Assessment of Secondary Clarification Design Concepts

Author(s): Denny S. Parker

Source: Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation), Vol. 55, No. 4 (Apr., 1983), pp. 349-359
Published by: Water Environment Federation
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25041874
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 il

Assessment of
secondary
clarification design concepts
Denny S. Parker

Technology-based effluent requirements based on fed depth, overflow rate, weir placement, flocculation/solids
eral law have mandated a general upgrading in treatment contact, and hydraulic distribution are discussed.
levels for industries and municipalities. In many in Clarifier depth. One of the most overlooked areas in
stances, effluent requirements have been established that secondary clarification design is the effect of secondary
are more stringent than biological secondary treatment clarifier depth on effluent quality. Primarily for reasons
has traditionally been considered capable of producing. of economy, the environmental engineering profession
In these instances, the usual practice of the environ traditionally favored the use of shallow tanks.1 In 1959,
mental engineering profession has been to add effluent the ASCE/WPCF design manual2 suggested values of
filtration after biological secondary treatment. However, 2.2 to 3.8 m (7 to 12 ft) for tank depth. Recently, the
in many cases, costly effluent filtration can be avoided trend has been toward deeper tanks.
by the careful design of secondary sedimentation tanks
and optimization of the biological treatment process to
When a low suspended solids level is
enhance sedimentation efficiency. In this paper, the fac
tors influencing sedimentation efficiency in the activated required, there are alternatives less expensive
sludge process are discussed. than available effluent filtration.
In most instances, the activated sludge process's ef
fluent biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is determined For instance, the current ASCE/WPCF design man
by the level of effluent suspended solids (SS). This is a
ual3 suggests a 4.4 m (15 ft) depth for tanks with a di
result of most applications being characterized by rela ameter of 31.2 m (100 ft). Recognition that secondary
tively low-rate operation and, as a consequence, soluble
clarifiers should be deeper is a result of the realization
BOD removal being usually quite high. Low total ef
that the distance of the sludge blanket level from the
fluent BOD values are obtained by minimizing effluent
effluent weirs has a direct relationship to effluent quality.
SS. Most approaches to improving the effluent SS level
The secondary clarifier must have sufficient depth to
by in-process changes start by recognizing that the ac
permit sludge storage without interfering with effluent
tivated sludge suspension is of a flocculent nature. Sed
quality. For instance, Miller and Miller4 found that vi
imentation efficiency can be maximized by enhancing olations of secondary treatment requirements were cor
the flocculation of dispersed solids prior to the sedi
related with blanket depth in clarifiers having a side
mentation tank. This can be done by controlling the
water depth of 4.3 m (14 ft). Blanket depths of 1.8 m
operating variables of the biological process and by pro
(6 ft), or more, resulted in secondary treatment viola
viding an efficient hydraulic design for enhancing floc
tions in 50% or more of the samples. Similar observa
culation and sedimentation efficiency in the secondary
tions have been made under controlled laboratory con
clarifier itself. Both approaches are addressed in the fol
ditions.5
lowing sections of this paper.
Pflanz6 studied very shallow tanks of 1.2 to 2.27 m
(4 to 7.5 ft) in depth. In these shallow tanks, effluent
SECONDARY CLARIFIER quality was directly correlated to solids load and sludge
volume index (SVI). From Pflanz's data, it can be in
DESIGN ASPECTS ferred that in shallow tanks the sludge blanket rises to
Circular sedimentation tanks are the most common a level that interferes with good effluent quality. How
in activated sludge plants. In addition, most of our ex ever, with deeper tanks it has been found that good ef
perience iswith this tank type. As a result, the emphasis fluent can be maintained with high SVI values over a
of the discussion presented here is on circular tanks. In reasonable range of overflow rates. For instance, Keefer7
general however, the principles apply to rectangular found that low effluent SS levels (less than 20 mg/1) were
tanks as well. In the following sections, the roles of tank attained with SVI values as high as 260 ml/g at overflow

April 1983 349

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Parker_

-(-!
LEGEND:
mgd), based on 10 state standards. The 1977 manual
CA
LIVERMOHE, 190-PEHCENTILEVALUE suggests values of 1.4 m/h (800 gal/day/sq ft), with ad
VALUE
50-PERCENTILE
VALUE
10-PERCENTILE
ditional consideration given to peak flows.3 It is generally
AVERAGEOVERFLOW recognized that effluent quality is directly correlated
0/8 RATE, EXCLUD
9pd/?t2.
INGRASFLOWAND with overflow rate. Analysis of data from the Livermore,
CENTER
WELLAREA
Calif., plant shows a strong influence of overflow rate
(1)ftx0.304?-
m
on effluent quality (Figure 2).8 The Livermore
x0.041
(2)gpd/ft2 tanks are
-m3/d*v/m2
fairly shallow (3.7 m, or 12 ft), and this factor undoubt
edly causes a steeper increase in effluent SS concentra
tion as a function of overflow rate than would be the
case for a deeper tank. Mazurczyk et al.9 found an even
steeper increase in overflow rates with tanks in Prusz
kow, than was found at Livermore. This is partly a result
of the shallower tanks at Pruszkow, which have an av
(WITHOUT
FLOCCULATOR
I
CENTER
WELL)
J erage depth of only 2.94 m (9.5 ft).
OR
ICORVALLIS, Because both clarifier depth and overflow rate appear
to have a significant influence on effluent quality, ra
tional secondary clarifier design suggests both low over
flow rates and deep tanks may be necessary when striv
ing to maintain low effluent SS levels. At required ef
CLARIFIER ft
DEPTH,
fluent SS levels in an intermediate range, there appear
Figure 1?Effect of clarifier depth and flocculator center well to be trade-offs that must be made between the two
on effluent suspended solids. design parameters (such as, shallower tanks with lower
overflow rates or deeper tanks with higher overflow
rates). These trade-offs need to be confirmed by obtain
rates of 1.0 to 1.7m/h (600 to 1000 gal/day/sq ft) in ing data on the effect of overflow rate on deep secondary
tanks having a 4-m (13.3-ft) side-water depth. sedimentation tanks, as currently there are little avail
For the past 15 years, our practice has been to design able.

for side-water depths of 5.0 to 6.3 m (16 to 20 ft), in Solids load. Consideration of solids loading through
tanks larger than 28 m (90 ft) in diameter. These tanks the use of solids flux analysis is a relatively recent de
are deeper than those conventionally used, but experi velopment in environmental engineering design prac
ence has shown that in these tanks, nominal sludge blan tice. The 1959 ASCE/WPCF design manual2 dealt with
kets do not influence effluent quality. A comparison of the issue only in a qualitative sense. Wide application
historical operating records using probability analysis of the oxygen activated sludge process in the last decade
was made for a number of wastewater treatment plants however, using high mixed liquor levels, led to consid
we designed to roughly illustrate the effect of clarifier
depth. The results are shown on Figure 1. Such a com
parison clearly has many limitations because of un
avoidable differences among plant designs and opera
tion, wastewater characteristics, flow variability, and
other factors. However, because we are familiar with
these differences, only those plants most suitable for 1 ?V
comparison were selected. The trend to improved clar 1 o
ifier performance with increased depth is believed to be
valid. In addition to the decline in monthly average SS tw y
20 ? S
values with clarifier depth, process stability appears to
be enhanced because the spread in the 90- and 10-per
centile values declines with increasing depth (Figure 1).
? -
Overflow rate. Similar to the trend with clarifier S
{? NOTE:(1)PLOTTED
POINTS
REPRESENT
<f>ANNUAL 1970-74
AVERAGES.
depth, recommended secondary clarifier design overflow X0.041
(2)Qpd/ft2
?m3/day/m2
rates have been lowered from earlier practice, with a
corresponding improvement in effluent quality. The
600 550 650 750700
trend is apparent in the numbers presented in the ASCE/
OVERFLOW
RATE,
gpd/ft?
WPCF design manuals. The 1959 design manual2 sug
gested design overflow rates of 1.7 m/h (1 000 gal/day/ Figure 2?Secondary clarifier performance versus hydraulic
sq ft) at design flow for plants larger than 7.6 m3/d (2.0 loading at Livermore, Calif.

350 Journal WPCF, Volume 55, Number 4

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 _Process Design

eration of the solids flux analysis procedure in deter viously imposed by the shallow clarifiers Pflanz studied.
mining area requirements for the thickening function Much higher overflow rates would be possible in the
of secondary sedimentation tanks. Reflecting this, the clarifiers typical of American practice, where sludge
1977 ASCE/WPCF manual3 presents suggested design blanket interferences with effluent quality would be ex
solids loads as a function of SVI. In the development pected to be less.
of the solids flux procedure, the argument has been ad Tuntoolavest et al.14 also correlated effluent quality
vanced that, to minimize total treatment plant costs, the with settling column operating parameters. In addition
secondary clarifier area requirements will often be de to other parameters, regression analysis showed that the
termined by solids flux or sludge thickening limitations, terms representing the solids loading correlated with
rather than secondary clarification requirements.10 An effluent SS level. Similar to Pflanz,6 these data were de
other author has advanced the concept that clarification veloped from shallow settling columns ranging from 0.7
area requirements are determined solely by the thick to 2.1 m (2.3 to 6.9 ft); a further limitation to these data
ening function.4 Still another author suggests that clar is that the columns were only 76 mm (3 in.) in diameter.
ifier overflow rates be controlled by limiting solids flux It may be that a sludge blanket interfered with effluent
calculations using initial settling velocities at the mixed quality in column tests by these investigators.
liquor concentration.11 All of these procedures will lead Density currents and weir placement. The phenom
to the development of sludge blankets at the average enon of density currents in secondary sedimentation
design flow conditions. tanks has been well documented. In all but peripheral
Our approach is to design and operate the secondary feed tanks, the influent tends to drop to the tank bottom,
clarifier for solids flux limitation (blanket formation) at run along the bottom of the tank, and then rise at the
peak hydraulic flow, rather than average flow conditions. tank wall, carrying solids over the effluent weirs.9,15 The
This maintains the highest effluent qualities at average problem created by currents in the tank becomes ag
flow, while reserving the sludge storage capacity of the gravated when a "broad intensive flow zone" is estab
clarifier for peak hydraulic operation when it is most lished.9 Under this circumstance, currents carry the in
needed. This, coupled with other activated sludge design fluent across the tank in a broad pattern directly toward
features, such as flexibility to operate in the sludge reaer the effluent weirs. This flow pattern was found by Ma
ation mode and the ability to detect and control sludge zurczyk et al.9 to be encouraged by high SVI levels
blanket levels, permit stable peak flow operation without (greater than 180 ml/g) and effluent temperatures lower
loss of solids or significant deterioration in effluent qual than influent temperatures. Conversely, it was found
ity. Provision for rapid conversion from plug flow to that when a low SVI prevailed, the mixed liquor would
contact stabilization, step feed, or sludge reaeration per be influenced by a greater density gradient, and establish
mits lowering the solids loading on the secondary clar a narrow high-velocity flow zone near the sludge blanket
ifiers under peak load conditions and prevents washout interface.9 Narrow intensity flow zones also occurred in
of solids. The design and operation of secondary clari cases where effluenttemperature was warmer than in
fiers at less than their theoretical solids flux capacity at fluent temperature. These "narrow intensive flow zone"
average flow conditions is further justified by the find situations were characterized by lower effluent SS values
ings of some investigators that actual solids flux capacity than for the broad intensive flow zone cases.
may fall below theoretical values based on pilot- and Despite the well-documented effects of density cur
full-scale tests.12,13 rents, designers and manufacturers have typically lo
Some investigators have related effluent SS to solids cated the weirs at the tank wall.16 Early tests conducted
loading, but these investigators were working exclusively by Anderson17 demonstrated that inboard weir place
with shallow clarifiers. For example, Pflanz6 has related ment significantly reduces effluent SS levels. Our design
solids load to effluent quality in several full-scale tanks practice has been to incorporate inboard weirs in larger
he studied. Effluent SS were correlated with "solids sur tanks, as shown on Figure 3. By this means, excessive
face feed" (recycle was excluded from the calculation) vertical velocities can be avoided that would otherwise
and SVI. As noted previously, all of Pflanz's data were be induced by inadequate weir length, or by spacing of
from very shallow tanks ( 1.2 to 2.7 m), where the sludge effluent troughs close to the outer wall. Current practice
blanket would be expected to interfere with effluent is to limit weir overflow rates to 100 to 150m3/m*d
quality. As a result, "solids surface feed" and overflow (8 000 to 12 000 gal/day/ft) and place the effluent trough
rates had to be restricted to very much lower levels than at about 75% of the tank radius. On some larger di
would be characteristic of American practice. For in ameter tanks, two concentric troughs are used, placed
stance, in two of the plants studied, operation at mixed at 60 and 80% of the tank radius. The support system
liquor suspended solids (MLSS) levels of 4 590 mg/1 consists of radial beams supported from the center col
would require clarifier overflow rates not exceeding 0.4 umn and at the edge of the tank. The concentric effluent
to 0.535 m/h (230 to 310 gal/day/sq ft) to obtain effluent troughs are then supported from the beam system. In
SS levels of 20 mg/1 or less. These restrictions are ob other tanks, cantilevered inboard weirs have been used.

April 1983 351

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Parker_

Crosby15 found inlet design problems in two of the plants

he surveyed, and made improvements in the design of
one by a baffling system that led to increased efficiency.
Mazurczyk et al9 could relate spikes in the sludge flows
from a sedimentation tank to a series of unbaffled inlet
slots.

The critical importance of good inlet distribution

should not be overlooked by designers. We have used
an inlet diffusion well for energy dissipation that uses
ports to develop tangential flow in an outer zone formed
by a skirt. By this means, inlet head losses do not create
hydraulic disturbance of the tank. Instead, inlet energy
is productively used to distribute flow evenly across the
tank. The diameter of the outer skirt is a minimum of
25% of the tank diameter, representing 6% of the tank
Figure 3?Southeastern purification plant sedimentation tanks area. Larger skirts are used in tanks with flocculator
(Melbourne, Australia). center wells.

Flocculation/solids contact. Environmental engineer

ing practitioners have been slow in recognizing the ex
Flow distribution. Crosby15 surveyed seven activated tent to which the flocculent character of activated sludge
sludge plants and found that flow distribution between affects secondary sedimentation efficiency. Currently,
clarifiers was poor and there was seldom adequate flow little thought is given to the physical conditioning ac
control or flow metering to achieve a flow balance. It tivated sludge floe receives prior to or during sedimen
is essential that all tanks receive an equal load to ensure tation. As discussed in a later section of this paper, aer
that no single tank is overloaded hydraulically or from ation tank shearing levels are so high that floe breakup
a solids load standpoint. There are several methods of predominates in the aeration tank, resulting in high lev
distributing flow, including weirs, flow-controlled throt els of dispersed primary particles in the mixed liquor,
tling valves, and hydraulic distribution using hydraulic which are too small to be removed by gravity sedimen
symmetry and inlet port losses. It is the latter distribu tation. Figure 4 shows a typical mixed liquor size dis
tion system that we use most frequently. A relatively tribution for shearing conditions representative of aer
large aerated distribution channel is used to ensure a ation basins. A bimodal size distribution is found with
homogeneous mixed liquor and minimum head loss floe of 25 to 1 600 rim and primary particles of bacteria
along the distribution channel between the first and last size of 0.5 to 5 ?im. No particles are found in a size
tank inlet port. In addition, the inlet port head loss is range of 5 to 25 ^m.18 As might be expected, settling
designed to be at least ten times the distribution channel under ideal conditions favors only the floe, and primary
loss. The head loss can be adjusted at each inlet port by particles are not efficiently removed by gravity sedi
manually adjusting a valve or gate position. This allows mentation. Size distribution analyses from batch sedi
final trim of flow distribution based on actual tank per
formance. This distribution system is preferred because
it requires less head loss than a weir system and because
of its inherent simplicity.
Good flow distribution among tanks also requires
positive control of the return sludge rate from each sec
ondary sedimentation tank at a value common for all
tanks. This normally requires return sludge pumps ded
icated to individual tanks. Equal flow distribution is
another argument for maintaining low blanket levels in
secondary sedimentation tanks. If each tank is operated
at a different return sludge rate because of sludge level
considerations, equal effluent flow rates cannot be main
tained between tanks, causing varying overflow rates
among the tanks and uneven clarification performance.
Tank inlet design. Many secondary clarifiers have
been installed with unbaffled inlet ports that cause di MAXIMUM
PARTICLE ?i
DIMENSION,
rectional flow patterns to develop, which cause uneven
tank loadings and poor sedimentation performance. Figure 4?Typical mixed liquor particle size distribution.

352 Journal WPCF, Volume 55, Number 4

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 _Process Design

mentation tests (Figure 5) show that floe 25 /xm and Table 1?G value for channel aeration at 1 cfm per ft for
larger are removed at better than 95%, while primary different channel configurations.

particles are removed at efficiencies of 40% or less.18 It

Fractional removal at
is these latter particles that are influenced by physical
Floe size, Stokes settling 0.85 m/h
conditioning prior to sedimentation. Providing oppor Mm velocity, cm/s (500 gal/day/sq ft)
tunities for aggregation of these particles into floe will
result in enhanced effluent clarity. 75 0.0306 1.0
50 0.0136 0.57
The relationships for batch sedimentation shown on
25 0.0034 0.14
Figure 5 yield some interesting insights into particle re 10 0.00054 0.023
moval mechanisms during the secondary clarification 50.00014 0.005
process. Sedimentation occurs as "hindered settling"
with the development of a clear interface between the
settling solids and the supernatant in a batch test. Only nities for aggregation occurring in the blanket as it set
a few floe escape the interface into the supernatant, but tles. Similarly, the floe particles in the 25 ?im to 75 ?im
a majority of the primary particles appear in the super size range experience enhanced removal due to floccu
natant. However, removal efficiencies of all particle sizes lation.
are enhanced by flocculation occurring during hindered Considering the above removal mechanism, super
settling. Those primary particles and small floe that are natant SS data obtained under batch conditions become
impinged onto the floe as settling occurs are incorpo very useful for evaluating the performance of existing
rated into the sludge blanket, much as flocculation oc sedimentation tanks. It has been shown that under
curs in floe blanket clarifiers in water treatment practice. quiescent conditions, the supernatant SS level ap
Primary particles escaping above the interface are not proaches the secondary effluent quality.14,18,21 Generally,
removed because of the very low sedimentation veloc when clarifier SS exceeds the supernatant SS, the indi
ities of these particles. This can be shown by comparing cation is that gross floe carryover is occurring. This floe
the data on Figure 5 with predicted clarification removal carryover is indicative of some operating problem within
efficiencies for free settling of primary particles and floe the clarifier, such as a density current, high blanket level,
occurring in secondary sedimentation tanks. Assuming or some other factor causing significant departure from
ideal sedimentation using the method of Camp,1 cal ideal sedimentation conditions. On the other hand,
culated fractional removal efficiencies of different size when the clarifier SS level is less than the supernatant
floe are shown on Table 1 for a sedimentation tank op SS level, the indication is that enhanced flocculation
erated at an overflow rate of 0.85 m/h (500 gal/day/sq opportunities have been provided in the secondary clar
ft). Floe were assumed to settle according to Stake's law ifier.21,22
and to be spherical. Floe density with respect to water Considering the importance of flocculation in clarifier
was assumed to be 0.1 g/cm3 based on two separate operation, the various types of circular secondary clar
investigations.19,20 As may be seen from the table, floes ifiers are reviewed with respect to the opportunities they
less than 25 /?m in size cannot be expected to be removed provide for flocculation. The various types of secondary
during free settling under any realistic clarifier surface clarifiers discussed here are shown on Figure 6.
loading, so the removals shown for floes smaller than Opportunities for flocculation in conventional cir
that size on Figure 5 must be entirely due to opportu cular sedimentation tanks are rather limited. Floccula
tion occurs in the center well of the clarifier and in the
sludge blanket. Because sludge separation and blanket
formation occur very rapidly, most of the opportunities
for flocculation are in the clarifier center well (Figure
6, Type A clarifier). Because center well detention times
for floe are short, few of the benefits attributable to floc
culation are obtained by conventional circular sedimen
tation tanks.
Placing a mildly stirred flocculation step between the
biological treatment unit and the secondary clarifier af
fords the opportunity for incorporating finely divided
material into floe and improves clarification. The first
full-scale trials of flocculation processes were those of
0.5 1 5 10 50 100 500 10(
MAXIMUM
PARTICLE
DIMENSION,
m Fischer and Human,23 who found that effluent qualities
of trickling filter plants could be improved. Despite this
Figure 5?Sedimentation efficiency versus particle size under early work, the use of flocculators ahead of trickling filter
quiescent conditions. clarifiers is only a recent development.22 Similarly, in

353
April 1983

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Parker_

SECONDARY
CLARIFIER at high SVI values is not considered desir
Operation
A.CONVENTIONAL able, as it can lead to high effluent SS levels as a result
CIRCULAR
(LOW
SLUDGE
BLANKET! of the influence of the sludge blanket on effluent quality.
Some of the plants surveyed by Pipes31 that had high
B.CONVENTIONAL
CIRCULAR
(HIGH
SLUDGE
BLANKET) SVI values also had high effluent SS because of the ac
cumulation of sludge in the secondary clarifier. Mazur
/
C.FLOCCULATOR czyk et al.9 found that SS first declined with increasing
SVI up to a limit and then increased with SVI. Jenkins29
has advocated operation at high SVI levels so that ter
D.UPFLOW
(DORTMOND
TYPE) tiary quality effluents can be maintained. Stable oper
ation is obtained by careful control of the filamentous
bulking level by means of return sludge chlorination.
Figure 6?Solids contact features of secondary clarifier types.
The disadvantage of this approach is that the secondary
clarification capacity may limit the ability of the plant
to operate at high flows. In contrast, the use of floccu
eluding a flocculation step in activated sludge plants is lator clarifiers has been shown to produce high effluent
uncommon. Knop24 has reported on full-scale trials con qualities while operating at minimal blanket levels. Sol
ducted in Germany. ids contact is practiced in the flocculator center well,
Incorporating an enlarged center well for flocculation rather than in the sludge blanket.
in circular sedimentation tanks has resulted in monthly Resch32 has defined the regions of stable operation for
average effluent qualities considerably less than 10mg/ tanks purposely operated with sludge blankets (Type D,
1SS at Corvallis, Ore., when operated in activated sludge, Figure 6). These tanks produced effluent SS values on
coupled trickling filter/activated sludge, or trickling fil the order of 10 mg/1. His results show that as SVI in
ter/solids contact modes.22 This type of clarifier provides creases, the overflow rate must decline. Circular upflow
ample opportunity for flocculation in an enlarged center tanks were tested that had depths varying from 5.6 to
well. It is not necessary to operate with a high sludge 14.4 m (18.5 to 47 ft). Overflow rates in Resch's tanks
blanket to provide flocculation opportunities (Figure 6, ranged from 1.0 to 3.0 m/h (575 to 1 725 gal/day/sq ft).
Type C). These secondary clarifiers (Figure 7) are 35 m Resch's deeper tanks are operated within the design
( 115 ft) in diameter, with a 5.5 m ( 18 ft) sidewater depth range of American practice, considering peak flow re
and feature a center well having a 20-minute residence quirements. Considering this, they would seem to have
time. The design of the flocculator center well at Cor no advantage over shallower sedimentation tanks using
vallis was based upon the theoretical flocculation and flocculator center wells, such as those employed at Cor
breakup kinetics developed by Parker et <z/.18,25,26that vallis.
established a relationship between effluent clarity, power Effectof mixed liquor level. The MLSS level has not
input per unit volume (G level), and residence time. The normally been considered a factor in secondary sedi
opportunity in the center well for flocculation to en mentation design. Moreover, the removal efficiency of
hance the incorporation of primary particles into floe the secondary clarifier is not normally expressed in terms
is undoubtedly a factor in the superior performance of of influent MLSS levels. Consider however, a secondary
the Corvallis tanks compared to other plants. Figure 1 clarifier processing a feed concentration of 1 000 mg/1
compares Corvallis data to plants of similar design. (the MLSS level) and having an effluent SS concentra
Primary particle removal can also be increased by tion of 10 mg/1. This clarifier's removal efficiency is ac
maintaining a sludge blanket in the secondary sedimen tually at a very high level, 99%. A secondary clarifier
tation tanks (Type B, Figure 6). This can be enhanced operating at constant SS removal efficiency faced with
by purposefully encouraging a high SVI in the sludge.
Development of high populations of filamentous organ
isms leads to stronger floe, which are less susceptible to
breakup and cause higher SVI values in the system.26"28
These higher SVI values lead to solids flux limitations
in the secondary clarifier and to the development of a
sludge blanket. The sludge blanket affords opportunities
for flocculation and incorporation of dispersed particles
into floe. As long as the sludge blanket is stable and kept
distant from the effluent weirs, high effluent clarity can
result. Because of this phenomenon, a number of in
vestigators have found that effluent SS values decrease Figure 7?Cross-section of secondary clarifier incorporating
as SVI values increase.7'15,21'29'30 flocculator center well features.

354 Journal WPCF, Volume 55, Number 4

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 _Process Design

a feed concentration of 3 000 mg/1 can be expected to

produce an effluent SS concentration of 30 mg/1. The
work of Tuntoolavest et al.,14 based on pilot plant data,
supports this concept. These investigators explained
their findings based upon the concept that the concen
tration of dispersed primary particles should be propor
tional to the mixed liquor level, because floe breakup
predominates over floe aggregation in the aeration tank.
Noms et al.22 made a similar finding for the trickling
contact process for MLSS level concentra G , lee-1
filter/solids
J_I_l_
tions exceeding 1000 mg/1. 0.6 0.25 1.0 1.6 2.0 2.5
Overall tank design. Figure 7 shows the type of sec Q', cfh/ galreactor

ondary clarifier we are now designing for many appli

Figure 8?Effect of aeration rate on supernatant SS level for
cations. Features of the tank include a large flocculator a coarse bubble aeration system.
center well, an inlet diffusion well, cantilevered inboard
weirs, and hydraulic sludge removal. The hydraulic
sludge withdrawal system is the submerged type, rather seconds1 for a variety of activated sludge types.18,25 Un
than the draft tube type depicted in Figures 6A and 6C. fortunately, no type of aeration system on the market
Collection orifices are spaced to provide even sludge today (including oxygen-activated sludge) can operate
pickup in relationship to area swept and two arms are in the optimum G range under reasonable loading and
provided to assure frequent sludge removal. Experience conventional aeration system design conditions. As a
with dense return sludges at low return rates (such as consequence, the aeration tank is operated at a shearing
25%) indicates that reliable sludge flow control cannot rate which favors floe breakup rather than flocculation
be obtained in draft tube systems. Return sludge pumps and the levels of dispersed primary particles in the aer
are dedicated to individual tanks. Tank depths provided ation tank effluent are always higher than could be ob
range from 4.8 to 6.1 m (16 ft to 20 ft) when tank di tained if an opportunity for flocculation under mild
ameter exceeds 27 m (90 ft). shearing conditions were provided.
Empirical evidence that floe breakup is favored over
flocculation in aeration tanks is available. Parker et al1*
AERATION TANK DESIGN ASPECTS
varied aeration levels in an activated sludge plant and
The operation of the secondary sedimentation tanks found that supernatant SS levels increased with aeration
in an activated sludge plant is profoundly affected by rate, as shown on Figure 8. Theoretical relationships
the design and operation of the activated sludge process. showed that this can only be the case when floe breakup
Many publications appear in the literature on optimi rates exceed flocculation rates. Similarly, Tuntoolavest
zation of the activated sludge process, usually from the et al.14 found an excellent correlation of clarifier effluent
standpoint of soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD) SS with aeration rate except at the lowest sludge recycle
or BOD removal, but few have fully incorporated the rate examined.

operation of the secondary clarifier and all the possible Effect of process loading. Values of G, the root mean
process interactions which affect SS removal efficiency. square velocity gradient, are affected by process loading
In the following discussion, the influence of physical and the type of aeration equipment selected. Figure 9
factors, such as aeration equipment type and hydraulic shows calculated aeration tank G values for a coarse
parameters, as well as organic loading, are considered bubble aeration system at different COD removal rates
in terms of their impact on the secondary sedimentation and MLSS levels. These values were calculated based
process. on the oxygen uptake rate relationship of Palm et al.,2*
Aeration tank shearing levels. A survey of 19 acti the assumption of an 8% oxygen transfer efficiency of
vated sludge plants showed that G (root mean square a coarse-bubble aeration system, a 4-m (13-ft) water
velocity gradient) values ranged from 88 to 220 sec depth, and unit air requirements presented in a U. S.
onds1 under average process loading conditions.18 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) design man
These values are considered typical of activated sludge ual.33 Aerator influent COD was assumed to be 300 mg/
plants, but are much higher than values found to be 1, and effluent soluble COD value was assumed to be 30
optimal for flocculation of activated sludge. Field in mg/1 for all COD removal rates below 0.86 day-1. Ef
vestigations at five of these plants showed that in every fluent soluble COD for the COD removal case of 1.74
case improvements in supernatant SS could be produced day'1 was assumed to be 50 mg/1, and intermediate val
by mild shearing in a flocculation zone. Typical values ues were used between the COD removal rates between
of G resulting in lowest values of dispersed primary par 0.86 and 1.74 day1. Values for G were calculated by
ticles have been found to be in the range of 20 to 70 the method of Parker et al1*

April 1983 355

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Parker_

400 T efficiencies are representative of tests conducted for EPA

as well as EPA design reference values.34,35 As may be
seen from the table, fine-bubble diffusers impart signif
icantly lower shearing levels than either coarse-bubble
diffusers or mechanical aerators. As a consequence, fine
300
bubble aeration plants can be expected to have lower
SS levels than mechanically aerated plants. Both fine
bubble and coarse-bubble diffused air plants have the
additional advantage that the mixing energy is more
uniformly dispersed throughout the tank. In compari
g 200
son, mechanically aerated activated sludge plants can
be characterized by very high shearing zones next to the
blade of the aerator. The higher than average shearing
in these zones causes greater floe breakup than would
100 otherwise be the case. Early work by Ridenour and Hen
derson36,37 showed the advantage of air diffusion to me
OXYGEN
TRANSFER
AT
EFFICIENCY in terms of lower effluent SS levels.
STANDARD
CONDITIONS:
8% chanical aeration
WATER
DEPTH
DIFFUSER:
ABOVE
13ft
The difference in SS levels was caused at least in part
by floe breakup caused by the more concentrated shear
JL ing zones with the mechanically aerated system.
0 1.0 2.0
Transfer of mixed liquor. Shearing levels in pipes or
q,COD,day 1
channels between aeration basins and secondary clari
Figure 9?G, rms velocity as a function of removal rate and fiers should be kept to a minimum consistent with re
MLSS level for coarse bubble aeration. quirements for maintaining solids in suspension or flow
distribution. Excessive head losses through flow restric
tions or in free fall should be avoided.
Figure 9 shows several interesting relationships. First, Typically, applied channel aeration rates ( 1 cu ft/min/
at any given COD removal rate, the G level rises dra ft) using a coarse-bubble diffuser leads to excessive G
matically as the MLSS level is increased. This occurs levels. Table 3 shows computed G levels for channels
because the aeration tank design volume declines as the of various configurations. In all cases, G levels are higher
MLSS level increases and therefore the power per unit than those considered optimal for encouraging floccu
volume increases. Similarly, at constant MLSS levels, lation. Field observations of supernatant SS levels shows
G also increases significantly with loading rate. The lat that SS levels actually increase along the channel under
ter effect also occurs because the aeration design volume some conditions.18'22 Air rates in distribution channels
declines as process loading increases, resulting in greater should be kept at minimum values consistent with main
input of air per unit volume. From the standpoint of taining solids in suspension in the channel.
enhancing effluent clarity, conservative practice would Process loading factors affecting floe strength. The
be to minimize both process loading and MLSS levels state of the activated sludge suspension as it is received
in the aeration basin. at the secondary clarifier markedly affects the perfor
Provision for step-feed and tapered aeration will mod
erate the effect of loading on G shown on Figure 9.
Figure 9 is based on a complete mix assumption. In a Table 2?G values as a function of aeration type.

plug flow or step-feed plant where DO control is pro G? sec

Oxygen transfer
vided for each pass, G values will be higher in the first at standard as '"?"cated q?? values

pass and lower in the last pass than indicated on Figure conditions, *pQa
Aerator type percent hp/hr' 0.34 day-1 0.86 day-1 1.74 day-'
9. Thus, a step-feed plant can be expected to have a
lower G value in the mixed liquor just prior to clarifi Coarse bubble
8 2.26 183 261
115
cation than a complete mix plant and therefore have a (lowefficiency)
Coarse bubble
lower effluent SS value. (highefficiency) 11 2.70 96218
153
Mechanical aerator
Effect of aerator type. The type of aeration equipment (lowefficiency)
? 2.0 194 277
122
also has a marked influence on aerator shearing con Mechanical aerator
? 3.5 92209
147
ditions. As aerator efficiency increases, the power trans (highefficiency)
Fine bubble
ferred to the mixed liquor declines for the same amount (lowefficiency) 20 5.6 166
11673
Fine bubble
of oxygen transfer. Table 2 presents calculated G values 140 62
(highefficiency) 30 7.9 98
for different types of aeration equipment for the same
8Wire =
assumed conditions as for Figure 9. Oxygen transfer basis, kg 02/kWh 0.609 lb02/hp/hr.

356 Journal WPCF, Volume 55, Number 4

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 _Process Design

manee ofthe secondary clarifier. In water treatment Table 3?Calculated removal efficiencies for activated
care is given to the design sludge floe.
plant practice, extraordinary
of chemical coagulation and flocculation systems for
Configuration Depth, Width, G,
preparing floe for sedimentation. In general, optimiza
type metres metres seconds
tion of coagulant and coagulant aids is oriented toward
minimizing supernatant turbidity and maximizing floe 4 A 1.2 112

or 2.4 B 1.2 112

strength floe size. It is the author's opinion that the
4 C 2.479
same extraordinary care should be given to maintaining
2.4
D 2.479
optimum physical and chemical coagulation conditions
in the activated sludge process, even though these con
ditions are biologically mediated, rather than by chem
ical addition as in water treatment plants. and high supernatant turbidities. Maintenance of floe
Considering the very high shearing conditions in ac with a filament backbone, but without excessive fila
tivated sludge aeration basins, the state of the activated ment protrusion, results in a "nonbulking" floe with
sludge suspension is best addressed by examining the both low SVI values and low supernatant turbidities.
activated sludge's floe strength and the process loading Factors affecting filamentous bonding. A full review
factors that affect floe strength. Floe strength in activated of the factors affecting the level of filamentous organisms
sludge floe is determined by two types of particle bond is beyond the scope of this assessment. However, the
ing occurring in the floe.18 The first type of bonding following listing includes most of the important factors:
consists of exocellular polymer bridge bonds linking 28
DO level (affected by organic loading).27
primary particles (0.5- to 5-nm size particles, principally mix versus com
Compartmentalization (complete
bacteria) to each other. The second type of bonding in
partmentalized reactors).28,42,43
volves a filament network or "backbone" running Use
of anoxic mixing zones at the head of the aer
throughout the floe and giving it a rigid structure. Clus
ation basin.43
ters of primary particles ("flesh") are attached to the
Lack of sufficient nutrients (typically nitrogen or
filament "backbone." This model of bonding of acti
phosphorus).44
vated sludge has gradually gained acceptance as the cor
Presence of substrates encouraging specific filamen
rect description of the floe,14,38 although Forster and
tous organisms.45
Dallas-Newton39 still submit to the earlier surface charge
Presence of toxicants.27
biopolymer theories as the sole mechanism. However,
two separate surveys comprising 14 activated sludge The work of Palm et al2* provides ample demon
plants show the presence of filaments, even at low SVI stration that SRT (solids residence time or sludge age)
conditions.18,40Further, recent experimental work has does not affect bulking over a broad SRT range, as long
confirmed the presence and growth conditions for the as an appropriate DO level is maintained. In general,
filament bonding mechanism.27,28,41 Therefore, lack of sludge filamentous growths can be promoted or reme
a filament backbone should be considered an uncom died by careful choice of reactor "F/M" or organic load
mon occurrence. A filament backbone is considered a ing, DO level, configuration, and consideration of the
normal determinant of the strength of the activated impact of organism nutrient requirements. Filaments
sludge floe. can be controlled by the selective addition of toxicants
Because of the two types of floe bonding, two types (chlorine or hydrogen peroxide) to the return sludge.27
of floe breakup can occur. First, erosion of the surface Factors affecting primary particle bonding. Because
layers of primary particles occurs when the surface shear the surface shear strength directly affects the floe breakup
strength of the bonds attaching primary particles is ex rate of activated sludge floe,18 operational factors im
ceeded. Low surface shear strength can result from in proving surface shear strength (or polymer bridge bond
sufficient quantities of exocellular polymers. Second, the ing) will enhance activated sludge effluent clarity.
floe can be fractured into fragments when the tensile Activated sludge process loading directly impacts the
strength of the filaments is exceeded.18,25,26 Filament ten state of dispersion of the activated sludge suspension.
sile strength is determined by the number and type of Dispersion can be defined as the ratio of supernatant
filamentous organisms developed in the activated sludge solids (primarily dispersed primary particles) to mixed
process. liquor solids level or vice versa.18,46 Figure 10 shows the
Overdevelopment of filaments can lead to large, results from two studies. The dispersion declines rapidly
strong floe ("filamentous bulking" floe) described by with increase in SRT. Lacking specific data, SRT values
Sezgin et al.21 with high SVI values but clear superna equal to or longer than 3 days should be chosen when
tants. Underdevelopment of filamentous microorgan minimum SS values are desired. Choa and Keinath,46
isms can lead to small weak floe, like the "pinpoint" similar to Kiff,47 were able to show that exocellular poly
floe described by Chudoba et al.42 and Sezgin et al21 mer production was increased as sludge age increased.

April 1983 357

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Parker

considerations lead to the same conclusion. For in

LINE
TREND ANDKEINATH
OFCHOA stance, the recommendation for low MLSS levels derives
from considerations of clarification efficiency and min
imizing shearing in the aeration tank. Another example
# DATAOFCHOA ANDKEINATH (46)
Adata of parker etai.<18| is process loading. Low organic removal rates (or high
SRT values) are suggested to minimize dispersion of the
suspension as well as to minimize shearing in the aer
A
_l_L ation tank.
SRT(DAYS) In any case, low effluent SS levels are obtainable from
the activated sludge process without the necessity of ef
Figure 10?Variation of percentage dispersed solids as a func fluent filtration. When low effluent SS is required, it is
tion of solids retention time. often less expensive to incorporate suitable design fea
tures in the activated sludge process than to add effluent
filtration.
Further, they showed that effluent SS levels were in
versely related to the quantity of exocellu?ar polymers.
As a consequence of exocellular polymer production, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
floe with high sludge ages can be expected to develop
higher surface shear strength, greater resistance to floe Author. Denny S. Parker is vice-president and man
breakup, and lower effluent SS levels. ager of the Environmental Engineering Division, Brown
and Caldwell, Walnut Creek, Calif. Correspondence
should be addressed to Denny S. Parker, Brown and
CONCLUSIONS
Caldwell, Consulting Engineers, 1501 North Broadway,
Previous sections of this paper demonstrated that by Walnut Creek, CA 94596.
careful attention to clarifier design, aeration system se
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April 1983 359

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