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OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
● Comprehend units of biomechanical measurements.
● Apply velocity and joint angle specificity to training.
KEY TERMS
Acceleration Mechanical Advantage
Angular Motion Momentum
Biomechanics Power
Balance Rotary Inertia
Displacement Stability
Distance Stretch-Shortening Cycle
Force Time
Friction Torque
Gravity Velocity
Inertia Velocity/Speed Advantage
Length Weight
Mass Work
Introduction
Biomechanics has been defined as “the study of the structure and function of biological
systems using the means and methods of mechanics” (1). This definition divides the
word biomechanics into two parts: bio (biological system) and mechanics. In the field
of strength and conditioning, the biological system that we are most concerned with is
the human body’s musculoskeletal system. This involves all tissues directly involved with
producing, preventing, or influencing movement (muscles, bones, ligaments, tendons,
cartilage, etc.). Also, “mechanics” is defined as the study of the influence of force on
bodies. Therefore, this chapter examines how we can manipulate forces in a strength
and conditioning setting to produce the desired effect on the structures (tissues) and
functions (movements) of the human musculoskeletal system.
Biomechanics is the science of applying mechanical principles to biological systems such as the
human body.
and momentum. Many of these are derived from his or her chest to the finish position, he or she
three basic variables—length, time, and mass (2). will have pushed the bar a greater distance than a
The basic unit of time is measured in either sec- more experienced individual who is able to push
onds, minutes, or hours; however, since many it straight up (Fig. 5.1). For the more experienced Fig 5.1
sporting or lifting movements are short in dura- lifter, the movement was much more efficient as
tion they are most often measured in seconds. The the distance the bar traveled was much smaller.
basic dimension of length sometimes also known Similarly, if the beginner lifter took much lon-
as space is measured in inches, feet, and yards in ger to push the bar up, he or she would also have
the United States, but the scientific community has a lower bar velocity (often referred to as speed),
adopted the metric system, which utilizes centi- which is defined as distance divided by time.
meters, meters, kilometers, and so on. Lastly, the Velocity can be measured in any unit that divides
basic dimension of mass is commonly measured a measure of distance by a measure of time. The
in kilograms. most common units used to measure velocity
To illustrate many of these biomechanical prin- include m · s−1, km · h−1, mi · h−1. Therefore, in
ciples, we will examine one of the most basic of order to calculate velocity you must measure the
exercises, the bench press. First, in the process of distance the object moved and the time it took to
lowering the bar to your chest or pushing it back cover that distance. Distance and time can be mea-
up, the bar moves through space in a fairly straight sured is several different ways, these include the use
line. Naturally, if you are a tall individual with long of a tape measure and timing gates, video equip-
arms, you will be moving it a greater distance than ment, or electronic transducers.
someone with short extremities. Thus, distance Another illustration of velocity is the example
is defined as the total path traveled by the bar. of a sprinter finishing the 100-m race in 10 seconds.
Displacement is defined as a straight line between This sprinter has achieved an average velocity of 10
where the movement started and where the move- m · s−1 over the course of the race. This gives the
ment ended. Although there is a difference between strength and conditioning specialist some infor-
the two terms (distance vs. displacement) they are mation but in order to tailor appropriate training
most often used interchangeably to describe how sessions to improve a sprinter’s time, more infor-
far the object has traveled. So, in the bench press mation is needed. If we obtained 10 m split times
example, if a beginner lifter struggles to push the for this race, we could calculate many velocities
weight up and it does not take a direct line from throughout the race and this would give us much
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION
Acceleration Forces in Lifting Weights
One component of acceleration that is constantly acting where F, force; m, mass of the dumbbell; a, instantaneous
on the human body and sports implements is accelera- acceleration; g, acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m · s−2);
Q1 tion due to gravity. In the example of an arm curl with a with a concentric muscle action in the dumbbell curl, grav-
dumbbell: ity is a resistance force that results in negative acceleration.
With an eccentric muscle action to lower the dumbbell, the
F = m (a + g)
force of gravity results in positive acceleration.
REAL-WORLD APPLICATION
Understanding the Difference between Velocity and Acceleration
An example that most are familiar with involves discussing your car and an animal jumps into the road directly in front
how you would change velocities while driving your car of you, you need to decelerate from 40 mph to zero mph in
(i.e., either speed up or slow down). In order to accelerate a very short period of time to avoid hitting the animal. This
your car, or increase your car’s speed, the accelerator pedal scenario requires an extremely large deceleration as a large
must be pressed. Conversely, in order to decelerate your change in speed must happen over a short period of time.
car, or decrease the speed, you must press on the brakes. However, if you are going at the same speed and you see Q2
Thus, if while traveling at 40 mph you decide to increase the traffic light change to red at 500 yd in front of you, you
your speed to 50 mph, an acceleration is needed. And if you can apply the brake more lightly and slow down gradu-
are going at 40 mph and you wish to stop your car (velocity ally over a longer period of time. Thus, the same change in
of zero), a deceleration is needed. The rate at which these speed over a longer period of time requires a much smaller
accelerations/decelerations happen becomes extremely magnitude of deceleration.
important as well. Assume you are traveling at 40 mph in
depending on where the individual is standing, is to increase the amount of weight being lifted.
the mass will remain constant. It is fitting that the Another simple modification is to increase the
unit of force bears Isaac Newton’s name as he has number of repetitions to increase the workload.
been credited with the discovery of gravity. Gravity This introduces the concept of Work, which is
is a mutually attractive force between two bodies defined as force times displacement and is mea-
that possess mass. Since the mass of earth is much sured in Joules. As you increase the number of rep-
greater than that of anything on its surface, it will etitions you also increase the displacement over
attract or pull all objects toward its core. Gravity is which a force has been applied, therefore increas-
an important concept for strength and condition- ing the amount of work done. If there are two indi-
ing practitioners as weight training includes lifting viduals lifting the same amount of weight over the
and lowering objects against and with the force of same distance then these individuals are doing the
gravity. It should be noted that gravity always pulls same amount of work; yet if one of these individ-
objects toward the center of the earth and thus only uals is capable of producing the lift in a shorter
acts in the vertical direction. period of time then it is said that this person is
Momentum is the product of mass and veloc- more powerful.
ity and it is an important concept for strength and
Work = Force · Displacement
conditioning specialist since momentum alone can
continue the motion of an object. Unlike previous Power is calculated in two different ways—as work
Aristotelian views that a constant force application divided by time or as force multiplied by veloc-
was needed to maintain motion, Newton found ity, and it is measured in Watts. Commonly used
that an object’s inertia (mass) while on the move “slow-moving” exercises such as the bench press,
had a tendency to maintain that motion and only squat, and dead lift only produce approximately
an external force acting on the object will slow it half the power of the faster Olympic lifts (3). As
down and eventually stop. Therefore, the greater can be seen from the formula, the optimization of
the momentum of an object the greater the exter- both force and velocity is necessary for the greatest
nal forces needed to subsequently stop it. power output, and while large loads require large
amounts of force to get moving, the movement
Momentum = Mass · Velocity
speed is too low for optimal power. Conversely,
lighter loads can be accelerated to high speeds but
Momentum and inertial patterns of the sport should
do not include the necessary force production to
be mimicked during training.
achieve greatest power.
Power = Force · Velocity
There are many ways to increase the intensity of
a workout session. Naturally, the most obvious Power = Work · Time−1
qu
e
our segments (foot, lower leg, thigh, etc.) rotate
about axes created at the joints (ankle, knee, hip,
etc.). Angular motion is measured in degrees
and in some instances can be described in radi-
ans (approximately 57 degrees) or revolutions
(1 rev = 360 degrees).
e
qu
Biceps moment arm
or
e ll t
Force or power applied is determined by a com- Du mbb
the biceps brachii, eccentric elbow extension will able to run nearly as fast this way then when they
be the resulting motion as the muscle will have are able to flex the knee during the swing phase of
allowed the dumbbell to “win.” Isometric activity the running gait. While the legs themselves are not
would occur when the magnitude of the torque changing their mass as the hip flexes and extends,
produced by the muscle is equal to the torque pro- the outstretched leg is maintaining the mass of the
duced by the dumbbell. lower leg and foot relatively far from the hip (axis
(A)
(B)
of rotation). If instead the runner flexes the knee closer to the wire rendering them more stable and
during the swing phase, this will bring the lower less likely to tip over (angular motion) to one side or
leg and foot closer to the hip (axis of rotation) and the other due to the greater rotary inertia (Fig. 5.5).
in so doing decreasing the rotary inertia and allow- The term balance implies control of equilib-
ing the entire leg to now flex forward at a faster rium, whereas stability is resistance to loss of
rate. This allows for the person to get through the equilibrium. One of the ways individuals increase
recovery (swing) phase in a much shorter time and their stability is by increasing their base of support.
therefore run much faster (Fig. 5.4). This base of support is defined as the two-dimen-
Though this example demonstrates how bringing sional area formed by the supporting segments of
the mass closer to the axis of rotation promotes faster the body (Fig. 5.6). Coaches often ask their play-
rotations, there are instances when rotation is not ers to spread their feet shoulder-width apart ren-
desired and the goal is, then, to increase the rotary dering them more stable. Increasing the base of
inertia. Good examples of this are individuals walk- support enhances stability because it increases the
ing along a tightrope. These daredevils often carry distance your line of gravity has to move before it
a long pole in their hands that is bent down from is ends up outside this base, causing a loss of bal-
weights attached at its ends. The weights serve two ance. Once the line of gravity is outside the base
purposes: it puts mass far away from the performer of support, the body will experience a destabiliz-
and brings the center of gravity of the individual ing torque from the pull of gravity that will tend
to topple the body over. Lowering your center of
gravity also increases stability by decreasing the
magnitude of this destabilizing torque by reducing
distance from your center of gravity to your axis of
rotation (your feet on the ground). Olympic lifting
FIGURE 5.4 There is much more knee flexion during the swing
phase of running (B) than there is when walking (A). This allows
the runner to decrease the rotary inertia of the leg and move it FIGURE 5.5 The pole used by a tightrope walker increases their
much faster. rotary inertia.
B C D
FIGURE 5.6 The position of the center of gravity relative to the base of support determines whole body
stability and balance.
competitions require not only for the athlete to ball the base of support becomes the portion of
lift the weight above their heads but also need to the ball that is in contact with ground. The stabil-
demonstrate control of the weight by balancing ity challenge can then be altered by how much air
it for 3 seconds. This balance is difficult due to you put in the ball. If the ball is pumped up with
the high center of gravity position since it is not a lot of air, it will be very rigid and you will be
uncommon for these athletes to be lifting more balancing on a really small area of the ball. This
than two times their own body weight. Therefore, makes maintaining balance more difficult as the
a shorter lifter would have a stability advantage base of support is extremely small. To make this
over a much taller lifter as the same small move- challenge easier, you can remove air from the ball
ment of the load would produce a greater destabi- so that the ball become softer and more of it then
lizing torque in the taller lifter. The most unstable comes in contact with the ground, increasing the
foot position possible in a human being is stand- base of support.
ing on one foot. When standing on one foot our Friction can sometimes be used to increase
base of support becomes the length or width of the difficulty of a certain task or exercise. The two
the foot, and if the center of gravity falls outside of factors related to friction are the nature of the two
the dimensions of the foot, there will be a loss of surfaces attempting to slide past one another (the
balance. The strength and conditioning specialist coefficient of friction) and the amount of force
can use this foot position during many different pressing the two surfaces together (the normal
exercises to train stability. By training in this very force). Monarch cycle ergometers use increased
unstable position, one can further develop the tension of the belt around the wheel to increase
body’s sensory and muscular recruitment strate- the friction and increase the resistance. Football
gies needed to maintain balance. Several pieces of coaches stand on top of blocking sleds to increase
equipment frequently in use in strength and con- the force pressing the sled to the ground and in
ditioning facilities also have the goal of creating so doing making it harder for football players
an unstable surface to allow for the training of the to push the sled across the grass. Application of
ability to maintain balance. talcum powder to the hands in order to remove
One such recent invention is the BOSU ball moisture and get a better grip is an example of
(Fig. 5.7). If we stand on the platform side of this changing the nature of the surfaces in contact.
Most sports require the application of maximal If a muscle is maximally activated in an attempt
power output rather than force. to produce movements at different speeds, several
important points must be observed:
Obviously, most sporting activities involve high 1. As the speed of concentric contraction
velocity, high power movements and therefore it increases, the force that can be produced dur-
may not be effective to train any athlete to only ing those contractions decreases. Therefore,
be able to slowly develop extremely large forces. the minimum amount of force a muscle can
Also, in order to train older adults to avoid falls, we produce is during a fast concentric contraction.
must be concerned with the velocity of muscular 2. Greater tension can be developed during
contraction as well. If an individual loses his or her an isometric contraction (velocity = 0) than
balance, he or she must move quickly and adjust during any speed of concentric contraction.
FMax
Isometric
Eccentric Concentric
Vmax 0 Vmax
Velocity
3. Muscles can generate their greatest forces PCSA). This is logical as one of the main goals of
while resisting motion during eccentric resistance training is to increase the size and hence
(lengthening) contractions. These eccentric the force-producing capacity of our muscles.
or lengthening velocities are shown as nega- One muscle with an extremely large PCSA in
tive velocities (X axis) in Figure 5.9. It should the human body is the gluteus maximus muscle
also be noted that forces generated during (9). With the force-generating capacity of this
eccentric contractions also rise slightly and muscle being so large, many smaller muscles must
then remain relatively constant as velocity compensate for it if it is not working efficiently.
increases. Therefore, it is important that we train it appro-
4. As was mentioned in the Basic Mechanics priately as extremely common pathologies such as
section, Power = force × velocity. Since force low back pain have been associated with a loss of
and concentric velocity have an inverse rela- neural drive to this muscle—termed “gluteal amne-
tionship (i.e., as velocity goes up, force goes sia” (10).
down), the point of peak concentric power
will occur somewhere between an isometric
and maximum velocity concentric contrac- STRETCH-SHORTENING CYCLE
tion. The in vitro concentric power curve Most human movements begin with motions in
derived from the force–velocity relation- the opposite direction to the intended movement.
ship of skeletal muscle is highly dependent In a vertical jump, this involves the initial flexion
on the movement being tested. Izquierdo of the knee/hips and dorsiflexion of the ankles
et al. (7) demonstrated that the best resis- used to accelerate the center of gravity downward.
tances (forces) for the development of peak This causes an eccentric stretch of the knee/hip
power in the upper body were in the range extensors and ankle plantarflexors that is quickly
of 30% to 45% of maximum isometric force. turned into a concentric contraction of these same
However, for explosive lower body move- muscles to produce the upward motion of the cen-
ments peak power was observed at 60% to ter of gravity, resulting in the jump. This eccentric
70% of maximum isometric force. stretch followed closely by a concentric shorten-
This force–velocity–power relationship can be ing has been termed the stretch-shortening cycle
readily observed in strength and conditioning set- (SSC) of a muscle. If there is a minimal time delay
tings. If we attempt to lift an extremely heavy load, between the eccentric stretch and concentric con-
the velocity of movement will be extremely small traction, it has been shown that there is an increase
as we will need to produce maximal forces to move in the force produced as compared to an isolated
this load and will not be able to get it to move concentric contraction (11). The magnitude of
very quickly. When training with lighter loads we increase in concentric force depends on the move-
are much more able to get the resistance moving ment performed and the resistance being moved,
quickly; however, training with too light a load will but is generally thought to be in the magnitude of
necessitate extremely small forces from our mus- 10% to 20%. Therefore, the SSC is critical in pro-
cles. Therefore, in order to achieve peak power we ducing high force and high power concentric mus-
must choose an appropriate resistance to allow for cular contractions.
adequate speed of movement.
The SSC is inherent in almost all sporting move-
ments and this mechanism is critical for producing
PHYSIOLOGICAL CROSS- high force and power.
SECTIONAL AREA
The physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) of a JOINT ANGLE AND MUSCULAR
muscle is a measure of how many muscle sarco-
meres are arranged in parallel in that particular
TORQUE
muscle. This has been shown to determine the Muscles pull on bones at a distance from the axis
maximum force generating capacity of the muscle of rotation (joint) and therefore, they produce a
(8). Therefore a bigger muscle (larger PCSA) can torque that attempts to produce angular motion of
produce more force than a smaller muscle (small the bones to which they are attached. The amount
FIGURE 5.10 The change in the torque generating capacity (force arm distance) of the hamstring muscles
as the knee joint angle changes.
of torque can be calculated by multiplying the middle, and finally, a third class lever has the force
force by the force-arm distance. As a muscle causes in between the axis and resistance (Fig. 5.11).
movement of the bones, the length of the force arm The distances between the axis and the force
changes. This means that with the same amount of (force arm [FA]) and the axis and the resistance
muscular force, there are changes in the amount (resistance arm [RA]) help determine the types of
of torque generated as the muscle moves the joint movements that each lever system is best designed
through its range of motion. In a simple hinge joint to perform. Those levers with a short RA and a
like the elbow/knee, the flexors (biceps brachii/ long force arm are said to have a large mechani-
hamstrings) are at a mechanical advantage at a joint cal advantage (calculated by dividing the FA by
angle of 90 degrees as the force arm is the longest the RA). This is because large resistances can be
in this joint position. As the joint angle increases or moved short distances with small forces if a lever
decreases, the force arm decreases in length, creating is used that creates this mechanical advantage. For
less torque with the same muscular force (Fig. 5.10). example, if a 180 lb person wants to move a 900 lb
rock, they could do this most effectively by getting
a board and wedging it under the rock and then
LEVERS balancing the board on an object really close to
The arrangement of the bones, muscles and joints the rock (creating the axis of rotation). If the dis-
in the human body create simple machines called tance between the axis and the rock is 2 ft this cre-
lever systems. The anatomical levers of the body ates 1,800 ft-lbs of torque that must be overcome
cannot be changed, but when the system is well in order to move the rock. Therefore, the person
understood, they can be used more efficiently would need to jump on the board 10 ft from the
to maximize the muscular efforts of the body axis to produce the required torque needed to move
(12). The three components of every lever system the large rock, but the resultant displacement and
include the axis (joint), the resistance (weight of hence the velocity of the rock would not be large.
the segment being moved and any attached exter- Human muscle bone levers have the muscles
nal weight) and the force (muscle force). The loca- attached really close to the joints creating extremely
tion of these three components with respect to short FAs. By comparison, our limb segments are
one another will determine the type of lever and relatively long creating much longer RAs. This cre-
most importantly, the movement characteristics for ates a mechanical disadvantage or a velocity/speed
which they are best suited. The lever type is deter- advantage (calculated by dividing the RA by the
mined primarily by which of the three components FA) in human muscle bone levers. This is due to the
is located in between the other two. That is, a first fact that it will take a lot of force to get the resistance
class lever has the axis in between the other two, moving (mechanical disadvantage), but once we get
while a second class lever has the resistance in the it moving it will have a much larger displacement
First Class
F R
Second -Class
F R
Third Class
F R
A
FIGURE 5.11 First class, second class, and third class lever systems.
and hence velocity/speed. This concept is displayed provided by this resistance can help accomplish
in research that examined the anatomical differ- the goal of the training session, whether it is sim-
ences in the ankle/foot between a group of collegiate ply to make fundamental human movement pat-
sprinters and a group of height matched nonathletes terns more efficient or to increase strength, speed,
(13). It was discovered that the sprinters had longer or both (i.e., power). The original and most com-
toes and also had 25% shorter Achilles tendon FAs monly used form of resistance simply utilizes dif-
(Fig. 5.12). Therefore, the sprinters had shorter FA ferent forms of mass and the force of gravity. As
and were also able, with their longer toes, to get the
force of the ground pushing back up on their foot
further from the axis of rotation at their ankle, creat- Force Resistance
ing a longer RA. This creates a greater velocity/speed
advantage that may be one mechanical reason why
sprinters can run faster than nonsprinters. Red = Non-sprinters
Blue = Sprinters
FA = force arm
The musculoskeletal system is designed for speed and RA = resistance arm
range of motion rather than high force production.
BIOMECHANICS OF
RESISTANCE
In strength and conditioning settings, various forms FIGURE 5.12 The differences in anatomy noted by Lee and
Piazza (2009) between sprinters and nonsprinters. Sprinters
of resistance have been used to make movements/ had a shorter force arm and a longer resistance arm, creating a
exercises more challenging. The extra stimulus speed advantage.
various technologies have advanced, other forms However, the first half of this equation (ma) is not
of resistance have been developed that have cer- constant as the mass must be accelerated at the start
tain biomechanical characteristics that are differ- of the lift and decelerated at the end of the lift. If a
ent from mass and provide a different stimulus mass is moved extremely slowly through the range
to the human body during training. The follow- of motion, the effect of the “ma” term becomes neg-
ing section will examine several different forms of ligible; however, for rapid movements with large
resistance and discuss how the mechanics of these changes in speed, this term becomes extremely
then produce different training stimuli. This infor- important and can cause great variation in the resis-
mation is important for the strength and condi- tance felt by the muscles throughout the range of
tioning specialist so that the appropriate form of motion. It has been shown that doing high-speed
resistance can be used to accomplish the specific lifts with free-weight resistance requires in excess
functional goal of the training. It is important to of 190% of the weight of the load in order to pro-
tailor the training to the particular goal of the pro- duce these high accelerations (14,15). That means
gram to ensure success. An appropriate analogy that if doing a bench press with 130 lb, the resis-
can be drawn to the engines in our automobiles. tance at the beginning of the concentric phase can
A formula one car (designed for speed) will require actually exceed 250 lb as the momentum of the
a much different engine than a truck designed to eccentric phase is quickly absorbed and the bar is
haul and tow large loads. The strength and condi- accelerated concentrically to a high rate of speed.
tioning specialist needs to choose the appropriate Then, once the weight is moving at a high rate of
form of resistance to ensure that we are building speed, the resistance provided to the muscles can
the correct engines (muscles) to meet the goals of decrease to almost zero if the weight is accelerated
the individual. fast enough that the magnitude of the (m × a) term
The following section will examine the bio- equals that of the (m × g) term. This gives the lifter
mechanics of several different forms of resistance, the feeling that the bar is temporarily floating and
which will be divided into two main categories: (a) almost thrown into the air, which can be dangerous
those that use mass and the force of gravity as the in a bench press movement. This is demonstrated
resistance and (b) those that do not use significant by studies showing that well-trained athletes can
mass and generate the mechanical resistance using spend up to 52% of the concentric phase of a high
other means. speed lift attempting to decelerate and control the
trajectory of the load (16), this leads to a decrease in
the activity of the muscles producing the movement
MASS during this portion of the lift (15).
When using any form of mass as resistance, the Two common forms of mass used as resistance
most important biomechanical concept that the in strength and conditioning settings include (i)
strength and conditioning specialist must keep in free weights and (ii) gravity-based machines.
mind is its inherent inertial properties. To be put
another way, mass resists changes to its state of Free Weights
motion. So if it is not moving, large forces must Free weights are often thought to include only bar-
be applied to the mass to get it moving, and once bells and dumbbells but can also come in many
it begins moving, less force must be applied to other forms. Any object that has a mass and allows
keep it moving. Most overlook the fact that, when for 6 degrees of freedom movement of that mass
performing a lift with a 20-lb dumbbell, the resis- can be considered a “free weight.” Other common
tance provided to the human body throughout forms of free weights include: kettlebells, medicine
that lift can vary from much greater than 20 lb to balls, weight vests, weighted ankle/wrist straps,
overcome the inertia of that mass, to almost zero weighted sleds, training ropes, chains, and the sim-
if the mass in accelerated to a high enough speed plest form of resistance of all, the individual’s own
during the lift. body weight. The biomechanics of these forms of
The force the person is applying to the mass can resistance follow the laws of inertia outlined above
best be calculated using the equation F = ma + mg. and always have the resistance acting vertically
The second part of this equation (mg) is constant downward. Therefore, the force needed to move
as the acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m · s−2) these weights vertically can be determined using
and the mass remain constant throughout a lift. the formula F = ma + mg. The force needed to
move these weights horizontally does not need to that use cables and pulleys to allow us to direct the
overcome gravity and therefore can be determined resistance of a mass/gravity upward or horizon-
using F = ma. Therefore, adjusting how much a tally (Fig. 5.13). Older versions of these machines
mass is moved horizontally/vertically can be a would have the user adjust the resistance by add-
good method of progressing and regressing many ing/removing weighted plates but newer versions
different movements as the amount of gravity that of these machines use pin loaded weight stacks to
must be overcome during the movement can be make the adjusting of the resistance much easier.
altered. Engineers have also attempted to design gravity
based machines so that the resistance delivered to
Gravity-Based Machines the individual better matches our muscles ability
The resistance of any mass acts vertically down to produce force across the range of motion of the
which limits our ability to train certain muscle joint. For example, in the free weight bench press
groups. For example, using mass to train a verti- we are limited in resistance by the amount we are
cal shoulder press movement is appropriate but able to move through our weakest point (sticking
in order to train the antagonist movement (i.e., point) near the bottom of the lift. Therefore, our
lat pull down exercise), the gravity force needs to muscles are not getting challenged appropriately in
be redirected. This is accomplished by machines the upper part of the range of motion.
FIGURE 5.13 Two gravity based weight machines that allow the resistance of the mass to be redirected
using pulleys.
This was originally overcome by creating accelerations of the mass will negate the effects of
machines where the user would start the move- these variable resistance designs.
ment in their weakest position (i.e., the bot-
tom position of the chest press movement), but Understanding the mechanics underlying a piece of
with the machine lever arm to the weight stack resistance training or conditioning equipment will
extremely short. As the movement proceeded assist in initial purchase decisions as well as exer-
from bottom to top the machine’s lever arm to cise selection.
the weight stack would increase in length thus
also increasing the resistance felt by the user in
later stages of the lift. Various other gravity based
machines have also attempted to produce a vari-
able amount of resistance throughout a lift using
different designs.
One common design uses a cable or chain that
wraps over a variable-radius cam and alters the
moment arm distance to the resistance (weight
stack) as the user moves through the range of
motion (Fig. 5.14). Again, this allows for the user to
feel more resistance at portions of the lift where the
muscles are mechanically strongest and less resis-
tance where the muscles are less optimally posi-
tioned. However, all of these machines use mass
for the resistance and therefore the speed of move-
ment becomes really important as creating large FIGURE 5.14 A variable radius cam.
FIGURE 5.17 Adjustable pneumatic resistance machines that allow for the resistance to be directed in any
direction and allow for much less control of the range of motion.
to use the stretch shortening cycle at the end of trained both concentrically and eccentrically (19).
the eccentric and start of the concentric phase of However, an examination of the differences between
motion (18). Therefore, further investigation is groups subjects training with free weights (concen-
needed to identify the neuromuscular responses of tric–eccentric) and hydraulics (concentric only)
the human body to this alternate form of resistance. revealed no differences in velocity, torque, power, or
force between groups (20). Therefore, there is some
Hydraulic Resistance controversy in the literature regarding the usefulness
Another form of resistance similar to pneumatics of hydraulic resistance in a training program. It can
uses fluid (generally oil) to create the resistance. also be suggested that the elimination of the eccen-
This form of resistance has the movement drive a tric phase created with this equipment may have
piston that forces the fluid through a small open- uses for special populations as it may also decrease
ing creating the resistance. The difference between the muscle soreness experienced by the user.
pneumatic and hydraulic resistance comes in the
compressibility of the fluid being used for the Elastic Resistance
resistance. The air used in pneumatic resistance Various forms of elastic resistance have become
is compressible and, therefore, the forces put in extremely common in strength and conditioning
to compressing it during the concentric phase are settings recently. Elastics provide a variable amount
returned during the eccentric phase. The oil used of resistance throughout a movement as the elastic
in hydraulic resistance is essentially incompress- will produce more force the more it is stretched. It
ible and, therefore, hydraulic resistance does not also provides an eccentric resistance as all the force
provide any eccentric resistance during movement. that went into stretching the elastic will be returned
It has been shown that greater gains in peak as the individual’s muscles control the speed at
torque can be achieved when movements are which the elastic is returned to its original length.
A
FIGURE 5.19 Using a bar with negligible mass and only air
resistance in the bench press exercise.
PROGRESSING/REGRESSING
MOVEMENT
B
As a strength and conditioning specialist, an
FIGURE 5.18 Combining mass (bar and plates) with pneumatic
resistance in a bench press exercise. important skill is to be able to modify movements/
exercises to (i) increase the difficulty of movement
to further challenge those who have mastered the
Studies comparing the effects of training with basic movement and (ii) decrease the difficulty of
elastic resistance to training with mass as a resis- movement to allow those unable to perform the
tance also provide contradictory results. In a sample basic movement a chance to develop the proper
of sedentary middle aged women, there was found strength and/or muscular recruitment strategies.
to be no differences in several functional and struc- Progressing and regressing movements/exercises
tural measures between training with elastic resis- requires a good basic knowledge of many basic bio-
tance versus training with a weight machine (21). mechanical principles. The simplest progressions
Whereas, in a sample of recreationally trained col- and regressions can be performed by simply manip-
lege students, those who trained by simply doing ulating the variables of the equation presented in
depth jumps (using body weight) increased their the previous section (F = ma). If we assume that
vertical jump height, while those who trained with progressions would generally involve creating
elastic resistance (VertiMax) did not change their movements that require more force production.
jump height after training (22). This can be accomplished by either increasing the
mass or increasing the rate of velocity change dur-
WHAT FORM OF RESISTANCE IS ing the movement (acceleration or deceleration).
Conversely, we could easily regress a movement/
BEST? exercise by decreasing the mass being moved or by
It should be clear from the sections outlined above moving more slowly (requiring less accelerations/
that no single form of resistance is ideal for all decelerations). Although this sounds logical, there
are other factors that must be kept in mind. For The strength and conditioning specialist needs a
example, moving extremely slowly through a bench much more complete knowledge of biomechanics
press movement may seem like a regression (less to be able to tailor movement/exercise difficulty to
accelerations) when it may actually make the exercise the level of each individual.
more difficult. Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia) The following section will use the example of
tells us that an object in motion wants to remain in the single-leg Romanian dead lift (RDL) in order
motion; therefore, getting the bar moving quickly to illustrate how biomechanical principles can be
in certain phases of the lift would require less mus- used to progress or regress a movement/exercise.
cular effort to keep it moving in other phases. This We will begin with a biomechanical description of
becomes important in overcoming points in the the basic movement.
range of motion where the muscle length–tension
relationship and angle of pull of muscle are at their
least optimal (sticking point). Therefore, simply try-
SINGLE-LEG ROMANIAN DEAD LIFT
ing to manipulate the variables of that equation in This basic exercise (shown in Fig. 5.20) has several
order to progress/regress movements is not enough. main goals when used in a training program. Some
BW
Trunk
weight
Hip extensor
muscle force
Leg
weight
B
FIGURE 5.20 The basic single-leg Romania dead-lift exercise.
Regression Progression
(Easier) (Harder)
of these goals include (i) training the hip abductors REGRESSION: ARMS OUT
to increase frontal plane control of the pelvis, (ii)
training the hip extensors in the sagittal plane, and The first basic regression involves doing the exer-
(iii) to train the balance and proprioceptive sys- cise with your arms out in a “T” position as shown
tems in single limb stance. in Figure 5.22. This simple modification of the
If we examine this movement in the fron- exercise spreads your mass out over a larger dis-
tal plane, we can see that the axis of rotation is tance, which increases your rotary inertia in the
created at the hip of the stance limb. Gravity then frontal plane. This increased resistance to angular
pulls on the rest of the body (person’s left in motion makes it easier to keep your center of grav-
Fig. 5.20) and produces a torque that is attempt- ity within your base of support and maintain your
ing to spin the pelvis clockwise. The hip abduc- balance.
tors then produce a force on the other side of
the axis of rotation to counter the body weight REGRESSION: IPSILATERAL
(clockwise) torque with the muscular (counter- BALANCE AID
clockwise) torque needed to maintain a steady
pelvis. In this middle regression, the client would use
In the sagittal plane, tilting of the trunk ante- a balance aid in the same arm as the stance leg
riorly creates a clockwise torque attempting to (Fig. 5.23). This regression does not have an effect
produce flexion at the stance hip. We then have in the frontal plane as the force produced by the
two counterclockwise torques acting on the other balance aid passes directly through the axis of rota-
side of the axis of rotation attempting to pro- tion of the hip and therefore does not increase or
duce hip extension: (a) the torque created by the
weight of the contralateral leg (which will be of
smaller magnitude than the torque created by the
trunk as the mass of a single leg will be much less
than the mass of the trunk) and (b) the muscle
force created by hip extensors that is needed to
absorb the excess trunk torque in the eccentric
phase and overcome it to produce the concen-
tric hip extension needed to return to a standing
position.
We will now examine how a good knowledge
of biomechanics can be used to create three regres-
sions and two progressions of the basic RDL exer-
cise. The following continuum (Fig. 5.21) shows
each of the five exercise modifications that can be
used to make the exercise less challenging (regres-
sions) and more challenging (progressions). Note:
The further the exercise is to the right, the harder
the exercise is; the further the exercise is to the left, FIGURE 5.22 The single-leg RDL exercise—arms out
the easier the exercise is. regression.
BW
Balance
aid force
A
Balance aid force
Trunk weight
Hip extensor
muscle force
Leg
weight
decrease the torque required from the hip abduc- REGRESSION: CONTRALATERAL
tors. The effect of this regression occurs in the sagit- BALANCE AID
tal plane as there is another force to help fight the
weight of the trunk that is pulling the stance phase In the third regression, the client would use a
hip into flexion. This decreases the force required balance aid in the opposite arm as the stance leg
from the hip extensors to both slow down the hip (Fig. 5.24). This regression makes this exercise
flexion in the eccentric phase and to create the hip easier in both the sagittal and frontal planes. Since
extension in the concentric phase. the mass is still the same distance from the axis of
The ipsilateral balance aid would also increase rotation of the hip in the sagittal plane, this regres-
the base of support in the anterior–posterior sion would have the same effect on the hip exten-
direction, therefore, making it easier to maintain sors as would the ipsilateral balance aid. However,
balance in this direction. However, it does not this regression decreases the challenge for the hip
increase the base of support in the mediolateral abductors in the frontal plane as the balance aid
direction. produces an extra counterclockwise torque to help
BW
Balance
aid force
A
Balance aid force
Trunk weight
Hip extensor
muscle force
Leg
weight
B
FIGURE 5.24 The single-leg RDL exercise—contralateral balance aid regression.
balance the clockwise torque created by the body to the ipsilateral balance aid regression except
weight. This requires less force to be produced by for now the weight is producing a force in the
the hip abductors in order to maintain pelvic sta- opposite direction (downward). This progression
bility in the front plane during the movement. has no effect in the frontal plane as the line of
The contralateral balance aid also increases the action of the weight force passes directly through
base of support in both the anterior–posterior and the axis of rotation of the hip and therefore does
mediolateral directions. This makes it much easier not increase or decrease the torque required from
to maintain the center of gravity within the base of the hip abductors. The effect of this progression
support and maintain balance. occurs in the sagittal plane as the weight produces
an extra clockwise torque that must be absorbed
by increasing the eccentric force created by the hip
PROGRESSION: IPSILATERAL extensors.
WEIGHT
The use of various methods of resistance training
The first progression involves adding a weight
can produce force-curve characteristics similar to
(generally a dumbbell) to the same hand as the
those of the sport.
stance leg (Fig. 5.25). This progression is similar
BW
Weight
Trunk
weight
Leg
weight Weight
Hip extensor
B muscle force
BW
Weight
Trunk
weight
Leg
weight Weight
Hip extensor
B muscle force
Maxing Out
1. You want to incorporate some Olympic lifting into the resistance machines and at slow speed. His rationale
strength and conditioning program for the volleyball is that he does not want the athletes injured in the
team. Problem is the athletes are having real trouble weight room. From your biomechanics knowledge
learning to perform the lifts correctly. How could you do not believe such a program is optimal but you
biomechanics be used to assist you in teaching the have to convince the coach. Write a discussion paper
athletes? outlining the basis for including ground supported,
2. The football coach has told you that he only wants his multijoint movements including high speed exercises
players completing single joint exercises on pin-loaded such as jump squats and Olympic lifts.
CASE EXAMPLE
Extending the Application of a Simple Contact Mat Timing System to Derive More
Pertinent Mechanical Measurements
BACKGROUND for maximum height landing back on the mat. The
You have just been employed as a strength hands are to be held on the hips throughout the test.
and conditioning coach with a small college At the end of each trial, the contact time and
that has limited performance testing equip- subsequent flight time will be recorded.
ment and no current budget to purchase more CALCULATIONS
sophisticated equipment. The program has a
simple electronic timing system that can record Flight to Contact Ratio. A useful and easily cal-
contact time and flight time during vertical culated measure is simply flight time divided by
Q6 jumping. In the past, only the flight time has contact time.
been recorded and provided to the athletes and Jump Height. Jump height can be estimated
coaches but you would like to feedback more based on the flight time and the assumption of
extensive information that is more understand- simple projectile motion. The formula is
able and relevant. Jump height = (g × flight time × flight time)/8
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