteers, who identified and reported cases of maternal
land infant health care violations occurring in tea plantation areas in Sonitpur
District, Assam (as part of their End Maternal Mortality Now Project).
Through this initiative, women could report violations through text message,
using numeric codes corresponding to specific locationsand types of
violations.

3) SEWA organizes women into cooperatives and operates like a trade union.
Apart from the work, it also provides various services such as banking,
child-care, legal aid, and vocational instruction. SEWA defines self-
employed women to include workers who earn a living through their own
small businesses or wage labor and do not receive regular salaries like formal
sector workers.

4) MGNREGA(2006) is the world’s largest works-based social protection

scheme which aims at enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by
providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial
year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled
manual work. The scheme ensures social inclusion and strengthens
Panchayat Raj (local government) institutions, it also provides improved
productive assets and livelihood resources in rural areas.

REFERENCES
Banerjee N.K.(2016) Grassroot Empowerment(1975-1990):A Discussion
P a p e r h t t p s : / / w w w. c w d s . a c . i n / w p - c o n t e n t / u p l o a d s / 2 0 1 6 / 0 9 /
GrassrootEmpowerment.pdf accessed on 18th April,2020

Datta,Rekha(2003)From Development to Empowerment: The Self-Employed

Women’s Association in India, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and
Society, Vol. 16, No. 3, Toward Gender Equity: Policies and Strategies pp. 351-
368

Ustyuzhantseva Olga V. (2015)Institutionalization of grassroots innovation in

India, Current Science Association, Vol. 108, No. 8, pp. 1476-1482 .

https://www.jstor.org/stable/24905392?Search=yes&resultItemClick=accessed
on 11th June, 2020

Porras Ina and Kaur, Nanki (2018) India’s Mahatma Gandhi Guaranteed
Employment programme, International Institute for Environment and
Development, London.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep 16742? Search = yes & result Item Click = &

seq = 1 # metadata_info_tab_contents accessed on 11th June, 2020.

Sen,Amrtya(1999)Development as Freedom, Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.
206
Schaaf Marta, Chhabra Shruti, Flores Walter, Feruglio Francesa, Dasgupta Grassroots Initiatives
Jashodhara and Ruano Ana Lorena (2018),Does Information and Communication
Technology Add Value to Citizen-Led Accountability Initiatives in Health?
Experiences from India and Guatemala

Health and Human Rights ,Vol. 20, No. 2, SPECIAL SECTION: Human Rights
and the Social Determinants of Health pp. 169-184 .
https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26542069 accessed on 13th May, 2020
http://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/39239/1/Unit-1.pdfaccessed on 13th
May, 2020.
https://msme.gov.in/sites/default/files/Annualrprt.pdfaccessed on 12th June, 2020.

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