1989 - GIVONI - Urban Design in Different Climates

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URBAN DESIGN
IN DIFFERENT CLIMATE'S
by
Baruch \Givoni
Graduate School of Architecture
University of California, Los Angeles
U.S.A .
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WCAP -10
WMOITD-No. 346 i
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANlZATION
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(December, 1989)
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A C K N 0 WL E D G E M E N T
The author wishes to express his thanks to WMO for entrusting him with
the preparation of this material. Without WMO' s initiative, work of such
extensive scope would not have been undertaken. Personal thanks are due to
Professor Slavka Jovicic, formerly of WMO, for her suggestions and comments.
The author also wishes to thank the various reviewers of the draft of
the book for their helpful comments.
The author extends his thanks also to his secretaries, Ms. Susan
Warburton and Ms. Bath-Zion Nachum, at UCLA who have worked patiently on
typing and retyping the numerous versions of the manuscript until it has
reached its present form.
Baruch Givoni
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CONTENT
Part 1: Overview of Urban Climatology

Chapter 1. Introduction and human comfort and health issues.
1.1 Urban climate, building design, comfort and energy use.
1.2 Human responses to thermal stress.
1.2.1 Thermal comfort.
1.2.2 The thermal sensation of heat discomfort.
1.2.3 The "Comfort Equation" of Fanger.
1.2.3 Sensible perspiration
1.2.4 Relationship between heat sensation and sensible perspiration.
1.2.5 Comfort considerations for daytime and nighttime.
1.3 Summary of studies about the effects of excessive heat on mortality.
1.4 Comfort health and energy: socio-economic factors.
1.5 References for Chapter 1.
Chapter 2. General characteristics of the urban climate.
2.1 The urban canopy and the urban air dome.
2.2 The urban radiation balance.
2.2.1 Radiation balance in an "open country" area.
2.2.2 Radiation balance in built up urban areas.
2.2.3 Effect of urban air-pullution on sunshine.
2.2.4 Urban energy balance.
2.3 The urban air temperature
2.3.1 General description of the urban temperature field.
2.3.2 Solar radiation and urban geometry impacts on urban
temperature.
2.3.3 Urban climate models.
2.3.4 Impact of the heat island pheonomenon on human comfort and
energy use in different climates.
2.4 The urban wind field.
__ .~-2.4.L-. --~-Urban~entJ-lation-and~ai-r.~J'>ullution~~~~,~- - - - ~-- - --~-- - ---
2.4.2 General description of the urban wind field.
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2.4.3 The structure of the wind field over open country.

2.4.4 General modification of the wind field by urbanization.
2.4.5 The vertical profile of the mean wind speed.
2.4.6 The wind's turbulance.
2.4.7 Applicability and limitations of wind models in urban
climatology:
2.5 Climatic characteristics of tropical cities.
2.5.1 Mexico City.
2.5.2 Sao Paulo, Brazil.
2.5.3 Lagos, lbadan in Nigeria.
2.5.4 Delhi, Bombay, Calcultta in India.
2.5.5 Shanghai.
Chapter 3. Effects of planning features on the urban climate.
3.1 Town location within a region.
3.1.1 Effect of mountain ranges and altitude.
3.1.2 Topography and wind conditions.
3.1.3 Criteria for choosing locations.
3.1.4 Agricultural Land Uses and Urban Location Considerations.
3.1.5 Natural Hazards in Urban Location Consideration.
3.2 Density and size of the built up area.
3.2.1 The effect of size and density on the urban air temperature.
3.2.2 Influence of density and height of buildings on urban
ventilation.
3.2.3 Urban density: Impact on energy demand and potential for
solar energy utilization.
3.2.4 Wind speed along streets and between buildings of about the
same height.
3.2.5 Mathematical representation of the effects of building height
and spacing width with uniform buildings.
3.3 Air flow patterns around high-rise buildings.
-- 3.3.1 - ~~-~Wind spee~d~aruund,.bigh:r.is.e.~b.uiJdLngs.JoJ;a.Jed_amQQgJower _
buildings.
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3.3.2 Quantitative effects of high-rise buildings on air speeds around

them.
3.3.3 Mathematical modelling of the effect of high towers on urban
ventilation.
3.3.4 Pedestrian reactions to excessively windy environments.
3.4 Width and Orientation of streets and buildings.

3.4.1 Impact of street layout on urban ventilation.
3.4.2 Impact of street orientation lot's subdivision and setbacks on
the potential for solar exposure.
3.5 Special design details of buildings affecting the outdoor conditions.
3.5.1 Sun and rain protection.
3.5.2 Urban glare prevention.
Chapter 4. Impact of housing types.
4.1 Thermal impact of internal courtyards and attached enclosed open spaces.
4.2 Single-family houses.
4.3 Town-houses (row buildings).
4.4 Multi-storied apartmeQ_t buildings.
4.5 High-rise "Tower" buildings;.
Chapter 5. Effect of green and open areas on the urban climate.
5.1 Introduction.
5.2 Influence of green areas on the urban climate.
5.3 The influence of green spaces on air pollution.
5.4 The effect of green spaces on urban noise.
5.5 Soil erosion prevention by plants.
5.6 Social functions and influences of urban parks.
5.6.1 The influence of parks on the social interaction between
neighbourhoods bordering the park.
5.6.2 Size and character of the open spaces.
5.7 Institutional issues concerning urban open spaces.
~.8 _ReJ_erence_s_otChapteL5. __ ---~--- ---~~-~--~--------- ~--- ..-,-- ---
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Part II: Urban Design Guidelines for Different Climatic Regions.

Chapter 6. Urban design guidelines for hot dry regions.
6.1 Introduction.
6.1.1 Climatic features of hot-dry regions relevant to the urban and
building design.
6.2 General principles of urban design for hot-dry regions.
6.3 Town location within a region.
6.4 Urban density considerations in hot-dry regions.
6.4.1 Density and urban air temperature.
6.4.2 Urban density and ventilation potential •
6.4.3 Setbacks and distances between buildings.
6.5 Building type's considerations in hot-dry climate.
6.5.1 Courtyards in hot-dry climate.
6.5.2 Single family detached houses.
6.5.3 Townhouses (row buildings).
6.5.4 Multi-story apartment buildings.
6.6 Orientation and width of streets.
6.6.1 Impact of street layout on urban ventilation.
6.6.2 Street orientation and shade over sidewalks.
6.6.3 Street orientation and the potential for solar energy
utilization.
6.6.4 Special details of buildings affecting outdoor conditions.
6.7 Reducing dust by town planning.
6.8 "Green11 parks in hot-dry regions.
6.9 References for Chapter 6
Chapter 7: Urban Design Guidelines for Hot-Humid Regions.

7.1 Introduction.
7.1.1 Climatic characteristics of hot-humid regions relevant to
urban and building design.
7 .1.2 Characteristics of Jakarta's climate •
- 7.1 .3_ . _Ur.ban design ob_je_ctives in.hoJ::-humid regi_oos._
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7.2 Loca tional consider a tlons ln hot-humid regions.
7.3 Minimizing flood hazards by urban design features.
7.4- Layout of the street's network.
7.5 Urban density and building heights in hot-humid regions.
7.6 Characteristic of different building types in hot-humid regions.
7 .6.1 Detached single family houses.
7 .6.2 Townhouses (row buildings).
7 .6.3 Multi-storey apartment buildings.
7 .6.4- Highrise "tower" buildings.
7.7 Design details of open "green" spaces in hot-humid regions •
7.8 References of Chapter 7.
Chapter 8: Design Principles for Composite Climate.
8.1 Design principles for Monsoon cJlmate.
8.1.1 Climate characteristics.
8.1.2 Comfort and design objectives in Monsoon regions.
8.1.3 Urban design objective in regions with Monsoon climate.
8.1.4- Locational considerations in regions with Monsoon climates.
8.1.5 Neighborhood design with respect to urban ventilation.
8.1.5 Principles of building design in regions with Monsoon climate.
8.2 Design principles for regions with cold winters and hot-humid summers.
8.2.1 Climatic characteristics and thermal comfort requirements.
&.2.2 Density and mix of building types.
8.2.3 Street layout in regions with hot-humid summers and cold
winters.
8.2.4- Principles of building design in regions with hot-humid
summers and cold winters.
Part I: Overview of Urban Climatology
1-2
Chapter 1. Introduction and Human Comfort and Health Issues

The climatic conditions in a man-made urban environment may differ
appreciably from those in the surrounding natural or rural environs. Differences
may exist in the annual and diurnal patterns of temperature, humidity, wind
conditions, solar radiation and longwave nocturnal radiation, fog and precipitation,
as well as in the turbidity and chemical quality of the air. The main features of
the urban climate, by which it differs from the surrounding regional climate, and
the way by which they are affected by the planning of the physical structure of the
city, will be discussed in this publication.
Complex interaction and feedback exists between the buildings and their
outdoor environment (Chandler 1976). The indoor climate and comfort conditions
in any given building depend on the climatic conditions surrounding the building.
But the building itself modifies the climatic conditions of the air surrounding it.
The urban geometry and profile, shape, height and size of the buildings, orientation
of streets and of buildings and nature of the surfaces of the urban open areas, all
these factors have an impact on the urban climate.
Thus each urban man-made element: buildings, roads, parking area,
factories, etc., create around and above it a modified climate with which it
interacts.
Therefore urban climatology and building climatology are both p~rts of a
climatological continuum, differing in scale, which start with the regional natural
climate and modified at the urban scale by the structure of the town and at the
site scale by the individual buildings.
A number of. details in the planning of buildings have a marked influence on
the climatic conditions affecting pedestrians walking outside - especially with
regard to protection against rain, sun and glare from the streets.
Protection against sun and rain for pedestrians on the sidewalks can be
provided by buildings with overhanging roofs, or collonades in which the ground
floor is set back from the edge of the road, with the upper stories jutting out,
supported by pillars (or other means). Such protection can create more pleasant
climatic conditions for the urban pedestrian.
Planned use of such means, through appropriate urban planning legislation,
can be very important with respect to lessening the thermal load on residents in
the city's streets.
---- -- --·rne -cofor_o_f -the-buildlng--walTs-.iffects not c>nTy-the___ Interl.or-climafe
conditions, but also the light and glare in the streets. In this respect there is, in
1-3
many instances, contradiction between the requirements of indoor climate and

those necessary to reduce the blinding glare in the streets. However, often
appropriate design details can resolve the contradictions between these demands.
For example, horizontal overhangs from buildings, which protect the windows from
solar radiation, can be extended over the entire length of the wall. Thus they
shade also parts of the wall below the projections from direct solar radiation while
hiding part of the wall above them, and in this manner also reduce the glare from
the street level.
Leaves of plants, due to the process of evapo-transpiration, are cooler than
other surfaces of materials in the urban environment. They then cool by
convection the air flowing past them. The result is that the temperature in areas
covered by plants is a great deal cooler than in other areas of the city, i.e. areas of
exposed asphalt, concrete or sand.
In addition to lowering the ground and air temperatures, the trees also
provide shade to pedestrians. With respect to deciduous trees, this effect is
seasonal: they provide shade in the summer, when it is needed, and allow for
heating by solar radiation during the winter months when it is most desirable.
Systematic research into the effect of town physical planning on urban
climate and energy use has started only recently. Most previous studies were
confined to registering climatic differences between the urban and the surrounding
country, without taking into account the various physical features of the towns in
question and the effect of these features on the observed climatic differences.
Recently, however, the effect of specific urban design details on various
components of the urban climate, has been studied by various investigators, either
experimentally or by mathematical simulation.
Based on these studies, and on a general understanding of the factors
affecting the relationship between the regional and the (modified) urban climates,
it is possible to present guidelines for urban design in different climates.
Such guidelines have to be different for different climates bec&:l'se the
objectives and comfort requirements are different. For example, in cold regions
_ ~!h~ ~o~je~_tive_s_rnar ~~-=---to_< f!l_ini 0:1i~~ __!l!~--"~ ~11_~---n~~E~!he"'- Kt:-9-LID(:L C111_~1__!_Q___~Je_y_a. t~ _tb~ _
--urban temperature, while in hot climates the objectives may be quite the opposite.
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This publication presents an analysis of the design factors which have impacts
on the urban climate, the energy demand of a town and the potential for utilizing
solar and other natural energies for heating and cooling of buildings. The existing
scientific information on the subject is summarized and recommendations are
presented for the design of neighborhoods.
While this information is of general nature and can be applied to any climatic
region, emphasis will be placed on problems arising in warm climates and in
climates with cold winters but hot summers, in light of the personal experience of
the Author.
Two types of climates, namely hot-dry and hot-humid, were discussed
relatively in greater detail than other types, because they have a dominant
"problematic" summer season. Other regions, which have composite climates, such
as the Monsoon climate, regions with cold winters and hot-humid summers, etc.,
were discussed in less detail, because the problems encountered in each season
were discussed in detail in the chapters dealing with the "single problem season"
regions.
1.1 Urban Climate, Building Design, Comfort and Energy Use
There are interactions between the urban climate, the design details of the
individual buildings, the indoor comfort conditions and energy usage, and the
climatic exposure conditions of pedestrians in the streets.
The urban micro-climatic conditions form the immediate environment of the
individual buildings. The outdoor temperature, wind speed and solar radiation to
which an individual building is exposed is not the regional "synoptic" climate but
the local micro-climate as modified by the "structure" of the city, mainly of the
neighborhood where the building is located. This modified climate directly affects
the indoor comfort conditions and the energy use of the inhabitants for heating
and/or air conditioning.
However, special details of the individual buildings can have significant impact
on the exposure conditions and comfort of pedestrians in the streets. In particular,
protection from rain and the availability of direct sunshine in winter, protection
__frqf!1!_l!e_~un ir1 ~u_mlll~i~~~- ~ctual ~if1d s_p~e~ ~mc!tu_~bul~-n~~ _i_n t~e ~tre:ts, can
vary significantly over very short distances, depending on some design details -of
the buildings along the street.
1-5
The desired modifications of the regional climate are very different in different
climates. In regions with cold winters and comfortable summers, it is desirable to
elevate the urban temperature above the regional level, to minimize the wind
speed in the urban space, mainly near the ground, and to maximize the exposure of
buildings and streets to the sun.
In regions with hot summers and comfortable winters, it is desirable to lower
the urban temperature as much as possible, or at least to minimize the usual
elevation of the urban temperature above the regional level (the heat island
phenomenon). It is also desirable to provide shade for pedestrians on the sidewalks
and in some regions (hot-wet) to increase the wind speed in the streets.
However, in many regions there might be different and opposite objectives of
urban climate modifications in sum mer and in winter. Such regions have cold
winters and hot summers (either hot dry or hot humid).
The urban design objectives in such regions in winter would be to minimize wind
speed and maximize solar exposure while in summer it would be quite the opposite.
Examples of such regions are the mid-eastern part of the U.S.A. (cold winters and
hot-wet summers) and the highlands of Iran (cold winters and hot-dry summers).
Fortunately, in many cases it is-pessible-to-take-advantage of seasonal-changes
in the prevailing wind directions and/or of the seasonal changes in the sun-path, so
as to get different effects of the urban and building design details in the different
seasons, thus improving the urban climate year round.
Sunlight considerations
In cold climate there is a prevalent desire for ample sunshine penetration into
the indoor space, beyond the energy considerations, even in sunny regions.
Therefore northern, eastern and western windows, which from the energy viewpoint
may have a negative balance, are usually desirable.
In cloudy regions the desire for sunshine may lead to preference of large glazing
areas even when their energy balance is negative in all orientations. Consequently,
in many cases there might be conflicting design considerations regarding the
provision of indoor thermal comfort on one hand and, on the other hand, the needs
___ _i(.)_r__ l1<l!}JiaJ Iight_ing !i!}cl__yLsl.Jaj__<;:Q.Dtactw_i_thth_e_QJ,.J:tdQo.r. Jn_cold_r.e.gions_the-desir:e-
. for natural lighting through large glazing area may often be more powerful than
considerations of energy conservation.
1-6
1.2 Human Responses to Thermal Stress

A lot of research has been done on human responses to the thermal environment
and human comfort, as functions of the ambient climatic conditions. Most of this
research was done in relation to the indoor thermal environment and only relatively
few studies have dealt with human responses and especially comfort, outdoors.
In dealing with urban design, as distinct from building design, the main interest
is in comfort and stress as they are experienced by people working outdoors,
pedestrians in the streets, people staying in public parks, etc. However, due to the
scarcity of direct extensive studies on outdoor comfort and thermal stress,
inference can be made also from the research done indoors. Some of the relevant
studies are reviewed below.
Carmona (1986) identifies two major approaches of research on human
responses to the thermal environment. The first focuses on "thermal comfort",
defined from subjective responses of subjects, while the second approach focuses
on objective physiological responses to climatic factors and physical activity
aiming at evaluating the level of thermal stress. Comfort studies deal usually (but
not always) with lightly clad subjects at rest or performing sedentary work. The
main application of the results of this approach is in formulating quantitative
indoor dim ate lirni ts for air-conditioned buildings, usually offices and public
buildings.
A comprehensive research on the conditions under which subjective thermal
comfort is maintained was done by Fanger (1972) and the "Comfort Equation" that
was derived by him (see details below) is currently used widely in defining the
limits of the "comfort zone".
It should be noted, however, the most of the quantitative comfort studies were
done with subjects from the U.S.A. and Europe, naturally acclimatized to
temperate climate. Carmona notes that these findings should be treated with
caution in the context of tropical countries, where the population is acclimatized
naturally to warmer climate.
The environmental physiological research covers usually the whole range of
c1Lm2-~~i<:.. SQndJt~~l!~ e!!fQUnte.r_ec:!__}:)y_ ~(l_n, f~~~- e,_xtr~m~ _c~_l(j_':!e___to ~~-~re_m~ h<:_~t. _
The comfort range is viewed by this approach as a certain limited range within the
total range of thermal stress. The main physiological human responses to changes
1-7
in the thermal environment are the sweat rate, heart rate, inner body temperature
and the skin temperature.
1.2.1 Thermal Comfort
The state of thermal comfort can be defined as the absence of feeling of
discomfort. In the context of comfort in hot climates, there are at least two
separate independent causes of discomfort: on one hand, the thermal sensation of
excessive heat and, on the other hand, discomfort resulting from the sensation of
wet skin.
Whether discomfort is caused by either one of these factors depends on the
climatic conditions. Different 'remedies' and design solutions are appropriate for
dealing with each type of discomfort. In order to choose the most appropriate
design solution, it is useful to understand better both types of thermal sensation.
Sometimes these two causes of discomfort are experienced simultaneously
when one feels himself hot and at the same time the skin is too moist. However, in
certain cases, typical of specific climates, one can be uncomfortable because of
only one of these causes.
As a separate issue from the problems of thermal discomfort, people staying
outdoors may be annoyed, or even suffer, from excessive wind speeds. This
problem is experienced by pedestrians mainly near high rise buildings when they
generate strong downward and sideward air currents. This specific discomfort
issue is discussed separately in the chapter dealing with highrise buildings (3.3.2}
1.2.2 The Thermal Sensation of Heat Discomfort
The thermal sensation of heat discomfort is experienced, under 11 steady state"
conditions, when the average skin temperature is elevated above the level
corresponding to the state of comfort. Under sedentary activity, it is about 32 -
330 C. The "comfort" skin temperature is lower with increasing metabolic rate
(physical activity).
The main environmental conditions which effect the thermal sensation of
heat are the air and the radiant temperatures, and the air velocity over the body.
The effect of air velocity on the thermal sensation depends on the environmental
temperatures. At temperatures below 330 C (under sedentary activity), increasing
-~,-=-,--_ -r-- ______ -,-----~· ---- _ -.--• - ---- -,,- ~-- ---- ----=- -,_--, ~·-o~-.--=~·--~o---~--·-- •r
air velocity reduces the heat sensation due to the higher convective heat loss from
the body and lowering of the skin temperature. At temperatures between about
1-8
330 C and 370 C air velocity does not affect significantly the thermal sensation.
At environmental temperatures above about 37° C increased air velocity actually
increases the thermal sensation of heat (although it still reduces the skin wetness
and so might be desirable - see below).
The sensation of heat is closely correlated with the sweat rate. Models are
available for predicting the sweat rate under any combination of metabolic rate,
temperature, humidity, air velocity and clothing (Givoni, 1976). Therefore the
thermal sensation, under heat conditions, can be predicted on the basis of an
objective criterion.
1.2.2.1 The "Comfort Equation" of Fanger
Ole Fanger has conducted extensive studies on the conditions under which
human subjects feel "comfortable". From the results of these studies an equation
has been developed, stating the conditions for thermal comfort (Fanger, 1972).
The comfort equation is based on the observation that, within the wide range
under which the body can maintain thermal balance with the environment, there is
a narrow interval which will create thermal comfort. In this interval the skin
temperature, ts, and sweat secretion, Esw' are maintained within certain limits.
The values of ts and Etw under which comfort is maintained depend on the activity
level as expressed in the metabolic rate (H):
ts == 35.7 - 0.032 H I As; (°C)
Esw = 0.42 As (H/Aou- 50); (Kcal/hr)
where As is the skin surface area according to DuBois' formula.
With these assumed physiological conditions Fanger has developed a complex
equation, taking into account the environmental climatic conditions, clothing
properties and the metabolic rate (Fanger, 1972). His formula has been widely used
for specifying the required conditions in air-conditioned buildings.
The thermal sensation is evaluated, according to Fanger, by subjective
"votes" according to the scale:
-3 cold +1 slightly warm
-2 cool +2 warm
-1 s_Hg_ht_ly coo! +3 hot
0 neutral
1-9
The predicted mean vote, Y, is given by:

Y = ( 0.352 e - 0 •042 (M/ As) + 0.032) L
Where:
L =(M/As) 0-n)- 0.35 (43- 0.061 (M/As) {1-n)- Pa}-
0.42 ((M/ As} 0-n) - 50) - 0.0023 (M/ As) (44 - Pa) -
0.014 (M/ As) (34 - ta) -
3.4 x 10-8 fc1 (( tc1 + 273 )4- (tmrt + 273)4)-
fci he (tcl - ta)
tc1 is found iteratively, according to Fanger, by:
tc1 = 35.7 - 0.032 (M/ As) 0-n) -
0.18 lcJ (3.4 X 10-8 fc1 ((tcl + 27J)4 - (tmrt + 273)4 +
fc1 • he (tcJ - ta))
Where:
As = skin surface area according to DuBois formula
M = metabolic rate
n = mechanical efficiency of work
Pa = vapor pressure
ta = air temperature
tmrt = mean radiant temperature
tcl = clothing temperature
fcl = ratio of clothed to nude skin surface area
Icl = clothing thermal resistance
he = convective heat transfer coefficient
1.2.3. Sensible Perspiration
While thermal sensation exists in both cold and hot conditions the perception
of sensible perspiration exists only on the warm side of the comfort zone, in
specific combinations of temperature, humidity, air motion, clothing and physical
activity. It is of special significance in hot-humid climates.
This sensation has two clearly defined limits. The lower limit is when the
skin is completely dry and the upper limit is when the whole body and clothing are
soaked- with sweat.
~~~-~ ~ -
Between these two limits there are
=~~ ~-- ~
intermediate levels which
~~~- ~~~~~~~~-~--~~-~~...-~~
.... ~,....----,-~--""· ~--~--_,_-..........-.><F-~--~..-~~ ~--
can be defined quite clearly (Givoni, 1976).
--- --- ~-- --- - -----~ ---- ----- -~----- -- --- - - ------- --~------
- -~ -~-------- --·---·--------------·
1-10
When the evaporation rate is much faster than sweat secretion the sweat
evaporates as it emerges from the pores of the skin, without forming a liquid layer
over the skin. The skin is then felt as "dry".
With increasing sweat rate, or decreased rate of evaporation, sweat spreads
over the skin, increasing the effective area from which evaporation takes place. In
this way the body can keep a rate of evaporation cooling sufficient to maintain
thermal equilibrium over a wide range of evaporative potential of the environment.
However, subjectively the moist skin causes discomfort although it is an essential
ingredient in the physiological thermo-regulation.
The rate of sweating is determined by the balance between metabolic heat
production and the heat loss by convection and radiation. Under hot humid
conditions the cooling efficiency of sweating decreases, as part of the sweat
evaporates over hair and the clothing and derives part of the energy from the
ambient air instead of from the body. The sweat rate and evaporation then exceed
the need for evaporation cooling to compensate for the reduced cooling efficiency.
Givoni (1976) has developed a mathematical model predicting the subjective
response of sensible perspiration to the climatic conditions, clothing and metabolic
rate.
The rate of sensible perspiration (S.P.) is evaluated subjectively on the
following scale:
0 Forehead and body dry 4 Clothing partially wet
1 Skin clammy 5 Clothing almost completely wet
2 Skin moisture visible 6 Clothing soaked, sweat dripping
3 Forehead or body wet
In several physiological studies (e.g. Jennings - Givoni, 1959; Givoni, 1963) the
subjective sensation of Sensible Perspiration was recorded under controlled
conditions over a wide range of climatic conditions. It was found that the skin
wetness can be expressed as a function of the ratio E/Emax' where E is the
required evaporative cooling, which equals to the total metabolic and
environmentaL beat str:ess,~and Emaxisth_eey_a,p_oxaJiYe c_apacity9f the air.
1-11
S.P. = -3 + 5 (E/Emax>
E=M+C+R
Emax = pv0.3 (42-VPa)
where:
M= metabolic rate (kcal/hr)
C = Convective heat exchange (kcal/hr)
R = Radiant heat exchange (kcal/hr)
V = Air speed over the body (m/s)
VPa = Ambient vapor pressure (mmttg)
p = Coefficent depending on clothing type
Detailed formulae for calculating C, R and values of p for different clothing are
given in (Givoni, 1976).
1.2./J. Relationship between Heat Sensation and Sensible Perspiration
The thermal sensation of heat discomfort, without sensible perspiration, is
characteristic of desert regions, with their very low ambient humidity and high
wind speeds. The relative humidity in hot-dry regions fluctates in an opposite
pattern to the air temperature. The vapour pressure is fairly steady, but varies
with location and season. Usually, hot-dry regions experience local winds, which
are generally low in the morning, increasing in speed towards noon. By afternoon,
the winds may reach maximum velocity and are frequently accompanied by sand
and dry whirlwinds.
In desert climates, the low level of humidity and the di(j1nal wind patterns
create a feeling of excess heat and, hence, discomfort. Although the rate of
sweating is relatively high during sedentary activity (approximately 200
grams/hour), the skin may be too dry. Often, excessive skin dryness is a source of
irritation. This is a typical example of a single source of discomfort from heat
sensation.
In contrast to the desert situation, discomfort in a warm-humid region,
especially in still air conditions, may be mainly due to excessive skin wetness. The
air temperature is such regions are often below 260 C and the rate of sweat
secretion, at sedentary activity,- is rather low (about 60 gr/hr per person).
- - -~ -~ ~- -~ ~ - - --~.~ ~-- ~.~~ .--.- -
The main cause of discomfort in such cases is the excessive wetness of tne
skin. In spite of the low rate of sweating the skin becomes wet because the
evaporative potential of the still humid air is very low. The physiological thermal
---------- --- -------- - - - - - - - -- -----------~ -·-- ---
------ -- ~ --- ~ ~--------- -~
~
1-12
balance is maintained, in spite of the lower evaporative potential, because the

required evaporative rate is achieved over a larger wetted area of the skin.
In practice, when the air speed is suddenly increased, a sensation of chilliness
may even accompany the discomfort from the wet skin until the skin dries out
sufficiently.
Discomfort resulting from skin wetness can be alleviated. In the absence of
dehumidification, the most effective method is in maintaining high enough air
velocity, so that sweat evaporation can take place over a smaller surface area of
the skin. The increase in air velocity must not be too extreme. A sudden increase
in the air speed, will create a sensation of chilliness, and the wet skin will continue
to cause discomfort -until it is sufficiently dry. Another alternative in the warm-
humid climatic region, is to wear clothing of greater permeability. Removing most
of one's clothing also increases comfort, as can be seen .on the beach.
There are, of course, many cllrnatic situations in which thermal discomfort
results from the combined effects of heat sensation and sensible perspiration.
Higher indoor air velocity can then be very effective in alleviating the discomfort,
especially when the air temperature is below 33° C.
1.2 •.5 Comfort Consideration for Daytime and Nighttime
In many regions there is some conflict, from the building design aspect,
between the provision of comfort during the daytime or during the night. For
instance, by providing high mass inside an insulated "envelope" of the external
surface, the daytime temperature is lowered but the same design solution elevates
the night indoor temperature. When such conflicts exist, it is worthwhile to know
the physiological consequences of thermal discomfort during daytime and during
the night hours. In this way, the most critical period can be determined. It should
be stressed, however, that in many cases it is possible to satisfy the conflicting
requirements by suitable design solutions, which will be discussed in the chapters
dealing with the various climatic regions.
From the physiological viewpoint, night comfort is more important than
during the daytime. If a person can have good, restful sleep, he can tolerate high
heat stress during the daytime, because at night he can recuperate, so that fatigue
isnot accumulated.
1-13
On the other hand, if the nights are so uncomfortable as to prevent restful

sleep, then fatigue accumulates. Over the long period of the summer, such
accumulated fatigue can cause more severe consequences than daytime discomfort
from which one recovers every night.
1.3 Summary of Studies About the Effects of Excessive Heat on Mortality
Evaluation of the effect of urban heat stress on mortality (as well as on
morbidity) requires complex analysis because the urban population on one hand
enjoys better health care than the rural population while on the other hand in hot
regions and seasons it may be exposed to higher heat stress levels. These two
factors may have opposite effects on mortality.
Dr. Weihe (1986), in a paper presented at the WMO Technical Conference on
Urban Climatology (WMO, 1986), has summarized numerous investigations in which
the effect of excessive heat on death rates (elevation above the statistically
"expected" mortality) was studied. Here his main data is summarized.
Weihe states that heat tolerance depends on the length of rest and recuperation
during the diurnal cycle. As long as a person has sufficient restful sleep he/she can
tolerate higher levels of stress: "The diurnal variation between hot and cool hours •••
plays a major role in the resistance of individuals with long cardio-vascular
diseases or exhaustion." This relationship is illustrated in Fig. 1.1, presented by
Weihe after Clarke (1982).
Sakamoto-Moniyama (1977) has correlated monthly mortality rates from
cardiovascular diseases in Egypt and Tokyo with monthly temperatures. Significant
increases occurred when the monthly average temperatures were above 260 C.
Hensche1 et al. (1969) analyzed the excess mortality in St. Louis during a heat
wave lasting from 9 to 14 July 1966. Daily maximum temperatures were between
38.30 and 41.10 C and night temperatures were 50 to 70 C higher than either
before or after on six consecutive days. The daily mortality during these days rose
from the expected 35 death to 152 death per day. 50% of all cases were in the age
group over 65 years.
The cases of "heat death" were clustered within the city core inhabited by
B1a<:~s :"'i th poor _housi~~t ~~-e~c:~~~d,!_r1g and_pre_sl1~rr1~-~!X ~!Jb()_ut '!ir:..s:~n9HJ91JlDg~- -~
- Buechley et aL (1972) r-eported on excess mortality .in the New York - New
_Jersey area during the heat wave of July 1966. They have correlated the excess
----·--------·- ---- --~--- -------~~-------~-- - - - - - -- ---~~- - - - - -----------------·--- --

1-14
mortality (%of annual means) with the maximum daily temperatures. Weihe (1984)
cites the following data:
Temperature (£C) % Excess Mortality
32.2 negligible
35.0 27%
37.8 75%
40.6 200%
43.3 546%
It should be noted that in summer both St. Louis and New York experience high
humidity which accompanies and . greatly aggravates the effects of the high
temperatures.
Acclimatization, namely physiological adaptation· to heat stress, has an
important· role in the susceptibility to the harmful effects of heat. Therefore,
newcomers to a hot region which previously have lived in cooler regions, are more
likely to suffer from the heat.
Weihe (198') cites several studies dealing with this issue:
Shattuck and Hilferty (1936) have reported on mortality from heat stress in
various countries. In comparing soldiers from the British Isles and natives in India,
they have found much higher rates for the British soldiers.
EHis (1953) has. noted that the susceptability of newcomers to excessive heat
disappears. as adaptation and learning how to deal with the new climate
("behavioral adaptation") proceed.
Givoni and · ·Goldman (1973) have studied the quantitative physiological
mechanism of heat adaptation. The main physiological manifestation of improved
heat tolerance are a higher sweat rate (providing more evaporativ.e cooling), and
lower inner body temperature and heart rate, indicating lowering of the
physiological strainimposed by a - given heat stress.
- -,- -~------- ~~ - --- -~-· '-~-
It was shown · that a suitable procedure of "artificial" acclirnatizatlon,

comprising of daily "sessions" of controlled work under heat, produces a very
1-15
significant physiological adaptation (almost complete), which can be achieved

within about 2 weeks.
1.4 Comfort, Health and Energy: Socio-economic Factors
The effects of the urban and indoor climatic conditions on people's comfort and
health on the one hand and on energy use for heating in winter and for air
conditioning in summer on the other hand, are in some cases related and in other
cases unrelated. This relationship depends to a large extent on the economic level
of the affected population and also is often different with respect to heating and to
air-conditioning.
Any individual person is interested .to live in a comfortable environment but his
ability to get it depends on his economic situation relative to the cost of installing
and operating a mechanical "comfort" system.
In countries and with population groups which can afford a heating system
and/or air conditioning; the changes in the urban and indoor climatic conditions are
directly translated into changes in energy use.
On the other hand, in many developing countries and also with low income
groups in developed countries, people may tolerate high levels of discomfort
without use of energy for heating or air conditioning.
A distinction should be made in this respect between energy use for heating and
for air conditioning. This distinction· is related to the cost of the simplest
equipment which can provide heating as compared with that which provides air
conditioning.
Heating can be provided by very inexpensive equipment. Therefore, even low
income people tend to heat their buildings when suffering from cold. Therefore
changes in the urban temperature in winter cause direct changes in the energy use
for heating, even in small villages in developing countries lacking electricity.
On the other hand, the cost of even the least expensive air conditioning
equipment is relatively high. Therefore low income groups, especially in
developing countries, may suffer high levels of heat stress in summer, and it may
affect the health of the population, but often it is not "translated" into energy use
..... _f~.~ _<:lir C?_~d.itionin~. -~
Still, the high thermal stress may lead to chronic fatigue, reduced productivity
and deterioration of the public health. In this respect, there is an economic cost of
1-16
the thermal stress but this cost is "hidden". This may have significant effect on
governmental planning policies.
Governments are often interested in the thermal aspects of urban and building
design only to the extent that their policies, and money outlay on research and for
actual building projects, as well as planning regulations, will result ln a reduction in
the energy usage for heating and air conditioning.
In some cases, the main interest, especially of the electrical utili ties, is in
means which can reduce peak demand for electricity, occurlng during evenings of
very cold days in winter and during afternoon hours of heat waves in summer .• This
interest of the utility companies is usually shared also by the governments, because
the capital expenses involved in meeting the peak demand for electricity impose a
burden on the national economy.
Details of the urban design and buildings can have significant effects not only
on the comfort of the population but also on the overall use of energy to provide
the desired comfort, as will be elaborated in this publication.
1-17
Buechley, R. W., Van Bruggen, J. and Truppi, L.E., 1972: "Heat Island = Death
Island?" Environmental Resources, .2_, 85-92.
Carmona, L. S. de, 198ff: "Human Comfort in the Urban Tropics". In: WMO (1986).
pp. 354-404.
Chandler, T. J. (1976): "Urban Climatology and its Relevance to Urban Design".

WMO Technical Note No. 149, Geneva.
Clarke, J.F., 1972: "Some Effects of Urban Structure on Heat Mortality. Environ.
Res. 2_, 93-104.
Ellis, F. P., 1953: "Tolerable and desirable levels of warmth in warm climates with
special reference to the requirements of men in the Royal Navy." Ann. Roy. CoU.
Surg., Q, 369-391.
Fanger, P.O., 1972: Thermal Comfort. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
Givoni, B. (1976): Man, Climate & Architecture, 2nd Edition, Applied Science
Publishers, London.
Givoni, B. (1986): "Design for Climate in Hot-Dry Cities" in W.M.O. (1986).

pp. 487-513. W 1"\ o \\llh t;S::t
Givoni, B. and R.F. Goldman (1973): "Predicting Effect of Heat Acclimatization on

Heart Rate and Rectal Temperature". Journal of Applied Physiology. V-35,
pp. 875-879.
Henschel, A., L.L. Burton, L. Margolies and J.E. Smith (1969): "An Analysis of the
Heat Deaths in St. Louis during July 1966." American Journal of Public Health, V-
____ j
1-18
Sakomoto-Momiyama, M., 1977: Seasonality in Human Mortality. University of

Tokyo Press, Tokyo.
Shattuck, G.C. and Hilferty, M.M., 1936: "Distribution of Acute Heat Effects ln
Various Parts of the World." New England Journal of Medicine, 214, 458-468.
g'
Weihe, W.E. (19_&fj.): "Life Expectancy in Tropical Climates and Urbanization". In
~ .o. (1986) pp. 313-353. vJi\t1) 1\Jt),
' bsJ.t
WMO (1986): "Proceedings, Technical Conference on Urban Climatology and its

Applications with Special Regard to Tropical Areas, Mexico City"> 1ln 1984jl; WMO
No. 652, Geneva.
1-19
....,..
~
I-
••
••
••••
••••
·..........
....
..••:. .·.•• :
.
•••
••
~ ..
•
·· ·-····--- -·1-··- NORMAL TEIIP£RATURE···
DAY Of IOITH
Figure 1.1 Three-day departures from normal temperatures in Central Park, New
York City and 3-day running mean value of total mortality July 1955 in
New York City. (From Clarke, 1972). (Weihe, 198r.
_,.'·
2-1
Chapter 2. General Characteristics of the Urban CUmate

A comprehensive description of the general characteristics of the urban
climate is presented in a recent book by Landsberg (1981). However, for the
completeness of the presentation in this publication it seems appropriate to
summarize the main features by which the urban climate differs from the climatic
conditions prevailing in the surrounding rural areas. This summary can serve as
basis for the discussion of the role of various urban design features in modifying
the regional climate conditions and creating the urban climate.
2.1 The Urban "Canopy" and "Air-Dome"
Oke (1976) has introduced a very useful distinction between the urban air
"canopy" and the boundary layer over the city space (the urban air "dome").
It is convenient to consider the fabric of the structures in a city as analogous
to a "canopy" of a tree, where the impinging solar radiation is gradually absorbed
and where specific conditions of air temperature and humidity may exist, distinct
from those prevailing in the surrounding space. Therefore the space bounded by
the urban buildings up to their roofs, is often referred to as the "urban canopy".
However, because of the size of a city, the distinct properties of its air
extend higher than the buildings' roofs and further downwind. This phenomenon can
actually be seen in many cities !rom a distance, outside the city, in the form of the
layer of turbid air over the city's boundaries. The volume of air affected by the
city is the urban boundary layer, also referred to as the "urban air dome".
Oke emphasizes that the urban canopy is a micro scale concept. The specific
climatic conditions at any given point within the canopy are determined by the
nature of the i£!1 mediate surroundings. In particular, the materials, geometry and
surface properties of the structures around a given place modify the ambient
climate. The upper boundary of the urban canopy varies from one spot to another
because of the variable heights of the buildings.
The wind speed also affects the boundary of the urban canopy. The effects of
high winds can penetrate deeper below the roof's level than the effects of light
winds.
•-·- -·-
The upper layer, the boundary or air dome layer, is more homogeneous_ ~n its
--~--•<"" -•• , ~-··- 0
__ ~· ,, -~• , __ , _ _ " ~r. ,·-o·•- ~·> -•¥-- -•·•·•• -~--·"~''" ••,--•- _ _,-c~·-·• ,- --.,o.- .-~~· ~ • •- ··c ~""._..-• .-> ~-· ~-.~.,-- '- C ·-"<~J~- ,_,,-.~··= '••••~~- · ~·-• -~~-•· ·--~- · ,....._,
properties over the urban area at large. Oke defines it as ,;that portion of _the
planetary boundary layer whose characteristics are affected by the presence of an
urban area:"at its lower boundary" (Oke 1976). , -" -
-------------------- ---- ---------------~------------------ - - -- --~- -~-- ----
2-2
The distinction between the urban canopy and the air domeis important when
mathematical simulation models of the urban climate are dealt with and their
application to urban design and human comfort are considered. Such models deal
with the overall energy balance of the urban area or its overall characteristics.
Therefore they are more relevant to the conditions prevailing within the urban air
dome rather than to the conditions within the urban canopy.
On the other hand, human comfort and energy use of buildings are affected
by the climatic conditions within the urban canopy, which at any given place can be
quite different from the conditions prevailing above in the urban air dome.
2.2 The Urban Radiation Balance
Any surface on Earth gains heat from solar radiation {short wave) and loses
heat by outgoing longwave radiation. The incoming solar radiation, when absorbed
by any "dry" surface during the daytime hours, is converted into heat. The solar
energy absorbed by plants leaves and moist surfaces is partly converted into latent
heat by the process of evaporation. The heat loss by outgoing longwave radiation
to the sky is a continuous process, taking place day and night. The solar heat gain
takes place, of course, only during the daytime.
The incoming solar radiation is ultimately subdivided into two fractions: The
radiation which is absorbed at some point and converted into heat, sensi.ble and/or
latent, and the fraction which is reflected away towards the sky, wi~hout any
effect on the temperature and humidity conditions of the environment.
The longwave radiant heat loss is the major cooling factor of an area as a
whole. The magnitude of the longwave radiant heat loss from the ground level can
be very different in an open country and in a densely built area. This is one of the
ma·jor factors which generate the differences between the urban and the country's
climatic conditions.
The net balance between the solar heat gain and the longwave heat loss is
different in an urban area as compared with an open country area. As a basis for
comparison the radiation balance in an open country will be described first.
2.2.1 Radiation balance in an "Open Country" Area
_r~e -~o!~r _radiC!tio_n reac:h}_ng C!n ~e~n. cou_f1try area, _often fully or .. partly
covered by trees and other vegetation, is subdivided into several components.
2-3
a} Radiation falling on vegetation is mostly absorbed by the leaves, which

have a very high absorption coefficient for solar radiation (about 0.8). However,
instead of raising the temperature of the leaves the energy ls mostly "spent" in the
process of evapotranspiration of water from the leaves. Thus an increase in the
humidity takes place instead of an elevation of temperature.
b) The radiation which impinges on the ground surface is also partly absorbed
and partly reflected, according to the solar absorption coefficient of the soil,
which depends on its color. This coefficient may range from about 0.4 for sand to
about 0.8 for dark loam soil.
The absorbed radiation raises the temperature of the soil surface. To the
extent that free moisture is available in the sol!, which is common in rural areas
except in deserts, part of the energy is spent in evaporation of water from the soil,
thus reducing the temperature elevation of the surface.
Another part of the absorbed radiation is conducted from the soil's surface,
down to deeper layers. This heat usua!ly flows back to the surface in the night
hours, reducing the rate of cooling caused by the longwave radiant heat loss.
The radiation which is not absorbed, either ln the vegetation or in the soil, is
reflected back towards the sky without any effect on . the temperatures and
humidity near the ground.
The amount of solar radiation impinging on a given area varies in a cyclic
pattern, having a maximum in summer and a minimum in winter. Quantitatively it
depends on the la ti tu de and sky clearness (cloudiness) of the place in question.
Longwave radiant energy is continuously emitted from the soil surface and
the leaves of the vegetation. The amount of the emitted radiation depends on the
surface temperature of the soil and the leaves. Therefore it has a maximum value
in summer and a minimum in winter.
The balance between the impinging solar radiation and the emitted longwave
radiation depends on the season. It is positive in summer (solar radiation is higher
than longwave emission) and is negative in winter.
2.2.2 Radiation Balance in Built Up Urban Area
Ill~- 9.~~r.EJL9mount__Qf_s9J.ax_..r_adia.t.ion_.r_e"aching ..J:he_ur:ban dome.js.essentially
the same as that reaching an open field in the country. Sometimes, in the case of
very polluted urban air, some of the impinging radiation is reflected from and
absorbed within the air space of the urban dome, above the urban canopy, so that
less solar radiation reaches the built-up canopy, as compared with the radiation
reaching the ground in the country.
In a densely built urban space the path of the solar r_adiation impinging on the
buildings is complex. A significant part of the incoming solar radiation impinges on
roofs, high above the ground level. Another significant part hits vertical surfaces-
the walls of buildings. Only a relatively small part reaches the ground level. The
taller the buildings, and the smaller the distances between them, the smaller is the
amount of solar radiation hitting the streets and other open areas between the
buildings.
The radiation falling on the vertical walls is partly reflected, mostly towards
other walls of nearby buildings. The percentage of solar radiation bouncing off the
walls can vary greatly, from about 20 to 80%, depending upon the exterior calor of
these walls. In an urban area, a great part of these bounced-off rays hit walls of
adjacent buildings. In this way, the process begins of radiation bouncing back and
forth a number of times between the walls of different buildings. At the end of
this process, in a densely built urban area, only a small part of the solar radiation
impinging on walls is reflected upwards to the sky, while most of it is absorbed in
the walls of the buildings regardless of the calor of the walls, to be released back
in the evening and night hours.
The walls and the ground surfaces lose heat by long-wave radiation to the
sky. The intensity of this radiant heat loss depends upon the section of the sky
towards which the radiation is discharged, or, in other words, the fraction of the
sky which the wall, or the street, "sees". Even in the case of a lone building
standing in an open area, a wall "sees" and exchanges radiation with only half the
sky dome. Therefore, the outgoing long-wave radiation from a vertical wall is only
one-half of that emitted from a roof in a similar area. Under urban conditions
most of the sky dome "seen" by a wall is blocked by other buildings. Therefore the
longwave radiant exchange between walls does not result in significant radiant heat
loss •
. .. . ··~--·A.s.~ca ...r:esult,. .the ..radia11L Jo;ss.. by"". the.. combination o:L.r:e:f lec:ted . s9Jar: and
outgoing emitted Tong-wave radiation from within the urban ·canopy is much tess
than the radiant loss from an open space. It should be· pointed out that the overall
2-5
long-wave radiation emitted from the urban canopy is about the same as that from
an open field. But most of it, in a densely built-up area, is reabsorbed by walls or
emitted from roofs, resulting in but little cooling effect of the space near the
ground level.
The radiant heat loss is the principle factor in the cooling process of the
ground, and subsequently the air, during the nighttime hours. The result of the
reduced discharge of radiation from the urban space below the roof's level is
therefore expressed primarily in the slower cooling rate of the urban area in
comparison with an open country. The higher and more dense the built-up area is,
the slower is the rate of nighttime cooling off. This is one of the major factors
causing the urban "heat island", as discussed later on (2.3.1 ).
Part of the solar radiation hits the roofs of buildings. The magnitude of this
part depends upon the percentage of the urban area which is covered by buildings.
The amount of solar radiation reflected off the roofs towards the outer space
depends upon the color of the roofs, and thus varies greatly: from 80% in the case
of whlte painted roofs, to only 20% in the case of black tarred roofs.
When most of the urban buildings are of about equal height, the discharge of
radiation from the roofs is like that from the open area, and the intensity of the
radiant loss is maximized. When the buildings are of different heights, the higher
buildings block the sky and reduce the amount of solar reflection and longwave
radiation from the roofs of the lower buildings, thus reducing the overall amount of
radiant heat loss from within the urban canopy.
The changes in radiation balance directly influence the comfort of people in
the streets and open areas, since a person standing out of doors at ground level in
an urban area (in the shade) can discharge less heat by long-wave radiation and thus
is exposed to a higher heat load.
The changes in radia tlon balance in the urban built up area results in an
elevation of the ambient air temperature, as will be described in detail in the next
section.
In summary it should be pointed out that the overalJ amount of solar energy
<;iQ~Qrb~d ~lthin the urban canopy is ,not higher, and may be even,,lower, than·the
amount of solar energy absorbed in a "green", vegetation covered, open country
area. The main difference is in the thermal results of the absorbed radiation.
---- --- ------- -·-- ---~--

2-6
In the open country a significant part of the absorbed solar radiation is

transformed into latent heat, in the processes of evapo-transpiration from the
leaves of trees, shrubs, grass, etc. Only the remaining part is convereted into
sensible heat and results in temperature elevation.
In an urban area, on the other hand, most of the absorbed solar radiation is
converted ultimately into sensible heat, which raises the air temperature and
con tributes to the heat island effect.
The reduced longwave radiant heat loss near the ground in an urban area may
be a more significant factor in the development of the heat island than the
modifications in the solar energy absorption. This explains the occuren.ce of the
maximum urban temperature elevations during clear nights. This point is further
elaborated in the following section (2.3.1).
A graphical illustration of the differences between open rural areas and densely
built urban .areas in their day and night patterns of heat balance was presented by
Fuggle and Oke (1970) and is reproduced in Fig. 2.1.
2.2.3 Effect of Urban Air Pollution on Sunshine
Urbanization usually leads to increase in air pollution from various sources such
as industry, vehicular traffic a~d domestic heating. This last source has a clear
annual pattern: maximum in winter and minimum during the summer months, a
fact which enables the identification of the effect of a single pollution source on
the urban level of sunshine.
Georgii (1970) cites data of Chandler (1965) on the average sunshine in London
for the period 1921-1950. During this period the common fuel for space heating in
London was low cost coal, producing high emission of smoke. This data is
reproduced in Table 2.1. It shows differences in hours ,of sunshine per day between
inner London, outer suburbs and the surrounding country.
TABLE 2.1. AVERAGES OF BRIGHT SUNSHINE, LONDON 1921-1950
(Georgli, 1970, Chandler, 1965)
2-7
Hours per day

January Year
Surrounding country 1.7 6.6 4.3

Outer suburbs 1.4 6.5 4.1
Inner high-level suburbs 1.3 6.3 4.1
Inner low-level suburbs 1.3 6.3 4.0
Central London 0.8 6.2 3.6
It can be seen that in July there was practically no difference between the
different loca tlons while in January there was systematic decrease in sunshine
from the surrounding country toward central London, where the duration of
sunshine was cut to about 50%. The difference between the spatial distribution of
sunshine in winter and in summer clearly reflects the effect of smoke emission in
winter from domestic heating plants, whose concentration increases with urban
density, on the availability of sunshine.
In 1956 the city of London enacted the Clean Air Act. Jenklns (1970) provides
data on the annual distribution of sunshine in London's center and two country
locations during the period 1958-1967, expressed as percentage of the 1931-1960
average. His data is shown in Figure 2.2. ·
It can be seen that during the summer there was very little difference in the
available sunshine at the three places. In winter, however, the duration of sunshine
in central London increased substantially, by about 50%. This increase seems to be
a result of the decrease in smoke emission following the Clean Air Act.
The improvement of the sunshine conditions in London also illustrates the
potential of public pollcy to control and improve the urban climate.
2.2.4 Urban Energy Balance
Fuggle and Oke (1970) discuss the complexity of the urban energy balance and
suggest ways of obviating them. They suggest the following form for the urban
energy balance:
~·· Rn.. :r. E.:;_LE -+-H-t.G .+-.e.. .. -···-
Where Rn = net all wave radiation
F = Total urban heat generation
2-8
H = latent heat transfer

LE = convective sensible heat transfer
G = heat storage in the urban mass
A = net advected energy.
The radiation balance, in turn, may be sub-divided as follows:
Rn = (Q + q) (1 - 1) +Id -lu
Where Q = direct short wave radiation
q = di"ffuse short wave radiation
a = urban surface albedo (solar reflectivity)
Id =long wave radiation received from the atmosphere
Iu =·long wave emitted upwards by the urban surfaces.
The urban albedo and the emitted long wave radiation can be modified by the urban
design details as discussed above but, as stated by Fuggle and Oke, "the almost
overwhelming diversity and irregularity of urban surfaces" render reasonable
accurate evaluation of the urban radiant balance, for a real urban area, an
unattainable undertaking.
Fuggle and Oke (1970) therefore state that "the physical complexity of the
city's surface precludes the application of the heat balance method of determining
(energy) exchanges •• They suggest that "An alternative approach may be to
consider the heat balance of discrete air layer above the city".
The procedure suggested by Fuggle and Oke is to apply the principle of energy
conservation to a discrete layer of air rather than to the urban ''surface". They
proceed with equations of an energy balance o.f such air mass based on its mean
temperature. An inherent assumption for such an approach is that the city
temperature profile is nearly isothermal. Fuggle and Oke mention some
experimental studies which support this assumption.
However, as stated by Fuggle and Oke, even for this approach a detailed
knowledge is needed on the infra-red radiant balance, which depends on the profiles
of temperature, water vapor and pollution across the urban canopy. They suggest
that this information could be obtained by experimental studies.
It-seems to the ,author --that, to the .extent .that .the ~mainjnterest js the ".<:ontrol"
of the urban climate and improving thermal comfort through urban design, the
energy balance approach is not the most efficient. Numerous design details can
2-9
modify the urban temperature, wind conditions and solar exposure of the buildings
and the streets. The comfort of the people, indoor as well as outdoor, depends on
the end result of all these modifications.
Different neighborhoods within the overall urban area usually differ in the
details of their structure, density, street orientation, etc. In many cases even a
given neighborhood is not homogeneous in its details. Therefore the conditions for
which the urban energy balance is calculated are, in practice, not definable.
An alternative approach to the study of the impact of design on the urban climate
and its modification is to study the effect of specific urban design features on
specific elements of the urban climate. Some of these effects can be studied in a
laboratory setup, either analytically, experimentally, by computer simulation or
numerical calculations.
2.3 The Urban Air Temperature
2.3.1 General Description at the Urban Temperature Field.
On the average, the air temperature in a densely built urban area is higher
than the temperatures in the surrounding open (rural) country. This is the "heat
island" phenomenon.
The largest elevations of the urban temperatures occur during clear nights.
During these times temperature elevations of about 5°C are common, and
elevations of about 8-1 0°C were also obse-rved.
During daytime hours the differences in temperatures between city centers
and surrounding country are usually smaller, about l-2°C. During windy periods
the urban-rural temperature difference may be insignificant. Often the
temperatures in the urban area during daytime are lower than in the surrounding
country.
The boundaries of the heat island follow the urban air-dome. The horizontal
temperature gradients: the rise from the periphery to the center, especially during
the nights, is largest at the outer boundaries of the urban area and flattens towards
the center on on the periphery of built up area. During the periods with light winds
the heat island is extended down-wind beyond the boundary of the urban built-up
_ .~<!L~l~·-•~-.IJLe.~~b__gJgbJ~~-oLthe_b.e~a_t~isl.aD.d__is_r:at.ber__s.hallo.w., ..e.xte_oding_up_ward.s__ab..o.u:L3:.
5 times the average height of the buildings and coincides approximately with the
urban air dome. Above this height the differences between the "urban
2-10
There are five different and independent factors ·contributing to the

development of the urban heat island:
1) differences in the over ail net radiation balance between the urban area and
the surrounding open country (as described in the preceding section). In
particular, the lower rate of radiant cooling during the nights.
2) Storage of solar energy in the mass of the buildings in the city during the
daytime. hours and its release during the night hours.
3) Concentrated heat generation by the activities taking place in the urban area
year-round (transportation, industry, etc.).
4) Lower evaporation from soil and vegetation in the urban built-up area, as
compared with an "open" rural area.
5) Seasonal heat sources: heating of the buildings in winter and air-conditioning
in summer. All the heating and air conditioning energy is ultimately released
to the urban air.
A more detailed discussion of the urban temperature fie~d, as affected mainly
by the size and density of the built-up area, is presented below (3.2.1).
The relative role of the five major factors in the creation of the heat island
effect depends upon the climate, the season and the type of activities in the city.
Heat generation by he a tlng of the buildings occurs of course in winter. The
magnitude of this factor depends on the climate. In cold regions more energy is
used for heating than in cl ties located in mild regions.
But the effect of the climate on energy use for heating may be greatly
modified by the thermal quality of the buildings. In fact, a building located in a
region with 3000 degree days but super-insulated, with a heat loss coefficient of
2000 wh/C·day needs less energy than a poorly insulated building (heat loss
coefficient of 10,000 wh/C·day) located in a mild region with only 1000 degree
days.
Energy consumed by air-conditioning equipment is converted into heat and
together ultimately raises the temperature of the urban air. Commercial buildings
are usua11y air-conditioned year round, with peaks during hot summer days •
.Res.i.denJi.a1 J~tJU.ding~. 9Le Air.:-~~o.os.H.:ti.Qn~.<J .. tQ.~g·· mY~h . l~.~~~r .~xt~!1J.•_ . . C.9D_§~~uently
the consumption of energy for air-conditioning is concentrated mainly in urban
commercial centers.
2-11
All the heating ene rgy (gross!), including cooking, washing, etc. , and energy
consumed by air-conditioning is eventually released to the en vironment, elevating
the urban temperature.
The contribution of the industrial heat generation to the development of the
urban heat island depends on the type of the city. In towns with "hot" industries
within their boundaries this may be a major factor while in other towns it may be
just a minor component. All the energy consumed by light-industry, which may
often be located within the urban boundary, is also converted into heat,
contributing to the urban heat island.
The contribution of energy use in transportation to the heat island may be
related to the size of the city and the relative role of public transportation in it. It
can be assumed that larger cities have more overall traffic, but the trips, and the
energy they consume, are distributed over a larger area.
However, more people and trips are concentrated in the center of larger
cities, as compared with smaller cities. Thus energy input by transportation at the
town's center may be related to the size of the city.
This effect may be modified by the type of the urban transportation system.
Private cars consume more fuel, and generate more heat, per passenger than buses
and electrical subways.
Taking into account the complexity of these factors, the difficulties in
developing a realistic mathematical predictive model of the heat island
phenomenon can be appreciated.
Each one of the individual factors affecting the urban-rural temperature
differences has a specific effect and any observed temperature difference reflects
the combined effect of all these factors.
Understanding the impact of each one of these factors on the urban- rural
temperature differences is useful for the analysis of the factors which can be
"manipulated" by urban design features.
2.3.2 Solar Radiation and Urban Geometry Impacts on Urban Temperature
The impact of the impinging solar radiation on the climate near the ground
de~ends to some extent on the ra the_ buildi.og pac::iog
--------
(width) between them, the H/W ratio of the spaces between the buildings.
Ludwig (1970) presents an analysis of the effect of this ratio on the radiation
and air temperature near the ground. His analysis is illustrated in Figure 2.3,
2-12
showing schematic distribution of the impinging solar radiation in (a) an open flat
country, (b) a built-up area with H/W ratio of about 1 and (c) a high density urban
area with H/W ratio of about 4-.
In the flat area, most of the impinging solar radiation is reflected away or
emitted, after absorption, as longwave radiation to the sky.
In a medium density area (W /H ratio about 1) much of the reflected radiation
strikes other buildings or the ground and is eventually absorbed at and near the
ground level.
In the high density area (W /H ratio about 4- or more) most o-f the absorption
takes place high above the ground level. Consequently, the amount of radiation
reaching the ground, and heating the air near the ground, is smaller than in the
case of medium density.
Oke ( 1981) introduced the term "Urban Canyon" and presented detailed
quantitative analysis of its energy balance and results of measurements dealing
with an"urban canyon" in Vancouver having a H/W ratio of nearly 0.9.
In this study, it was found that about 60% of the mid-day solar gain was
transferred as sensible heat to the air contained in the volume of the canyon, about
30% was stored in the canyon materials (to be released during the night) and about
10% was consumed by evaporation from the canyon surfaces.
The urban canyon concept has been applied by Oke (1981) in developing a
predictive formula for the heat island intensity (see below).
2.3.3 Urban Climate Models
A comprehensive description and analysis of various urban climate models is
presented in a paper of Bornstein (1984).
Urban climatic models describe quantitatively the differences which exist with
regard to various climatic elements between densely built urban areas and the
surrounding rural or open country. Such differences are observed. in air
temperature, solar radiation, wind conditions, air turbidity, etc.
Bornstein (1984-), following the suggestion of Oke (1976), distinguishes between
canopy layer models (below roof level) and mesoscale models dealing with
__conditlons_~in.-.the..ur:ban_boun_daryJay_er ab_ov.e._rooes.le.\'el. _Boundaq~:lay:ei.JDQO~Js
deal with relatively large segments of the city on a mezoscale. They integrate the
"inputs" of the smaller, microscale areas to estimate the climatic properties of the
~~~- ···------·---·---- --------- --·------ ---- --- -~- --- - - ~------ ---------------
2-13
air flowing over the city canopy. Because of the relatively large gradients in the
properties of the urban atmosphere above the roof's level, the conditions in the
boundary layer may be different from those existing near street level below.
From the human comfort and the other aspects dealt with in this book, the
climate near the ground is the relevant one. Therefore, only the canopy layer
models, which can be sensitive to urban microscale features and their effects on
the urban climate, are of interest.
Heat Island Models
Most of the existing urban models which deal with the heat island phenomenon
express the urban-rural temperature difference as a function of various
meteorological factors such as cloud cover, wind speed, specific humidity, etc.
Thus, for example, Ludwig (1970), on the basis of statistical analysis of
measurements of the urban-rural temperature differences (dT) and the
corresponding lapse rate (in C/millibar) over the rural area (Y), has suggested a
formula predicting the "heat island" as a function of the lapse rate:
dT = 1.&5 - 7.4 * Y
Another statistical model, cited by Bornstein (19&4), is that of Sundborg (1950),
which relates the nocturnal heat island of Uppsala, Sweden, with various
meteorological elements: cloudiness (N), wind speed (U), temperature (T), and
specific humidity (q). The formula found by Sundborg is:
dTmax = 2.& - 0.1 N - 0.38 U - 0.02 T + 0.03 q
Such formulae are useful in predicting the variation in the expected heat island
intensity under different meteorological conditions, although they do not deal at all
with factors which can be influenced by urban design. As they deal with the
maximum urban temperature elevation at a given day, such models cannot be
applied in estimating, for instance, the effect of the heat island on winter heating
or summer cooling energy consumption, which are related to the average, rather
than to the extreme conditions.
Therefore this functional relationship is mainly of interest for understanding
the meteorological mechanisms promoting the heat island. It is of limited
... <!R.R1i£~!iorLfQ!" urbart desl gn, J>eciiY.S~--tb~_ro_e1eg.ro lggLcaLfa.cto.r::s-.ar_e_.oQ.Luo~d.ex... the
control of designers. To be of applicable value to urban design the urban effects
should be expressed as functions of urban design factors. Therefore only models
which deal explicitly with urban design factors will be mentioned
----- - -----------~-- ------- -·-----~ --
in the following.
--------·----- -- ----··---------- ------------- --
2-14
The available models of the heat island phenomenon are based on statistical
regression analysis of the · relationship between the maximum urban-rural
temperature difference, various meteorological factors, and some urban
characteristics. Different authors have used statistical techniques of different
levels of sophistication in derivation of their models (Born stein, 1984).
Only gross urban characteristics were usually Included in such statistical
models. Thus Oke (1982) has correlated the heat island intensity to the size of the
urban population. For cities in North America he suggests the formula;
dT = p}-4 I ( 4 * u )Y2
Where: dT =heat island intensity (C)
P =population
U = regional wind speed (m/s)
The heat island intensity was defined as the maximum difference between the
urban center and the open country obtained by automobile traverses, usually during
clear calm nights.
Oke has also found that for European cities of a given size the heat island is
weaker than in North America and two different regression lines have been
developed for the two sets of data. Oke has attributed this discrepancy to the fact
that the centers of North American cities have tal!er buildings and higher densities
than typical European cities.
Jauregui (1984) has added to the work of Oke data on numerous cities located in
low latitudes in South America and India, as shown in figure 2.4.
It can be seen from Figure 2.4 that the heat islands in these cities is weaker
than even in the European ones. Jauregui suggests that this phenomenon can be
attributed in part to the difference in morphology (physical structure) between the
South American and the European cities.
Oke (1984) describes some of the main differences between the morphology of
tropical cities in Developing Countries and those in Europe and North America as
follows:
"In many tropical cities the buildings are arranged in a more compact
configuration _than in temper_aJe.._a.reas •••.• HJs. aJs_o _eo m.m on.J..Q fi n<;l...;a__Rr.eponderan~e
of low (single storey) dwellings. Such geometric features, in combination with the
prevalence of high solar elevations, make building roofs relatively more important
2-15
than their walls in term of surface energy and mass exchange. This has implications
for the urban surface albedo, surface emissivity, shade and diffuse lighting, day
length, screening of out-going long-wave radiation, aerodynamic roughness and the
Interaction between streets and the air above roof level".
Another model of Oke (1981) correlates the maximum heat island intensity with
the geometry of the "urban canyon", as expressed by the relationship between the
building's height (H) and the distance between them (W), namely the ratio: (H/W).
The formula suggested is;
dTmax = 7.45 + 3.97* ln(H/W)
This formula expresses the concept that the urban heat island is caused by
reduced radiant heat loss to the sky from the ground level of densely built urban
centers where the heat island phenonenon is observed and measured, due to the
restricted view of the sky. It should be pointed out again that the total long wave
radiant loss from the urban canopy is about the same as from an open rural area.
However, at the urban area most of the radiation is emitted from the roofs and the
walls of the upper storeys of the buildings with only partial cooling obtained near
the ground level.
Figure 2.5 shows the relationship between the canyon sky view factor and
measured maximum heat island intensity, as cited by Bornstein (1986) from a paper
by Oke (1982).
Further elaboration on the subject of the urban heat island and its relation to
urban physical features is presented ln chapter 3.2.1.
2.3.4 Impact of the Heat Island Phenomenon on Human Comfort, Health and
Energy Use in Different Climates
The impact of the urban heat island on the comfort and health of the
inhabitants, as well as on the energy consumption in the urban area for heating or
cooling of buildings, may be quite different in different climatic regions. It may
also be different during the winter and summer seasons in a given region.
A higher urban temperature will always be welcomed in winter, except for
Jt\Qse r:~giQJ"l~ ..v_l:l!c_b__ <lre_hQ! _()L~~~.r!u~~§l:£r<:>~!1ft.-. __Th~r~!ore_ ~.J:l~ "h~_a_t_ i~L~r.:t~'-~h.<?_u_l9
not always be considered as a negative aspect of the climatic modifications
occuring in an urban area.
2-16
A detailed analysis for the annual pattern of the regional climate, including the
diurnal patterns in summer and in winter, is needed in order to evaluate the most
important effects of the urban heat island on human comfort. Concerning the
diurnal patterns, it should be reminded that the temperature elevation in urban
areas, as compared with the surrounding countryside, is manifested mainly during
the night hours. In hot regions this factor may aggravate the negative aspects of
interference with sleep and its effect on fatigue and health.
A distinction should also be made between the impact of the heat island on the
comfort of pedestrians outdoors in the streets, and its effect on the indoor comfort
and energy use in buildings.
The higher urban winter temperature manifested in the heat island has also
significant impact on energy consumption for space heating. The energy demands
of buildings for heating is roughly proportional to the amounts of "Degree-Days"
during the heating season. The number of Degree Days for any given day, D D(i)' is
given by:
DD(i) = (18.3 - T (0 ))
where T is the outdoor averag~ diurnal temperature. The total number at D D is

the sum of D D(l) over the days in which heating is used during the heating season.
Therefore the elevated urban temperature usually reduces the energy demand
for heating in proportion to the reduction of the Degree Days in the urban area
relative to the surrounding country.
In regions and seasons where heating is actually provided only in the evening
and night hours, a practice common in many developing countries and even in
developed countries with mild winters, the reduction in energy usage for heating is
actually greater than the amount calculated on the basis of the "Degree Days".
As the urban heat island, in general, is beneficial in winter and harmful in
summer the question of an overall evaluation of the balance of its effect on
comfort and health needs some evaluation. Such overall evaluation cannot be
~"~xac:t", _i)LI! from !l1e~- _viewpgiQt of_ urban design. gl1i~~lines is nevertheless
necessary' because certain design decisions will either augment or reduce the heat
island effect, both in summer and in winter.
----·- -·~·--~ ·-··

2-17
The following points are relevant to this overall eva luation:

a) For pedestrians outdoors, it is easy to protec t oneself from excessive cold
by suitable clothing. On the other hand, there is a limit (cultural) for the
possibilities to take off clo t hing when the environment is too hot. In very hot
conditions even taking off all clothing will not eliminate the heat stress, especially
in hot-dry climates.
b) Heating is much more common, and less expensive, than air conditioning.
Therefore the negative effects of the urban heat island in summer, for indoor
comfort and for energy use, are relatively more significant than the beneficial
effects in winter. This point has added significance in view of the critical
importance of good restful night sleep from the health aspect. This point is
particularly important in developing countries, where air conditioning is very rare
and limited only to the small well-to-do segment of the population.
Consequently, a given element of the urban temperature in summer has a
greater harmful effect on human comfort and health than the beneficial effects on
a similar elevation of the temperature in winter.
As the term "heat island" has a negative connotation, it seems more
appropriate, in cold climates where winters are cold and summers are comfortable,
to use the term "Warmth Island", in order to convey the beneficial effect of the
higher urban temperature.
In summer, of course, the phenomenon of the urban heat island always
aggravates thermal discomfort, both outdoor and indoors. In countries .where the
use of air- conditioning is common, the heat island also increases the duration of
operation of the equipment and the rate of energy consumption.
As the main manifestation of the heat island is during the night hours , it may
have severe effect on the ability to rest and recuperate from heat stress. This may
have also severe health proble ms and, in extreme cases, cause even higher death
rate, mainly of elderly people with cardio-vascular problems. Such higher death
rate was actually de monstrated in several cases of heat waves. In dev eloping
countries, where heating in winter and air- conditioning in summer are very rare,
a y also b . a&gra¥.ate..d boy l:ler-mal str: e"ss, ~ithe r--fr:om -eat- or- - _ _ ___,
from cold.
2.4 The Urban Wind Field
From the viewpoint of modifying the urban climate and human comfort by
urban design, modifying the urban ventilation offers the greatest potential. The
wind velocities at street level can be suppressed or increased, according to the
different comfort needs in different climatic regions, by various urban design
elements. In particular, such urban elements as the orientation of streets with
respect to the wind direction, size, height and density of buildings, distribution of
high-rise buildings among lower ones, etc. have great impact on the urban wind
conditions, as discussed in details in chapter 3.
The main climatological factor affecting the urban ventilation conditions is the
regional (gradient) wind. In addition, temperature differences between the ur.ban
densely built up urban core and the surrounding open country can generate
centripetal (toward the center) air flow near ground level, especially during calm
clear nights.
The urban ventilation conditions, especially near street level, have direct and
pronounced effect on human health and comfort as well as on energy consumption
for heating and air conditioning, and on the concentration of air pollutants. The
wind conditions in the general urban area also determine the potential for
ventilation of buildings and the wind exposure of pedestrians outside the buildings.
During overheated periods a higher wind velocity can mitigate the physiological
heat stress caused by the high temperature. Furthermore, the tendency of the
urban temperature to be above the regional level (the heat island) diminishes as the
urban wind speed increases.
On the other hand, at specific points (e.g. near high-rise buildings) the local
wind velocity may be very high, to a degree that it becomes troublesome, even in
sum mer. This phenomenon is greatly affected by the high building's design details
and therefore can be controlled by appropriate design (see section 3.2.5).
First, the structure of the wind over an open flat country will be described.
Then, general characteristics of the urban wind conditions, as distinguishable from
the "regional" wind field in the open areas surrounding the city, will be described •
... In~Chapter..Ihree ...(;3.2.2).. the .eJf.ects .of- v.ar.ious .ur:ban~.design .details ..on .the .wind
conditions in the streets and around buildings will be discussed.
2.4.1 Urban Ventilation and Air Pollution
The ventilation conditions in the urban space as a whole, and ln particular in
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - · · - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------------- ------
major streetS... with high . Yehicular traffic, hav.e significant impact on the
2-19
concentration of air pollutants at the street level. The higher the velocity and
turbulence of the wind at street level, the greater is the mixing of the highly
polluted low level air with cleaner air flowing above the urban canopy. This mixing
process and its relation to the wind speed was measured by Georgii (1970) and is
shown in figures 2.6 and 2.7.
The street level air velocity and turbulence conditionds depend on one hand on
the regional (gradient) wind speed, which is a clima to logical factor but, on the
other hand, they are greatly affected by the urban design features. Consequently
the street level concentration of vehicular pollutants can also be modified by urban
design.
2.4.2 General Description of the Urban Wind Field
The wind conditions within the urban area are a major factor affecting the
comfort of the occupants, both in cold regions (negative effects of wind) and in
warm, and especially warm-humid regions or seasons (benefiicial effect of the
wind). The wind conditions in the general urban area determine the potential for
ventilation of buildings and :the wind exposure of pedestrians outside the buildings.
First, the structure of the wind over an open flat country will be described.
Then, general characteristics of the urban wind conditions, as distinguishable from
the "regional" wind field in the open areas surrounding the city, will be described •
In Section 3.2.2 the effects of various urbvan design details on the wind conditions
in the stgreets and around buildings will be discussed.
When wind flowing over an open area approaches the boundaries of the built-up
urban area it encounters a higher roughness of the surface, created by the
buildings. The increased flow resistance resulting from the higher roughness slows
down the flow at the level of the "urban canopy".
The § i r flow above and around the buildings encounters friction by the
buildings, resulting in lower overall air flow and a higher turbulence. Thus the
urban wind field is characterized by a lower average speed but higher speed
variations and turbulence, as compared with the wind flow over open country.
In this way a transitional zone is created between the ground and the
':lr::tcli~tt.Jr::,bed win? !!()W, ap_()Ve t~~ !J~~~n_ air, ~~r!'l~1 _!_he S(), ,c;_a,ll_~c:l__'~ur~_a~ ~O~I}da~y
layeri•. This boundary layer is subdi vlded into two sub-zones, especially when the
buildings are of approximately the same height.
----------------------
2-20
Within the aurban canopy the wind speed is much lower then in the open country
at the same height. Above the roof's level there is a sharp increase in the wind
speed till, at the top of the city's "air dome", the wind regains the speed it has in
the open country at the same height.
The specific design details of the buildings and the streets, and especially the
height of the buildingsa relative to one another, and the orientation of the
individual buildings with respect to the wind, may greatly affect the actual urban
wind speed and turbulence at the street level.
During periods of calms, the heat island of the city generates its own air flow
pattern. Warm air is rising over the city's center and flows outwards. Cooler air
from tghe surrounding country converges near the ground level and flows towards
the center.
2.4.3 The Structure of the Wind Field Over Open Country
The regional, "undisturbed" winds are generated by differences in the
atmospheric pressure, caused by the uneven distribution of solar radiation and the
resulting temperature and air density variations over the globe. The flow from the
high to the low pressure regions is modified by the Coriolis force, resulting from
the rotation of the earth, as well as by the land topography and the global
distribution of land and ocean areas.
These undisturbed winds flow at a height of several hundred meters above the
ground. The speed of the undisturbed winds increases sllghtly with height, but at a
much lower rate than near the ground. This "undisturbed" flow is .called the
"gradient wind" and its velocity is called the "gradient velocity" (Davenport 1960).
However, near the ground the wind experiences friction. Its speed is retarded
more steeply and its turbulence increases. Even over flat open areas, the wind
encounters friction by the land surface and the vegetation cover. Shrubs and trees
further increase the friction and the retardation of the wind speed near the ground.
The wind field is characterized by two parameters: the vertical profile of the
mean wind speed and the turbulence spectrum. Both are affected and modified by
the profile of the terrain and, in an urban setup, by the urban structure.
Mathematical models
-· ~ - -
of the wind
~ " --··-
-
speed vertical profile
- -
(changes
---·-
'
with- height) are
,_
pr-esented below (section Z~4.4J; - - - -- -
---~ ------------------------- -----~---------------------- -- ----~---~--------~~---~--

2-21
2.4-.4 General Modifications of the Wind Field by Urbanization

Of all the climatic elements the wind conditions are modified to the greatest
extent by urbanization. The urban wind is also the climatic element which can be
controlled and modified by urban design more than any of the other climate
elements.
When wind flowing over an open area approaches the boundaries of the built-
up urban area it encounters a higher roughness of the surface, created by the
buildings. The increased flow resistance resulting from the higher roughness slows
down the flow at the level of the "urban canopy".
The reduced wind speeds in a built up urban area is well established. Landsberg
(1981) mentions several cases where such reductions were measured.
The roughness elements in a city are mainly buildings. They are rigid sharp
angled (bluff) bodies. As Munn (1970) points out they are not randomly distributed
in space but are organized into city blocks, with streets forming corridors in
between for the wind flow.
The air flow aboye and around the buildings due to the friction by the
buildings, attains a lower overall air flow and a higher turbulence. Thus the urban
wind field is characterized by a lower average speed but a higher speed variations
and turbulence, as compared with the wind flow over open country.
In this way a transitional zone is created between the ground and the
undisturbed wind flow above the urban air dome, the so called "urban boundary
layer". This boundary layer is subdivided into two sub-zones, especially when the
buildings are of approximately the same height.
Within the urban canopy the wind speed is much lower than in the open
country at the same height, with relatively small speed variations with height
(average speed). Above the roof's level there is a sharp increase in the wind speed
till, at the top of the city's "air dome", the wind regains the speed it has in the
open country at the same height.
The specific design details of the buildings and the streets, and especially the
height of the buildings relative to one another, and the orientation of the individual
buildin~_s with _reseect to_ !he wif)d, m<it &rea tly_affect the ~~tual urban wind_ ~peed
and turbulence -at the street level.
Also in a rural areas the wind encounters roughness elements, notably trees.
But trees are not rigid, so they yield to the wind and their leaves flutter. (Munn
------ -----------------------------------------
2-22
1970). Consequently the resistance encountered by the wind near ground level is
"soft" and causes less retardation and turbulance than in a densely built-up urban
area.
Munn (1970) also remarks that the height of the buildings is not constant across
the urban area but rises to maximum at the town's center (or even to several
scattered maxima when several sub-centers exist in the metropolitan area).
Munn (1970) also mentions the effects of the turbulance generated by vehicles.
He notes that at the WJBK Detroit Television tower, near an expressway, the
nocturnal inversion does not usually form until traffic diminishes (about midnight)
while at other comparable locations the inversion develops several hours earlier.
The wind direction in streets and between buildings is modified by their
orientation relative to the regional wind direction. This subject is discussed later
in 3.4.1.
Under certain meteorological conditions the average urban wind speed can
actually be higher than in the surrounding open country. During periods of calms,
especially during clear nights, the heat island of the city generates its own air flow
pattern. Warm air is rising over the city's center and flows outwards. Cooler air
from the surrounding country converges near the ground level and flows towards
the center.
Jauregui (1986) presents a table which shows urban/rural wind speed differences
for Vlexico City, during January and July, for several periods of the day. He shows
that in the cool season and during daytime the urban winds were weaker than over
the fringes of the city. The greatest difference was observed in the afternoons (l-
7) pm). This, he explains, is 11 a result of the prevailing regional turbulance and
greater surface roughness of the cityn. (see Table 2.2).
2-23
TABLE 2.2 URBAN/RURAL WIND-SPEED DIFFERENCES FOR SEVERAL )

PERIODS OF THE DAY IN MEXICO CITY, 1980. (JAUREGUI, 1916 •
PDIOD
OF DAY JANUARY JULY
(h)
CITY MEAN CITY MEAN CALM CITY m:AN CITY MEAN CAU1
WIND DIFF:.. 1 WIND D1FF:.. 1 (%) WIND DIFF. wum our .:. 1 (%)
STRONCER (Ill • ) WEAXE1l (Ill s ) STRONCE1l (m ,-l) WEAK!1l ( 111 s )
(%) (%) (%) (%)
O-l2 18 o. 7 9 1.2 73 49 0.7 s 0.4 45
13-19 19 0.8 74 1.8 6 61 l.O 35 0.8 L
20-23 36 l.l 30 1.4 32 58 0.7 23 0.9 ll
During the night hours, and mainly in July, the urban wind was stronger. This is
explained by the development of rural inversion which reduces the near-surface
rural wind speed more than the drop of the urban wind during the night.
The phenomenon of higher wind speeds in urban areas during periods of light
regional winds and when inversion is formed over rural areas was observed by Chow
in Shanghai (see 2.5.5). It was also observed by Lee (1979), as cited by
Jauregni (1986). Munn (1970) cites Chandler (1960) who observed that "a pool of
cool air accumulates over the countryside, drifting into the city intermittently
when the horizontal temperature gradient exceeds some critical limit the flow of
surface air no doubt follows preferred channels such as drainage down modest
slopes".
It should be pointed out that specific urban and building design details can
greatly increase or decrease the urban wind conditions, according to the different
human comfort objectives in different climatic regions.
The main urban design elements which can modify the wind conditions are:
The overall density of the urban area.
- - - -~Si~te-anc:f hefght-ef -~he~ indiv-idual bUildings, e xistanee ofhigh-r-ise-buHdings.
Orientation of the streets.
2-24
Availability, size distribution and design details of open spaces and green
shelter belts.
As this book deals mainly with the impact of urban design on the urban climate,
and to prevent too much repetition, the effect of the various design elements on
the urban wind field will not be discussed in this chapter. The effect of each one
of these design factors on the urban wind will be discussed in the chapter dealing
with a11 the climatic effects of a particular design element, e.g. topography, urban
density, etc., chapter 3.
2.4 •.5 The Vertical Profile of the Mean Wind Speed
The .mean wind speed increases with height above the ground. Actually it
would be more accurate to state that the speed of the "free" wind decreased
progressively downward as a result from the friction with the earth's surface.
Several empirical formulae, of different forms, have been developed to
describe the variation of the mean wind speed with height (Munn 1970).
lh modelling the "urban" effect on the wind speed use is being made of models
describing the vertical profile of tghe wind, from the "gradient" wind level down to
the ground. The urban effect is expressed by modifications of the parameter.s of
the models.
A parameter used by some models, which is greatly affected by the urban
structure, is the "Aerodynamic roughness". Landsberg (1981) states that "in a
neutrally stratified atmosphere i.e., with an adiabatic vertical temperature lapse
rate of 1 de:g. C!TOOm."' the wertical wind p:ra:fa:re i$ described by a logarithmic
formuJa.:.
Where::
\J'~l· =• al:r s.peed! alti heiigflitr: z·
t: :.: w.-ina: sttea;r stress:•
p:; =' air de:rrs~:ty;
' k_::;_~~~ k~~-m~:~ .~:~llS:t'~~~J:.~~OU! ~~-#;~,. _. __ .~-·. -~ . .. .. .. __ _ .. . -·-· . _

-· ------- · --- ----- ----- - -- ---------- -------- ------ ---- - - -------- ----
z:-;-~t;i1f1:~-
ztOJJ =• rtQ-ugf\ineS'Si p:aramet-e;r,o

2-25
Landsberg gives the following values of the roughness parameter for urban
settings with three types of buildings:
building type
Parameter Low medium high
Height (m) 4 20 100

Silhouette area (m sq) 50 560 4000
Built-up area (msq) 2000 8000 20000
Roughness parameter (m) 0.5 0.7 10
The meaning of this model is that at a height equal to the roughness parameter
above the ground level the wind speed is always zero, regardless of the gradient
wind speed above the city. In reality, of course, this is not the case, indicating the
limitations of the logarithmic mathematical wind models for estimating the urban
wind conditions near the ground.
A simple formula, developed by Davenport (1960) is:
V z/'t = (Z/ZG) P
where:
Vz = wind speed at height z
VG = height where the gradient wind starts
z = the height for which the wind speed Vz is computed.
ZG = the height at which the "gradient velocity", VG is first observed.
p = an empirical exponent which depends on the surface roughness,
stability and temperature gradient.
Different values for ZG and p are suggested by various authors. The values
given by Davenport (1960), by Poreh & Paciuk (1980), and a "synthetic" table for
these parameters, suggested by the Author to make them more consistent for
different terrain conditions, are presented in Tables 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5.
-------~C~h..l.l:a~n~
dler (l aphic_aLillus~tr:.atioo of he changes in the- - - - - -
vertical wind velocity profile over urban sub-urban and open rural areas according
to this model. His graphic is reproduced in Fig. 2.8.
2-26
It should be pointed out that the wind profile described by this "power" low does
not represent the realistic wind conditions near the urban ground level (e.g. up to
about 5-10 meters) because of the high turbulant nature of the urban wind at that
layer.
The vertical profile of the wind depends also on the temperature profile. During
clear nights, when surface radient heat loss create an inversion of the normal
temperature profile, calms prevail near ground level while the 11 gradient wind" is
sti11 blowing. Above the inversion layer the wind speed increases more sharply with
height than in the open country.
Munn (1970) provides data from several experimental studies of the wind
profile. In several of these studies it was observed that while the wind subsided at
night near ground level the wind at a height of 150 meters was even accelerated.
2.4.6. The Wind's Turbutance
The wind speed and direction, mainly near the ground, is not constant but
changes constantly in time and between nearby points.
The intensity of the wind's turbulance (Ig} is defined by the root mean quadratic
value of the mind speed fluctuations over the mean velocity (Jf)~ namely:
Ig = (( n (Vi - V)2 I n) I V)Yz
Munn (J 970) comments that the instantaneous values· depend on the dynamic
response of the anemometer used to measure the wind speed. Secondly, the
averaging time also affects the value of the computed turbulance. Gould (1972)
mentions that in urban areas the wind turbulance may reach about 30% while in
open rural areas it is about 10%.
The wind speed changes in a given point with time, and at the same time it
changes between different points. Thus it can be defined by two scales: a length
scale and a time scale. The length scale is a measure the fluctuations of
measurements taken at the same time at different points while the time scale is a
measure of the fluctuations of measurements at the same point at different times.
-:Frorntne-_crrban: de-sign vtew:potnt ·ttre'·-t~rrgth~cate- i·s:~-th~- rrror~ re-t~v.a11t ~on~-b~·catrse
it is greatly affected by- design details of the buildings, the orientation of the
s.treets; =he existance of highrise bui:Idings, etc.
2-27
The wind data for most cities is obtained at standard meteorological stations,
which usually are located in open sites. It can be assumed that the wind speed and
turbulance in the bull t-up sections of the cl ties are different from those measured
at the standard stations: the wind speed may be lower and the turbulance higher.
TABLE 2.3: Values of ZG and p given by Davenport (1965)
Terrain Conditions Zc p
(meters)
Open country, flat coastal belts, 270 0.16
prairie grass land, etc.
Wooded countryside, parkland, small 390 0.28
towns, outskirts of large cl ties,
rough coastal belts, etc.
Centers of large cities 510 0.40
Centers of very large cities with *600 0.50
building height over lOO meters *
* Extrapolation by Givoni from figure of Davenport.
TABLE 2,4: Values of ZG and p given by Por:eh &:: Paciuk

(meters)
Open fields, desert 300 0.15
Cultivated fields, low vegetation 400 0.20
and sea ttered trees, low density
rural area
Wooded land, urban areas with 400 0.20
medium to high density, typical
height of buildings 10 meters
(.3 stories)
City centers, buildings of medium 400 0.28
... t.o_b.i.gb_-derts.ity.,_ty.picaLb.uildl n.g-.~~~·-····~·~ ·-~~-~~-· ~~· ·~···. ... ·---~~~--~ ""····-·. ~··~-·-"~·~·~ ...... .
height 30 meters (10 stories)
2-28
TABLE 2.5: Suggested Values of ZG and p for Various Terrain Conditions

(meters)
Open flat country, prairie, 300 0.16
grassland
Low wooded land, sparce trees; 400 0.20

sparceJy populated rural site,
airports, meteorological stations
Wooded land with high trees, small 400 0.25

towns, suburbs, urban meteorological
stations
Medium size towns, building height up 400 0.30

to 5 stories, medium density centers
of large cities
Centers of cities, buildings of more 500 0.40

than 10 stories
Centers of large cities, buildings 600 0.50

more than 30 stories
2.4.7 Applicability and Limitations of the Wind Models in Urban Climatology.

All .d'the mathematical models of the vertical wind profile assume a smooth
curve from the level of the gradient wind down to the ground or to the roughness
parameter height. This form represent fairly well the wind speed pattern till the
top of the urban canopy. Therefore, such models are useful in dealing with
problems of air pollution distribution in the urban air dome, as well as with
pr:oblems. of wJnd loading on. bigh_buUdings,. pro_tr.uding. above-'Jhe ;:we.r.a..g~J.'\eigbJ Qf
the neighboring buildings in the city.
2-29
The situation is different with respect to the wind conditions in a city near
ground level, where the turbulence created by the buildings, both horizqntally and
vertically, creates a very complex wind field. From the pedestrian comfort (or
discomfort due to excessive wind speed) viewpoint, as well as from the building's
ventilation and energy demand aspects, the wind conditions in the air space of the
urban canopy, and especially near the ground level, are the relevant ones.
However, within the urban canopy the wind field can not be defined by a simple
smooth curve sloping down to the ground. Often the wind speed near the ground
may be higher than in the middle of the space between buildings.
As was noted above, the "logarithmic" models predict a zero wind velocity at
the height of the roughness parameter under any wind condition, while in reality
various wind speeds can be experienced at that level. Therefore, such models are
not applicable for evaluating the wind conditions within the urban canopy space.
The "power" model of Davenport does not have this theoretical limitation
because even very near the ground level it predicts a certain wind speed. Thus, for
example, with gradient speed of 20 m/s, gradient height of 510 m., the predicted
speed at a height of 0.5 m. in the center of large city would be 1.2.5 m/s. At a
height of 10 meters the predicted speed would be 4-.1 m/s. However, quantitatively,
the predicted vertical distribution of air speeds seems to be unrepresentative of
the real situation.
In fact, the possiblity of defining a representaive and meaningful "urban wind
speed" by a simple general model is questionalbe. While in an open area, or at a
meteorological station, the measured average speed is representative of the wind
conditions in the area, the situation is very different in a city.
In an urban setup the wind speed often changes by a factor three to five time
over distances of few meters, for example between a point in a street parallel to
the wind and a nearby point behind the first building along a street perpendicular to
the wind. Consequently, the measured wind speed depends to a very large extent on
the choice of the specific points where the speed is measured.
Therefore, mathematical models predicting a "general" urban wind speed near
- the -gr:ound.Je.1tel- ar.e-..no.L v_eq_.useJuL ~as.~design __to.oJs_ .Jo.c..plaoo.iog __ tbe~ . ..ur..bJI.n .
environment. It is the opinion of the author that a more useful approach would be
to develop mathematical models dealing with the effects of specific urban design
features on the urban wind field.
2-30
2.5 Climatic Characteristics of Tropical Cities

This section summarizes information about the specific climatic characteristics
of tropical cities, as presented at the WMO Technical Conference on Urban
Climatology and its Application with Special Regard to Tropical Areas, which was
held in Mexico City in November, 1984 (WMO 1986). In this conference, five
comprehensive papers dealing with the climates of numerous tropical cities were
presented.
Cities whose urban climate was covered in these papers were of such diverse
climates as, inter all a, Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Lagos, lbadan, Nairobi, Delhi,
Bombay, Calcutta, and Shanghai. As the focus of this book is on urban design in
low latitude hot regions (both arid and humid) it seems useful to present
quantitative data on the specific characteristics of the urban climate in this part
of the world.
The main quantitative information on the urban climate characteristics which
was presented in the above mentioned five papers will be summarized below. All
these papers describe the general urban effect on the climate in terms of
differences in various climatic parameters between the city and its rural
surroundings, without analyzing the specific built urban physical features which
have "generated" the observed differences.
2.5.1. Mexico City
The urban climate of Mexico City was described in a paper of Jauregui (1986).
The Urban Heat Island in Mexico City
Jauregui describes the existance of two heat island cores in Mexico City,
separated by a cool "valley" over the large green area of Chapultapec Park (450
He). He presents data demonstrating that the urban/rural temperature differences
are the results of the differences in the cooling rates during the nights.
Figure (2.9) shows the nocturnal cooling rates for an observatory in the urban
area and in the airport, respectively, for January (cool dry season) and July (humid
cloudy season). In the airport the nocturnal cooling rates are much faster than in
:th~ci-t:y.andjn_Jan.uary the_co.o.ling.r.a.tes.axe .. greqJ~J- tb,e~,n ir1 July! ~n}a_l"lu~D' -~he_
mean urban/rural difference, at 6~.m. rea~hed about jo C. During the daytime

hours the urban temperatures were somewhat tower than at the airport.
2-31
Figure (2.10) shows the frequency distribution of the urban minus rural
temperature difference during the dry (December to March) and the humid (August
to· October) periods, for 0600 hours and for 1400 hours. It can be seen that at
0600 a.m. in the dry season almost all the data were on the positive side, with
maximum differences above 50 C. During the humid season no urban heat island is
evident.
At 1400, during both seasons, almost all the data were on the negative side,
indicating that the urban area was cooler than the airport.
Jauregui states: ''At noon more than 70% of the time the city is 1 or zo C.
cooler than the suburbs throughout the year, while at sunrise and during the dry
season more than 60% of the time urban/suburban thermal contrasts are between 2
and 4° C."
Urban/Rural Differences in Humidity in Mexico City
In summarizing data on humidity Jauregui notes that during the time of the
maximum heat island intensity (0400 to 0600) the urban center relative humidity is
lower by about 25% than at the airport. The relative humidity pattern follows the
heat island morphology.
The specific humidity difference shows "a marked diurnal varia t~on ••• At night,
and during the dry (clear) season, the city is more humid. (by about 1 gr/kg),
whereas by day no appreciable- differences are observed. During the wet season,
however, the urban/rural humidity contrasts are negative (city drier) during the
whole day".
Urban Effect on Precipitationin Mexico City
Jauregui notes that "the so-called 'rain island' is frequently observed, somewhat
downwind from the industrial area of the capital city. Urban/suburban differences
may be as high as 300% for individual days. The increase in precipitation in the
city has been accompanied by a rise in the frequency of heavy thundershowers."
Urban Wind Conditions in Mexico City
. Jauregui notes that "in the cool season, and during the day, mean urban wind
speeds are lower than those on the fringes of the city .•• At night, however, the
development of the rural surface inversion reduces near-surface rural wind speeds.
-.--.- - - - - - - -- - ~-· ··- --- --=---·- ---------- -,- -·- - --- ------ -
When··rneatr·rs -not-·cann-at--bcnn-tne·'lrrban-aiicf-tne~rtfral-sffes·:~~- a -centripeTal

circulation develops reinforced by the strong heat island formation so
2-32
characteristic of the dry season. During the wet season there is a high frequency
of positive urban/rural wind-speed differences ••••"
Jauregui comments that enhanced urban wind in the afternoon during the wet
season amelioriates human comfort.
2.5.2 Sao Paulo-Brazil
The urban climate of Sao Paulo, as well as of other cities in Brazil, was
described in a paper by C.A. de F. Monteiro {1986).
The Greater Sao Paulo region covers 8000 square kilo meters, with a total
population of about 13 millions (in 1980}. Monteiro has traced the changes in the
metropolitan climate over 20 years, from 1941-56 to 1967-76. The mean annual
temperature rose from 170 to 190 C. The prevalence of fog rose from 1021 days in
the first decade to 1401 days in the second. The number of days with haze rose
dramatically from 397 to l325 per decade •.
Monteiro notes that the heat island spa tlal distribution .coincided with the
Central Business District (CBD} of Sao Paulo.
2.5.) Lagos, lbadan in Nigeria
T. S. Oguntoyinbo (1986) describes the urban climates of Lagos and Ibadan in
Nigeria (as well as that of Nairobi in Kenya).
Lagos
Lagos is a coastal city built on a lagoon. It covers an area of ·about 273
square kilometers and in 1980 had a population of over 5 millions.
Oguntoyinbo notes that the heat island phenomenon is affected in Lagos by
the dense traffic. It "is experienced at noon or in the late afternoon hours ••• along
the main traffic corridors ••. and .ranges between 2 and 40 C."
lbadan
lbadan is located in the transition zone between the Tropical Rain Forest and
the Savanna in South-Western Nigeria. It covers an area o,f -about 130 square
kilometers and its population is estimated atabout 1,780,000.
Oguntoyinbo notes that the heat island effect "is most marked at the height
of the dry season in March when the rural/urban heat island ranges between 5-7° C
in the city centre. At the same time the relative humidity is about 7% lower in the
- --c:tty -c-e-rrtre -than~ ·in-tile -rural subur!Js~;~Buring-the-we-t-season-mean-:-va-1 ues-o-f-di-u-r·
are around 1-30 C."

2-33
2.5.4. Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta in India

B. Padmanabhamurty (1986) describes the urban climate characteristics of
several cities in India, among them Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta. "Delhi is inland
and flat, Bombay is more or less surrounded by sea except in the north, and
Calcutta is slightly inland but has maritime influence." Padmanabhamurty notes
that in all these cities "the existance of warm pockets and cold pools has been
unambiguously established". They "record multiple warm pockets."
The maximum heat island intensity in Delhi is 60 C, in Bombay 9.5oc and in
Calcutta 40 C.
Table 2.6 gives the annual distribution of the heat island in Delhi during the
hours of maximum and minimum temperatures.
TABLE 2.6 MEAN HEAT. ISLAND INTENSITIES (° C) AT THE TIME OF THE
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURE EPOCHS AT DELHI
(AFTER PADMANABHAMURTY AND BAHL, 1984)
Heat Island Heat Island

Month In ten si ty (OC) Month Intensity (O C)
Max. Min. Max. Max.
Jan 4 6 Jul 2 5
Feb 3 4 Aug 2 4
Mar 4 6 Sep 2 3
Apr 3 6 Oct 4 6
May 4 5 Nov 2 6
Jun 2 3 Dec 3 6
Padmanabhamurty· discusses also the relative .humidity and notes that it is

"inversely related to the local intensity of the urban heat island. On the average
urban-rural differences are reported to be 5%, but on individual nights. these
- ·: :dllfe~ences::.may~ approilcn::.2o::..3o%~.= ~~-: . -~-- -- . -- --- ------- - "·-- - ------ -- ---- --·
2-34-
Padmanabhamurty discusses also the urban wind field. He notes that "When
winds are light, near surface speeds are greater in the built-up area than outside,
whereas the reverse relationship exists when the winds are strong. With winds of
less than 4- ms-1 there is 20% increase in speed over the city, the greatest increase
occurs with winds of less than 1.3 ms-1."
Padmanabhamurty also discusses the urban effect on precipitation. He notes
that " ... Delhi ... shows pockets of higher urban rainfall in all months, but being
most marked in July I August. These areas of higher rainfall correspond to the
congested urban agglomeration which tends to support the hypothesis that
urbanization leads to increased buoyancy and convection thereby resulting in
increased precipitation."
2.5.5 Shanghai
The urban climate of Shanghai was described by Chow (1986). Shanghai has a
population of about 12 million and urban density of over 4-3,000 inhabitants per
square kilo meter.
Shanghai Urban Heat Island
Chow states that the urban area is always warmer than the countryside. He
cites a case where on a calm, clear riight the temperature difference was about
6° C. Diurnal and· seasonal variations in the heat 1sland intensity were evident.
The urban heat island maximum was manifested mainly with respect to the
minimum at night, more than with respect to the mean annual or the mean
maximum temperatures.
The annual pattern of the heat ·island has shown a maximum from October to
December, a period with lowest cloud cover and wind 'speeds. During the spring
and summer, with increase in c'lotidiness and wind speed, the urban/rural
temperature difference became weaker. These effects of Cloudiness and wind
speed on the heat island effect are shown in figure 2.11.
The Urban Wind Field in Shanghai

Chow comments that during clear, calm nights the urban heat island induces
converging surface air flow toward the center of Shanghai. Chow specifies some
critica·t·· ~i~-c~- s-p~~-~d - b~-~:~~ ·. which th~:~-heat ·tsla~ti:·i~:cl~-;~-d -;u'"'r-£ace-:.:urbarr-=winu~:.:Ts-:
faster than the wind outside the city. This critical speed depends on the season and
is 1.5 m/sin summer and 2-3 m/sin the other seasons.
However, in general the urban wind speed in Shanghai was lower than in the
country. Thus, the mean annual wind speed in the Shanghai city center was 2.9 m/s
while at the farthest south rural station it was 3.7 m/s and at the farthest north
station it was 4-.1 m/s.
The Urban Humidity Field in Shanghai
Chow presents data on the urban effect on the humidity conditions in
Shanghai, with respect to both the absolute and the relative humidity. The data on
the absolute humidity is of special interest because the changes in relative
humidity reflect the combined effect of changes in air temperature and water
content without possibility of separation between the two independent
modifications of the urban environment.
Chow states that during the night time the higher urban temperature resulted
in a lower rate of dew deposition than in the countryside, causing water vapor
excess in the city and thus exhibiting a nocturnal "urban moisture island". During
the daytime hours the city was much drier than the countryside.
At 0500 the vapor pressure in the city center was 31.0 mb while in the
country it was about 29 mb. The spatial centers of the heat island and the
moisture island were located nearby. At 0700 the vapor pressure in the city center
was about 29 mb while in the countryside it was about 30 mb.
The urban "moisture island" was evident in Shanghai only during the peak
summer, July to August. During the rest of the year there was not any difference
in the vapor pressure between the city and the countryside although the average
relative humidity in the city was lower year round, reflecting the higher mean
temperature.
Urban Precipitation in Shanghai
Chow presents also data on 20 year's precipitation measurements in Shanghai,
having an average annual precipitation of about 1,000 mm. Comparing the annual
data upwind and downwind of the city with the data in the urban area. The
precipitation has increased over the city, with a maximum to the lee of the city,
and thereafter decreased again. In the rainy season the precipitation over the
urban area was about 50 mm higher than over the southern and the northern rural
districts, -so the urban effect produced an increa-se of about-§%.
2-36
Chow notes that many rain events "were initiated by the rising vertical (air)
motion O'ler. .the urban area with: the ~heat island.'" He .also notes that "When rain-
producing conditions Uke stationary fronts and· stationary shearing deformation
take place, they often linger longer over the urban area and hence increase the
rainfall as compared with the rural stations, where the fronts. moved faster."
Chow comments, however, that the urban ''rain island" in Shanghai was only
dominant when the prevailing wind circulation was very weak ••.•" With a strong
general atmospheric circulation the distribution of precipitation did not seem to be
affected by urban influence."
2-37
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W.H.O. (1970}: "Urban Climates, Technical Note No. 108. ~v\\;[o fV.t; ,
W.M.O. (1986): Proceedings, Technical Conference in Mexico City: Urban

Climatology and its Applications with Special Regard to Tropical Areas. WMO -
No. 652.
2-40
(a) Day
Urban---- -I
.._
-
WlfMI
.L. ••"
~J.. M
1 l<l ~---
.,,
--~-····-
A.A::.t
(b) Night
---llllur.al ---1----- ur••" ----1

I
I
1
L .
•
"0
•
•
ll Rn
.. ,..,. iI
G
·•
-t-'''-1---
...... .-
Figure 2.1 Two-dimensional schematic of the heat balances of urban and roral
surfaces. (Fuggle + Oke, 1970).
PfJIItDt'f'AGI Jr
;'ill·~ 4'i'IUC.&
·'' ~---..,..---
~to,.-------
I
.•0 +----------,(,--- -+----'----
· · - ---··· - -\o
--=::::;....,.:___ _ _ ~~::-~,:-/;',
--~~·~--~~\ :· ~
't;'
.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------:-.-:.-----.. ~----)[p.----c;-•----'ICY--.,lC-·A-)1--F'-ti---~JII--.!of'ft.-~-l--•-'\ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- -----
Figure 2.2 Average monthly sunshine at London weather center, Kew

observatory and Wisely during the period 1958-67, as a percentage
of the average for 1931-60. (Jenkins, 1970).
2-41
Figure 2.3 Schematic diagram of disposition of inso lation (After Ludwig,

1970).
H/W
'0 s ) os 0 25
L P · L• 1'111
"...•••.,,
\
3G - "!oqoll
•c I
I
LW - L·""
we . .llllfll(l ,l,,
tC
I 9111 - !lo10tty •o
vR • Jrrocrw
'L ....,.,.,,.,
• OtDW
!o
...' •••
"1 'o
12 WT ·
i GO · -:.oodOtotoro
tO AC · 4cuwlel
,_
PU • ?v-
-...
> <l
0 ol•
,., 0
0 ....."-'••
0 ~c :o ~ 0 Eu,_
0
..
e Nof'Tft A,.....-u
0 0"'
"o o•C
10 1 • tO• :O' 10' 10 0.2 o.• 0.1 o.a tO
Figure 2.4 Maximum heat island intensity vs. population for tropical and
mid-latitude cities (mid- latitude data from Oke, 1982, January
1984-).
Figure 2.5 Relationship between ma ximum heat island in ten si ty and the
canyon sky view factor (from Oke, 1981). (Bornstein, 1980).
2-42
U <2m/s
l
Dm
22
'
ppm CO
11
lO
15
J
l.H
10
22
5
11
10
o~~~--._~~--._~~--.
J
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 m/
Lee
- - - Eigul"e 2.6 - - -Effect e-f wind speedl- - - -IFigure '2..7--G~GGncentra-tion as a-luoction

on CO concentration (ppm) of wind speed and height above
within streets street (Georgii, 1970).
Georgii, 1970).
2-43
600 - 20()()
500 -
1500
400
VI
I.U
er
.... ...........
I.U
I300 ...
1000 .:.
200
500
100
Figure 2.8 Diagrammatic mean horizontal wind velocity profiles above

urban, rural and sea surfaces as percentages of the gradient wind
speed. (Chandler, 1976).
---·___-_-
-----·
.._
Ull&l I JULTI raa.ata
Ull&l ,, . . , . _ .
&11-f INLI
~ &III'NfiJ&II
\~~~
,..
- ':'- - ·~
4 \
\
\
',_,,
"'·,
'··...........
--~
·.. '
\
• \
\ .......:;
','
' -, ·-.~ - .... ..... ......_...
·....~....
• \
'
.
\
.................
10
', .,.,
' ',',
14
'' ,, '•'
\
\
-----------------------------------~-------------------------\,-----------------------------
-----------------------1--------------------------------~-~
- ~---
11
IUIICf
I
'•'
I ''
"--
z 4
• • 10 IZ
14 -·
Figure 2.9 Cumulative nocturnal cooling curves for urban/suburban site s in

~exico City for January and July 1979. (Jauregui) 1981,!).
b
2-44
20
% N{-121
--- ll
15
rI L
...J
I N • 121
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
r.J
0 ~· AT
·2 ·I 0 I 2 l 4 5'C AT
Figure 2.10 Frequency distribution of urban heat island intensity.

Dry-cool months (December to March 1979), solid line).
Humid months (August to October 1979, dashed line). (Jauregui,
198\).
!?
X ~r-------------,
Wind, .velocity
Clcu.dinl!~•s
40
ATu-r
("C)
--1.
iF M A M J J AS 0 N D
...... figure_ 2.1_1_ The ~11QLJal "C!r iatio_IJS ot '-"'.i_nd X.t:;logJ.yJrn__s-lJU), <::I<>uc;l!ne~s i2l,
·· ·and-the-·tJrban·-hea·t is1and-intensity,~-expressed in-terms-o-f ·the··
mean minimum temperature (3) and mean temperature (~)in
Shanghai (after chow and Chang 1982a). (Chow, 198~).
'>
- - - - - ------------- --
3-l
Chapter 3. Effects of Planning Features on the Urban Climate

As mentioned in the introduction and in Chapter 2, many features of the
physical structure of the city can affect the urban climate. As the structure of a
city can be controlled by urban planning and design it is possible to modify the
urban dim ate through design. With such m odifica tlons l t is possible to lm prove the
comfort of the inhabitants outdoors and indoors, and to reduce the energy demand
of the buildings for heating in winter and for cooling in summer. The general
effects of the following physical features of the urban area on its cllma te will be
discussed in this chapter:
- The toca tion of a town within a region
- Size of the buiJ t-up urban area
- Density of the urban area
- Orientation and width of the streets
- Height of buildings
- Subdivision of the building lots
- Special design details of the buildings which affect the outdoor conditions.
- Parks and other green areas (discussed separately in chapter 5)
Recommendations for specific design solutions in different climates wlll be
presented in the second part of this book, chapters 6 to 9.
3.1 Town Location Within a Region
The location of a town within a given region may have the most permanent
effect on the urban climate and the comfort of the inhabitants. Land uses may
change with time, buildings and even neighborhoods may be demollshed and rebuilt,
but the geographical location of the town may exist for many centuries.
The initial location of a new town also determines the options and direction of
its expansion. An unwise loca tional decision at this stage, even for an initially
small town, may subsequently determine the future environmental quality of a very
large popula tic~m.
Therefore the utmost care is advisable in considering locations of new towns.
The climatic analysis of the region should form an important aspect in the overall
C()_nsiderat!o_ns _lea_?in_~ to ,a g_lv_e~ _choi<:_e o! '! sp~_c:ific Joc:a ti_o_n._
3-2
Different locations within a given region may differ in their temperature,

wind conditions, humidity, precipitation, fog, inversion prevalence, etc. Such
variations may be caused by differences in distance from the sea, altitude,
direction of slopes, and the general topography of the area.
3.1.1. Effect of Mountain Ranges and Altitude
When winds from the sea cross a mountain ridge there are very sharp
differences in climatic conditions between the windward and the leeward slopes.
These differences are expressed primarily in cloudiness and precipitation, with the
windward facing slopes being more rainy, whereas those of the other side of the
ridge are arid.
Variations in altitude, in particular, may cause appreciable differences in
temperature over short distances, due to the changes in the air pressure. Usually,
when a body of air ascends, its temperature falls one degree centigrade for every
lOO meters height, and when the body of air descends, its temperature rises to the
same degree, (adiabatic lapse rates of heating and cooling).
The changes in the air temperature with altitude near the ground during the
daytime are, however, smaller than the adiabatic lapse rate. When an air mass is
ascending a terrain slope, the adiabatic cooling is compensated in part by heat
absorption from the warmer ground. In consequence the actual cooling_ rate near
the ground is often only about 0.&° C for each lOO meters elevation in altitude.
This decrease in the altitude effect is observable mainly when daytime sea breezes
rise over a mountain range. It is manifested mainly in the daily maximum
temperature. At night radiant cooling of the ground reduces the rate of adiabatic
heating of the cold air sinking to lower altitudes, thus reducing the differences in
the minimum temperatures.
The distance from the sea also affects the air temperature. Near large
bodies of water the diurnal and annual temperature ranges are smaller than in more
inland areas. Therefore the summer temperatures and especially the daytime
temperatures are lower near a sea. The changes are not linear. Within
.... app[(JXi_II1_a.t~ly ~0 krn_Q-f th_e_ se__a there -~re_great d_if!erencf:!~ .. i~ th~ __diu~f1al ~a-~~~
··-··- - -wltllin-relatively short distances~ -Beiondthfs;asthe-arstan-Ee-b-ecomes-greater~-I"fs-
effect becomes smaller. This factor, therefore has special importance for cities.
located on coastal plains.
3-3
3.1.2 Topography and Wind Conditions

Local variations in topography may affect greatly the wind conditions. Thus
windward slopes of a hill experience much higher wind speeds than the leeward
slopes as was illustrated by carmona (1984). (Figure 3-1)
Similarly, windward slopes of mountains may be more moist than the leeward
slopes.
A flat valley surrounded by mountains may experience poor ventilation
conditions, a high frequency of nightly temperature inversions, and the associated
likelihood of air pollution. A narrow valley facing the wind concentrates the air
flow and the inhabitants, especially in cold regions, may suffer from excessive wind
speed.
On the other hand in warm humid regions, where natural ventilation is
essential for comfort and where the general wind speed may be rather low, such
windier locations may be the desirable ones.
In long narrow and flat valley in mountainous areas, one frequently finds the
phenomenon of Katabatic winds at night. These winds are created as a result of
descending air along the slopes of the mountain, cooling on contact with the earth
(cooled by longwave radiation to the sky) and draining into the valleys. These
winds are usually light, but in hot areas without night-time regional winds they can
prove to be ·very important for the comfort of the local residents.
3.1.3 Criteria for Choosing Locations

The actual criteria for the choice of a location for a town within a given
region depends, of course, on the nature of the climate. For example, in a cold
climate the criteria may include protection from the winds while in a hot climate,
and especially a hot humid-one, the preference would be for locations with
maximum wind exposure.
When considering the location of a new town, a situation frequently arises
where a place with natural economic potential, such as mineral deposits, sea-shore
suitable for a port, etc. has an inhospitable climate. In many cases a town
--~e_sig[1a ~ed_fo_r ~hee)())l()i~~ tio_n -~-f !hJs_ p()t~n!iaL c:o_ujd_IJ~- lQ<:C!t~_d Cit _a_ h_igh_~r _
- ·-altitude--at- som-e -arstance; in···a.- TocatTon- wftl1-a more favorabfeclimate, and
connected with the work places by a rapid and convenient transportation. Such a
- - - ---------
3-4
choice will insure more comfortable living conditions for persons staying at home,
or working in work-places which do not require physical proximity to the natural
resource, and can lead to significant saving of energy for provision of thermal
comfort.
The choice of a location with a better natural climate will enhance the
comfort of the inhabitants, shorten the length of the seasons when heating or
cooling is required and reduce the energy demand even when heating or cooling are
being required.
It is important to remember that the natural climatic conditions of a specific
site are permanent, and will affect the comfort of the local residents as long as the
city exists. The choice of an uncomfortable area, climate wise, for the siting of a
city, not only lessens its power of attraction, .especially with regard to the segment
of the population able to choose free.ly their place of residence, but also involves
higher heating and/or cooling costs.
In regions with mountain ranges perpendicular to the prevailing winds,
especially where the winds come from the ocean or great lakes, a marked
difference in cloudiness is usually experienced on the two slopes of the range. The
windward slopes are much more cloudy and humid and experience a smaller diurnal·
temperature range, than the leeward slopes. Consequently the potential .for solar
energy utilization for winter heating is more favorable on the leeward slopes. In
regions with high humidity level the lower humidity on the leeward side of the
mountain range may also be of advantage from the comfort viewpoint.
Heavy rainfall, accompanied by wind storms, can create very unpleasant
urban climatic conditions. An advantage can be gained in many places, with
respect to urban climatic conditions, by exploiting the less rainy leeward slopes of
mountains for urban settlement.
3.1.4 Agricultural Land Uses and Urban Location Considerations
In many regions sharp variations ln the annual precipitation can be experienced
over short distances within a given region. These variations may have decisive
impact on the ability to sustain rain-fed agriculture and/or natural pasture,
esp~~ially in developin~ count_r~e~ •. ~ _ _ _ ___ ~-- _ ~ _
·~-FOr-Exam ple~-a.··-mountalii--raiYge--or·e'ierr modesr nelgtn.,-per pe-ndtcutar~·ro-·ttre
wind direction during the rainy seasons, can cause sharp changes in the precipation
on its windward and leeward slopes.
3-5
Whe n humid air rises ov er t he windwa r d slopes it cools do wn and its moistur e
condenses into clouds, promotin g precipation. Howev er, as t he air st rea m passes
over the top of the moun t ain ra nge it si nks down and heats up . The wa ter droplets
in the clouds evapora t e and thus precipitation is prev e nted .
In many regions these sharp variations in precipitation can be observed over
distances of only a few kilometers, as across the mountains of Jerusalem in Israel
or across the range of hills along the Bay Area (Berkeley) in California .
This spatial dist ributi on of precipitation is of particular relevance to urban
locational planning in coun t ries and regions which have a national policy to
maximize the preservation of land for agricultural and pastu re uses. Urban
developm e nt raises sharply the land value not only in the urban area but also of the
rural areas around the area designated for urban development . This process
creates powerful pressure by various interests for expansion of the urban area and
conversion of land from agricultural to urban uses.
Whenever there is a choice for the location of a new town on either the
windward or leeward slopes of a mountain range where sharp differences exist in
precipitation over its two sides, a leeward location may be an effective means for
preventing future use of land suitable for agriculture for urban expansion.
3.1.5 Natural Hazards in Urban Location Consideration
A comprehensive discussion of the impact of natural hazards, such as hur ricanes
and floods, on siting of settlements is presented in a paper by Davis (1984).
Many coastal areas, especially in the tropical and subtropica l latitudes, are
prone to tropical storms and hurricanes. These storms are accompanied by very
hea vy precipitation and, along the coast, also by marked elevation of t he sea level,
resulting from the strong on-shore winds. The floods resulting from the heavy
precipitation often cause widespread loss of life and property damage.
Whenever variations in topography can either minimize or maxim ize the floods
and sea-surge hazards they should be carefully considered in decisions concerning
the location of new towns, or expansion of existing towns.
Valley bottoms, even shallow ones, can be esen~e- o discha_r.ge_o the :u~,_t-::.u.J.J.-------.
water, and land uses allocated to them should be compatible with this function
(e.g. grazing, green open spaces, etc.). (Davis, 198/t; Lyons, 1984)
3-6
Davis (1984) classifies the planning means for dealing with natural hazards into
three groups: Prevention, Mitigation, Preparedness. The urban design means aim,
of course, to prevent natural hazards in the first place and to mitigate their impact
once they occur.
Lyons (1984) suggests that in flood prone areas villages could be raised by
approximately 1-2 meters, possibly in combination with digging out fish-ponds
around the villages, which can contribute to the nutritional and economic level of
the inhabitants.
3.2 Density and Size of the Built-up Area
The density and size of the built-up area affect the degree by which the
regional climate is modified by the town, to create a specific urban climate. Such
modifications occur mainly in the wind conditions, air temperature, radiation
balance and natural lighting, as well as in the prevalence and duration of fog and
cloudiness.
The effect of a given density level depends to a large extent on the urban
design details. In particular, the size and shape of the buildings and their relative
positions can modify the effect of density.
A given urban density can be the result of two design features:
a) The fraction of the urban land covered by buildings.
b) The average height of the buildings in the given urban section.
The effect of the average-building's height is modified by the relative height
of the individual buildings. The climatic conditions in an urban section with
buildings of the same height can be quite different from those existing in an area
with the same average height but with a combination of low and high buildings in
close proximity.
3.2.1 The Effect of Size and Density on the Urban Air Temperature
As described in chapter 2, the temperature modifications by a city are
expressed mainly in the "heat island" phenomenon, especially during calm and clear
nights, when the urban air temperature is usually higher than the temperature of
_ . the Sll.I.Iot,mcUog C!P~D- QQIJDlry.___ThLs_teme~_r_~JQr~ eJey_<lj:i()l'1 i§ ~~u~edif"l parj:by tl)('!
----- . ·- - - - - - . ··-····-·-·· •. --- - - · - · · · --··· --··· -·· ·---------·- ---·····-- ... - - - - -- -------·------ -·······-----·--·· - · - - - - - - - - - · - · · · · - - · · · ·
lower cooling rate of the mass of buildings and the release, during the night, of
heat which was absorbed in the buildings during the day. Another factor is the heat
3-7
generated within the urban area by transportati on , heating, air-conditioning,

cooking and other househo ld and industrial pro cessed genera ting hea t. The
relationship between the urban heat island and the density of the buildings will be
elaborated in the following .
In big cities it is actually common to observe nocturnal air temperatures 3-
5oc higher than the surrounding areas, and in extreme cases, up to goc higher.
During the daytime hours, however, this difference in air temperature between the
city and its surrounding area is smaller - only about 1-2 degrees. (See details in
Chapter 2.)
The in ten si ty of the heat island is related more to density of buildings rat her
than to city size (Chandler, 1971). This relationship between building density
variations within the urban area and the heat island intensity can be seen in the
temperature profile of London, as reported by Chandler, on a scale of 500 meters
radius around each measurement sta tlon (see figure 3.2).
In fact, several detailed studies have demonstrated that heat islands can be
developed even on a relatively small scale urban areas. Thus J.R. Norwine (1972)
has measured the temperature distribution across a retail shopping center near
Chicago. It includes a central tri-level building, several smaller buildings and a
parking space.
Temperatures were measured in the late evening hours 00-11 pm), during
January, February and March 1972. During calm weather the complex was warmer
by about 3°C than the surroundimg area.
K.P. Copra and W. M. Pritchord (1972) have measured the temperature field in
two shopping centers in Norfolk, Virginia. Temperature data were obtained in
several field traverses during daytime and night hours in the spring and summer of
1971 and 1972.
The centers of the shopping centers' area were warmer by 3-70F than the
surrounding area.
The warmer air above such small scale heat islands mixes eventually with bulk
of the urban air and thus elevates slowly the "ambient air'' flowing across the city
downwind. Therefore, although the ori _ins of the "urban hea i land" ma~ be small_ _ _ _ _ __
pockets, their effect accumulates, to produce the peak of the temperature
elevation near the town's center.
3-8
In most cases the density of buildings and energy consuming activities in the
center of cities increases with the size of the city. Therefore, there is also a
relationship between the size of a city and the intensity of the heat island in the
town's center. The size of a city is a parameter easy to define and obtain. On the
other hand density is a complex urban feature and in real cities, very difficult to
define in a way meaningful for urban climatology. Therefore, it is convenient to
substitute city size for its density.
The larger and denser the city is, the larger the difference in air temperature
between the centre of the city and the surrounding area. The attempts to describe
this effect quantitatively met with difficulties in expressing the size and density of
the city numerically. Part of the factors causing the heat island phenomenon
depend upon the size and density of the population, as well as of its standard of
living, such as motor traffic, intensity of heating in the winter and air conditioning
in the summer, industrial plants, etc. Other factors depend upon the size of the
built up urban area, the building density and the planning details, such as the rate
at which the area heats up by the sun, and cools at night as a result of the emitted
radiation towards the sky.
It was commented by one of the reviewers of this book that the concentration
of high rise buildings in city centers results in a concentrated heat generation from
interior electrical lighting, heat rejection by air conditioning plants, computers and
other office electrical equipment, as well as from the high vehicular traffic
generated by the high density land use, factors contributing to the heat island.
In the case of heat rejection by central air conditioning plants of high rise
buildings, the location of the rejection (condensers) may have an impact on the
urban air temperature near the ground level. Low level condensers reject the heat
near the street level, increasing the discomfort of the pedestrians in summer. On
the other hand, placing the condensers at roof level rejects the heat high above the
streets, with minimum impact on the ground level air temperature.
Actually, it is difficult to express the planning details of the city in a
numerical form, which is necessary for developing a mathematical formula to
describe the effects of these details on the city's air temperature. This is the
~-· ··~. -- ~-- .. - - ~~;-:-s~~--~To~:.:._the--de velopment-~o£ form u1ae~=tr-yln&.:::.to~-over-eaine:-t.J1ese.:::.EJl-H-l0ul=ties,
3-9 .
using a given datum such as the size of the city, as a general indicator for the rest
of the data. (See 2.3.2.)
The heat island phenonemon reflects the fact that the urban area is less
sensitive than the open countryside to the factors promoting high rate of cooling at
night, and therefore is more evident during nights of strong inversions. Thus, one
of the consequences of the "heat island" is the lower frequency of inversions in
urban areas, as compared with the surrounding country.
Regarding the day-time conditions, it is commonly assumed that urban
temperatures are higher than rural ones, due to lack of vegetation and heat
generated in the town, although the differences observed are smaller than at night.
However, it is possible to infer from theoretical considerations, as well as
form actual measurements in and around buildings, that it might be possible to
plan cities, especially in hot-dry regions, so that the ambient daytime alr
temperatures would be lower than those of the surrounding country. The main
planning factor by which such a modification of the urban temperature seems
possible is the average albedo of the whole area of the town. This subject is
discussed in chapter 6, dealing with urban design in hot-dry climates.
3.2.2 Influence of Density and Height of Buildings on Urban Ventilation
Urban density may affect the ventilation conditions in the streets and thus
also the potential for natural ventilation of buildings. This effect, however,
depends greatly on the details of the urban physical structure. It is possible to
obtain a wide range of ventilation conditions even in a densely built-up area by
applying different urban design approaches. In fact, it is possible to have an urban
area of higher density, obtained by a mixture of high and low buildings, with better
ventilation conditions than an area with lower density but with buildings of the
same height.
It is usually assumed that an increase in building density reduces the air flow
in the urban area, as a result of increased friction near the ground. However, this
influence depends mainly on the various physical details of urban space, including
the mutual relationship between the buildings and their orientation with regard to
___ ~~i_n_~ _di~~1i~n:-:_- _It::_::_~s=--~po_ssi_ble~=~herefor.e_~~=~~~~-e---a_- ~~~!:::_:--ra_n~_:~~:<>~=":~r;)-t~~~-~ion __
conditions for a given degree of density.
3-10
The principle factors determining the urban density are the average height of
buildings and the distance between them (see later 3.2.4). However, from the
urban ventilation aspect the most important factor is the differences in the heights
of neighboring buildings.
While buildings reduce the speed of the "regional wind" at ground level, the city
can generate air flow resulting from the modified temperature in an urban area.
The existence of a city creates air currents of different sizes. The "heat
island" over a city - primarily expressed by a body of hot air in and over the city
area - causes a gradual rising of hot air in the center of the city, and a centripetal
flow near the ground, of cooler air, from the surrounding areas towards the cent er.
Like the heat island phenomenon itself, this air flow also occurs primarily at night,
especially on clear nights without regional winds. The larger and denser the city is,
the more intense these phenomena are.
Munn (1970) mentions several field measurements of air flow patterns around
and in cities where this phenomenon has been observed. An example shown by
Munn is reproduced in figure 3.3.
In cities where the density pattern is not concentric, and the urban area
consists of "patches" of high and low densities and with open spaces interspersed in
between, the pattern of the urban heat island and the associated air currents is
rather complex. As one of the reviewers of this book has commented, "the urban
heat island exactly is an urban heat island archipelago". The complex temperature
field complicates the thermally induced air flow patterns. The actual urban air
flow patterns are modified, of course, by the topography and by the variable
friction introduced by buildings of different sizes and densities in the urban area.
During the hours in which there are no regional winds, these air currents,
created by the city itself, make for a situation in which the air flow within the
urban space is stronger than that in the open space, outside the city boundaries.
In hot regions urban design can enhance these nocturnal centripetal air
currents by leaving open strips, e.g. wide avenues, etc., leading from areas of low
densities or green open spaces toward centers of high density of highrise buildings.
oo-_-" _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ nutiog_th~J.ia.r-,_t.o_q~Lwj_Q_c;l ~urr~n!§...?r~_g_r_e~t~ciJo_~h~_c:it_y as~a..-~-~~ljlt -~Ltbe
--- - --diff-~~~-~ti~l he a ti_n_g~--by ~~lar ra-Ciiation, -o:C wafis--of-vario-us --coTors- and •faCing in
various directions. The air coming in contact with the irradiated warmer walls
3-11
(and parts of the roads) heats up and rises, and the air coming in contact with the
shaded walls and cooler surfaces sinks downward, and flows into the area from
which the warmer air has risen. Quantitatively, however, these air currents are
very weak.
3.2.3 Urban Density: Impact on Energy Demand and Potential for Solar Energy
Utilization
The effects of urban density on the total energy demand of the town are
complex and conflicting.
On the one hand higher density promotes public transportation and reduces
the needs for and length of trips by private cars. It also reduces the length of the
streets needed to accomodate a given number of inhabitants. This, in turn,
shortens the length of infra-structure facilities, such as water-supply and sewage
lines, reducing the energy for pumping, etc., in addition to the major reduction of
energy for "horizontal" transportation.
Higher urban density means also multi-story, multi-unit buildings, reducing
the overalJ area of the buildings envelope and the heat loss from the buildings.
This leads to lower demand for heating energy in winter. However, high rise
buildings also involve elevators, thus increasing the need for electricity for the
"vertical" transportation.
In cities where local sources of waste heat are available, for example from
industries or from "co-generatlo_n" power stations, district heating and cooling (e.g.
by absorption chillers) ls more feasible as density is higher.
On the other hand, higher urban density, and higher and larger buildings, may
impede the urban ventilation conditions and increase the need for air conditioning
in summer, and increase the discomfort of the city inhabitants.
The potential for natural lighting is also generally reduced in high density
areas, increasing the need for electrical lighting and the load on air-conditioning to
remove the heat resulting from the electrical lighting. However it should be
pointed out realistically that at present most office buildings rely almost
.. _~Qmp_le:t.ely__Qfl_.e.le_cJ.r.ic._Jigbtiag_ao_y_wa¥ ,_exe.n~ w..hen~_the.~po.ten.tial_fo.r.~ na.tur.al
---------- ---~-· --------·--------~-·--~----------
-~~~~-- ----- -- --~ ----- - - - - ~------ ~-- --
lighting exists. This practice may change in the future due to the increasing cost
of electricity.
3-12
Higher density usually also reduces the potential for solar energy utilization
because of mutual shading by adjacent buildings.
3.2.4 Wind Speed Along Streets and Between Buildings of About the Same
Height
In a built up area there are great variations in the wind speed around and
between buildings, depending on the relationship between the wind direction and
that of the streets and the buildings. Therefore, any assumptions of one general
type of a wind field might be quite erroneous.
When long rows of buildings in a city block are perpendicular to the wind
direction, then shielded zones are established between the buildings, where the
wind speed might be just a small fraction of the speed above the building's roofs, or
in streets approximately parallel to the wind direction.
On the other hand, when the building blocks and the streets are parrallel to
the wind direction, the wind can blow through spaces between the buildings and
along the streets, with a smaller retarding effect from the friction with the
buildings. In this case, much higher wind speeds will be in the side-walks along the
streets and in the open spaces between the buildings.
A special case is when the wind is oblique to the direction of a street and the
buildings along it. If the buildings are of medium height, up to about two. times the
width o.f the street, then the situation will be very different along the two
side walks.
Pedestrians on the side-walk at the downwind side of the street will
experience a much higher wind speed than the pedestrians on the side walk at the
up-wind side of the street.
The reason is that along the downwind buildings a strong downward air flow
will be generated by the winds, expecially near junctions with cross-streets. The
down-wind side walk will be directly affected by this downflow of air, while the
other side walk will be shielded from it.
Extensive wind-tunnel research was carried out by Givoni (1968) and by
.. _GLv_onLand __l'aciuk.(.l2I2Lon_ tbe ..e.ff_ects,_Q_f .building __ bg_igbt_ a_nd_ dlsta,nces _be.tweeo
buildings on the wind speed in the open spaces between the buildings, when the
buildings are perpendicular to the wind direction. The wind speed was expressed as
--I
3-13
the percen t of the wind at the sa me height we ll in fro nt of the first line of
buildings.
It was found that, in t he case when the buildings fo r m long rows of the sa me
height pe rpendicular to the direction of the wind, then t he distances ?e t ween the
buildings have little effe c t on the speed of the wind curren t s between the buildings.
This is due to the fact that the first rows of buildings div ert the approaching wind
current upwards, and the rest of the buildings behind are left in the wind "shadow"
of the buildings standing in front of them. In this situation, two separate air flow
regimes are created. The regional air currents flow mainly over the tops of the
buildings, while in between the buildings a secondary air current is created as a
result of the friction between the upper air currents and the building. In this
situation neither the distance between the buildings , nor the height of the buildings
themselves have great effect since most of the buildings are located in the
"shadow" of the wind . In these studies the wind speed was measured at the
"modeled" height of 5 meters, because of sensor limitations .
In this urban configuration the urban density has a relatively small effect,
because ev e n under low urban density conditions (that is, low buildings with large
spaces between them) the free wind flow is blocked by the buildings.
This flow pattern is illustrated in Figure 3.4 which shows results of smoke
tracing in a wind tunnel of the air flow at ground level in an urban area with
models of buildings perpendicular to the wind direction and a central street running
parallel to the wind (Givoni and Paciuk, 1972).
It can be seen that the first row of buildings divert the flow upwa rds. While
in the street itself there is substantial wind, the spaces between the buildings get
only secondary turbulent flow .
The wind flow in the street penetrates slightly, in a turbulent pattern, into
the spaces between the buildings. However, the width of the area sub jected to this
flow is quite small. The major source of the air flow in the spaces between the
building is the wind flow above the roofs which, by friction, generate some
turbulence in these sheltered spaces, as can be seen in the vertical cross-section of
______ _,
Figure 3.4.
The overall average wind speed in the protected spaces was less than 30% of
the "free'' wind, at the same height (the wind speed well upwind from the
3-llt
buildings). This relative speed, would be, of course, much smaller when related to
the free wind speed measured above the building's height.
Streets and side-walks parallel to the building blocks will also be shielded
from the wind by the buildings, except at junctions with intersecting streets,
running parallel to the wind direction.
The ratio of building height to spacing, within the range of 1:3 to 3:1, has just a
small effect on the wind speed in the spaces between the buildings, except for very
narrow spacing. In an experimental study directed by Givoni and conducted by
Paciuk (1975), in a wind tunnel at the Building Research Station of the Technion in
Israel, the height to spacing ratio was changed from 1:3, through 1:1 to 3:1. In that
study, the wind speeds were measured in the open spaces between nine rows of
buildings (see 3.3.2 below).
Two series (configurations) of a "neighborhood" were tested. The first was
with uninterrupted long rows of buildings across the whole "test field" in the wind
tunnel. The second configuration was with a central street, 24 meters wide,
parallel to the wind and bisecting the neighborhood.
The modelled heights of the buildings were 12, 24 and 36 meters. The width
of the spaces between the buildings were also 12, 24 and 36 meters, changing the
height to width ratios from 1:3 to 3:1.
This arrangement of buildings of the same height served later as a basis for
studying the effect of highrise buildings interspaced between rows of lower
buildings (see 3.3.1).
Table 3.1 gives the relative air speed distribution measured in the two series.
In comparing the measured air speeds in this study (with 9 rows of buildings) with
the measurements in the previous study (Givoni & Pacluk, 1972) in which five rows
of buildings were tested (in a smaller wind tunnel), it was found tnat the data from
the first 4 spaces in the second study were very close to those obtained in the first
study. Consequently, Table 1 gives average speeds from these two studies for
these rows.
With spaces width. of 36 meters the last row was placed at a spot where the
..flow in .the witJ<:LtunneJ starte.<LtQ_<::s.mY~Ig~_ tow...ar.9. tbe~Q.l1!l~t. Xh-'ergJq.r~_tt\~_Q.'!ta_
- --~-------------~--------- ~---~----·-----·------------ -----------~~-----~-----· ----------~- -- ------------ ---·- -----------
from the last space (between the eight and the ninth rows) was discarded.
3-15
Table 3:1: Relative wind speeds (percent) in open spaces between rows of buildings
of different building heights and space widths.
lst Series: Without Central Street
Width Height Space Positions Between Rows

of of
Spaces Buildings
(Meters) (Meters) 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9
12 41 30 26 22 22 19 16 13
12 24 38 28 26 23 18 21 19 15
36 30 25 16 17 13 10 11 13
12 35 28 25 20 19 17 16
24 62 45 34 28 27 25 23
36 54 49 35 29 23 18 20
12 40 33 28 24 24 24
36 24 60 40 31 25 24 22
36 66 ll-5 32 26 25 26
3-16
2nd Series with Central Street
Width Height Space Positions Between Rows

of of
Spaces Buildings
(Meters) (Meters) 1-2 2-3 3-4 4-5 5-6 6-7 7-8 8-9
12 26 28 16 19 18 16 16 14
12 24 25 24 24 24 20 20 21 17
36 ,54 41 26 17 15 13 12 13
12 31 29 22 24 23 22 20
24 24 36 27 25 21 21 21 22
36 67 53 35 29 24 23 24
12 41 37 32 28 26 28
36 24 51 31 30 25 32 36
36 81 55 44 35 41 47
An interesting pattern of air speed distribution in the first configuration,

namely long rows without central street, was observed. A significant higher speed
was observed in the first space (between the first and the second row of buildings),
and to a lesser degree in the second space. This pattern was observed in all the
combinations of height of buildings and the width of the space between them in the
two runs with this configuration.
After the second row the relative speed had been gradually stabilized, with
small dif.ferences between the different spaces.
From observation of the flow pattern it seems that when wind blowing over
... _ an.__ op~rlSJ;>~ce eilCOl.ll1!.~r~_an at?r!JP!. resi~ta(1c~, i(1_ t_~~ _fO!rrl_~j~_ ser!~so_f l()n.S
----- ----~------ ~-~- ·-·-"- ------
---~-------- ~ ~·-·"-- ~----- -----~
buildings perpendicular to its direction, the highest suctlon-Ts-Tormecrahc!ve-

---~~- --~
ana-
immediately behind the first line of buildings. This suction generates the turbulent
3-17
air flow between the buildings, apparently in proportion to the pressure

differences.
3.2.5 Mathematical Representation of the Effects of Building Height and Spacing
Width with Uniform Buildings.
In the study of Paciuk (197 5) under the direction of the Author, the effects of
building height and space width, as obtained from the measurements in the above
wind tunnel studies, was expressed mathematically by regression analysis.
It seems that, as the wind approaches an urban area of long buildings with
uniform height perpendicular to the wind direction, the initial turbulence
"agitation" over the first lines of buildings declines gradually toward a uniform
wind speed in the spaces between the buildings.
The initial "agitation" increases with the height of the buildings, (h) resulting
in a higher suction over them. The rate of decline in wind speed seems to depend
on the length of the wind pass over the built-up area D, (the total length of
buildings and open spaces), and on the width of the spaces between buildings, W.
The analysis of the data suggested that the rate D/W is what determines the rate
of drop in the air velocity toward an asymptotic value of about 10% of the "free"
wind speed.
The formula developed by the regression analysis for the wind speed in the
spaces between the buildings of uniform height is (Paciuk, 197 5):
Vr(
u.h.)
= 10 + (66 O-e-0.08h))e _ 0.18 D/W
where:
Vr(u.h.) = relative wind speed (percent)
D = distance traveled by the wind (meters) = n (b + W) - 0.5 W
b = depth of the buildings (meters)
n = serial number of the space (downwind)
h = height of the buildings (meters)
W = width of the spaces between buildings (meters)
Figure 3.5 shows the effect of the ratio D/W on the relative wind speed in the
--- -------- -- __ !-~?-=~~~cHe_s:--wi-t_h-?..:a_t:\_~--w~:!-_1:!.:-_9_:-!-~~:-~ _()f-~_u:l:l_~~~~s.-- -=~=-==:.:::--.=.~=-_ ~=:_:::::-·::-_ =-=:-.·=-- ~--:.~=~~:- ~-
Figure 3.6 shows the correlation between the computed and measured
relative wind speeds in the first series with long uninterrupted blocks of buildings.
3'-18
The meaning of this formula is that the wind speed, in an urban configuration
of long uniform height buildings and streets perpendicular to the wind, decrease.s
gradually toward an asympotic level of 10%, with increasing "depth"· into the
city (D). Wider open spaces (streets) between the buildings (W), with given height
of the buildings (h), or lower buildings with a given spacing between them tend to
increase the wind speed in the streets.
3.3 Air Flow Patterns Around High-Rise Buildings
The "urban canopy", especially near the ground level, in an urban · area
comprised of closely spaced buildings of about the same height, is relatively
sheltered from the winds, which flow over the roof's level. This is a desirable
situation in cold weather but may produce heat discomfort in a hot, and
particularly in a hot-humid, climate.
Introducing tall buildings, which rise appreciably above the roof level of the
neighboring buildings, can modify greatly the wind flow pattern and the wind speed
near the streets, at the "pedestrian level".
The direction and quantitative effect of the high rise buildings on the urban
wind field depends greatly upon their specific locations within the urban fabric.
While addition of high buildings increases the density of the built-up area, their
impact can, in effect, be to increase substantially the overall urban wind speed.
However, with specific arrangements, the high rise buildings can block the wind
and reduce appreciably the wind speed in the urban area as a whole.
The flow pattern around a high-rise building depends on several factors:
a) The geometrical configuration of the building, expressed in the ratio of
its width to its height (the W/H ratio);
b) Whether the up-wind facade is flat, concave or convex;
c) The existence or otherwise of lower buildings upwind from and on the
sides of the high rise;
d) The wind dir~ction with respect to the facades of the building.
e) Specific design details of the highrise building itself.
Aynsley (1976) has described the flow patterns around a high building standing
... -b¥ .itself:. A _nar.r:.ow .bigh,.r:ise _(the~-'-'-to_w~er.'.!_~t.Y,.[te}_de.f.l.e_cJs_ rno_s_t_Q.f the_ .win.Jt _.
sideways. A relatively small amount of air is diverted upwards, above the roof. A
turbulent circling flow is generated at the sides and with little upllft at the
leewar<.i_ sides of the building.
3-19
As the width of the windward wall of the high-rise building increases, turning
it into a "slab" type, a larger volume of air is diverted. More air is diverted over
the roof, while the air diverted side-ward increases only slightly .
The air diverted over the roof create a stronger upward flow along the
leeward facade while the turbulence along the sides, and ne ar the edges of the back
wall, is in a similar pattern as occurs in the case of t he "tower" type.
Thus, the flow pattern along the side walls is determined mainly by the height
of the building, with secondary effect of its width . The flow pattern along the
back wall is determined mainly by the width of the building, with only secondary
effect of its height .
The shape of the upwind wall can modify the flow pattern. A convex
wall diverts more air to the sides and less upwards and downward. It smoothes the
deflection of the flow and therefore reduces the resulting turbulence at the side
wall and at the windward wall.
On the other hand, a concave windward wall concentrates the flow along this
wall, upwards and downward. As a result, the turbulence increases.
Existence of lower buildings in front of the high-rise (upwind) can modify
greatly the flow patterns, mainly in the space between the high-rise and the lower
buildings, as discussed below.
3.3.1 Wind Speeds Around High-Rise Buildings Located Among Lower Buildings
One of the main factors determining the effect of building density on
ventilation conditions in the city is the difference in height of buildings. Under a
given density condition, high buildings with large open spaces between them will
have better ventilation conditions than closely spaced low buildings - approaching
in the extreme a pattern similar to a lone building with open space on all sides.
However, more than the average building height, it is the difference between
building heights which affects the ventilation conditions.
Individual buildings rising high above those around them, create strong air
currents in the area. This phenomenon is due to the fact that the highrise building
is exposed to the main wind currents that flow above the "general" level of the
_ _ _ _ _ _u,r:ban Ganopy-rand ar:e t r:ORoger:-t-J:laR ti=IGose ~lawoiAg-tAF0lJgA-the-I,JF E>an-eaA0F>oY 1-toSeH-:-
. ------~
Against the facade of the highrise building which faces the wind, a high air
pressure pocket is formed, which causes a strong downward current, and in this way
3-20
mixes up the air layers near the ground between the lower buildings. In cold
countries, and during the winter months in many hot countries, this current is
undesirable as far as the comfort of the local residents is concerned, although it is
always helpful in dispersing air pollutants from traffic which are generated near
the ground.
During the summer, in warm humid regions, which often experience light
winds, the stronger air currents may be welcomed for increasing the comfort level
of the local residents.
The direction and quantitative effect of the high rise buildings on the urban
wind field depends greatly upon their specific locations within the urban fabric.
The effect of high rise buildings on the air flow patterns and wind speed
around them has been studied extensively by various investigators, such as
Aynsley (1976), Melbourne-Joubert (1971), Wise, Sexton and Lillywhite (1965),
Cermak (1971), Givoni and Paciuk (1972) and Paciuk (197 5). Results of the
quantitative studies of Givoni and Paciuk are summarized below.
3.3.2 Quantitative Effects of Highrise Buildings on Air Speeds Around Them
In a series of comprehensive experimental studies with models in a wind
tunnel, Givoni and Paciuk investigated the quantitative effect of highrise buildings,
in t erspersed among lower buildings, on the air speed in the streets around them.
Different arrangements of the highrise buildings were tested, some intended to
block the wind and reduce the velocity behind the high buildings, · and some
arrangements intended to augment the wind speed in the streets. The results of
these studies were summarized in research reports and were not published before in
the "open" literature, except for short presentations at various symposia. They are
summarized in the following.
Effect of Highrise Buildings Placed Upwind of the Lower Buildings
Measurements of wind speeds in streets lined with buildings of uniform height
(summarized above) were used as basis for the evaluation of the effect of adding
highrise buildings to the previous urban configuration.
In the first experimental series (Givoni and Paciuk, 1972) models of nine
- - - - - - -l"l1i g-h i-Se-bu.iJdir:~gS-W..ere-placed_w.it tu:filieren: cooiigur:a.tloD"'-'.......,.._._~~.......,__.,~~'""' ~---
of uniform height of 36 meters, with spaces of 12 meters between the row
buildings.
3-21
Figure 3.7 show the re lative ai r speeds in fo ur "s tr eets'' iined by bui ldings of
uni f orm heigh t, e ither without any high buildi ngs, or with nine high buildings
interspaced in different configurations among the lowe r buildings. In one
configura ti on the hi gh buildings formed a "wi nd break" upwind of the lower
buildings. In other configuration the high buildings were disparsed throughout the
whole "neighborhood"
It can be seen that even without the " wind break" the ov erall configuration of
long buildings perpendicular to the wind direction inhibits air flow between the
buildings . The wall of highr ise buildings upwind further lowe red the wind speeds
between the row buildings.
The a verage relative speed in the configuration with uni for m buildings was
26%. Positioning a "wall" of high buildings upwind reduced the average speed to
15%, demonstra t ing the potential use of high buildings for shelt ering a
neighborhood in a cold climate.
Figure 3.7 shows also the distribution of the relative wind speeds in the two
configurations, with nine "towers" dispersed among the lower row buildings. The
different configurations produced various "spots" of high and of low pressure.
Smoke tracing has demonstrated that downward flow formed in front of the
high buildings while in the streets, lined by the row buildings, the flow was mainly
parallel to the buildings, away from the points of high pressure and t_oward the
points of low pressure. The highest speeds were measured in front of the high
buildings and the lowest speeds at points behind and between two towers.
The average wind speeds in these two configurations were 60% and 52%.
Thus with the different configurations of highrise buildings, from one protecting
from the wind to those enhancing the wind speed in the streets, a range from 15%
to 60% was achieved.
In a second expanded experimental series (Paciuk, 197 5), the effect of high
towers was measured in an arrangement of nine rows of uniform height buildings
perpendicular to the wind. Nine "towers" were placed, in different configurations,
over the row buildings. The effect of the towers was measured with different
- - - - - -heigt"lt-s- tG paGiRg a t-i0 s g,f- tl:le- r=G,w ~;~HEiiA,§'s...-1=1-te-l"te,igR,t-ef tl"te- t0we r--s wa- ~6-,48
and 60 meters above the level of the lower row buildings.

3-22
It has been found that when the towers were "dispersed" throughout the
"neighborhood" they always increased significantly the air speed in the "streets".
The absolute and relative effects, however, depended mainly on the height to
spacing ratio of the row buildings, as can be seen in figures 3.8 and 3.9.
Figure 3.8 shows the distribution of relative speeds, with uniform buildings at
a ratio of height to spacing of 1:3 (wide 36 meter spacing between low buildings),
without towers and with two configurations of towers. The average wind speeds
were 28% without towers and 48% and 46% with the two configurations of towers.
Figure 3.9 shows the speed distribution with height to spacing ratio of 3:1
(high buildings, 36 m., and narrow spacing, 12 m.). Without the towers the average
relative speed in the streets was 15%. With the two configurations of the towers
the average relative speeds were 52% and 50%.
From a comparison of the relative and absolute effects of the towers in these
two studies it can be concluded that as the urban configuration is more dense
(higher buildings with narrower spacing betweeen them) the ventilation conditions
with uniform height buildings will be poor but the addition of towers, well
distributed in the area, can very substantially improve the ventilation.
In fact, the dense configuration with towers (high urban density!) had better
ventilation conditions than the low density configuration with uniform height
buildings.
The different heights of the towers: 36, 48 and 60 meters, had only small
effect on their performance. The average relative speeds (with height to spacing
ratio of 1:1, 24 meters) for these tower heights were 52%, 56% and 60%,
respective 1y.
3.3.3 Mathematical Modelling of the Effect of High Towers on Urban Ventilation
By regression analysis of the data of relative speeds obtained with different
arrangements of the tower buildings, it was possible to develop a general formula,
estimating the relative wind speed at any point in the streets as a function of its
distances from the centers of pressure (in front of the towers) and of suction
(behind the m).
. ~~·- -~The.jnd.ep.en.d.ent. (ur_b.an_de.sLgn). fa.c.tot:s_.co_ver..ed.-b¥ the~for.m ula-ar,e~the.heigh.t~ ...
--··------~·---·-----------~-----------··- ~------------------ -----·---~--- ·--~---·------------------------···---------------------------- -------~--
of the row buildings (h), the spacing between them (W), ·the height of the
towers (H), and the distance between towers in the same street (dp+ds). This
3-23
general formula (Paciuk, 1975) incorporates also the special formula for buildings
of uniform height and the configura tlon of the towers (V r(u.h.)·
Vr(t) = Vr(u.h.) + K
d Vr (p+s)
K= 1.18 (l-e -0.8 H/W)
dVr (p + s) = 48 e -0.16 dp = 30 0-ds/(dp + ds))

where:
Vr (t) =relative speed in an urban configuration with towers
Vr (u.h.) = re la ti ve speed in a configuration of rows of uniform height
(without towers), namely
Vr(u.h.) = 10 + (66(1 - e-0.08h))e-0.18D/W)
d Vr (p + s) =increase in speed by the towers
dp = distance of the point from the pressure center
ds = distance of the point from the suction center
This formula expresses the observations that increased distance from the
pressure center reduces the speed, and that the existence of a suction center on
the other side increases the speed.
Figure 3.10 shows the correlation between the measured and computed
relative speeds in the various configurations of the different experimental studies,
of which only a part were described above.
The studies of Givoni and Paciuk summarized above have shown that it is
possible to manipulate, to a great extent, the wind direction in the streets by
specefic placements of the high buildings, and even to reverse the direction of the
regional wind.
The research of the Author emphasized the fact that the effect of the highrise
buildings depends greatly on their location within the urban fabric. When a row of
high rise buildings is located on the upwind edge of the city, they reduce the air
flow over the built area behind them. Compared to this, when the same number of
highrise buildings are dispersed over the urban area in various ways, they can
greatly increase (up to 300% and more) the air current in the city. In fact, at
specific location around highrise buildings the wind speed can be increased fivefold.
- - - - = - - - - - - - ---- --- _ :~~=~==Er.o_m~tEies·e-r-e surts-;_:rt:rs~~c rear--=:tnat-~rt--=is~po.ssr151e~to:rnc-tease_ ~ttre:orrrrain.g=-~d~en.srf}L-~~--=-~
in existing cities while at the same time improving the urban ventilation
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- - --------- ----

3-24-
conditions. This can be achieved by increasing the density through the addition of
strategically located highrise structures.
It is necessary that these tall buildings be planned and located in such a manner
as not to block the air current flowing over the city, but rather to direct it
downwards into the urban area. ·
3.3.4 Pedestrian Reactions to Excessively Windy Environments
The problems which may be caused by excessive wind speeds in front and
around high-rise buildings were discussed by several authors, such as Arens (1981)
Penwarden (1973). Aynsley (1976), Isyumov and Davenport (1978). Aynsley mentions
three type of problems: those related to the comfort of pedestrians, those related
to the high-rise building itself and those affecting the environment around the
high-rise building.
Pedestrians may experience discomfort due to the high speed and turbulent
wind in front and on the sides of these buildings. In addition to the chilling effect
of the wind, it causes disturbances in walking, blowing dust and leaves, lifting
dresses, etc. Summary of some studies on pedestrian reactions to excessive winds
is presented below.
The problems in the building itself range from difficulties in opening entrance
doors, noises from windows and various attachments, rain penetration due to the
lifting effect of the wind windward over the facade of the upper storie_s and the
whole leeward facade.
The problems to the environment range from damage to plants, downwash of
chimneys plums, erosion of beaches in the case of sea-front buildings, etc.
"Historically", the recent interest in wind conditions around buildings started
because of negative reactions of shoppers in commercial enterprises near highrise
buildings (Wise et al, 1965). Numerous studies have been conducted, both field
surveys and wind-tunnel model experiments, to evaluate the physical air-flow
conditions and human responses to excessive wind speeds. Some of these studies
are summarized in the following.
Penwarden (1973) has reviewed the effects of wind on people and has
__ --_-:~l:l:~g@-S.'!@d-_:!imi,t-~to ,~i:_~_~pe@d~=~_._hiG!:-ar-=_e~~elther-.accep:tabJe=-o~-=~na5:_cep~~b~l.e.•~~- -_!:i_e _
reviewed the work of Admiral Beaufort, which has established a scale of wind
speed based on its observed effects.
3-25
Penwarden stresses the e ffect of turbulance on the subjectiv e perception of

wind discomfort and cites t he wo rk of Hunt and Poulton (1972) which suggests that
the effect of a turbulant wind is manifested by an increase of the perce ptible
speed.
lsyumov and Davenport (1978) describe the various changes in the pedestrian
level wind environment , brought about by highrise buildings, such as:
- Accelerated winds near building corners.
- Reverse flow in front of t he building.
- Turbulent air flow in the wakes behind and at the si des of a tall building.
- Accelerated flow through constricted areas, such as passages, arcades,
spaces under buildings on pilotis, etc.
- Funnelling and conversion of air flow in spaces between buildings.
lsyumov and Davenport suggest two types of cri teria for assessing the acceptability
of a particular pedestrian wind conditions in a planned project:
a) Relative criteria: comparing the projected wind speed (obtained for
instance in a wind tunnel model testing) with winds at a location
considered to have a publicly acceptable wind environment.
b) Absolute criteria: when the frequency of occurrence of a certain wind
speed is below some acceptable level.
Arens (1981) reviews the "mechanical" effects of wind on pedestria~s, ranging
from disturbances of clothing and hair to resistance to walking and loss of balance.
He cites additional work of Hunt et al. (1976), in which an "equivalent steady wind"
(Us) was defined as a turbulant wind, with turbulance intensity level of (T I), giving
the same perception or safety effect as a steady wind with average speed of U.
The equivalent steady wind can be estimated by the formula:
Us = U (1 + a *T I)
-=--..<1--l.:._an_em.pi,r..icaLLy_ de.ter..mine co~eillcieo-t.-Tlte-t ur.bulance._iav_eL(LH ·s'------~

the relative turbulant intensity, defined as the root mean square of instantaneous
deviations from the mean speed, divided by the mean speed.
3-26
Thus, for example, with an average wind speed of 4 m/s, a turbulance

instensity T I of 0.2 and an "a" value assumed at 3.0, the perceptible wind speed,
Us, will be:
Us =4 (1 + 3 x 0.2) = 6.4 m/s
However, it should be noted that different studies came out with different
values for the "a" coefficient, ranging from 1.5 (Isyumov and Davenport, 1978), up
to 4.0 (Pen warden 1973). Thus it seems that the effect of turbulance depends on
the specific criterion used in its evaluation, and may depends also on the
circumstances and the activities of the pedestrians.
The desirability and relative importance of higher or lower wind speeds
depends, of course, on the climatic conditions. In general, in hot-dry regions
protection from the sun is more important than ventilation, while in hot-humid
regions the opposite may be true. In cold climates protection from the wind may
be one of the main climatic objectives of planning.
As stated in the previous section, the existence of tall buildings changes the air
flow conditions in the streets around them. This is especially important in the case
of narrow streets, with long rows of buildings, lying perpendicular to the wind
direction. The proper siting of tall buildings can improve, in this instance, both the
ventila tlon in the streets and within the buildings.
Arens (1982) suggests the-following design ideas for mitigating adv.erse wind
conditions around highrise buildings:
Large slab buildings should not be oriented normally to the prevailing
winds.
- Circular and polygonal buildings produce reduced downflow.
- Horizontal projections break and reduce the downward air flow.
- Important pedestrian thoroughfares and entrances should not be planned at
the windward corners of tall buildings~
Vegetation may be used to absorb wind energy in pedestrian areas.

Details of the windward facades of highrise buildings can greatly control and
direct the air flow in front of them. Breaking the facade plane by strong
. _ _h_g_rJ:l.9_QJQ,L,p.r.Qj~<::_lioll~,, ~ 1-t<;.b ils -~h_~dlD.g .9.Y~Ih~.ngs.,,_ ~SRecL~l!y__Jn_con jl!r\.Gti.~m_'!!.Hh
orienting the facade at an angle to the street and the lower "row" buildings, divert
the impinging wind horizontally, reducing the. downward flow.
3-27
A setback of the tower, with respect to its "base", starting about 6-10 meters
above street level, can eliminate most of the downflow at the street, where it
affects the pedestrians. Such a design solution still maintains the positive effect
of the highrlse building on the mixing rate of the street level polluted alr with the
clearer air from above.
3.4 Width and Orientation of Streets and Buildings
The width and direction of urban streets affect a number of climatic factors,
principally orientation of the buildings themselves, which in turn affect the
conditions of daylight and ventilation within the buildings. The width of the streets
determines the distance between the buildings on both sides of the street, with
impacts both on the ventllation and solar exposure conditions.
3••• 1 Impact of Street Layout on Urban Ventilation
When the city streets are parallel to the direction of the wind, they create
obstacle-free passageways, through which the prevailing winds can penetrate into
the heart of the urban area. In this case, as the streets are wider, the air flow
encounters less resistance from the buildings on the sides of the streets, thus
improving the general urban ventilation. A similar phenomenon occurs when the
streets lie at a small angle to the prevailing winds.
When the city streets are perpendicular to the wind direction, and the
buildings lining these streets are long row buildings, the principal air current flows
above the buildings. The air flow in the streets ls mainly the result of a secondary
air current, caused by the friction of the wind blowing above the city against the
buildings lining the streets. Under these conditions, the ventlla tion of urban space
is hardly affected by the width of the streets, within the range encountered in
urban areas.
In regions where higher near-ground wind speeds are desirable this situation can
be modified to a great extent by sui table placement of high-rise buildings. Such
buildings create zones of high and low pressures above the built-up area, and thus
generate vertical currents stirring the urban air mass.
When the streets are angled in an oblique direction of the wind, the wind is
-- -drs:t~i.t>u-tea=.l)~t:ween.:.t:we-Goffi:~aneF!~is-~~-:t-J1e-~rr-~1:=£-:re-:-...vs-=rfl-the=-dl-reeiion~o-!~4l1e-s-tree-t;··----=
but is_ concentrated mainly on the downwind side of the street • The second
component causes pressure on the upwind side of the buildings. On the upwind side
3-28
of the street, the air flow is gentler and a low pressure zone surrounds the building.
In this case, the widening of the streets improves the ven tit a tion conditions both
within the buildings and in the streets.
The desirability of higher or lower wind speeds depends, of course, on the
climatic conditions. In general, in hot-dry regions protection from the sun is more
important than ventilation (calling often to narrow streets). In hot-humid regions
the opposite may be true. In cold climates, protection from the wind may be one
of the main climatic objectives of planning.
3.4.2 Impact of Street Orientation, Lot's Subdivision and Set-Backs on Solar

Exposure
The direction of the streets in relation to the North and their width
determine the conditions of shade and sunshine on the facades of the buildings and
on the sidewalks lining the streets. This affects the temperature and sun
conditions within the buildings as well as the possibilities of protecting the
pedestrian on the sidewalk from the sun in summer or of providing sunlight in the
streets in winter. Narrower streets reduce sun penetration to the street level and
solar impingement on buildings parallel to the street.
The orientation of the streets with respect to the :-lorth also determines in
practice the orientation of the subdivision of the land into individual. lots and
consequently it affects greatly the orientation of the buildings. In this way, the
street orientation has a major impact on the potential of the individual buildings to
utilize solar energy for winter space heating, and to some extent also for year-
round solar heating of domestic water.
In general, streets running in a given direction promote building orientation
parallel to the street. This means that the main facades of buildings along a street
running from east to west are facing south and north, which of course can help in
solar utilization. Therefore, the simplest approach to promoting solar utilization
by town planning is to maximize street orientation in the east/west direction.
The impact of street orientation, especially in residential districts, can be
~~-~~~ -~_.::...=.r=noanrea=-o-i·tne::::ae.taLrs::=o]-=-:tne=-suoolYfsion::::rn.tc>:::XnorV:'idual:::l5IiiH:Iin.g::::t:axs~ar:n:Lo¥·-rn:e:.::=.::.::
regulations dealing with set-backs. Such regulatory means can promote the use of
solar energy regardless of the orientation of the streets.
3-29
In order to maximize solar exposure of buildi ngs, and to minimize shading of

one building by its neighbor, the plann ing objective would be to increase dista nces
between buildings in the no rth-south direction. For a given urba n densi ty to remai n
constant at a certain level it means reducing the dis tances be tween build in gs in the
east-west direction.
These genera l objectives can be "translated" into details of a "planned
developm e nt" of urban areas which eliminate the need for forma l sub-di·;ision into
indiv idua l, separate , buildin g lots, or into modificat ions of the set-back regulations
concerning individual lots. Following this approach the set-backs will be modified
according to the orientation of the bounda ries of the lots. Larger setbacks can be
required from the northern and southern boundaries and sm aller ones from the
eastern/western boundaries, regardless of the lot's geom etry with respect to the
street.
3.5 Special Design Details of Buildings Affecting the Outdoor Conditions
Some design details of the buildings affect no t only the indoor climate but
can have also significant impact on the comfort of the pedestrian in the streets.
Some of these details and impacts are discussed below.
3.5.1. Sun and Rain Protection
In commercial and recreational centers, where a large number of people are
usually found outdoors, protection of pedestrians on the sidewalks from sun and
rain, as well as from excessive wind , should be considered a major urban design
objective. Such protection can effectively be provided by various special details of
the buildings along the streets.
Two basic design approaches can provide sun and rain protection for the
pedestr ians:
a) An overhang projecting away from the wall of the building along and
over the sidewalk.
b) A set- back of the ground floor, enlarging the width of the side walks
with an arcade supporting the upper floors by columns.
c) A set-back of the ground floors, with some of the upper floors projecting
-----------to wa~r:d s-tl:le treet-s.-.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
From the viewpoint of the pedestri a n protection and the quality of the street
environment the effects of those three design solution are about the same.
3-30
However, from the viewpoint of the developers and owners of the buildings along
the street there are important differences between them, with different prospects
for resistance or acceptance.
The first design solution, an overhang, projected beyond the "building Une"
entails a given additional cost for the construction of the overhang but does not
reduce the useable area of the building.
The second design solution, a set-back of the ground floor to provide the
sheltered area and thus also enlarging the width of the sidewalk, reduces the
rentable and useable area of the first floor, without compensation to the owner.
This solution can be expected to encounter the stiffest resistance and might be the
most difficult to implement.
The third design solution, a set-back of the ground floor with allowance for
projection of some floors beyond the "building line", provides economic
compensation and incentive to the building's developers and owners to implement
and support it.
Design solution "a" and especially "c" reduce also the wind speed at the street
level by blocking the downflow of air along the windward walls lining the street.
This effect would be usually welcomed in winter but in summer it might increase
heat discomfort especially in hot-humid regions. In this case design solution "b",
which provides sun and rain protection without reducing the street .level wind
speed, might be preferable.
Thus, a comprehensive design solution would be to retract the ground floor and
to project over the sidewalks only one or two storeys above the ground floor, with
the rest set backwards along the original buildings line or even set-back
progressively with increasing height. In this way the effective sidewalk area is
increased and part of it is protected from sun and rain without adverse effect on
the environmental conditions in the streets.
3.5.2 Urban Glare Prevention.
The color of the walls of the buildings in the streets affects both the natural
lighting in the streets and, in sunny regions, the glare experienced by pedestrian.
··~~· --~·-··:. _ ··--. f:!'c;>_m ~;~~~_di_f!1ut~ie--~~p~~~-.-~~~-~~~~f!l:C1Y_~~~-~~.!l.!.Ji(O•t-in..:_g~<;~~~kle.r:(l·t10_r-\~~:~tl:l""r:e~eec:;~ •. to ..•.
the walf's color in hot regions.
3-31
From the indoor climate viewpoint the lighter is the external calor of the walls
the lower is the solar heat gain by the buildings. From this aspect white walls are
the best. Light wall calor also increase the level of the natural light in the streets.
However, white surfaces of large areas may cause glare for the pedestrian,
especially in arid regions with high solar radiation. The reflected light also
increases the thermal stress experienced by the pedestrians.
"Solving" these problems by having dark-colored wails would cause, of course,
higher heating of the buildings and elevate the indoor temperature, as we!l as
elevating the ambient air temperature, and therefore is not the proper approach.
Fortunately special design details of the walls, as well as the use of vegetation, can
reduce the street's glare without lm posing higher he a tlng load for the buildings and
tghe pedestrian.
Facade Treatments
Horizontal projections, e.g. overhangs over windows, which extend along the
whole length of the walls, create strips shade and thus reduce the level of the glare
for the pedestrians. Also vertical "fins" create strips of vertical shades.
A facade made of small scale "egg crates" over the wall can effectively shade
the waJlitself and at the same time reduce the glare in the street.
Rough surfaces, containing micro-scale projections and indentations, even when
white, create micro patches of shade throughout the wall's surface and thus reduce
the overall glare at the street level, as the "upper" surfaces of the "projections"
reflect the sunllght upwards.
Vegetation as Glare Control
When vines cover the walls they create a surface with low reflection outwards
while reducing the radiation impinging on the wall itself. Thus they reduce the
glare in the street wl thout adding heat load to the buildings. It should be
commented that even when the wall is covered by vegetation a white calor would
be beneficial in hot regions to reflect away the solar radiation which reaches the
wall between and through the leaves of the plants.
An exception might be the "solar" wall (the southern wall ln the Northern
Hemisphere). In this case a dark wall covered by a decideous vi~_!§ QrQ!~C:t~cLI:>y
-- ---- -~--~ - --- -------------- ---- --- -- - - - - ------- ·-- ------ -------- ·--- -·--- ----
~~~- -- -tile-leaves -rn~--s-ummer -whUe- aosorDln-g-tfie--solar-- radfations- in~ winter; ~- whent-he- . -

plants shad off their leaves.
Trees along the sidewalks are also affective in reducing the reflected glare
while also protecting the pedestrians from the direct sun.
3-33
3.6 Reference for Chapter 3
Arens, E.A. (1981): "Designing for an Acceptable Wind Environment."

Transportation Engineering Journal, Vol. 107, March. pp. 127-141.
Arens, E.A. (1982): "On Considering Pedestrian Winds during Building Design".
In: Reinhold, Ed.: Wind Tunnel Modelling for Civil Engineering Applications.
Cambridge University Press, pp. 8-26.
Aynsley, R.M., (1976): A Study of Airflow Through and Around Buildings, Ph.D.
Thesis, University of New South Wales, School of Building.
Cermak, J .E., (1971): "Air Motion In and Near Cities - Determination by

Laboratory Simulation". Dept. of Civil Engineering, Colorado State University.
Chandler, T.J., (1970): Urban Climatology - Inventory and Prospects. W.M.O.,

Technical Note No. 108, Urban Climates, Geneva. \N \ ··' "\'- · 'i ·'
Chandler, T .J ., (1971): Urban Climatology and its Relevance to Urban Design.

Technical Note No. 149. WMO. Geneva.
Copra, K. P. and W.M. Pritchart (1972): "Urban Shopping Centers as Heat Islands".
Proceedings, Conference on Urban Environment and Second Conference on
Biometeorology. October 31- November 2, 1972, Philadelphia pp. 139-143.
Davis, I.R., (198~): "The Planning and Maintenance of Urban Settlements to Resist
Extreme Climatic Forces." In WMO (1986). pp. 277-310. t_'.; \'·\ '1 f·J,, '~,q_
Givoni, B., (1962): ~'!:\a_sic:__ S~_ucl_t_ <JL 'f~l"lti_l(it_i_Qil Pr<>QJ~.!Jl~ jn_Ho_u_s_ing_ln_ Ho_t ______
-- -countries:•r--Research ReporTto- theFor-d Foundatior1:---8Ui!cling R~search~~itatl~~: --~
Technion, Haifa, Israel.
3-34-
Givoni, B., (1968): "Ventilation Problems in Hot Countries." Research Report to

the Ford Foundation. Building Research Station, Technion, Haifa, Israel.
Givoni, G. and Paciuk, M., (1972): "Effect of High-Rise Buildings on Air Flow
Around Them." Building Research Station Technion, Haifa, Israel.
Hunt, J.C.R. and E.C. Poulton (1972): "Some Effects of Wind on People"
Symposium on External Flows. University of Bristol, 4--6 July.
Hunt, J.C.R., Poulton, E.C. and Mumford, J.C. (1976}: "The Effect of Wind on
People: New Criteria Based on Wind Tunnel Experiments". Building and
Environment, Volume 11, pp. 15-28.
Isyumov, N. and A.G. Davenport (1978): "Evaluation of the Effects of Tall

Buildings on Pedestrian Level Wind Environment". Proceedings, ASCE Annual
Convention, Chicago, Illinois, October.
Lyons, T.J. (19&4): "Climatic Factors in the Siting of New Towns and Specialized
Urban Facilities". In WMO (1986). pp.• 4-73-486.
Melbourne, W.H. and Joubert, D.N., {197 Il: ''Problems of Wind Flow at the Bas.e of
Talt Buildings." Proceedings, 3rd International Conference on Wind Effect on
Buildings and Structures. Tokyo, pp. 10.5-114.
Norwine, J.R. 0972): "Heat Island Properties of An Enclosed Multi-level Suburban

Shopping Center .'' Proceedings, Confernce on Urban Environment and 2nd
Conference on Biometeorology. Philadephia. pp. 310-317.
Paciuk, M., ( 197 5): Urban Wind FUeds - An Experimental Study on the Effects. of
High Rise Buildings on Air Flow Around Them. M.Sc. Thesis. Technion, Haifa,
IsraeL
Penwarden, A. D. (1973): 11
Acceptable Wind Speeds in Towns". Building Science.
Volume 8, pp. 2.59-267.
3-35
Wise, A.F .E., Sexton, D.E. and Lillywhite, M.S.T ., (1965): "Studies of Air Flow
Round Buildings." The Architects Journal, Vol. 141, London.
W.M.O. (1970): Urban Climates. Technical Note No. 108. W.M.O. No. 254, T.P.
141.
W.M.O. (1986): Urban Climatology and its Applications with Special Regard to
Tropical Areas." Proceedings of the Technical Conference. Mexico City,
No~vember 1984. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva.
""! ,\)
I i u\ V'i l\
--------
3-36
...
"...,.·.,.~
..... ...·
....--·""
~··
winds
•,
····---·-······· ......
~J!
Figure 3.1 Effect of topography on wind exposure (Carmona, 1984.).
TEMPERATURE TRAVERSE
London 11-12 October 1961
(Night)
ACTUAL AND MEAN TEMPERATURES - - Inward Traverse
- - - Outward Traverse
-Mean
· '\ · · Intensity of Building
......•• ..•
..=''.:
•
ISO
.;::. ..••. •• !!
•• • ii
.
•o
0
I
Figure 3.2 Temperature traverse across London;w.ith intensity of urban

development along the line of traverse: a product of the
percentage of the total area which is built upon and the height of
the buildings (Chandler, 1971 ).
3-37
. I
I
I
OIIANGEVILLE
O.WAC.
.
UXIIRIOGI!
I
I
I "
02
- - L•n• ShOwt ioufWtllrr Of

Pr..,m•nantt, UrDan
Land UM
LAKE ONTARIO
SCAI..I
t IQ 11
DOTS SHOW POSITIONS 01' 08SE~VING STATIONS
Figure 3.3 Surface wind direction and speed (m/sec) at six locations in the
Toronto area, 1300 EST. 23 February 1964 (Hirt &: Findlay, 1968)
(Munn, 1984).
3-38
(m)
~
34
1'Z
.,
60
J6 h/w;: f: I
24
12
96
84
72
60
48
Jo
24
12
)1
'--'
-
\_I
\ --
• t
\ i
--- --- ---... . .. -

('J
/
~- ---
.-:::.. ., - _._....
........~~:'
~ .__/ ~- ) ~ ) \_ \
Horizontal and vertical air flow patterns in urban configuration

Figure 3.4 with long buildings perpendicular to the wind (Givoni & Paciuk,
1972).
3-39
vr<"J..---------------.....,.--------------
.,.0,, -
10
~ 0-
.,
....
" ~:
o .:.
-·- .•. ---

Mtflurtd w1111
. ·- 5
9 rows of bulldlflf• ~Ill
r 12 1
a
2tf Jf
o &
-
-
12• I e •
-
•o
JO~
20~
. ..~-
'11
'',
...........·-...-.._ • . . . ____
t •
____ _
\lf • • •
-
I 0 t -r----- • . ,..... h=36m
-
10- -
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I 0 t- .
~
----
!
--a ~-----._
-
... _
--_-_-_-
~··_··-=---· 0~----------------------------------~----------~----------~----~-
---~=_-_e_·-_-_--~ =---
-~=~~=~-~-------=~=!9- =----.. . . ~-==-=-=~-~ ~- ._ _
--~=:.~z_o_ __________ .z.L___ _ ___ _
0/w
Figure 3.5 Relative wind velocity at building arrangements of uniform height

-cn-a-runct!On oftne aensrty of rows along tfie wino pa-yl'i ana - - - - - -
the height of the buildings (Paciuk 1975).
3-40
!;;< 12 24 36
12 0 0 6
24 m <I &
36
• • •
•
•
0
8
a! -
11
•
AA
•
•
•
••
•
Vr 10 = *"{66(1-e -o.o•"/• -o.tsD/W
, =0.88
90
Vr (predic fed) %
Figure 3.6 Measured vs predicted relative velocity for building arrangement

of uniform height (Paciuk, 1975).
- - ----..-...-.-- ---------------·------.-.------- --- ----------------
--- ---- ----- -_,.,.......,_---- - - ---- -- - - - - · - - -
·~~---- - - - - - - - - -- ---------...,........-·---- - - - - - - - - --
---------- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -~ -
---------~---- -------- ---- ----- --·-------
51 1!) 21 2·1
I
491 112 I q( 17
I I I I I I I I I I I ~
w
I
+>-
...____. ......
I~
__.J 1....--J L--...1 L---1 '---' L...--1 ~
vr .. (§) Vr=QD
.. @)
64 I 63 I vr =56
vr=@)
57 65 61 Vr= 41 24 17 21 I v"'
r 11 15 i-2 1'1
(m)
L L
122 90 58 26 0
010.010.0
(m)
L
122 90 5~ 26 0
L
90 58 26 0
j
Figur~! 3.7 Distribution of wind speeds in urban configurations of five blocks,
1 with and without high-rise buildings (Paciuk, 1975).
~~ [ __ J__
3-42
Vr 36 26 27 27 29 29 28
40 33 28 25 24 24 22 23
43 30 28 24 24 25 24 25
;, • 28
Vr 40 31 27 25 25 26 25 25
32 53 63 64 64 40 27 40
38 44 61 55 42 50 45 43
63 71 70 45 36 31 42 26
. , . . . . . _ . , .. tlh
.•, • 48
, .. ••aUue• •
56 65 55 47 40 38 36
39 32 46 57 54 22 27
85 51 61 29 45 44 38 37
- ~
Vr==?l 53 48 35 48 42 33 34 ~. 46
_ __...D._.istribution of wind SReeds in urban configuration with heightL_ __

spacing
197 5 ratio
)~ . .of
.. . 1:3, with
-- and without
. ... - high-rise
.. . . buildings
. -- . . . (Paciuk,
. ... .
3-43
-
Vr 15
22 16 13 13 9 10 12
Vr
Vr 50
V 82 53 38 42 58 32 53 42
Figure 3.9 ----oTStribution of-wtnd-s~eeds-in-l;l~eaR-Gtmf-lgura_tioru with height/

spacing ratio of 3: l, with and without high·rise buildings {Paciul<--
1975~ -
3-44
60
c
Vfv.h.J = V~u.h.J + K [IJ Vr t P + s )j

40
c K = 1.18 0-e -o.•H/w)
r =0.81
20 '"40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Vr (predicted) %
Figure 3.10 Measured vs predicted relative velocity in all urban configurations

with high-rise buildings (Paciuk, 1975).
4-1
Chapter 4: Impacts of Housing Type

The choice of the type of houses for the people to be housed depends, of
course, on the socio- cultural preferences and economic factors, and may differ
greatly among different countries and societies with similar climates. This applies
also to housing in hot regions and therefore no attempt will be made to recommend
a given type of a house, although some socio-cultural aspects of certain housing
types may be mentioned .
However, each type of housing, such as single-family, town-house row
buildings and multi-storied apartment buildings, has some specific impact on the
thermal comfort and energy expenditure. Consequently there are climatic
drawbacks and preferences for different building types in different climatic
regions. In addition, some specific psychological, factors related to the use
patterns options in different type of houses, may have greater weight in the choice
of housing in arid or in humid regions.
The following housing types are discussed in this Chapter.
Single Family Detached houses
Townhouses (Row buildings)
Mult:t-Story Apartment Buildings
Highrise "Tower" buildings
In addition, the climatic characteristics and impacts on energy consumption of
internal courtyards and attached enclosed open spaces will be discussed as a special
issue.
4.1 Thermal Impact of Internal Courtyards and Attached Enclosed Open Spaces.
Internal courtyards and attached open spaces, enclosed by walls, are very
common in many hot regions, mainly in developing countries, and can be found both
in single family houses and in townhouses.
House with internal courtyards are considered the most "appropriate" in many
hot regions, especially . in deserts . This notion is based on the fact that such
buildings are very common in such regions and were so since centuries, and
millennia.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __,_H._..o~w~e::-:.v.:....:---..-
er, when analxzed from the thermal comfort and the energy consuml2..::.
tl:.o.::.:.n.:___ _ _ _ __
aspects it is found that their performance depends greatly on the detailed
"treatment" of the courtyard. With some design details courtyards can provide
4-2
pleasant outdoor environment and also improve the indoor comfort. With other
details courtyards may elevate the indoor temperature and cause poor ventilation
in the rooms located on the leeward side.
It should be realized that courtyard houses were developed over centuries in
response to different needs and limitations, such as availability of certain
materials and building technology, security, privacy, etc. Climate was only one of
these factors and not necessarily the most important one.
Present social needs often are different from those which existed when the
various features of the buildings were evlolved. Contemporary materials and
technologies, as well as available scientific knowledge, enable today solutions not
available before. The feature of the internal courtyard should therefore be
analyzed in view of present needs and technology.
A detailed discussion of the impact of courtyard's design details on their
thermal performance belongs actually to the area of building, rather than urban
design in hot regions. However, because of the basic importance of the subject to
the issue of building types, it will be discussed in this publication. Special emphasis
will be given to the thermal performance of courtyards in hot dry climate, where
they are most often found.
In hot dry regions care of open land is expensive because plants need water,
which is scarce and expensive. Private care of open land is more likely ln_protected
areas, demarcated by walJs and fences. In an enclosed open space it is also possible
to modify to some extent the climate outside the building, e.g. in a fenced yard or
an internal courtyard patio.
:vtany household activities can often take place outdoors in hot climate more
comfortably than indoors. Such activities. may include washing, cooking, playing
and even sleeping. Therefore, such outdoor spaces could form an integral part of
the house.
An integrated open space can have different relationships to the "built" parts of
the building:
a) Attached open spaces outside the walls' lines.
b)_ ~~~fl'l_i_~!"\_C:l_o~~_cj_sE_a~~~' _e.~_._po~-c~~~!~\.l!r~-~!1~~(j_ b2'_Eo~rn~-~r1_ tw~~r thE:e_~i(j:~- _
-----5ut open arreasto-nonesrae:-- ---~-~ ----~-~---·--~-----------------·--~--~~
c) Internal courtyards, or patios, surrounded on all sides by rooms.

4-3
All these different types of open spaces can archi tecturally and functionally be
integrated with the building "proper", providing space for various household
activities. However, they can have different climatic characteristics and impact.
Attached Open Spaces
Attached open spaces can be surrounded by high walls, completely isolated fro m
the "public" outdoors. However, from the thermal aspects, they do not penetrate
and indent the envelope of the building and thus do not increase the surface area of
its envelope.
When adequately treated, such attached open spaces (yards, balconies, etc.) can
modify the climatic conditions of the ambient environment, next to the "skin" of
the building. Such modifications may include:
Shading the building walls adjacent to the open spaces, either by an overhand or
by vegetation.
Insulating the walls, e.g. by dense and high shrubs, creating semi-dead air space
next to the walls.
Increasing the humidity and lowering the temperature in the semi-enclosed air
space within the "walled" open space. Such modification of the climate can be
achieved only if the. open space is separated from the "general" evnironment by
high walls and is shaded by a roof, or tree canopies, above it.
Semi-Enclosed Open Spaces
Semi enclosed open spaces, e.g. deep porches, do penetrate the periphery of the
building, thus increasing its effective surface area. They enhance the interaction
between the indoor and the outdoor thermal environments: increasing both the rate
of indoor heating during the daytime and rate of cooling at night.
Semi-enclosed porches can enable adjustment of the building's geometry to
changes in the desirable indoor-outdoor relationship. To this end, they have to be
equipped with openable insulated panels.
During the hot hours these panels can be closed, insulating the building from the
outdoors. In this position the porches form an integral part of the building's interior
and their effect on the building's envelope area is minimized. In the evenings, or
.. --~~en in the late Cl_ft~rl1o~nhOljES_,_tt1~J?_~r_ci"I~C:2':l!9_b~ ..QRieJ1_e<t_<i_n~1__1b_~ll.bJ!~me_ __ _
·-"Semi-openspace-s" ,-- effecti veli- increasing the surface area of the building's
envelope.
4-4
Internal courtyards
Internal courtyards maximize the thermal interaction between the building and
the outdoor environment, introducing the outdoors into the heart of the building's
core.
It is commonly assumed that such internal patios help in maintaining cooled
indoor temperatures. However, the actual climatic effects of an internal patio
depends greatly on its design details and its "treatment".
An "untreated" internal patio with bare soil or with hard floor (concrete tiles,
etc.) increase the rate of the indoor temperature rise during the daytime hours.
This is due to the effective increase in the surface area of the building's envelope.
Also the ventilation of the rooms on the leeward side of the courtyard are
poorer than in a building where inlet and outlet opening direct the air flow across
the whole building.
This is caused by the fact that a low pressure zone exist in the courtyard, as
exist on the leeward to the building as a whole. The rooms behind the courtyard are
thus surrounded by low pressure on all sides and therefore can not have effective
cross ventilation.
Consequently an unshaded internal patio, without vegetation or other sources of
shading and evaporative cooling is likely to cause higher indoor discomfort than in
a building without a patio with the same floor area. The patio itself can p~ovide, of
course, an area with a more pleasant climate than that of the indoor's during the
evening and night hours, in addition to the complete privacy in the open space.
However, with different treatments, a patio can have much more favorable
impact on the indoor climate, as well as having more pleasant "outdoor" climate
than the exposed environment in a hot-dry climate. The appropriate treatments of
internal courtyards in hot-dry climates is discussed in chapter 6.
4.2 Single-Family Detached Houses
From the energy demand point of view detached single-family hourse, because
of their relatively large envelope surface area, and especially their larger relative
roof area, are the most energy demanding when they are heated or air-conditioned.
On the other hand they may offer the best opportunities for natural ventilation,
------~-ttnrs mini-mtzing~--the-need-for-aircondttloning.-ln--adclltlon -they may--have t~-
highest potential for utilizing solar energy for heating.

Thus single family detached houses may minimize the need for cooling, or for
heating with conventional fuels.
Such difference in performances is caused in part by the special role of the
roofs from the energy viewpoint, particularly in low latitudes where t he sun's
elevation is high, and especially in desert regions. By different design options it is
possible to have roofs with very different impacts on the thermal performance of
buildings.
The roof is the most exposed surface of the building to the climatic elements,
such as solar radiation in summer daytime and radiant loss to the sky at night. As a
result, ordinary single-family houses, in which the roof comprises a large part of
the building's envelope, experience a larger potential for heat gain in summer and
for heat loss in winter, as corn pared with other types of buildings.
However,, the roof is also a building element which, in many types of
constructions, can be insulated to a high level of thermal resistance by relatively
simple building materials and technologies. Such insulation reduces its relative role
in the energy demand of the building as a whole.
Furthermore, when solar heating and or cooling are contemplated, the roof can
be a' useful building element for collecting solar energy for winter heating and for
summer solar absorption cooling (see Fig. 4.1 ), as well as for the capture of the
cold resulting from the nocutrnal longwave radiant heat loss and passive cooling by
roof-ponds (Givoni, 1987). When such potentials are realized, the roof is
transformed from a source of energy load to an energy source.
Detached houses also have a larger area of external wails and face more
directions than other building. types. The good potential of detached houses for
natural ventilation results from the possiblity to have windows and openable doors
on alJ sides of the building, namely in at least four directions. To the extent that
the internal arrangement of rooms, partitions and internal doors enables air flow
through the various rooms of the bullding there is a potential for natural
ventilation with any wind direction. Realization of this potential depends on the
availability of some wind at the site of the building which, with a given regional
wind conditions, depends in turn on
----~--- --~,-----------~---- -- --
the details of the urban design, as discussed in
-------~--~ -~ -----~------ ------ -~-~---~----·---------·-----------------
m-ucnapter 3.
I
- - - '
!
-------~--~~-~- -~-
'4-6
The good potential of detached houses for passive solar heating results from the
fact that one external wall faces the winter sun. The realization of this potential
also depends on urban design, namely the prevention of shading of the building by
the neighbor to the sunny side.
The solar collecting wall in latitudes above about 25 degrees North or South
would be the wall facing the Equator. In lower latitudes, especially within 20
degrees of the Equator, it would be the East and the West walls, or the roof.
Detached houses enable the occupants to use the land surrounding the dwelling
for a variaty of outdoor household and functional activities~ In all types of hot
climates the outdoor climatic conditions are, at some seasons, more comfortable
than the indoor. The potential for outdoor activities on the four sides of the
building, depending on the available shaded areas, adds to the climatic advantages
of single family detached houses. This point is of particular importance for low-
income families, often with many children, which usually can afford very small
residences.
Because the external walls of detached single-family houses face at least
four directions, these houses are less sensitive to orientation effect, although the
problem of choosing the orientation the different rooms, and especially the
orientation of the large windows, still exist.
From the viewpoint of natural energies utilization single-family ~ouses can
make good use of the ground area under the house for thermal storage on a larger
scale than is possible in multi-storied multi-units apartment buildings.
4.3 Town-houses (row buildings)
Town-houses, or row buildings as they are called in some countries, are a
string of dweHing units, from one to about three storeys high, attached to one
another at their side walls. Thus they form a continuous row. Each unit occupies
the whole vertical section of the building, from the ground to the roof, inclusive.
The functional integration of the different storeys in one dwelling unit under
one ownership give townhouses some special properties from the climatic and
energy performance aspects. From the ventilation viewpoint the high effective
height facllltates the "chimney effect" in-natural ventilation and also enables the
---~use-ot·"wtn-d-ca-t-ctrers"·-to u ttltze -h1 gher wma-speeasaoo V e -tnerool's~lev el~-W't'ien' ...
sun-spaces are provided with sun spaces for passive solar heating over a two/three
4-7
stories height, the thermo-syphonic circulation of the warm air is enhanced.

(Jones, 1982. Mazria, 1979).
Such dwellings combine some of the advantages, from the energy viewpoint, of
both multi-storied apartment buildings (smaller external wall area} and of single-
family houses (natural ventilation and solar heating options). Their main impact on
planning is in the higher urban densities which they make possible, compared with
single-family detached houses, while still keeping most of the functional and social
advantages of single family houses.
Considering the envelope surface area, town-houses are in between the
detached house and the apartment block. Any dwelling unit has its own roof and its
own underground area, as well as a piece of land attached to it. When neighbouring
units share a common wall the total exposed wall area is lower than in single-
family houses with the same number of storeys.
Except for the end units all dwellings have essentially two external
orientations, although with projections and setbacks for the different units it is
possible to provide four effective exposures to each unit. Such projections add a
little to the surface area but can improve substantially the potential for natural
ventilation when the wind direction ls nearly parallel to the long facades of the
building.
For example, when the prevalent wind is from the West, it usually· fluctuates
between WSW and WNW. An elongated building with main facades and windows to
the North and South will have poor ventilation potential because of the very small
incidence angle of the wind to the wall. However, the projections create pockets
of high and low pressure, and if openings are available there the ventilation
potential improves appreciably.
In most of the aspects discussed above, town-houses are llke single-family
houses. One important exception is the sensitivity to orientation. Because the
units are lined in a row, orientation with respect to the sun is a much more
sensitive issue than in the case of a detached house.
To the extent that solar energy utilization is contemplated, either for space
__h_~ating~nd[or-_for_c!ornestl£_ho_!_~<!:te_r,~th~sol_ar~ollec;tingelem~_n:t of_t_l")ebuilding_
---- ~-~~~-~-~~--~-~~~--~--------~--------------~~
should be oriented toward the winter sun, namely towards the Equator in latitudes
above about 20 degrees and toward East and West at lower latitudes. Then either
4-8
one of the two external walls can be utilized as the "solar" wall serving as energy
source for space heating and domestic hot water.
An exception can be made in the case of a single storey town-house. In this
case, if needed for some reasons, the main orientation of the building may be also
to East and West even at the higher latitudes. Such buildings can utilize the roof,
in the form of vertical skylights perpendicular to the general orientation of the
building as a whole, as the energy source because they are then facing the winter
sun direction.
At lower latitudes (within 20 degrees North and South), the building block as a
whole should face North and South, to minimize unwanted solar heating, whlle the
solar energy collecting elements, over the roof, can face East and/or West.
The dwellings in town-houses have land attached to them only in front of the
two exterrnal walls, except for the end units. Thus the times in which shaded land
is available for outdoor activities are more limited than in the case of single family
detached houses. Nevertheless town-houses can provide appreciable opportunities
for utilizing attached land, compared with all other types of multi-family
dwellings.
From the urban design aspect the major feature of townhouses is the higher
urban density that they enable, as compared with detached single family houses.
In those cases where higher density is considered desirable, for example in
order to shorten the length of roads, water and sewage lines, etc., and the walking
distance to various services, town-houses may be of two or even three stories.
With such a design neighbourhood densities can be obtained which are close to
those obtainable with multi-storied apartment houses, when the latter are spaced
with adequate distances between them for ventilation and solar utilization.
4.4 Multi-storied Apartment Buildings
With expanded urbanization and increased pressure on and cost of urban land,
multi-storied apartment blocks become more common housing type ln most
countries, both developed and devloping ones.
Multi-storied apartment buildings can have various design schemes which, from
.. _.!b~.--C:<:>_rn.Jor!._~l'l_cl_~f1.C:t:_S2'__':1_S.t:.~P~ct~ ha,l,'.t:..9~~t~--<!~f!.<:~~~!_pro_e~~!i~.~-!~L~~()!_e_,~fl_
this type of dwelling, basic design-decisions can render the building to oe. e1 tner---·-----
appropriate or very inappropriate to the climate.
4-9
From the thermal point of view, multi-storied apartment buildings have less
envelope surface area than other types of residential buildings. In consequence,
when the building is heated or air-conditioned, then the energy demand per
dwelling unit of the building, for a given thermal quality of the envelope, is
minimized. In particular this applies to the "internal" units, which have adjoining
neighbors on each side, above and below.
Therefore, any building form which maximizes the relative number of internal
units, such as block buildings in which the length of the block approximately equals
its height, will minimize the total thermal energy requirements.
However, all the above applies only to the time in which the building is heated
or air-conditioned by using conventional energy sources. With some types of multi-
storied apartment buildings the opportunities for natural ventilation, which can
ellminate the need for air conditioning or reduce the time in which it is essential,
are not available. Furthermore, multi-storey apartments of some types may have
less potential than other building types for the use of solar energy for space
heating and domestic hot water.
From the overall urban design considerations it should be pointed out that
multi-storey apartment buildings enable the attainment. of higher residential
den si ties. This factor usually reduces the length of infra-structure facilities such as
roads, water lies, sewage, etc.
High urban density may present some design challenges both for natural
ventilation and for solar energy utilization.
To enable solar heating in winter the multi:..storey buildings have to follow a
rather strict orientation. As the roof area of such buildings is relatively small the
main building element for solar energy collection is the wall facing the winter sun
(the Southern wall in the Northern Hemisphere). Any significant deviation from
solar orientation will reduce the available solar energy.
With high urban density care should be taken to prevent the shading of a
building by another high building to its south. With multi-storey apartment
buildings, more land between buildings remains without individual personal
------
responsibility. The impact of- -this
-----------·------ -----
factor on the-- treatment of the land, and the
-------- ---~- --------~-~-----------~------------------ ---
- - - - ------r-e-sutttngen-Vlronmen-tal- quallTy-;<:Jepenas on -tile socio-cultural characterrstics -or____

the inhabitants.
4-10
In some societies, communal care for the land between the buildings may result
in better treatment of the land. On the other hand, in other societies communal
care of open land may lead to neglect, dust and wind erosion. Such neglect may be
due to lack of personal resources and/or cultural tradition.
In arid and desert regions care of open land is more expensive and difficult
because of the high cost and even unavailability of water, increasing the likelihood
of neglect.
The issue of maintenance of public open spaces is of particular importance in
many Developing Countries in arid regions, where the low rainfall makes irrigation
essential while the population and local governments may lack the financial
resources and tradition of care for public space. As one of the reviewers of this
book has commented, the desire to imitiate the appearance of traditional parks in
regions with temperate climates leads in effect to "no mans land".
Types of Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings
Multi-storey apartment blocks can be divided, from the climatic performance
aspect; into two basic types, and each one of them can be further sub-divided into
two sub-types. The two main types are:
a. Buildings with long corridors providing access to the units along them. Vertical
access to the corridors is provided by either .staircases or elevators.
b. Buildings with staircases or elevators providing direct access to two., three or
four units.
The two sub-types of the "corridor access" buildings are:
A 1) Building with an internal corridor, providing access to units on both sides
(double loaded corridors).
A2) Buildings with an external corridor located along one wall of the building.
(Single loaded corridors).
The two sub-types of "direct access" buildings (from the climatic performance
aspect) are:
Bl) Multiple staircases or elevators serving two apartments on each floor.
B2) Staircases or elevators serving more than two units at each floor.
The climatic characteristics of each sub-type are discussed below.
4-ll
Double-loaded Corridor Buildings

Double loaded corridor buildings have the smallest area of external walls of all
building types. Therefore, when such buildin gs are heated and air conditioned
mechanically, their energy demand is t he lowest. However the climatic
performance of such buildings is quite different when natural ventilation and/or
solar energy utilization are contemplated.
In double loaded corridor buildings the corridors are located at the center of the
block, providing access to the dwelling units on both sides. Thus the corridor
separates the dwelling units of the building into two groups with completely
different exposure conditions. Most units, except the end ones, have only one
external wall.
As a result almost all the units do not have even the potential for effective
cross-ventilation. The units on the windward side of the building may have, with
special design details such as wing walls (Givoni 1976, Chandra and Fairey, 1981)
some potential for natural ventilation. However, with any given wind direction one
half of the units are on the leeward side, with the worst conditions from the
ventilation point of view.
Also from the viewpoint of solar energy utilization for space heating one half of
the units are always at a disadvantage, except at very low latitudes in locations at
high altitude, where solar energy can be collected at the East walls in the forenoon
and at the West walls in the afternoon. At higher latitudes, with optimal solar
exposure of the building block, one half of the units do not get any sun in winter.
Considering the above climatic performance characteristics of double loaded
corridor buildings they can be considered as unsuitable from the comfort and solar
energy utilization points of view, in any hot climate, especially for low income
people who can not afford air-conditioning.
It should be pointed out, however, that in cold regions, and for buildings which
do not use solar energy, such buildings would be the most energy conserving ones.
Single-loaded Corridor Buildings
coLLidors at:J locate alo~ng one_ wat
building. Each apartment is thus bounded on one side by the corridor, and, on the
other side by an external wall. The corridor may be glazed and closed during the
4-12
winter and open during the summer, thus providing the option of exposure to the
wind on either side of the building.
Theoretically cross ventilation is possible in apartments along an open corridor
by leaving open windows in the external wall as well as windows and doors in the
wall facing the corridor. Practically, however, leaving open openings in the
corridor wall reduces greatly the visual and acoustical privacy of the occupants.
The visual privacy issue can be solved by installing shutters in the openings
which enable air passage while blocking the view, or by having windows just below
the sight line.
Accoustical privacy, however, can not be maintained while the building is cross
ventilated. The occupants might be disturbed by noises generated in the corridor
and people walking in it can hear what is going inside. The subjective severity of
this issue depends to a great extent on the cultural background of the population
and can very greatly among different societies.
Taking into account the potential for cross ventilation in such buildings they
can be sui table in hot regions provided that the accoustlcal privacy conditions are
culturally accepted.
For direct solar energy collection in the apartments only the "true" external
wall can be used. Therefore, when solar energy utilization is contemplated, the
external wall should face the winter sun. However, even when the corridor wall
faces the sun, the corridor itself can be solar heated by having it glazed during the
winter season. The heated corridor minimizes, or may even eliminate, the heat loss
through the apartment's wall facing the corridor, thus contributing to energy
conservation.
Direct Access Multi-Storey Apartments with Two Units per Staircase
A much better design scheme than corridor type buildings, from the climatic
viewpoint, is to have staircases serving directly two apartments on each floor.
With this scheme each apartment has two opposite external walls and the whole
building, a block containing several such staircases, can be oriented optimally.
This building type, in conjunction with appropriate urban (neighborhood) design,
___ which__er-_~i~~s sufficien_!__~~posu_r:_e__~_~e i'!~ivid_ll_C!_l_E_uilcllf!g~__!_~ the ~n ar1_d_ th~_____ _
prevaiHngwl"_n_d..-s-,-c-a-n---.-in_s_u_r_e_t"h-e~p-o-:-t-e-n-:oti,-a'l'f"o-r--e-f"f"e-c-:-t-.-ive·-c-r-o-ss~ve.-n-t:-ci~la_,t io-n~an-d~s-oc-la_r _____ _
7
heating for all the dwelling units.

4-13
In contrast with the single loaded corridor type such buildings do not
compromise the privacy of the inhabitants while the apartments are cross
ventilated. The air flows from inlets in one wall to outlets in the other wall while
the apartment is completely isolated from st ra ngers.
With two apartments to a staircase each ::m e of the external walls can serve as
a solar heat source. Any one of the various passive solar heating wall's systems can
be applied to this building type (see Mazria, 1979 and Jones et a! (1981 )).
The "tolerance" of building orientation, for providing cross ventilation, is about
60 degrees on either side of the prevailing wind direction (Givoni 1976). On the
other hand the tolerance of orientation for solar energy utilization is only about
30 degrees on either side of the sun's winter noon position (in latitudes above about
20 degrees North and South). Because of the larger tolerance of the solar
orientation the prevailing wind direction, especially during the evenings, should be
the main factor in choosing the optimal orientation of t he building block, especially
in hot-humid regions.
Multi-Storey Buildings with More than Two Units per Staircase
When three apartments are accessed directly at each floor from a staircase the
orientation issue becomes more sensitive. Assuming that the third apartment
projects at right angle to the overall building block, it creates a wind "shadow"
when the wind is oblique to - the building and blowing toward the · projected
apartment. While all apartments can still have reasonable ventilation their
conditions are less favorable than in the case of two units to a staircase. When the
projection is on the leeside of the building the third apartment itself is located in
the wind shadow. As a result it will always suffer from poor ventilation in this
position.
When the projected apartment is projecting toward the sunny side of the
building, it creates a solar shadow on one neighbor in the morning and on the other
one in the afternoon. If it is projecting on the other side of the building this
apartment itself does not receive any sun in winter.
Taking into account the problems mentioned above it can be seen that the
units per floor are accessed from a staircase. However, when the main interest is
in the ventilation conditions, and the solar energy is of secondary importance,
4-15
buildings can be increased by up to 300%, and in specific locations even higher wind
speeds could be experienced.
The desirability of this effect depends, of course, on the "normal" climatic
conditions in the city in question. In cities experiencing insufficient wind this
effect will be welcomed. In cities and during times with excessive winds, this
impact of highrise buildings is a negative one.
Environmental Conditions in the Highrise Buildings
The environmental conditions of the inhabitants of the upper floors of highrise
buildings are, to some extent, different from those of the rest of the urban
population. The main differences are in the ventilation potential and solar
exposure, and exposure to storms and wind-driven rain, as well in the view from the
windows.
Because of the generally higher wind speeds above the average height of the
urban canopy the upper floors of the hlghrise buildings enjoy better ventilation
conditions during weak winds but, on the other hand, are exposed to more severe
winds during storms.
Penetration of wind-driven rain through openings and joints is also a more
serious problems at these floor levels than for the rest of the urban buildings.
Consequently more careful details of windows and joints between wall elements are
needed there.
Highrise buildings are less likely to be shaded by nearby buildings. Therefore
the intensity of solar radiation impinging on them, both direct, diffused and
reflected from roof of lower buildings, is higher than that impinging on the
"typical" urban buildings. Shading therefore is more important and sometimes
more complex to design.
One of the major environmental advantages of the inhabitants of upper floors of
highrise buildings is the better view offered from their windows. While the rest of
the city inhabitants may feel their visual environment congested, those living in
the upper floors of hlghrise buildings often enjoy a view of distant scenes.
The environmental noise level at these upper floors is substantially lower than
---~-~L!b~_ty,pj_~c;~._Lyrb_a_o_!:.u..tiJdiogS.~.-~Bo.th~.greater....distance..fr:.om-the.~noise--Source-s-and--------- ---\
---- . --------------------- ----------------- ~ ------~-----·-. --------~----------····-· ~--------
-f
reduced noise reflection contribute to this condition.
4-16
4.5 References to Chapter lJ
Chandra, S. and Fairey, P. W. (1981): "Passive Cooling by Natural Ventilation: A

Literature Review". Florida Solar Energy Center. Cape Canaveral, Florida.
Givoni, B. (1976): Man, Climate and Architecture, 2nd Edition. Applied Science ·
Publishers, London.
Givoni, B. (1987): "Passive Cooling- State of the Art". Proceedings, 12th Passive
Solar Conference. Portland, Oregon. pp. 11-19.
Jones, R. W. Ed., (1982): Passive Solar Design Handbook. Los Alamos National
Laboratory. Los Alamos, N.M., U.S.A.
Mazria, Edward (1979): The Passive Solar Energy Book. Rodale Press, Emmaus,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
5·- i
Chapter .5: Effect of Green Open Areas on the Urban Climate and Environmental
Quality
5.1 Introduction
Urban open spaces have a marked influence on many aspects of the quality of
the urban environment and the quality of life in the cities. In addition to the urban
climate, they affect noise levels, air pollution, social activities, aesthetic
appearance and so forth. Furthermore, the open spaces serve an important urban
design function in shaping the development of the city and in the organization of
the urban services.
The environmental conditions within the urban open spaces may have
significant impact on the comfort conditions experienced in them and consequently
on their utilization by the public. Therefore this subject deserves a detailed
analysis within the general discussion of the impact of urban design on the overall
quality of the urban environment.
The principal design features of open spaces which determine their
contribution to the quality of the urban environment are:
- The total amount of open space available to the urban .population.
The division of the total open space area into parcels of open space in the
center of the city and on the outskirts.
- The size of the various individual areas of open space within the city and
their location with relation to residential areas.
- Design details of the open space: facilities, type of the vegeta tlon cover of
the area, access to the area, internal path network, etc.
Improvement of the physical environment

- Improvement of the general urban climate, and especially natural ventilation
conditions, outdoor shading, protection from cold winds, pleasant areas for
rest, etc •• The climatic "contribution" of open spaces is mainly in summer.
- Reduction of natural dust and air pollution from transportation, industry,
- Protection from noise originating from traffic, neighbours, children's play,

etc., near and within residential areas.
5-2
The various urban functions fulfilled by open spaces may be classified as

follows:
Social psychological functions
- playgrounds for children of different ages;
- areas for sport and recreation for youth, adults and elderly persons, according
to the needs of the various population groups;
- meeting places for small groups and a place for establishing social contacts;
- meeting place for large gatherings for social and cultural activities;
- providing a chance for isolation and escape from the tensions of urban life;
- protecting the sense of privacy with relation to neighbours;
- physical separation between incompatible po.pulation groups;
- providing aesthetic enjoyment from the landscaped areas of the city, for both
residents and vi si tors;
- providing scenic views, perspectives of public buildings and streets, and
creating the feeling of spaciousness and openness.
Shaping of urban development and services

- Determining the direction of future urban expansion.
- Land reserves for future development and public institutions such as schools,
museums, libraries, etc.
Ground base for urban transportation and service systems (water, sewage,
etc.).
Increasing the safety of motor traffic by open space margins alongside the
roads.
Separation between areas with incompatible functions and land uses.
- Territorial separation between individual neighbourhoods in the urban system.
- Provision of pedestrian and motorized access to the various areas within the
urban area.
General ecological functions

- --~-------Elood-contr:oJand.-r:e:tention-of.-the- r.ain._wa.ter:.s.~~~~
- Protection of flora and fauna.
From the human comfort point of view, parks and playgrounds should provide
5-3
ample shade and; ln arid regions, protection from dust in summer, as well as
protection from cold winds in winter. Large lawns and flowerbeds without shade
contribute little to the possibilities of the inhabitants, ordinary citizens, elderly
and children alike, to rest, relax or play on a hot, sunny day. Thus, in hot regions,
plenty of places to sit in the shade should be provided along roads and trails in
public parks.
In children's playgrounds in particular it is important to provide resting and
playing places in the shade, to minimize the danger of overstress and heat strokes.
The provision of wind protection in winter is of particular importance in
areas with cold winters. In desert regions the availability of sunshine and the
absence of much rain in winter can enhance greatly the attraction of settlements
as winter resorts. Protection from cold winds will help greatly in enjoying these
qualities.
5.2 Influence of Green Areas on the Urban Climate
"Green" areas, covered by plants, have some properties by which they differ
from a built-up and hard-surfaced unplanted areas. The main differences are:
- Plants have lower heat capacity and thermal conductivity than building
materials and hard surfaces.
Solar radiation is mostly absorbed in the leaves, so that the reflected
radiation is very small (low adbedo).
- Rain water is absorbed in the soil. Water later is evaporated from the soil
and mainly from the leaves. Evaporation rate is much higher in green areas
than in unplanted, hard-covered areas.
- Plant leaves can filter dust and pollutants out of the air.
- Plants reduce the wind speed and fluctuations near the ground.
As a result from these factors the micro-climate within, and in the
immediate vicinity of, green areas differs from the one prevalent in the unplanted,
built-up areas. The main differences are in the temperature, wind velocity and
turbulence, air and radiant temperatures, humidity, and air cleanliness.
Leaves of plants absorb most of the solar radiation which impinges upon
...--tllem •.~T-ney~tr:an.s-f0r-rn~a-v.er-y~sma-ll~par-t~a-f~the~r-ad-iaAt~eAer.gy~ey~phete·syA·thes-i-s---- -
into chemical energy, and in this way reduce somewhat the rate of heating of the
urban space. But quantitatively, the plants efficiency in transforming energy is
very small (1-2%) and therefore this effect can be Qractically discounted.
5-lt
On the other hand, evaporation of water from the leaves (evapo-

transpiration) causes significant cooling of the leaves and the air in contact with
them and at the same time increases the humidity of the air. The importance and
desirability of this factor depends on the prevailing humidity and temperature
conditions.
In humid regions the specific evaporation is low but vegetation is plentiful
and water availability almost unlimited. In such regions the elevated humidity, and
especially the reductions of wind speed near the ground, are undesirable from the
comfort viewpoint. This should be taken into account in the details of the
plantings in parks and gardens in hot humid regions.
In hot, dry regions the rate of evaporation from bare soil is small. However,
in irrigated urban parks and gardens, water evaporation from plants and the soil
increases. Therefore the effect of green areas on the urban climate can be
significant, and the effect on comfort desirable.
As a result of the evapo-transpiration process the air near the ground in
green areas is cooler than the air in built up areas covered by asphalt or concrete.
Furthermore, as a result from the lower temperature, the longwave radiation from
leaves is lower than from the surrounding surfaces, and therefore human beings in
green areas are subjected to lower radiant heat load.
The effect of vegetation on wind conditions depends to a great ext~nt on the
type of vegetation, and on the details of the planting pattern. Grassy areas allow
for the best possible ventilation conditions. Bushes impede the wind current near
the ground surface and above it, and this effect will be felt by persons staying in
the area. This is desirable in cold regions and seasons, but not in hot or especially
humid regions.
The type and density of trees have a noticeable impact on the airflow near the
ground. A densely planted row of trees may obstruct the free air flow. However,
trees and shrubs can direct the wind to a desired spot, e.g. an opening serving as an
inlet for ventilation air.
A single isolated tree here and there, especially with a high stern, may
-.-·---.- ___co.nceotra.te_tbe~.air.fJo_w_b_eJo_w_the___c r_o_wn_and_ther_ef.oreJmpr_o_v_e___v_entUation_ne.ar__
. --~----~----~---~---~-~-~---------- -----~------------····---··--------·· ·----~--·---
the ground. On the other hand a grove of densely planted trees can provide good
protection from wind. Therefore in stormy areas, when protection from winds is of
importance, such groves can be very important as climatic control features.
5-5
Shelter belts on the windward side of a neighborhood can provide effective

protection from high winds and dust, especially for low-rise buildings common ln
many residential areas. This effect improves the comfort of the inhabitants,
mainly in the winter season.
From the viewpoint of urban ventilation, there is no difference between
specialized public green open spaces and the regular open spaces between buildings
(privately owned). In this respect, even the city streets function as open spaces.
Range of the Effect of Urban Parks

The influence of city parks and open spaces on the urban climate is limited to
the conditions prevaillng within these areas themselves, and extends only a short
distance into the surrounding densely built urban area. For this reason, the
contribution of parks is found primarily in their function as places providing
outdoor areas for rest and recreation with pleasant climate for people actually
visiting them or living near to their borders.
It seems that the size of a park, beyond a given limit, makes llttle difference
in the climatic conditions in it and in the range of its effect. Thus, the division of
the entire space allocated for parks lnto a large number of small parks, spread over
the whole urban area, wiU have a greater effect on the overall urban climate, than
would the creation of a small number of large parks. Therefore, open spaces
outside of the city have only small effect on the climate conditions within the
urban built-up area •
.5.3 The Influence of Green Spaces on Air Pollution
The urban air contains a vast number of microscopic particles which serve as
nuclei to which the gaseous discharge from automobiles and incomplete combustion
adhere.
The urban green spaces have both a direct and an indirect influence on air
pollution. The direct influence is through the filtration of part of the pollutants in
the air by the vegetation (i.e. dust, gases, soot). The indirect influence of the open
spaces on air pollution results from the effect of these open spaces - regardless of
--~ -- ---w.l:\e.ther~~they~Ger:t-ta-in-N·egeta.t-ien-or-.ne-t--~,on~tl:le~verH-Ha.t-ion~eonEil-tioAs-wi-thif}-the----
city area. The urban ventilation, in turn, has an effect on the dispersal of
pollutants, such as those resulting from motor vehicles.
5-6
The filtration capacity of the vegetation increases with an increase in the

leaf coverage per unit of land. In this respect, the order of efficiency is as
foJlows: trees, shrubs, grass. In a forest of trees, the principal filtration is carried
out qy the first rows of trees; therefore, for a given total number of trees, it is
more efficient to plant them as narrow and elongated strips.
Private gardens and private agricultural plots, within the metropolitan area,
are as effective with respect to air purification, as are public parks. However, the
possibility of the public to enjoy the cleaner air in the open spaces, is dependent
upon public ownership of the land or at least free public access to the open spaces.
Hader (1970) summarizes the following conclusions of different studies on the
distribution of dust in and out of urban green areas.
Inside the green area, as well as on wooded land, a diminution of dust is
noticeable.
- The quantity of dust content usually decreases from the weather side to
the lee side of the plantation and sometimes the minimum is to be found
immediately on the lee side, outside of the green area. The dust content
then rises rapidly, without attaining the maximum of the weather side.
The filtration of dust by vegetation is due to two processes:
a) Lattice effect:
Particles falling on surfaces with no vegetation, under minimal o~ windless
conditions are soon swept away, while in green areas the grass retains the
dust. The grassblades jutting out into the air decelerate the flow of air
close to the lawn, causing particles to drop down. This so-called "lattice
effect" can be substantially increased by trees, because a larger volume of
air will be caused to drop its dust.
The "lattice effect" is a result of two mechanisms. First, vegetation slows
down the airflow within the greenery. Since the dust carrying capacity of
the air depends on the wind speed and on the size of the particles, as air
motion slows down larger particles cannot be carried along any more and
settle.
___________ ----~~-Jbe._se_c_oo,d~roe.cb.ao.isoLi.s_LeJaJ.ed__t_o_th_e__ rlir..e.c_ti_ona_Liner tia__Qj__par:ti cles.
---~~-~-----~-~~------~- -----------------
When the air flows through the greenery it frequently changes direction
among and around branches and leaves. Very small sized particles having a
5-7
low inertia follow these movements while the larger one s, with a higher
inertia, hit the leaves and settle on them.
Denser vegetation leads to an upward deflection of the wind which is swept
over the green area, carrying along fine dust and smaller particles, while the larger
particles are trapped by the vegetation upon impact. The dusty air sinks down after
having overcome the obstacle. This reduces the efficiency of woods as air filters,
at least in the case of fine dust and particles. Regarding bigger dust particles,
measurement showed that even the fringes of woods have a notable filtering
effect.
From the above observations, it can be inferred that protection from
industrial pollution by green belts close to the sources is doubtful, because of the
small size of the pollutants and the height of the industrial chimneys. On the other
hand, green belts can be effective in reducing natural dust, as well as particles
generated by motor vehicles on roads and particles generated by coal burning.
These conclusions are in accordance with research carried out in The
Netherlands (HUD International, 1973), where it has been found that air pollution is
significantly reduced only within the green belt itself and in the area directly
behind it. Such effect also applies to trees planted along an avenue, thus helping,
to a certain extent to clean the street air.
Since there is little or no reduction of air pollution outside the immediate
vicinity of the trees, it is ad•tisable to space trees and public parks throughout the
urban area rather than concentrating them in a few spots.
5.4 The Effect of Green Spaces on Urban Noise
The effect of open spaces on urban noise is usually one of inserting buffer
zones between the source of the noise and the areas sensitive to noise. Such a
buffer zone can also serve for various recreational activities. The quantitative
effects of such a buffer zone are influenced, however, by the detailed
characteristics of the open space, such as its dimension, the type of plants' cover,
etc.
The interposition of distance between a source of noise and a sensitive area
- - - - - - -F@Sl::Jlt iFl-FeGI;Ie~h~FlS-i1'l-the-ne--i.--se-leve and- may t:Js~ed as eof-f~ctiv Qlanfl'ing- - - - - - -
tool in the acoustical control of an urban area. However, it should be taken into
account that this solution has important financial and functional drawbacks,
5-8
especially in those areas where the cost of land is high. Therefore, such barrier
areas should also be utilized for other different purposes. This is especially
important in connection with the space that is to be left open along highways and
streets passing through or near cities.
However, when an open space serves the function of a buffer zone, its
potential role as a recreation area is limited due to the noise coming into the open
area itself. Therefore, as an optimal design solution, the buffer zones should be
planned so as to both maximize the noise reduction effect they have and at the
same time to find ways of utilizing these buffer areas. In this way the open spaces,
by fulfilling additional functions, may provide maximal overall benefit to the urban
environment.
A major source of urban noise is from traffic along highways. The noise
intensity increases with the traffic density (for a given mix of vehicles) and speed.
This is a linear noise source generated at the road level. Its impact on residential
areas along the highways (and other sensitive land uses) can be reduced both by
distance (linear open spaces along the highways) and by linear solid barriers
between the highway and the sensitive areas.
Such solid barriers can be in the form of raised strips of planted soil on both
sides of a sunken highway, creating "noise shadows", thus incrl7asing the
effectiveness of the buffer zones. The planted slopes of the soil strips reduce the
reflection of noise from the highway toward the bullt areas beyond the buffer
zones and along it.
Attenuation of Noise Levels by Vegetation

Only few systematic measurements exist on the influence of vegetation on
the attenuation of sound, and, quantitatively the reported information is not
consistent.
As quoted in a report of HUD International (1973), the relative effectiveness
of plants in controlling sound levels is quite variable. The density of foliate varies
considerably according to the type of tree and height above the ground. Deciduous
-trees~~wiH-~ee~~i·fleH·ee-tive~clur-i-ng~-tf:le~w·i·Mer~~men-tl:lsr·-J.n~ac:lc:ll-t·l·0A-,-when--the--a-i-r--
movement is in the direction of the listener, wind gradients caused by the

obstruction of the planting may offset the advantage of the screening effect. Even
'.
'•,
5-9
with dense foliage the attenuation of sound appears to be small, (especially in the
middle and low frequencies) unless the plantation is very deep.
Meister and Ruhrberg (1959, cited by Shrelber, 1970) measured the influence
of vegetation on the propagation of traffic noise. Their results show that not more
than a 1 dB reduction per 10 m depth of planting may be expected. When instead
of a cluster, several parallel rows of trees are planted, the effect is a little higher,
up to 1 to 2 dB(A) more per row.
For those cases for which the reduction in sound level is proportional to the
distance, Meister and Ruhrberg have presented the following table.
Aver age sound level reductions 2er distance uni tx: (dB/ m):
Reduct.
for all
Octave 200-400 400-800 800-1600 1600-3200 3200-6400 freq.
Pine tree-tops 0.80-0.11 0.13-0.15 0.14-0.15 0.16 0.19-0.2 0.15

Pine plantation 0.10-0.11 0.10 0.10-0.15 0.16 0.14-0.2 0.15
Spruce tree-tops 0.10-0.12 0.14-0.17 0.18 0.14-0.17 0.23-0.3 0.18
Dense deciduous 0.05 0.05-0.07 0.08-0.10 0.11-0.15 0.17-0.2 0.12-0.17
forest
Dense brushwood 0.13-0.15 0.17-0.25 0.18-0.35 0.20-0.40 0.30-0.5 0.25-0.35
Broban (1967) gives the attenuation effect of vegetation as a function of

frequency. This data shows that in order to obtain significant reductions in the
noise level (in the order of l 0 dB), at least a l 00 m deep dense vegetation is
required.
Measurements made in Scandinavia and recorded under conditions of thick,
leafy vegetation show that the damping effect amounts to 2-3 dB per lOO m and in
thick plantation of coniferous trees to 5-10 dB per lOO m (National Swedish
----IFHi-t-i,tu-te,.---1~96-8).~~~-~-~~- ~-.=.-~ _____ _:___~---===-=-~:=.=:-__:____:_:_:_:_:__:::-~:::~-~ ·~_:--~=_:--=-
In a research by the Technische Universitat, Berlin (1966, cited by
Lauge1 1971 ), the following observations were made:
----- --- __ _____!
5~10
1) The maximum values of attenuation in the sound pressure level were of

10 dB.
2) The attentuation depended on the structure of the planting and not on a
quantitative effect per meter. This means that two equally deep areas
planted with the same kind of trees will have different attentuation effects
according to their structure. Only in the case of trees with needle-shaped
leaves is the attenuation in sound pressure proportional to the depth of the
planting.
3) The effect was particularly noticeable for frequencies between 1000 and
12 000 Hz.
From the above studies, it may be concluded that the actual sound reducing
effect of vegetation is rather small. However, it may contribute an important
psychological effect, by visually hiding the source of noise from the affected
person.
Trees along urban streets do not reduce the noise level in the buildings but
can reduce the reverberation time in the street by sound absorption in the leaves.
5.5 Soil Erosion Prevention by Plants
Soil erosion can be caused by rain and/or by wind. The potential severity of
erosion depends on the climate (rain and wind), soil type and slope, as well as on
soil cover. This last factor can, of course, be controlled by urban design.
Water erosion is prevalent mainly in humid rainy regions, but often may occur
also in arid regions during the short rainy seasons. Wind erosion is common in arid
regions but may also occur in regions which are usually humid, during years with
extended draughts.
Rain causes soil erosion by two processes:
a) Direct impact of the falling water drops.
b) Abrasion by the suspension soil particles carried in fast running water.
_The higher the intensity and duration of the rains (a factor depending on
climate) and the steeper and longer the slope of the land (a factor depending on the
location), the more severe will be the resulting soil erosion (Robinette, 1972).
----~---- - ----Winds--cause-soiJ-erosion--bY- -HHing--and-carr-ying--awa-y---SmaU..;...soU~par-ti.cles~ ----- --
Very small and light particles are lifted and carried away over significant distances
(hundred meters to many kilometers). Heavier particles are rolled over by the
-----------------~~---
5-ll
wind , causing a brasion of the soil and dislodging smaller part icles, which t hen
become windborne and carried away the the wind (Robinette, 1972 ).
Under any rain and wind condi tio ns, as well as soil type and slope, the na tu re
of the soil cover has very significant impact on the extent and se verity of soil
erosion. Different types of plants, often in combination, can be very effective
means for minimizin g, or even preventing, soil erosion.
Robine tte (1972) describes the mechanisms by which plants control soil
erosion by wind and by rain:
Wind erosion is controlled by dense leaves and needles slowing down air
flow through the plants; dense branching of shrubs and multiple stems of grass
slowing wind nea r the ground; fibrous roots close to the surface hold surface soil in
place.
Plants' control of water erosion by interrupting and slowing down
raindrops, thus reducing splash erosion; grass leaves and multiple stems slow down
water flowing over the ground surface; roots form fibrous masses holding the soil in
place; and organic matter in the soil increases its water absorption rate , thus
reducing run-off.
In arid regions, where wind erosion is the main agent causing soil erosion,
trees, in the form of windbreaks, can be effective in reducing the wind speed near
the ground level and thus reducing its erosion potential. Planning (and planting!)
such windbreaks around urban open areas (even those kept in reserve for future
urban development) can reduce the likelihood that these open spaces will become
dust sources.
The best trees for windbreaks are those which have dense branches and
foliage, starting close to the ground.
In arid regions, especially in developing countries, it is impractical to expect
the municipalities to cover by plants (and irrigate) the open spaces not specifically
developed as urban parks and gardens. However, in most arid regions some native
plants exist. Such native vegetation, which needs no irrigation for survival, can
greatly reduce wind erosion. Unless the area is scheduled for immediate urban
- - - - - --<'1-~v~~epmeA-t,-t-Ae-Aa~t4-v e-j;>l-aoA-t~eev-@F Flet~le ae-~@optc.
. --------------------,
5.6 Social Functions and Influences .of Urban Parks
Urban parks, playgrounds and sport fields fill a variety of social and
psychological needs of the residents, for example children's play, social meeting,
recreation, privacy, etc.
The mere existence of these parks does not automatically guarantee the
creation of social ties, and without other conditions being met, the meetings
occurring in these areas can be socially meaningless or even leading to intensified
conflicts. However, under certain conditions, the parks can help create the feeling
of "community" in the neighbourhood.
The socio-cultural functions of urban parks can be especially important in
lower income neighbourhoods. While the living conditions in low-income area are
much inferior to those of the higher-income areas, the public parks can provide the
residents of low-income areas with means for recreation and entertainment within
an area with environmental quality equal to those of other urban residents.
The degree to which the parks fulfil! this function depends upon the extent to
which they are cultivated and contain proper facilities, and especially whether
special activities take place within them. It goes without saying that the
realization of these possibilities for recreation and entertainment depend upon the
existence of proper facilities and involve organizational and· financial efforts on
the part of the responsible authorities.
The importance and success of the social functions fulfilled by urban parks,
may be measured by the intensity of the visitation by those parts of the population
for whom they were designated. However, the degree of participation depends
upon the existence of proper conditions. It is reasonable to assume that the more
interesting and convenient opportunities there are to enjoy in the open spaces, the
higher degree of participation will be. The location, form and various uses of open
spaces, influences the attractiveness of different urban areas with regard to
various different activities.
In addition to not fully contributing to the quality of urban life, a park which
people do not use, attracts criminal elements to the vacuum created by the lack of
··· ·· ·use-~-- -This·negcrtiy~e-- inHuence-trradia-ted~into--the~fle'l-ghbourhoods~~sut"ro unE'Hng--t!ote- _.._.._=.._~
park, and they in turn become undesirable dangerous areas which people try .to keep
distant from. Unused parks are also liable to suffer more from destruction and
v.andalism._ _ _ __
5-13
It was argued by J. Jacobs (1961) that the most efficient way to prevent
crime in public parks is the presence of as many people in the park as possible,
during all hours of the day and evening. If this point of view is correct, there will
be a need for a directed planning policy concerning public parks, intended to
maximize the times and intensity of their use. Such planning should determine
location of facilities and roads in the urban network, as well as planning details of
the surrounding urban area, such as: land use around the park, institutions to
attract persons into the area during various hours of the day, location of traffic
intersections, such as bus stations on the edges of the park, etc.
5.6.1 The Influence of Parks on the Social Interaction between Neighbourhoods

Bordering the Park
Terri torially, urban parks form a separating area between the neighbourhoods
adjacent to it. However, the same park also acts as a linking area between the
residents of the neighbourhoods by providing common services and facilities such as
playgrounds, areas for rest, passageways, etc. As such, the park serves as a
meeting place for the local residents. There can be two possible results to this
social meeting between residents of different neighborhoods, often with different
socio-cultural backgrounds. On the one hand, it can provide for communication and
mutual acquaintance, while on the other hand, it can contribute to the development
o.f conflicts and competition for the use of facilities, as well as to quarrels and
tensions between the neighbourhoods' residents.
This problem can be of great social importance when the populations of the
adjacent neighbourhoods are ethnically or socio-economically different.
The nature of the relationships developing from encounters in the urban
public parks can have a far reaching impact on the process of population
integration, especially in cities and countries with a culturally heterogenous
population.
These relationships are determined by a complex system of factors, which are
----- __----in-par-t- physieal,--and-rela-ted--to-the-actual-Rlannin-g-o£-the-rop-en~sJ:;races,-amhn parr-=-==- __ --•--
derive from the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the population.
5-14
Among the various planning factors which can af.fect the nature of the social
interaction related to parks, are:
1. the special needs of different population groups, with regard to types of
activities and facilities in the park;
2. the capacity of the park, from the aspect of total area and that given to
usage, as well as from the aspect of type, number and size of the
population being served;
3. layout of facilities and types of activities over the park area, and the
degree Jo which this causes mutual disturbances between the various
activities;
4. in the case of large urban parks: the existence of various special public
events, and their organization.
The influence of these and other factors on social interaction is not yet well
understood. Research in this field would be able to ·clarify whether and under what
conditions it is. possible to use parks as instruments for social and cultural
integra tlon.
5.7 Size and Character of the Open Spaces

Determi-nation of the optfinal si·ze of open spaces, for a .given urban areas
and population, is a complex problem. On one hand, the allocation of a large parcel
of land for this purpose is a heavy financial burden even if the municipalities do not
have to pay for this land. On the other hand, the size of open spaces can have a
great influence on the environmental quality, and the quality of life in the city,
both from the physical point of view - by providing areas with more pleasant
climate, relative quiet, and cleaner air than the rest of the city - and from the
social-psychological point of view by providing areas for play, rest, social meeting,
isolation, aesthetic enjoyment, etc.
The accepted planning procedure is to determine the entire area of public
open spaces and urban parks, per population unit, with this allocation then divided
into secondary allocations for local neighborhood parks, central neighbourhood
---- ==-~-p~tks,-aAd=:_~ktY-:-_I!l~ier-:parks. --~-:-~.:~---~-.....: __ ..:.:_~:... ..:~ __ --~- _-__ ::-=----~---~----··· _. __ . :. ---:---:- - -
Determining the area o·f parks, according to the number of acres required for
a spe.cific population size, reflects current planning methods, yet does not deal
5-15
with the functional needs of the population destined to use the park, and the degree
to which the specific planning elements fu1fHl these needs. Parks serve their
purpose in the urban network only if they satisfy the functional needs of the
population (including aesthetics- but only as a single component and not the major
one.
In many· developing countries, especially in hot-dry regions, this problem is
even more complex than in Europe or North America, due to the fact that
maintenance costs of parks in these places are much higher as a result of the need
to irrigate in the summer, and because of the limited resources available to the
municipalities.
It seems desirable to fundamentally change the basis upon which areas of
urban open spaces are allocated. Instead of the "mechanical" planning procedure of
determining land area according to the size of the population, it is desirable to
establish a method which will enable the evaluation of the need for open spaces,
aimed at fulfilling specific functions within the urban network, whlle striving for
intensive usage of the area by the local residents. It also seems that efforts must
be made to ensure intensive usage of the parks during all hours of the day, and as
far as possible, in the evening as well.
This approach necessitates the combining o-f various compatible functions,
the coordination of planning factors, and proper siting of the public parks,
playgrounds and sports area, in order to facilitate the intensive usage of these
facilities.
This functional approach to the determination of standards for open space
allocations demands a basic knowledge of the needs of various popluation groups
with relation to the different functions of the open spaces. These needs can
express themselves in different habits of recreation, entertainment, games, social
and family enjoyment, etc.
When considering open spaces, from the aspect of character and functions,
physical as well as social, lt is possible to differentiate between planned public
open spaces (parks, playgrounds, sports areas, etc.), private open spaces (mainly
---~~-. . ---- _ those,- be-tween-re-sieentla-1-dwelHngs),-o pen-spaees-designed--es~eeiaHy-to-~rotect- -::-.=.= -·
against noise and air pollution (alongside streets, next to industrial areas, etc.),
.. specialized recreational areas (such as developed beaches) and paved ,open spaces
(i.e. sguares).
5-1.6
5.8 -lnstitutionaf Issues Concerning· Urban Open Spaces

The two central institutional issues related to open spaces are:
a. Determination of standards for the required areas of open spaces needed
in a given ·urban region and the division of this. area over the urban
network" as well as the planning details-, on a basis appropriate to the
territorial,, economic, climatic and; social conditions prevailing in the
countr~ or· the specific city.
b. Development of a method for evaluating. the eff.idency of open space at
the· planning. stage,. with regard to the spedfic purposes for which these
areas. are designed and their specific urban functions.
The first problem involves the determinatioR of open spa.ce standards in a wa.y
that will ensure that appropriate conditions exist f:or fulfillment of the various
functions of these open· spaces, during· the successive stages o-f urban development
as well as for the distant future, and at the same time will prev-ent an; unnecessary
financial load on the munidpaT authorities and waste o.f unexptoited areas ..
At present, the necessary base for determining the size and type of open
s·paces in many of the developing countries is lacking. · The copying of standards
from European countries or from North America, cannot .possibly be- a solution to
the problem for two reasons: first,, because of the difJerence in· climatic conditions
and the high costs of maintenance due to the need for irrigation in the summer, and
second, because o.f the different sodo.-cultural backgrounds,. recreational demands
and. entertainment habits springing from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds-.
WTth regard to.· the e..faluatlon o·:f the ·quality: of pla:nnings, there are at present
no' testing; m:ethods avaHable which allow objective: evaluations of pfans and which,
take into 'account. the different functions: of the: open·. spaces.. This res:ea,rch to
devel:o.p standards!! can·be· seen. a<S'an urgent task •.
5-17
5.9 References and Bibliography for Chapter 5
Beranek, L.L. (1960), Noise Reduction. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bernatzsky, A. (1966): "Climatic Influence of the Greens and City Planning."

Anthos No. 1.
Bernatzsky, A. (1969): "The Performance and Value of Trees". Anthos No. 1.
Broban, H. W. (1967): "Stadebauliche Grundlagen des Schallschutzes". Deutsche

Bauzei tung, 5.
Embleton, T.F.W. (1963): "Sound Propagation in Homogeneous, Deciduous and

Evergreen Woods". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. V. 33, August.
Geiger, R. (1950): The Climate Near the Ground. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge.
Givoni, B. (1972): "The Influence of Parks and Open Spaces on Urban

Environmental Quality", in Town Planning and Environmental Quality, Part I.
Na tlonal Council for Research and Development, Jerusalem.
Givoni, B. (1973): "The Influence on Urban Planning on the City Climate", in Town
Planning and Environmental Quality, Part I. The National Council for Research
and Development, Jerusalem.
Givoni, B. and Paciuk, M. (1973a): "City Planning and the Urban Acoustic
Quality", in Town Planning and Environmental Quality, Part I. National Council
for Research and Development, Jerusalem.
Givoni, B. and Paciuk, M. (1973b): "Effect of Town Planning on Urban Air

Pollution", in Town Planning and Environmental Quality, Part 11. National Council
for Research and Development, Jerusalem.
Hader, F. (1970): "The Climatic Influence of Green Areas, their Properties as Air
Filters. and Noise Abatement Agents", Climatology and Building, C.I.B., Vienna.
Highway Research Board (1968): "Can Noise Radiation from Highways be Reduced
by Design?" Highway Research Records, 232. Washington, D.C.
HUD International (1973): "Green Belts and Air Pollution'' (The Netherlands),
Information Series 21, March 15, 1973.
Jacobs, J. (1964): ''The Life and Death of Great American Cities", Random House,
New York.
Laugel, C.H. (1971): "Recherchere des Problemes Acoustiques dans la Construction

des Villes et Cities. Residentialles". Building Research Station, Technion, Haifa,
Israel •.
Moo re, J .E. (1 966): Design for Noise. Reduction. Architectural Press. London.
Rettin.ger, M. (1965}: "Noise Abatement by aarriers"~· Progressive Architecture,.

August.
Robinette, G.O~ (1.972): Plants/Peo.ple/and: Environmental Quality. u.s ..

Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C~
Schreiber, L. (1970): "Larmschutz in Stadtebau", Bauverlag GMBH, Wiesbaden' und

Be:rHn.
Seikman, W. (1969): "Outdoor Acoustical Treatment, Grass and Tr·ees.11 Journal of

~~~- .... _ ...the..Aco.us.ticaL So.cie.t,y.:.o.LAmer.i.ca ,.'l.~4.6.,,.Ap.r:il. _______ .... _ __ _ _ _ _ _ -- ···-- ..
Part 11: Urban Design Guidelines for Different Climates
Comment: While the overview of urban and building climatology issues in part I
(chapters 1-5) is based on a literature review, the second part, the
actual design guidelines, express the personal judgment and opinions of
the author. The material used as basis for the judgment and opinions is
cited in the references of each chapter.
6-2
Chapter. 6: Urban Design Guidelines for Hot Dry Regions

6.1 Introduction
Hot dry regions are found in the sub-tropical latitudes, approximately
between 15 and 30 degrees north and south of the Equator, in central and western
Asia, the Middle East, Africa, North and South America, and in central and north
Australia.
These regions are characterized mainly by their aridity, high summer daytime
temperatures, large diurnal temperature range and high solar radiation.
In some arid regions typical daytime summer temperatures are in the 32-360
range while in hotter regions they may be well above 40 and up to 450 C.
Some regions which are hot in summer may experience comfortable winters,
while others may have winter temperatures well below freezing. Because winter
temperatures vary from place to place, heating requirments may vary greatly in
different hot dry regions of the world.
These variations in the summer and winter conditions create several types of
hot-dry regions. In each one of them different urban and building design principles
and details would be appropriate. Therefore, although some common design
features would be suitable for all types of hot-dry regions other features should be
designed with considerations o-f the particular characteristics of the region in
question.
Minimizing the environment stress and providing comfortable conditions for
the people living in hot dry regions involves design issues of two scales: the urban
env iron men t and the individual buildings. This publication, however, deals only
with the urban scale design issues.•
Urban design should aim in hot-dry regions, from the climatic poirit of view,
toachieve the following objectives:
Choosinglocations with the most favorable climate,. mainly lower summer
tern per a tures.
Avoiding areas prone. to severe natural hazards (e.g. valley floors where
flash floods from faraway rains occur).
---~ ________ . __-__ Minir:n iz_iDg_!.!.Ib§.n__temR~r~ture. ~~~.Y_et!lQn..flbQ'IUb.~__§.UJ"I.9!!f19ingle'{_~_LJthe _
"heat island").
Enabling good ventilation potential for the buildings and in the open
spaces.
6-3
Providing shade in summer in the streets, over sidewalks and in open

spaces.
Providing "access" to the sun in winter for the buildings and ln open
spaces.
Minimizing the dust level.
Reducing glare in the streets and in open spaces between buildings.
Providing protection from winter winds (in regions with hot summers but
cold winters).
Often the objectives in summer and in winter may be in conflict, e.g.
promoting ventilation in summer and wind protection in winter, especially in
regions where the prevailing wind direction is the same year round. In many hot
dry regions the summer considerations are more critical. Judgement is needed,
therefore, in the case of such conflicts to determine in each particular region
which is the more critical season.
Some of the urban design features which can affect the urban climate in hot
dry regions and which are discussed in this chapter are:
Location of the town in a region.
Density of the built-up area.
Orientation and width of streets.
Design details of "green" areas.
Special details of the buildings affecting outdoor comfort.
The details of urban design with respect to each one of these issues can
modify several of the elements of the urban climate. These effects, and guidelines
for the appropriate design decisions in hot dry climates, are discussed in the
following. In addition, the special properties of various building types affecting
their performance in hot-dry regions will also be discussed.
6.1.1 Climatic Features of Hot Dry Regions Relevant to Urban and Building Design
The main common characteristic of hot-dry regions is the combination of low
humidity and high summer temperature.
The arid characteristics of many of the hot dry regions are caused by
-. ---Eie"seenEilng-a-i-F~rna-sses,~s-uese<:juen-Hy~fefm-i-ng~tol:le~'F-r~-Eie~W-i-nEis.~In-seme~ea-se&--t-Ae---_:::__
-----
arid climate is caused by winds passing over mountain ranges, precipitating part of
their water vapor content while rising over the windward slopes and heated while
descending on the leewards slop=e_..._.s..____ ---------------
The aridity is accompanied by several other characteristics of importance to
human comfort, urban planning and building design. Direct solar radiation is
intense as well as the. radiation reflected from the light colored and bare land.
Horizontal global radiation can acceed 800-900 wfm2.
The sky is clear most of the year, promoting solar heating during the days and
longwave radiant loss during the nights. The result is a large diurnal temperature
range, about 15-20° C, and sometimes even more, in summer.
Air temperatures can reach up to 50°C, although in many hot-arid regions the
typical maximum air temperature is about 35-40° C. Minimum temperatures in
summer are about 25-30° C in the hotter regions and about 18-22 C in the "cooler"
hot-dry ones. ·The ground surface temperature may reach in summer up to 700 C.
Some hot-dry regions may experience comfortable winters, while others may
have temperatures well below freezing. Because winter temperatures vary from
place to place, depending for the most part on latitude, as. well as ·on altitude,
human winter comfort requirements and heating needs for buildings may vary
greatly throughout the hot-dry regions of the world.
Winds are usually strong during the mid-day and afternoon hours, subsiding
during the evening. However some hot dry regions experience winds also during the
night hours.
A common feature in many hot-dry regions are dust stroms, mainly during the
afternoons. The dust storms constitute one of the major discomfort and nuisance
factors. However, to a great extent, their severity and the problems they cause
can be reduced by appropriate urban and building design features.
Sunlight reflection for the bare, often light-colored ground, may produce
intense glare which, together with reflection from building's walls, may cause
visual discomfort.
6.2 General Principles for Urban Design for Hot-Dry Regions
The main objective of urban design in hot-dry regions, from the climatic
aspect, is to mitigate the stresses imposed by the climate on people staying
outdoors (working, shopping, playing, strolllng, etc.). An additional objective is to
~-~----· ---i:FA·13F0-v-e-~the~GhanGe-s~af~th@-in<:l-iv-klua.l~bul-l-di:r:~g-s--tG>-pr.o¥-i-de~a-Go.mfor-table--indoor-- ---
environment with minimum usage of energy.

The outdoor environmental stresses in the desert are mainly of four types:
------~---
6-5
(a) High heat stress on summer days, resulting from the high ambient air
temperature and the intense solar radiation.
(b) High glare from direct and reflected sunllght
(c) Prevalence of dust storms, main.ly in the afternoons.
(d) (In regions with cold winters) cold winds in the winter season.
To ameliorate the heat stress on summer days, neighbourhoods should be
planned so that distances for walking people and playing children are short.
Sidewalks should be shaded as much as possible, either by trees or by the buildings
along them. Shade is particularly desirable in places where people (and mainly
children) congregate outdoors during daytime hours.
Distribution of shopping places, schools, and urban services depends, of
course, on the organization of such services in the society and may differ greatly
between different countries and societies. In any case, it is desirable to ensure
close-by basic services even in societies which rely mostly on individual and
organized motorized transport, such as private car trips to central shopping
centres, bussing to schools, etc.
From the point of view of the urban climate, the design details in hot-dry
regions should aim at providing shade over sidewalks, playing grounds etc., securing
adequate ventilation, minimizing dust, reducing glare, etc.
6.3 Town Location within a Region
In choosing a location for a town or a neighborhood in a hot dry region one
should look for places with lower summer temperatures and good ventilation
conditions, mainly in the evenings and at night. Different locations within a given
region may differ in their temperature, wind conditions, etc. Variations in
altitude, in particular, may cause appreciable differences in temperature over
short distances.
Thus, for example, 1oca tions can be found in close proximity but at different
elevations with daytime temperatures around 350 C at higher elevations and lj.QO C
and more at lower elevations, with elevation differences of about 600 meters.
These temperature variations are very significant from the human comfort
_ _ _ _ _____ -=~~ew-point:'-=-~!:1~-=-n:t_a.f:::.~.!~O--~~~~-eG-t-. gr::_a-t-l.y ~he--app r:opr:ia.t€-b Yi-ldin,g.,..,de.si-gn.c...,(Bi-tal'l,--.::-_-__-
1974, 1982).
Local variations in topography may affect greatly the wind conditions. Thus
windward slopes of a hill experience much higher wind speeds than the leeward
slopes. Similarly, windward slopes of mountains may be more moist and experience
higher precipitation than the leeward slopes. This subject is discussed in more
details in chapters 2 and 3.
A common opinion is that wind is not important, or even undesirable, in hot
dry regions because the outdoor air temperature is above skin temperature and the
wind increase the convective heat gain of the body However, it is the personal
a
experience of the author that, even with air temperature of about 4ooc, a light
wind actually reduces discomfort by reducing the wetness of the skin, especially
when one stays outdoors and is exposed to the sun.
Good building ventilation, which depends on the availability of wind in the
area is assential in the evenings for indoor comfort and for enhancing the cooling
rate of the building's interior.
Valleys experience different wind conditions, depending on the relationship
between the valley and the prevailing wind conditions. Valleys parallel to the
prevailing winds may have good ventilation potential. On the other hand, valleys
on the leeward of and parallel to a mountain range extending perpendicular to
the wind direction usually experience poor ventilation.
When considering the location of a new town, a situation frequently arises
where a place with natural economic potential, such as mineral deposits, sea-shore
suitable for a port, etc. has a hot inhospitable climate. Traditionally cities were
established near these resources. However, it is possible to locate a town
designated for the exploitation of this potential at a higher altitude at some
distance, or on the other slope of a mountain range, in a location with a more
favorable climate. This location can be connected with the work places by a rapid
and convenient transportation. Such a choice will insure more comfortable living
conditions for persons staying at home, or working in occupations which do not
require physical proximity to natural resources, and can lead to significant savings
of energy for provision of thermal comfort.
~--,.4.-lJR:ban~Densi-ty-Consider-ations-in~l:fo_t..Dr-y-Regions--~-~~-----~-----~-~-----~----------~-----
------~
The density of the built up area (land coverage by buildings) in hot-dry

climate may have both positive and negative effects on human comfort outdoors
and on the indoor climate of the buildings.
6-7
With a given building's height increasing urban density means smaller open
spaces between and around the buildings. The effect of the reduced distances in
hot-dry regions depends to a large extent on the orientation of the walls in
question.
When the distance between the buildings is decreased along the East- West
axis the mutual shading of the E/W walls of a given building by its neighbours
increases. As long as adequate natural ventilation of the building can be achieved,
without openings in the eastern or western walls, or if the natural ventilation
through openings in these walls is not greatly affected by the reduced distances,
the effect on the indoor climate can be beneficial because the solar impact on the
walls in summer is reduced.
With proper design the individual dwelling units a building can be cross-
ventilated even when openings are provided only in the northern and southern
walls. In this case, the distance between the buildings along the east/west axis
can be eliminated altogether. This creates "rowhouses" or "townhouses" instead of
individual detached houses.
Consequently, when the main orientation of the building is to the north and
south it is possible to increase the density of the built up area by reducing the side
distance between neighboring buildings without causing deterioration in the
thermal quality of the urban environment.
The effect of distance between buildings along the north/south axis is quite
different. In winter it may reduce the possibilities of utilizing solar energy for
heating, which has great potential in hot-dry regions, because the low altitude of
the sun in the sky. Solar radiation on a southern wall (in the Northern
Hemisphere)of one building may be blocked by another building in front of it.
Untreated urban land in a hot-dry region is often a source of dust, while land
covered by plants helps in filtering out the dust from the air. The lack of rain in
hot-dry regions and the high cost of "imported" water limit the capability of cities
to landscape open land. In developing countries most of the population cannot
afford the expenses of planting and maintaining the open areas between buildings.
~~--~ ---- ---~~-T.her_efor.:e-an--a pp.r:opr-iate--ur-ban-design-po.li.q'-in-ho.t,.dr-y-r.:e.gions_wo.uld_b_e_to____ -
limit the distances between buildings (set backs regulations) to the sizes which can
be expected to be landscaped by the individual inhabitants. This consideration leads
~~~~~~~to~h--"lgher urban densities than in other types of climate, e.g. a hot-humid ones. --------
'
6-8
6.4.1 Density and Urban Air Temperature in Hot-Dry Regions

The temperature modifications by a city are expressed mainly in the "heat
island" phenomenon, especially during calm and clear nights, when the urban air
temperature is usually higher than the temperature of the surrounding open
country. This subject was discussed in detail in Chapter 2.3.
Regarding the day-time conditions, it is commonly assumed that urban
temperatures are higher than rural ones, due to lack of vegetation and heat
generated in the town, although the differences observed are smaller than at night.
Part of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed during daytime hours in the mass
of the buildings. Part of it is absorbed at walls of high floors, far above the street
level. These factors reduce daytime temperatures at the street level where "urban
temperatures" are measured, although they are on the average stHl higher than in
the countryside.
It is possible to infer from theoretical considerations, as well as from actual
measurements in and around buildings, that in hot-dry.regions it might be possible
to plan cities so that the ambient daytime air temperatures would be lower than
those of the surrounding country. The main planning approach by which such a
modification of the urban temperature seems possible is a combination of urban
density, building heights and an average albedo of the whole area of the towns
which will reduce significantly the solar radiation absorbed in the urban fabric.
The average albedo of the urban area (its reflectivity of sunlight) depends on
the co.lor of the roofs, walls and roads, the calor of the soil and the area covered by
vegetation. This albedo is the main factor determining the amount of solar
radiation absorbed in the urban area. Because of the large roof's area in a densely
built town the radiation balance can be controlled and may have a pronounced
effect on urban air temperature.
High density of buildings can ensure that most of the radiation exchange will
take place at the roof surfaces and· not at the ground level and at the walls. By
assuring that all the roofs are colored white- by yearly repainting, for example- it
is possible to achieve a negative radiation balance: the longwave radiant loss can
____il-!Q_5~fi_1@Uy__ ~_)(~~c:L_
__!_~~-~l:>~s>_r:_~~-~_r:~~-n~-~~-~~~~r dar__i~ rY'li_~---
----
summer. Under these conditions, the average temperature of the roof surfaces wiT!____ _
be lower than the average regional air temperature. As cool air is heavier than
6-9
warm air, it will sink into the city's streets if suitable details of the roof are
provided. If the city is large enough, and built densely enough, it can be assumed
that it will be possible to achieve a daytime air temperature at the street level
that is a great deal lower than in the surrounding areas.
Dense buildings slow down the rate of nighttime cooling of cities near the
ground. However, if the nocturnal radiant cooling at the roof's level can be
utilized to "drain" cooled air downwards the cooling rate near the ground will be
accelerated. Specific design details of the buildings can either augment or hinder
the drainage of cooled air from the roof tops to the ground level, where it can be
utilized to lower the "urban temperature".
In the open areas between buildings, on public as well as on private land,
planting trees should be encouraged as much as water availability and financial
resources enable. Solar radiation absorbed in leaves of vegetation increases the
evaporation rate instead of raising the temperature. The resulting elevated
humidity, in an arid region, can be welcomed from the comfort view point. Thus,
large coverage of the land surface by a combination of white roof and trees can
result in significant lowering of the urban temperatures in hot-dry regions.
6.4.2 Urban Density . and Ventilation Potential in Hot Dry Regions.

Hot dry regions commonly have strong winds during daytime but the winds
usually subside in the evenings. Furthermore, during the daytime hours building
ventilation is not desirable, while in the evening it is essential for indoor comfort.
Therefore, as related to urban density and building design, the main concern in hot
dry regions is how to provide the potential for evening and night ventilation for the
buildings.
In high density neighborhoods, where streets are narrow, distances between
buildings small and buildings are of about the same height, there is a sharp drop in
the wind speed below the roofs' level. Below the roofs the wind is very light while
above the roofs it is much stronger. Under these conditions it is difficult to
provide good indoor ventilation, especially when the ambient wind speed is very
__ low t-JhLLp_Qlo.Li.s_oJ_p.ar_ti.Q.!Ja.r~Lmp~o.r,tance__ f.Qr~tbe_r~o.nr::n s~wher~e~tb~~inba"bl.tan.ts ___
sleep.
6-10
To the extent that the same family occupies the whole vertical "chunk" of a
building, from the ground to the roof, it is possible to improve the ventilation
potential by special building design details. If the bedrooms are located at an
upper floor, and if this floor covers a smaller area than the lower floors,
surrounded by open "roof balcony" and thus more exposed, the ventilation potential
of the bedrooms will improve. Air introduced at the upper floor can also flow
downward and ventilate the lower floors.
When the same family occupies the whole vertical section of the building, it
is also possible to make use of "wind catchers" to catch the wind blowing above the
roofs level and to direct it downward. Such "devices" can be an integral part of the
functional design of the building, such as stairwells leading to the (flat) roof, or to
a second storey extending only over part of the roof. The open part of the roof can
be used as a private open space.
With such building design the land-coverage density at the ground floor can
be quite high wl thout impairing seriously the potential for natural ventilation,
especially of the bedrooms. On the other hand, it should be realized the too high
density of the built-up area can lead to unsatisfactory ventilation and cause severe
heat stress.
In neighborhoods with high rise apartment buildings, higher overall urban
densities (total Floor Area Ratio) can be maintained with adequate potential for
natural ventilation. Reasonable distances between the building blocks should be
insured, and long buildings should not form "walls" perpendicular to the wind
direction. The wind can then "negotiate" between the buildings so that the
potential for natural ventilation exists. The extent to which an individual
apartment will actually have adequate ventilation depends on its design details.
6.4.3 Setbacks and Distances between Buildings
With a constant size and height of buildings the distance between buildings
determines the overall density of the built-up urban area and the fraction of land
coverage by buildings.
In a planned neighborhood the distances between buildings are often
···-eont-rellecl---9y---set-:-baGk--~e.gula-tiorls.--..Such--re.gulati.ons ..ar.e--toolL.1oL.p.r_e_v_enting ..
harmful consequences of the economic pressure to increase urban density beyond

certain limits.
6-11
From the climatic viewpoint the distances between buildings affect the solar
and wind exposure of the walls. The actual effect depends on the direction
(orientation) of the space between the buildings. However often the setback
regulations do not take into account the orientation of the buildings.
In a hot-dry region setback regulations could take into consideration the
possibill ties of minimizing solar hea tlng of buildings and shading of pedestrians
walking between buildings, while at the same time insuring the potential for
natural ventilation. From these aspects there ls special importance ln hot-dry
regions to the distance between buildings in the East-West direction.
Around the latitudes of 20 to 300 (north and south), where the hot arid
regions are mostly found, a small distance between buildings in the E-W direction,
relative to their height, can be very helpful in providing mutual shading for the
walls.
Assuming a typical height of urban residential buildings (e.g. walk-up
apartments, 4- storeys high) to be about 12 meters, a distance of 4 meters between
buildings would give a 3:1 ratio of height to distance. It means that the sun
altitude should be more than 70° before the ground between the building will be
exposed to it, namely only between about ll a.m. and 1 p.m.
From the ventilation potential viewpoint, on the other hand, even' a narrow
distance of about 2 meters enables utilizing the wind flowing through the gap
between the buildings.
Consequently there is an advantage in a hot-dry region in reducing the
distances between buildings, in the east-west direction, to about one fifth of their
height, with the minimum determined by functional and land-use considerations.
The shaded ground area and the walls of the buildings would benefit from the
natural shading by the walls.
The situation is clearly different with regard to the distances between
buildings in the north-south direction, mainly from the viewpoint of solar
utilization for heating in winter.
Because of the lower altitude of the sun in winter larger distances between
b.ullding.s_ar~e-needed~to-pt:e-v.er.rt,mutual-shadlng-.~he...-aGt-Yal-distaAG~depends~Qn--- -· -l
~------------
the latitude but generally a distance of 1.5- 2 times the height of the buildings
would be needed to provide solar access in winter. This subject is further discussed
later on (6.5.3).
6-12
6.5 Building Type's Considerations in Hot-Dry Climate

Different building types exhibit different thermal performance
characteristics in hot dry climate. These characteristics, and their impact on
comfort and energy demand in hot-dry climate, are discussed in the following.
6.5.1 Courtyards in Hot-Dry climate
Courtyards can be found both in single family and in townhouses. Therefore
their impact on the indoor climate and the thermal performances of the building in
hot dry regions will be discussed as a separate issue.
Often houses with internal courtyard are considered the most "appropriate''
for desert regions. This notion is based on the fact that such buildings are very
common in desert regions and were so since many centuries. However, when
analyzed from the thermal comfort and the energy consumption aspects it is found
that their performance depends greatly on the detailed "treatment" of the
courtyard. With some details courtyards can provide pleasant environments while
with other details they may elevate the indoor temperature and cause poor
ventilation in the rooms on their leeward side.
General discussion of the thermal impact of courtyards was presented in
chapter 4.1. Therefore only specific design details of courtyards which should be
applied in hot dry regions will be discussed in the following.
Internal courtyards enlarged the surface area of the walls, a factor leading
to a faster rate of daytime heating of the building's interior. To counteract this
effect care should be taken to keep the daytime temperature of the courtyards
itself as low as possible. This, of course would also enable use of the courtyard
with more comfort.
To this end the courtyard should be shaded, either by architectural means or
by vegetation. Early shading by vegetation can be provided by a pergola with
climbing vines. Later, trees with wide canopy and high trunk, rising above the roof,
can provide the shade.
It is desirable that the vegetation shade will create a semi barrier between
the courtyard alr space· and the ambient air above it. This will enable to cool the
-~---.·~·--··---C!mr_t}':acct_ai.L.;bcy_._.eyap.or_atio.n~w.itbo~u.Ltoo__ m~uch.._mixiJTg_.Jt~witb._the.. ..w.a.r.m.er_.aix.· ..
above, mixing which usually is generated by the wind flowing over the roof.
6-13
Effective evaporative cooling of the courtyard air can be accomplished only

when very large surface area of water has contact with flowing air. This can be
provided by several means such as a fountain sprinkling very fine drops into a pond,
water running down courtyard walls with large area, sprinkling the leaves canopy of
of trees in the courtyard, etc.
Effective shading, while lowering the daytime temperature, reduces also the
nocturnal longwave radiant cooling of the courtyard. It is possible to promote at
night the flow of cool air from the roofs, of the building around, into the courtyard.
To this end the roofs should slop down toward to courtyard with no solid parapet to
block the gentle air flow. Parapet around the periphery of the roof, however, will
reduce the wind speed over the roof, enabling the radiant heat loss to cool the
roof's surfaces and the air layer next to these surfaces below the ambient air level,
and therefore such parapet is desirable.
6.5.2 Single Family Detached Houses
Single family detached houses have the highest envelope surface area among
the various building types. When they are built around an internal courtyard the
envelope surface area is further enlarged. Consequently, in hot-dry regions, the
rate of temperature rise during the daytime hours in single family houses is the
fastest, for a given thermal conductance and mass of the walls and the roof. From
this viewpoint this building type may exhibit the highest indoor discomfort and
cooling requirement in summer and the highest heating load in winter, as compared
to building of other types, properly oriented and ventilated.
On the other hand, single family houses are less sensitive to orientation with
respect to the sun and the wind direction. Therefore, when the topography or other
factor do not enable optimal orientation of the buildings, both with respect to the
sun and the wind direction, detached single family houses may be the most
appropriate type in hot-dry regions in spite of their larger envelope surface area.
However, it should be pointed out that the effect of the larger envelope area
can be counteracted by providing better insulation value to the envelope. The total
heat flow across the envlelop depends on the sum of products (AU) of the area (A)
--~-~------- - ---o-f~the.-v.ar-i-G us~el:'lv-e-lGp€~e-ler:ner:lt~~time~tl:le-l-r-s~lJ~v-a-lue,.--w-l"len~tl"le~lJ~va-1.ue--is~tl"le--- -- -
reciprocal of the total thermal resistance. Thus increasing the resistance in
proportion to the relative enlargement of the envelope area (relative to any other
t}'r.:>e) would yield the same heat transfer.
6-14
This point is of special interest with regard to housing for low income people
with large families, for which single family houses often are the most suited for
various social and other reasons.
Relatively high thermal resistance of walls can be achieved also in
inexpensive "self-help" buildings by double layer walls, built of sun-dried Adobe
blocks, with internal air space. Adobe is a common material in many hot-dry
regions. Urban planning of community organization for building individual buildings,
with organized technical guidance, can be instrumental in alleviating housing
shortage.
6 •.5.3 Townhouses (Row Buildings)
Each dwelling unit in a townhouse, except the end ones, has only two main
external walls. Thus the exposed area of the building envelope is smaller in
comparison with that of a single-family detached house. In a hot dry climate this
factor reduces the rate of temperature rise during the daytime hours while, if the
building is designed for effective cross ventilation, its cooling rate in the evenings
may not be affected by the fact that the dwelling unit has only two external walls.
Townhouses are more sensitive than detached houses to their design details
and orientation, both with respect to the sun and the wind direction. As a result
townhouses, if properly designed and oriented, are better thermally adapted to the
climate in hot dry regions than single family detached houses. However, with
inappropriate design they may be less comfortable and need more cooling.
With a "wrong" orientation with respect to the South they may be exposed to higher
solar heating ln summer (because of the difficulties ln shading East and West walls)
and have less solar radiation in winter, as compared with single family houses.
Without careful design of the openings and the internal layout of the building
interior they may suffer from poor ventilation and low cooling rate in the enenings.
In hot-dry climate a North-South orientation for the external walls will

minimize the exposure of the rownhouse to the sun in summer and maximize its
potential for solar heating in the winter. The situation may be more complex with
~---'-~~- -----r-e-speet-te-or-leMa-tior:a....-for~v-0-r:a-ti-la-tion.,-as-in-marl)Cho.t~.dr-y~r:.e.g.ions_the__dominan.t__,___ _
wind direction is from the West. ln this case an orientation of the long walls to
NNW and SSE, with design details which "catch" the western wind by inlets in the
6-15
NNW wall a nd with outlets in the SSE wa ll, can be a good opt im al so lut ion for
townhouses.
6.5.4 Multi...S~orey Apartment Buildings
Multi-storey apart ment buildings ha ve the smallest surface ar ea of the
envelope of all buildin g types . Therefore the ir ra te of heat gain in summer and of
heat loss in winter is also the lowest. On the othe r hand the ir overall thermal
performance and the comfort of their inhabitants de pends on t hei r design de t ails
and orientation.
The discussion of the performance of the various type s of
apartments in hot- dr y climate will follow the classification which was pre sented in
chapter 4, namely double loaded and single loaded corr idor buildidings.
Double Loaded Corridor Apartment Buildings
Double-loaded corridor buildings have poor ventilation characteristics and
poor solar exposure of at least one half of the apartments. There fore they are not
suitable at all in all types of hot climates and shall not be discussed further .
Single Loaded Corridor Buildings
Single- loaded corridor buildings may be approp riate in hot-dry climate if they
are so oriented that the corridor is open in summer and is on the leeward side of
the buillding. This orientation enables cross ventilation of the apartments when
door and windows in the corridor wall are left open.
It should be taken into account, however, that the priva cy of the occupants is
compromised when the dwelling is ventiilated. In societies which value privacy to
the extent that comfort will be sacrified for the sake of privacy this building type
should be avoided.
Direct Access Multi-Storey Apartment Building
This type of multi""Storey apartment building provides direct access to several
dwellings at each floor, usually from two to four units, from a staircase or an
elevator. The ventilation conditions and the potential for solar energy uti iliza tion
of the individual dwellings depend on the number of units accessed directly from
the staircase.
When only two apartments are accessed at each floor from the staircase all
the dwelling unit can have, with appropriate orientation, cross ventilation in
6-16
summer and potential for solar heating in winter. At the same time the envelope
of each unit consists of only two external walls, except the top floor and the end
(gable) units and thus has reduced heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter.
However, such buildings are very sensitive to orientation in their thermal
performance.
Consequently, with appropriate orientation this building type has in summer
the lowest rate of daytime heating, combined with good ventllation and convective
cooling in the evenings comparted with all the other building types. In winter the
units have the lowest demand for heat combined with good potential for solar
heating.
In hot-dry regions the appropriate orientation of the long facades would be to
South and North, to minimize solar exposure in summer and to maximize it in
winter. However, in many hot-dry regions the dominant wind direction in the
evenings, when the bulldings should be ventilated, is from the west. In such cases
the optimal orientation would be NNW and SSE.
With a "wrong" orientation, e.g. to East and West, the building will have high
solar load in summer and no potential for solar heating in winter.
In summary, with proper orientation this building type is climatically the
most suitable in hot dry climate. It should be noted, however, that limiting the
number of dwelling units directly accessed from a staircase to two units involves
higher cost.
Three or More Units Per Staircase
With more than two direct access dwelling units the ventilation and/or solar
access conditions of at least one third of the apartments is compromized. In: such
hot-dry regions where the wind direction is from the North, the ventilation issue
can be "solved" when the building as a whole faces north and south and the third
unit "projects" northward of the bullding block and the staircase. All units would
then have good ventllationm in the evenings although the northern units would not
have access to the winter sun.
With more than three dwelling units per staircase a significant number -of
"----agartments ·woul'd--·have~Qoor~xrenttlaction-and-solar~exQosure~onditi1ll'ls-.o-"'Fhere·f:ore
such buildings are not recommended for hot-dry regions.
6-17
6.6 Orientation and Width of Streets

As discussed in chapters 2 and 3, the orientation of stree ts affects the urban
climate in several ways:
Wind conditions in the urban area as a whole
Sun and shade in the streets and the sidewalks
Solar exposure of buildings along the street
Ventilation potential of the buildings along the streets
The width of the streets determines the distance between the buildings on both
sides of the street, with impacts both on the ventilation and solar utilization
potential.
In a hot dry climate the main objectives related to the street's layout are to
provide maximum shade in summer for pedestrians and minimum solar exposure of
the buildings along the streets.
The urban ventilation aspect, as related to street layout in hot dry climate, is
secondary because during daytime hours high air speed is not needed outdoors and
not desired indoors. In the evenings people can be comfortable outdoors even with
light winds, as temperatures are lower than indoors.
Narrow streets provide _better shading by buildings for pedestrians on
sidewalks than wide streets. However, shade for sidewalks can be provided even in
wide streets by special details of the buildings or by trees.
A north-south orientation of a street may result in an east-west orientation
of buildings along and parallel to the street, which will cause unfavorable solar
exposure for these buildings. From the solar exposure viewpoint an east- west street
orientation is preferable.
On the other hand in dust-prone areas, common in hot- dry regions, wide
streets parallel to the wind direction may aggrevate the dust problem in the town
as a whole . As the wind direction in many of the hot-dry regions is from the west,
there is a conflict between the solar and the dust considerations with respect to
street orientation. This conflict can be resolved by design means aimed at
suppressing the urban dust level in the whole city, a subject discussed later on in
----------1~.7~
. ------------~====------------====~----~==~--------------~
6.6.1 Impact of Street Layout on Urban Ventilation
As was discussed in Chapter 3, when the city streets are parallel to the
direction of the wind they create obstacle- free passageways , through wh-i-GI:l-tl:l€-
prevailing winds can penetrate in to the heart of the urban area.
6-18
When the city streets are perpendicular to the wind direction, and the
buildings lining these streets are long row buildings, the principal air current flows
above the buildings with sharp reduction of the wind speed at the street level and
poor ventilation potential for the buildings.
A special case is when the wind is oblique to the direction of a street and the
buildings along it. If the buildings are of medium height, up to about two time the
width of the street, then the situation will be very different along the two
sidewalks.
Pedestrians on the sidewalk at the downwind side of the street will
experience a much higher wind speed than the pedestrians on the sidewalk at the
upwind side of the street.
The reason is that along the upwind walls of the buildings a strong downward
air flow will be generated by the winds, specially near junctions with cross-streets.
The. downwind sidewalk will be directly affected by this downflow of air, while the
other sidewalk will be shielded from it.
In hot dry regions the main concern with regard to ventilation is to insure the
potential for ventilating the buildings during the evenings. To the extent that such
ventilation can be insured by the design -of the buildings themselves (e.g. by use of
wind catchers of some type) the street ventilation is of secondary importance,
although light winds are desirable in the streets and open spaces, to mitigate the
effect, as solar h~ating. In fact, during the hot daytime hours strong winds are not
desirable, as they promote dust generation. This problem is more common in many
developing countries, where many roads may be unpaved.
6.6.2 Street Orientation and Shade over Sidewalks
In a hot-dry region the provision of shade in the streets in summer is one of
the major design means for minimizing the heat stress of people walking in the
street. Different orientations of the streets will result in different annual and
diurnal patterns of the· shading in the streets and along the sidewalks. These
patterns depend on the latitude of the city in question, and most h<:>t-dry regions
are around the 30° north and south latitudes.
-~----- ---- -----Knewles-H-98-H-·has--<::empared-the- s·tree-t--shade-~a-Herns-in--di-fcf-e-r-eAt-str-ee,t-- --_--..:::::-
orientations. He has concluded that streets running north-south have better
shading conditions in summer and better light conditions in winter than east-west
streets.
6-19
A street grid in "diagonal" orientation: NE-SW and NW -SE was found to be a

preferable pattern from the solar exposure aspect. It provides more shade in
summer and more sun exposure in winter.
6.6.3 Street Orientation and the Potential for Solar Energy Utilization
In hot dry regions there is great potential for solar heating of the buildings in
winter and for water heating year round. Street orientation may affect
significantly the possiblity of achieving these objectives.
The direction of the streets with relation to the North determines the
conditions of shade and sunshine on the face of buildings which are parallel to the
street and on the side walks lining the streets. This affects the temperature and
conditions within the buildings as well as the possibilities of protecting the
pedestrian on the sidewalk from the sun in summer or of providing sunlight in the
streets in winter.
The orientation of the streets also determines in practice the orientation of
the individual lots into which the area is subdivided and consequently it greatly
affects the orientation of the buildings. In this way the street orientation has a
major impact on the potential of the individual buildings to utilize solar energy for
winter space heating, and to some extent also for year-round solar heating of
domestic water.
In general, streets running in a given direction promote building orientation
parallel to the street. This means that the main facades of buildings along a street
running from east to west are facing south and north, which of course can help in
providing solar utilization.
Therefore, the simplest approach to promotion of solar utilization in buildings
by urban design is to maximize street orientation in the east/west direction.
However, with such street orientation in mid-latitudes, as. one of the
reviewers of this book has commented, "with continous row housing a considerable
proportion of the space between buildings may be in permanent shadow. An
inclination of the facade towards the east may slightly reduce the solar radiation
----~.~--·-on-the-facade--but -the··afternoon-sun-can-gen·etrate~in~the~gace-be·tween~buitding~.::.:.::=.-:::.:: .
avoiding the cold damp areas in permanent shade during the winter months".
6-20
In case of streets running north to south it would be advisable in hot dry

regions to encourage subdivision into narrow and deep land lots. This pattern will
enable design of long buildings perpendicular to the streets and facing north and
south. Planning regulations should enable and even encourage this type of building.
6.6.4 Special Details of Buildings affecting Outdoor Conditions

Protection against sun for pedestrians on the sidewalks is very desirable in
hot dry regions. It can be provided by buildings with overhanging roofs, or
collonades in which the ground floor is set back from the edge of the road, with the
upper stories jutting out, supported by pillars (or other means).
The color of the building walls not only affects the interior climate
conditions, but also the lighting and glare in the streets. In this respect, in many
instances, contradiction may exist between the requirements for comfortable
indoor climate and those necessary to reduce the glare in the streets. ln a hot dry
climate a white color of the walls will reduce indoor heat load but will increase
outdoor glare. These conflicting requirements can be often resolved by horizontal
overhangs projecting from the walls which not only protect the windows 'from solar
radiation blit also extend over the entire length of the wall.
Such overhangs cast· shade on the section of the wall below them and also
block from pedestrian view part of the sunlighted section above them. In this way
they can greatly reduce the glare for the pedestrians.
In hot-dry regions solar protection for pedestrians is much more important
than rain protection. Built overhangs and collonades provide, of course, protection
from both, sun and rain. But when such built features are not available, solar
protection can be proviided by trees planted along sidewalks. Although they do not
protect from the rain, their contribution to pedestrians comfort is sufficient to
justify their introduction as a climatic control features.
When shading by trees is planned the design details of the sidewalks should
take into account the need for irrigation of the trees and their protection (e.g. by
fencing them).
-.-.. -~-~~~-- ·
----6-;-7~R:educing-·Bust-brTown-Planning ·~___,_,...~_ ·----~~~-~~~- ·----~~~~-·~-~- ---~------ ---
Dust storms in desert regions are of two types~
1. Regional storms, in which dust extends to great heights (hundreds of

meters}_and_c.o_v_er_s:_v_er_y_large_a.rea_s_(hundreds or thousands of kHometers).
6-2 1
Suc h dust sto rms occu r fro m ti me to t ime but are not a dail y phenomenon .
2. Loca l dust "waves", or igina t ing in t he local a rea a nd extending in he igh t
to several me ters and in dis tance covered to several hundred meters .
Such "st orms" are in many places a daily phenomeno n.
Nothing can be done on the neighbo rhood scale to stop or ev en minimize the
impact of regional dust storms outdoors , although it is possi ble to minizize the
penetration of dus t indoors. On the other hand, much can be done in neighborhood
planning to reduce the occurrence and minimize the impact of local , mo re
frequent, dust "waves".
The main factors affecting the frequency, in ten si ty and range of local dust
storms are ground cover and the wind speed near ground level. Both these factors
can be affected by neighborhood design features.
While in humid regions open extended spaces can be assumed as being covered
by natural vegetation the situation is different in a hot dry regions, especially
within an urban area. Without irrigation the soil is practically exposed and
provides a source of dust. In many cities, especially in developing countries, the
individual citizen and the municipalities cannot landscape private open spaces
between buildings or even large public open spaces.
Therefore, as a planning - policy, the density of the built up area (land
coverage) should avoid unbuilt areas that the private citizen and the municipality
cannot realistically keep up as landscaped areas.
Treatment and upkeep of ground cover should be analyzed separately fo r
privately-owned and public areas. But any bare ground not planted, irrigated, or
paved, may constitute a source of local dust storms. The exten t of such bare land
should not, the refore, be overlooked in planning outdoor space on either a
neighborhood or private scale.
In view of the fact that water is scarce and expensive in most arid areas,
private plot sizes should be such that the owners can easily plant and cultivate, or
take care in other ways, of all the area belonging to them. This calls, in the case
of individual houses, for rather small lot areas for low cost housing, which are
_ _ _ _ _ __,_,..,.,...~,...._,.._.........__s~alLga d~_,s_aw c_ao...be...kep t e fiLcientll ·nhabl.t ao-ts. - - - - - - - - - +
An exception, from this point of view, is in the case of the well-to-do, who
6-22
Public areas within the neighborhood borders should also be limited in size to
areas which can be well kept. Large public bare land is frequently the source of
dust nuisance for the built-up area around it. In land reserved for future
development the natural vegetation cover should be kept and protected.
Low hedges are effective in reducing wind speed and filtering dust near the
ground, while not blocking the wind at higher elevations. Their use, together with
other types of vegetation, should be considered as means for controlling dust in the
nei ghborhood.
In the development of new neighborhoods in desert regions, special attention
should be paid to the treatment of the windward borders. The land should be kept
in its natural condition as far as possible, so that the natural ground cover of desert
plants will Hmi t the generation of dust.
6.8 "Green" Parks in Hot Dry Regions
Urban public and private green areas, to the extent that they can be kept
properly (mainly irrigated), are a great asset in a hot dry region.
"Green" areas, covered by plants, have some properties by which they differ
from a built-up and hard-surfaced unplanted areas, as was discussed in detail in
chapter 5.
Water evaporation from the leaves minimizes their heating by the absorbed
solar radiation, and lowers significantly also the temperature of the air in contact
with them.
The evaporation from the leaves elevates the air humidity. In arid climates
the evaporation rate is high and the effect o.f the higher humidity on comfort is
welcome.
As a result of the lower temperature of the leaves and the air passing by
them, the temperatures in green areas are significantly lower than above hard
surfaces such as along roads or in a hard-surfaced open area (e.g. parking areas).
In hot dry regions parks and playgrounds should provide ample shade and
protection from dust in summer, as well as protection from cold winds in winter.
Large lawns and flower beds without shade contribute little to the recreation
~~~-·--~p.ossihilLtie.s~a.LJ.b..e_i..Qhahi.t.an.ts.....-:_oLdin.ar.y~ci:tiz~ItSe,.~Lder.tx.,_aru;LchilQ.r~ike. ..... ...N_ .....__ .
rest, relax, or play on a hot sunny day. Thus; plenty of places to sit in the shade
should be provided along roads and trails in public parks, and in children's
6-23
playgrounds. Shaded spaces for play and rest thus minimize the danger of over-
stress and heat strokes.
Provisions for wind protection in urban parks is of particular importance in
arid regions with cold winters. The availability of sunshine and the absence of
much rain in winter can enhance greatly the attraction of settlements in these
regions as winter resorts. This factor may be of significant economic value to the
community. Protection from cold winds will help greatly in enjoying these qualities
in the public urban parks.
6-24
6.9 References and Bibliography for Chapter 6
Bitan, A. (1974): "Climatological Aspects In Locating Settlements In Arid Regions."

Goeforum, V-20, pp. 39-48.
Bitan, A. (1982): "The Jordan Valley Project - A Case Study in Climate and
Regional Planning." Energy and Buildings, V-4, pp. 1-9.
Clark, K. and Paylore, P. Editors, 1980: "Desert Housing." Office of Arid Lands
Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson.
Givoni, B., 1976: Man, Climate and Architecture. 2nd Edition. Applied Science
Publishers. London.
'--
Givoni, B., 1978: "Desert Housing and Energy Conservation" in Desert Housing.
The University of Arizona. pp 49-71.
Glvonl, B., 198,?4-: "Design for Climate in H~t-Dry Cities". In W.M.O., 1986._ V\ii''-'10 65).
/
Nowles Ralph (1981) Sun, Rhythm, Form MIT Press.
W.M.O. (1986): Urban Climatology And Its Applications with Special Regard to
Tropical Areas. Proceediings of the Technical Conference held in \iexico City,
November, 1984. W Mfj · No , Co Sk:t
~~~~ ---------~---------- ------ --------- ---- ----------

7-1
Chapter 7: Urban Design Guidelines for Hot-Humid Regions

7 .1. Introduction
The hot humid regions are distinguished , from the urban and building design
viewpoint, by the following features:
- The climate is uncomfortable, and the most difficult to ameliorate by design.
- The people living in the hot-humid regions are mostly poor, and can not
afford modern mechanical air-conditioning.
- Less systematic research has been done on climatically appropriate urban and
building design for this climate in comparison with research on other
climates.
Most of the countries in the hot-humid areas are developing countries. This
fact has direct implications on the practicality of some "modern" concepts of urban
and building design from the climatic viewpoint.
The vast majority of people cannot afford air-conditioning. Therefore thermal
stress (and its impact on health and productivity) should be minimized primarily by
appropriate urban and building design details which do not involve high cost.
Landsberg (198 ~) notes that about 40% of the world population is living in the
zone between the Tropics; and this proportion is expected to increase to about 50%
at the end of the century.
These population figures demonstrate the importance of improving the comfort
conditions in the hot humid regions by adapting the cities to the climate.
7.1.1 Climatic Characteristics.of Hot-Humid Regions Relevant to Urban and

Building Design
All regions with hot-humid summers have some common characteristics, while
differing in others. Therefore they can be sub-divided into several types.
From the urban and building design viewpoint, the major climatic characteristic
is the combination of high rainfall, high temperature and high humidity and
cloudiness.
The Equatorial Hot-Humid climate type extends along a "strip" of up to 10-15
~===----d @ g r ee- 0n ei-t l:'leF siee e tfle e EJtla-ter: . Regions with--equator-1-a l climate--are mm ·n- - - - - -
Southeast Asia, Northeast Australia, Micronesia, Africa and Cental and South
America. Regions with hot humid summers but with cool winters are, for example,
7-2
in Eastern China and in the Southeast of the USA along the Gulf of Mexico
(Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana, etc.). Even more Northern States, such as
Tennessee, the Carolinas, Virginia, etc., which have cold winters, are quite hot-
humid during the summers.
The main climatic feature characterizing the "Equatorial" climate is the
relative constancy of the annual average temperature and humidity. While day-to-
day variations may be significant, the monthly averages are almost constant.
Landsberg (1984) shows the global distribution of land areas with a Mean Annual
Range of less than 50, as shown in Figure 7 .1.
The combination of high humidity and temperature, in addition to its impact on
human comfort enhances mould and fungi growth, rusting of metals and rotting of
wood and other organic materials. Building materials may decay rapidly. Various
insects, flies and mosquitoes are plentiful.
To exemplify the characteristics of the Equatorial regions, data for Singapore
and for Indonesia are given below.
Nieuwolt (1984) gives climatic data for Singapore, as shown in Figures 7.2
(diurnal temperature patterns) and 7.3 (annual hourly means). It can be seen from
Figure 7.2 that the diurnal temperature patterns depend mainly on the cloudiness
conditions. On clear days the diurnal range can be nearly 8° C., with Minima and
Maxima of about 24°C and 32°C, respectively. On cloudy days the diurnal range is
only about 40 C, with Minima and Maxima of about 23° C and 27° C, respectively.
On the other hand, as can be seen from Figure 7 .3, the monthly averages of the
hourly means are almost constant year round, indicating the absence of any
seasonal v aria tions.
From the viewpoint of urban and building design, the average climatic
conditions cannot be used without direct reference to the day to day variations in
the climate. Thus, for example, the average intensity of solar radiation is lower in
the Equatorial regions than in some other climates and the average maximum
temperature does not exceed about 30o C, but on clear days solar intensity can be
much higher and temperatures may reach about 38o C, coupled with the very high
•.
--Rumid~~y--.--·~- -.. -.-~.-..-.---~~-~~-..----~-..-_------------
~---.
A typical characteristic of hot humid climate is the significant

diurnal elevation of the ambient vapor content with the rising temperature. This
7-3
can be seen in figure 7.4 which shows maximum and minimum Dry and Wet-Bulb
temperatures taken by the Author in July, 1985 in Tallahassee, Florida. The reason
is the increased evaporation, resulting from the higher temperature and the solar
radiation, from the leaves of the ample vegetation and from the moist soil. This
feature adds, of course, to the discomfort of the inhabitants.
The wind conditions depend on the distance from the sea and may vary during
the year, depending on the annual shifting of the "Trade Wind" belt northward or
southward.
In coastal regions, sea breezes provide regular air motion, mitigating the heat
stress mainly during the afternoon hours. Nights are often windless.
In inland regions, calms are frequent even during the daytime, intensifying the
thermal stress caused by the combination of high temperature and humidity.
In the Equatorial regions precipitation is caused mainly by rising convection
currents of moist air, resulting from the convergence of the trade winds at the
Equatorial zone, after passing over extensive oceans areas. This flow pattern leads
in many areas to a regular pattern of afternoon rains, often accompanied by violent
thunderstorms.
From the design viewpoint, the conditions prevailing during the sunny days
(mainly at mid-day hours) are the important one, as the design details should aim at
alleviating thermal stress precisely at these times.
With these comments in mind, the average climatic characteristics of the
Equatorial climate is summarized below.
- Annual mean temperature- about 270 C.
- Range of average monthly temperature - 1-3° C.
- Average diurnal temperature range- 6-10° C.
- Average maximum temperature - 30o C.
- Maximum temperatures on hot-sunny days - up to 380 C.
- Average vapor pressure- about 18 mmHg.
- Wind conditions - daytime breezes in coastal areas, calm at night. General
calm conditions prevailing in inland regions. High winds may accompany rain
--~~-~~-----~-----~sq_,._aa,._-._.lt""s~•._~~_-_~~~_--------~-~-=_--=-~~---------------------------
- Solar radiation - very high intensity on clear days, diffused radiation on

cloudy hours, sharp hourly variations.
_ _ _ _ __ j
!
7-4
Precipitation high, mainly during the rainy season. Regular daily pattern of
afternoon intensive rains.
As a detailed description of the climatic conditions prevailing in an Equatorial
region, the climate of Jakarta, Indonesia, prepared by Indonesian UCLA graduate
students Marita Alisjahbana and Joost Soenardjo, is presented below.
7.1.2 Characteristics of Jakarta's Climate
Jakarta, which lies at a latitude of 6 deg. 11' S, has a warm and wet climate,
categorized as equatorial-marine. The monthly average relative humidity,
throughout the year, ranges between 70% - 80%, nearer 70% during the dry season
(May till November) and 80% during the rainy season (November till May). The
minimum average relative humidity never drops below 50%.
Monthly average temperatures, throughout the year, range between 26 and 28 deg
C, being slightly lower during the rainy season and higher during the dry season.
The average maximum temperature does not exceed 33.5° deg C and the average
minimum temperature does not drop lower than 23.5 C. The diurnal temperature
range is 6.5 till 9 deg C. Although temperatures do not go to extreme highs, the
high relative humidity combined with the temperature makes this a tough climate
which becomes extremely uncomfortable and fatiguing. The sky is usually cloudy
and winds are fairly weak, around 1.5- 2 m/s.
Two seasons occur here, i.e. the dry season from May to October and the wet
season from November to April. Temperatures and relative humidity do not differ
greatly between the seasons. What differentiates these seasons is the amount of
rainfall.
During the wet season, monthly rainfall averages between 200-600 mm per
month and during the dry season rainfall averages 0-100 m m per month.
From the comfort point of view, the rainy season is generally thought of as
more comfortable because of the cooling from the rain, but the heavy rains pose
problems of floods and a general disability to move around within the town or even
from building to building.
Buildings often have canopies or "porte cochere" at their entrance to protect
~~-~~~---~peeple--Geming--out-ef-thei-1"-Gar-s-to~tt-le-building-dur-ing--tl'le~l'"ain.--Ar-chi-tects-aLway.s _____ _
have to take the rain into consideration when designing a building or, a complex of
buildings, to ensure the mobility of the users during the rain.
7-5
The dry season is often unbearably hot and humid, which especially poses
problems of sleeping. The outside air at night is usually still comfortable but
within houses it is often stifling. This is partly due to a lack of ventilation as
windows are closed for privacy and safety.
During the day, the heat and humidity cause fatigue and headaches which in
turn reduce work efficiency. Therefore, more and more office buildings in Jakarta
are air-conditioned.
Schools are not air-conditioned and they start at 7 a.m. and end at 1 p.m., to
adjust to the climatic conditions. Afterwards, school children go home, exhausted,
and usually take a nap until 4 p.m. Because of this shortened schedule, school is 6
days a week, Saturdays are included.
Until the 1950's, a11 offices were working from 7 a.m. till 2 p.m., then the
employees would go home. This life style has now changed and private offices run
from 8 a.m. till 5 p.m. as in the international business communities. Due to this
inevitable change, most offices have to be air-conditioned to increase work
productivity. Government offices are mostly not air-conditioned and sti11 only run
till 2 p.m.
In houses, where the individual must pay for everything himself, air-
conditioning is rarely used, except in upper income families and here it is usuaJly
limited to bedrooms only.
7.1.3 Urban Design Objectives in Hot-Humid Regions
The main urban design objectives in hot-humid regions involve two.·issues:
- Minimizing the hazards from floods.
- Minimizing thermal discomfort.
These general objectives can be further elaborated and divided into urban
design and building design issues. Only urban design is discussed in this publication.
Urban Design Objectives
- Minimizing the hazards of floods by water flowing in from areas beyond the
city limits (mainly a location problem).
- Rapid disposal of excess rain water resulting from urbanization.
_____·-_-_._~_··_--_~-_-~-_--_P-_r-o_~_V~l_·d_i_r:~,.,...g-:._r-_~a_i_n_.-P._I"_~o_t_e_c:_~t_io_
. r:l_--_f_o_r-~~p_e_~d_e._s_t_r:._ia_n_s_~_in_-_'!_c:;o_-_m_m_._e_I"G_-l_·a_~l_'!.._s__t_l"e_-e_-t_s_..-_-_~~--~_-_-_ _ _ _ _ ----~~.:=J
- Providing shade for pedestrians (on sidewalks).
- Providing shade for outdoor activities such as children's playing areas, etc.
7-6
- Enabling good natural ventilation of the urban space (streets, open spaces
between buildings, public open spaces, etc.).
- Providing good ventilation potential for the buildings (air flow conditions
around them).
- Minimizing the "heat island" effect in densely built areas.
The main urban design features which can contribute to the achievement of these
objectives and which are discussed below are:
- Location of the town within a given region.
- Layout of the streets network.
- Density of the built-up area.
- Average and relative height of buildings.
- Proper choice of Building types.
- Design details of the open "green" areas.
Discussion of the impact of these urban design features on the climate of
inhabitants' comfort in hot-humid regions and suggestions for the relevant design
strategies, is presented in the following.
7.2. locational Considerations in Hot-Humid Regions
When a new town is planne~_ in a given region having a hot-humid and "wet"
climate, or when a new neighborhood is being planned or reconstructed in an
existing city, the following considerations should guide the planners:
- Avoidance of flood prone areas for dense residential or commercial land uses.
Such flood water may originate in areas far away from the town itself (e.g.
mountains around it).
- Preference for areas with good natural wind conditions and, if available, also
lower temperatures. This factor is important mainly for residential areas,
but even in the streets of commercial areas, assuming that the buildings are
air-conditioned, good ventilation is important for the comfort of the
pedestrians.
- Availability of natural drainage in the small-scale topograhical features of
the area, mainly for excess rain water accumulated within the urban area
_ __ ~------itself. --~------~- _________ _
7-7
Flood Risk Considerations

Flat areas along rivers or near outlets of rivers may be subjected to severe
floods when heavy rain, often in far away catchment areas, raise the water level
above the "normal" flood level.
Many hot-humid coastal regions are in areas prone to hurricane (or cyclone as
they are called in Southeast Asia) hazards. The storms are accompanied by very
high rainfall. Along the coastal areas, the rise of the sea level and the high waves
caused by the very high on-shore winds, may cause severe damage and loss of life
to people living in the flooded areas.
Some protection from hurricane winds can be achieved by taking advantage of
certain topographical features which provide shelter from high winds in choosing a
location for a settlement. Also dense groves and forests of high and strong trees
can provide some protection from the hurricane winds. These points were
graphically illustrated by Carmona (198#\ see figures 7.5.
Davis (1984) states that the main areas vulnerable to high winds and floods are
river valleys, estuaries and the coastal belts in areas subject to cyclonic storms.
Often such areas are attractive for naturally irrigated agriculture because of the
fertility of the land, or for providing opportunities for fishing, coastal trade, etc.
This economic attractiveness should be weighted against the risks of life and
property losses during cyclonic floods.
The risks associated with urban locations in such flood-prone areas should
therefore be evaluated in the decision process considering the locations of new
towns, or expansion of existing ones.
Natural Ventilation Considerations
A major factor determining the level of thermal stress in a hot-humid region is
the potential for natural ventilation. Topographical features of the land may
exhibit very different characteristics of the wind conditions, especially during
periods of light winds.
Windward slopes are preferable to leeward slopes from the ventilation
viewpoint. Valley slopes may experience downslope air currents during windless
nights, thus __ providing, more comfortable conditions___jls compared _with the valley________
floor area (Lyons, 198#).
Seashore and large lakeshore areas may benefit from the daytime sea and
nighttime land breezes. Of particular importance is the daytime sea-breeze which
7-8
usually reaches its maximum speed in the afternoon, when the temperature
difference between the cooler sea and the warmer land is largest. In this case, the
sea breeze provides comfort to the affected areas by the combination of higher
velocity and lower temperatures, as compared with more "sheltered" nearby areas.
7.3 Minimizing Flood Hazards by Urban Design Features
Floods in urban areas can be caused either by water flowing through the city
originating in far away areas, or by excess rain water over the city, which cannot
be absorbed in the soil or discharged away fast enough. During rains, the city itself
increases the excess of water run-off. The ability of the ground in an urban area to
absorb water is reduced, as a result of the coverage of the land by buildings, roads,
parking areas, etc. This factor increases the risks from floods in low lying flat
urban areas.
The concentrated flow of rain water from far away areas, very much greater
than the town's area itself, can raise the water level several meters above the
"normal" and cause major destruction. No urban design details can prevent such
floods except avoiding locations prone to it. Therefore, the prevention of such
hazards, often involving also loss of life, is by avoiding urban development in areas
where such floods are common.
In practice other considera tlons, mainly economical, may put pressure for urban
development in flood-prone areas, such as along banks of rivers, low lying flat
areas, etc. The probability of a given flood level occurring within a given period
(number of years) is often used as a basis for cost/benefit considerations for urban
development in a given areas, prone to floods by water originating far away.
Careful consideration of this aspect at the stage of initial location of a town can
later save lives and reduce the property damage resulting from severe floods in
densely inhabited areas.
On the other hand, the risk of floods from excess rain water within the
boundary of the city itself can be minimized by details of urban design. The
following design details can be applied to achieve this goal:
- Increasing rain absorption in soil in the urban area, thus reducing run-off.
- Preserv ing___gf}Q___EE_t_l![~ ___Qf__Q_C!tt.J@LQ_r~g~~cj)~_!n~~()~~~~~_!!_~-----
systems.
7-9
- Collecting excess run-off in urban reservoirs, such as mini-lakes, which can

also be incorporated in the urban landscape design.
The network of valleys which naturally drain off the rain water from the town's
area can serve as urban parks and other open spaces. With proper planting they can
be re-used for such functions after the rain water subsides. In this way, they serve
the socio-functional needs of the people together with this climate related
function.
From the above it is obvious that minimizing flood hazards has to start with
loca tlon and land-use planning, the ini tlal stages of urban design.
Dunne (1984) has presented two types of design strategies which can reduce the
hazards of flooding in urban areas, aiming at the following objectives:
- Reducing storm run-off volumes
- Delaying run-off and extending the period of draining into the drainage
channels.
Reducing Run-off Volumes
Dunne notes that the "most obvious method of reducing runoff is to maintain as
much of the natural vegetation and permeable topsoil as possible". He also
recommends "planting of covers that are effective in maintaining high infiltration
capacities and in protecting against soil. erosion". Trees, like many, eucalypti,
which render the soil beneath them bare and erodible, are not very useful for
runoff control.
It should be noted that a significant portion of the urban surfaced area is not
subjected to heavy vehicular traffic, such as parking lots, pedestrian areas, etc.
These areas can be surfaced with permeable pavement, such as open-grated
concrete blocks, special bricks, etc. Soil can be laid and seeded with suitable grass
to promote infiltration. A layer consisting of a mixture of sand and gravel under
the blocks can increase the area of effective infiltration below the semi-hard
surface, thus increasing the rate of water absorption in the ground.
An interesting planning policy for increasing absorption of rain water in the
ground was implemented in the city of Davis, California. All public parking areas
are~surfaced~wHh~Qerforated·-bloc ks~-Instead~of~undergrou nd~d ra-inage~QiQes,the----- -- ---
runoff discharge is through an interconnected wide shallow grassy valleys,
functioning as natural drainage features of the landscape. These "valleys" form an
7-10
integral part of the urban open spaces system. The natural exposed drainage
channels proved to be more effective than the conventional underground drainage
pipes during extreme rainstorms.
Delaying Runoff
Delaying the peak and spreading the duration of the runoff water involves
temporary storage of a given amount of water over a land surface, or within a
gravel layer over the soil.
Many institutional, commercial and industrial new urban buildings have flat
roofs which structurally can hold a layer of water. Dunne (1984-) suggests that such
roofs can be used to retain water during the rain and release it slowly afterwards.
It should be noted that if these "roof ponds" keep a given level of water also
after the rain, to be evaporated during the sunny periods between rains, they can
significantly reduce the heat load on the building.
Temporary shallow pending of rainwater is possible also in parking lots,
provided that the height of the pond does not prevent its functional use. If the
parking area is filled with layer of gravel of a given depth below the functional
surface, it can hold temporarily a given amount of water without interfering with
its use.
Dunne (1984) suggests that-it is possible to utilize natural depressions or
excavations within the urban area as temporary storage of rain water. Another
suggestion of Dunne is to construct small dams where topography is suitable to
create detention basins. Such basins can be used as grazing or recreation areas
between storms.
However, care should be taken to avoid pools with longterm standing water
where insects may breed.
7.4 Layout of the Streets • Network
The network of the streets in an urban area, from major arteries down to access
roads in residential areas, is one of the major determinants of the form of a city.
The orientation of the streets has both direct and indirect impact on the urban
climate and on the indoor climate of buildings.
---- -~T-he~main~e-1-im a-t-ie--eejee-t-iN-es~in-a-l'lot-l"lwm-iEl~e-lim-a-te,--G0AG~min~~the-...st~~t----
layout within the urban area, are to provide good ventilation conditions for
pedestrians in the streets and good potential for ventilation of the buildings along
7-11
the streets. The "ideal" design solutions for these two objectives are not the same
and a compromise may be called for.
Another objective is to provide shade over sidewalks in streets with large
concentrations of pedestrians. Such shade can be provided by trees along
sidewalks, as well as by special details of the buildings (see chapter 3). So when
conflicts exist between street layout aimed at provision of ventilation and that
aimed at shading of the sidewalks, the ventilation aspects may be more important
in a hot-humid climate.
The issue of street orientation and width is of importance mainly in densely
built urban sections, such as commercial sections and high density residential areas
with large apartment blocks. In low density residential areas, where detached
single family houses with private open spaces around them are common, the
problem is of minor significance. In such urban areas, the wind can flow between
and around the buildings. Consequently, the role of the streets for wind passage is
rather small. Therefore the following discussion is relevant mainly to high density
urban sections.
The best ventilation within the streets and the sidewalks is achieved when the
street is parallel to the directiOf2 of the prevailing winds during the afternoon hours
(when the urban temperature reaches its maximum).
However, when streets are parallel to the wind direction and the buildings along
them face the street, the ventilation potential of the buildings is compromised.
The reason is that with this orientation, all the walls of the building are in
"suction" zones. Effective indoor cross-ventlla tion can occur in a bullding only
when at least one of its walls (and windows) are in a "pressure" zone.
Streets perpendicular to the wind direction, with closely spaced long buildings
along them, may block the wind in the whole urban area, therefore such long
uninterrupted streets do not contribute at all to the urban ventilation in hot humid
regions.
A good street layout from the urban ventilation aspect, in a hot-humid region is
when wide main avenues are oriented at an oblique angle to the prevailing winds
-~-~---~--- ____(e.•_g.~aJ_.ab.o.u.t__JQ.2}.~T-hls-or:.len-ta..tion-S-ti-1-l-ef-lat.ll0--s--p<im@.t-l'-a-t-ian-af~tt-le--w-in Ef-i-nta-the--- --
heart of the town. The buildings along such avenues are exposed to different air
pressures on their front and back facades. The upwind wall is at the pressure zone
w_h_il_e_the downwind wall is a.._t_.t_:_"h-'""e_.s'-'u._..c:.'t~io~n._.__.z.._..o'-'n_._e.._.._________________
_______
7-12
This street orientation thus provides a good potential for natural ventilation of
the buildings while at the same time provides also good ventilation in the streets. It
is desirable mainly in high density residential urban zones.
7.5 Urban Density and Building Heights in Hot-Humid Regions

Urban density is among the major factors which determines the urban
ventilation conditions, as well as the urban temperature. Under given
circumstances, an urban area with high density of buildings can experience poor
ventilation and strong "heat island" effect. In hot-humid regions these features
would lead to a high level of thermal stress of the inhabitants and, in air-
conditioned buildings, to increased use of energy.
Carmona (1984) has commented that although "the natural arrangement of
buildings in the wet tropics would seem to tend towards a certain amount of
scattering ••• economic and social imperatives dictate that cities must become more
concentrated, making it necessary to increase the density to reduce the cost of
public services and achieve required social cohesiveness."
Thus the reality of modern urbanization leads to higher densities than is the
case in traditional settlements but, with suitable urban and building's design
details, this should and could be accomplished with minimum worsening of the
environmental quality.
Generally speaking, the higher the density of the buildings in a given area, the
poorer will be its ventilation conditions. However, for a given density level there
can be different urban ventilation conditions, depending on the particular
configuration of buildings by which this density is obtained.
An urban configuration to be avoided as much. as possible in hot humid regions is
that of high long buildings, of the same height, perpendicular to the prevailing wind
direction. This configuration · blocks the wind and creates poor ventilation
conditions both in the streets and for the buildings, as the first row of buildings
acts as a wind barrier.
An urban profile of variable buildings, where buildings of different heights are
. plaG@d~r:te-x-t~to~@aGh-oth@r-,-and~wJ:t@n~th~lon-g-faGades.of-th~buUdin.gs-ar:e-oblique-to-- _,__ . - ...
the wind, enhances the urban ventilation (see details in chapter 3).
7-13
At a given density level, the best urban climate conditions exists in a hot humid
climate when that density is obtained with high narrow buildings ("towers"), placed
as far apart from each other as is consistent with the given density.
Such configuration provides the best ventilation conditions for the given urban
section as a whole, and especially for the occupants of the buildings. Several
factors contribute to this effect:
a) Narrow, "tower-like" buildings located far apart cause mixing of the air
stream at higher elevations with the air near ground. Part of the wind
momentum at the higher level is thus transferred to the lower level,
increasing the wind speed near the ground. This effect improves the
ventilation conditions for the lower floors, as well as for the pedestrians
in the streets and the open spaces between the buildings.
b) With this configuration a greater proportion of the population lives and
works at higher elevation above the ground. Both the temperature and
the vapor pressure decrease with height, especially in a densely built-up
urban area. Therefore the comfort conditions for the people living in the
upper floors are improved.
c) As the air temperature at a height of 30-40 meters is lower than the air
near the ground, (which is heated by the warmer ground) the mixing of the
layers from different heights lowers the air temperature at the
"pedestrian level".
It should be noted, however, that high buildings involve "high" techology, both in
their construction process and in their occupation patterns. In particular, high
buildings need elevators and regular maintenance. Consequently, they are suitable
mainly to high income people.
It should also be noted that high buildings are not sui table for families with
small children, especially the large low income famllles forming the vast majority
of the population in developing countries.
In summary, it seems that high-rise buildings, designated for high income
families with few or without children, can contribute to the urban climate in hot-
_bumid ~glQr:ls when disP-ersed among lower bJ!ildings...~Em:.-OJ.t~CI.gillg~ur:ban~-----
development with buildings of different height next to each other, thus improves
the urban ventilation.
7-14
7.6 Characteristics of Different Building Types in Hot-Humid Regions

The general climatic characteristics of different building types has been
discussed in Chapter 4 of this publication. Here the features of different building
types which are of importance in hot humid regions will be discussed specifically.
As most countries in the hot-humid areas are developing countries, the special
social problems and needs of the population should be a critical factor in choosing a
given building type. However, as this publication is limited to dealing with the
climatic aspects, the social impacts of the different building types will not be
discussed here, except for some comments when seemed appropriate.
Four residential building types will be discussed in the following:
Single family houses
Townhouses
Multi-storied long apartment buildings
High-rise "tower" buildings
7.6.1 Detached Single Family Houses
By definition, detached houses are exposed to the outdoor air on all sides. This
feature provides good potential for natural ventilation.
The larger surface area of the envelope typical for such buildings results in a
higher overall heat exchange coefficient between the building and its thermal
environment. For air conditioned buildings, it means a higher demand for energy,
compared with other types of buildings, in particular because of the high latent
load from infiltration of the humid air in a hot-humid region.
However, in buildings relying on natural ventilation for comfort, as would be
the case with the housing of the vast majority of people in developing countries,
the situation is different.
The temperature difference which may exist during the daytime hours between
the indoor air and the outdoors is very small in a cross-ventilated building with
reasonable insulation of the walls and the roof. The comfort of the occupants is
almost unaffected by the heat flow into the building, except for solar penetration
through unshaded windows. It depends only on the indoor air and surfaces
~~~----~-t_eJnp_e.~as_u_rg_s_(as~_as._o_n_jljr velocit)f and humidity). These tem~C!!~~,_j_!!_j_UJJl,~--- ____ _
---------------
depend mainly on the rate of outdoor air flow through the building. In the evenings
and night hours, when the wind subsides and the outdoor temperature is lower than
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~- ------ ~
7-15
the indoor, a larger surface area of the envelope actually speeds up the cooling
rate of the interior.
As a detached house has the potential for a higher natural ventilation rate than
other types, the indoor temperatures will be closer to the outdoor. Thus, for a
given thermal quality of the envelope (its thermal resistance), the expected indoor
comfort during the daytime hours would not be worse than in more compact
buildings.
Furthermore, during the evening and night hours, when the outdoor wind usually
weakens or subsides, a detached house will cool down faster than other types of
buildings, providing better comfort.
In summary, it could be stated that from the climatic aspect, a detached house
is the most suitable in a hot-humid climate. This feature should be taken into
account by urban planners, especially since this type is also more suitable socially
and functionally to the needs of large low income famllles.
7 .6.2 Townhouses (Row Buildings)

Townhouses are comprised of a set of several single family units, attached to
each other on their sidewalls, thus forming a "row" of dwelling units. The units can
range in height from a single storey up to three stories.
In hot-humid regions townhouses provide the next best building type for mass
housing, from the climatic aspect, after detached houses. Townhouses can
potentially be more comfortable in hot-humid regions than multi-storied apartment
buildings.
The main difference between townhouses and multi-storied apartment buildings
is in the ability of the former to utilize the roof for ventilation. In regions with
weak winds, the roof details can form "wind-catchers", taking advantage of the
higher wind speed at higher elevation above the ground level.
In multi-storied townhouses, internal staircases can form natural shafts for
vertical air flow. When these shafts are large enough, they transform the whole
space of the house into an integrated space from the air flow aspect.
At nl.ght,.JLben~~caJr:ns~tcequently_~pr:e¥-aiLand~.when,~as~a~-r,e-sut!-,~the.~indoor--~-- --~~ . j
-----
temperature is higher than the outdoors, the multi-storey vertical shafts enhance
7-16
the "thermosyphonic" ventilation of the indoor space caused by the indoor-outdoor

temperature difference.
The thermosyphonlc air flow is proportional to the square root of the vertical
distance between the inlet and outlet openings (Givoni, 1969). On windless nights
the lower windows at the ground floor can serve as inlets and the upper windows at
the top floor as outlets. In a townhouse two to three stories high the vertical
height of the ventilation path can provide enhanced ventilation and cooling rate
during windless nights, thus improving the ability to recuperate at night from the
day's thermal stress. Even in single storey townhouses it is possible to enhance
thermo-syphonic air flow by special vertical ventilation shafts, which can also
double as wind catchers when wind is available.
7 .6.3 Multi-Storey Apartment Buildings

Multi-storied apartment buildings may present difficulties in providing cross
ventilation, unless they are planned with staircases (or elevators in buildings with
too many storeys for walkup) serving only two units per floor (see details in
Chapter 4).
The worst conditions would be in buildings with internal, double-loaded
corridors. Most of the apartments (except perhaps the end ones) would have very
poor ventilation conditions. Even if each room would have two windows with wing
walls (Chandra and Fairey, 1981) only the apartments on the side of the building
facing the wind could expect reasonable ventilation. The apartments on the
leeward of the building would not even have the chance for good ventilation.
Therefore such apartment buildings should be avoided in hot-humid regions, in spite
of being the least expensive, especially for buildings with elevators.
When the corridor is external and open (like a balcony), it is theoretically
possible to have cross ventilation in the apartments along it. In order to have such
ventilation, doors and windows in the walls along the corridor should be left open.
This, of course, severely interferes with the visual and acoustical privacy of the
occupants (see details in Chapter 4),
.~--Ho_w_eJLer_,~iLan_e.xtem.aLsiogLe=.Lo_a_d,e_cLcQLr'.ido_r_i,s___cLQs.!:!~d_,_.e_'Len. the. theo re ti cal
possibility of cross-ventilation for the apartments along it does not exist. In this
case the apartments should face the wind side of the building and the windows
designed wl th wing-walls (G i voni, 197 6; Fairey & Chandra, 1981 ).
7-17
When a staircase serves only two unl ts per floor, each apartment is exposed to
at least two external walls. With adequate internal organization of the indoor
space it is then possible to insure good ventilation conditions to all the dwelling
units.
To achieve this goal, the building should be so oriented that the wind will be
either perpendicular or oblique with an angle of not more than 60 degrees from the
perpendicular position.
During windless hours such apartments can not utilize thermo-syphonic
ventilation because of their limited vertical dimension. Consequently they are
likely to be less comfortable than townhouses.
7.6.4 Highrise "Tower" Buildings
This type of building, which requires sophisticated structure, elevators and
other mechanical systems, is applicable only to relatively high income people and
therefore can not solve the mass housing problems of the developing countries.
However, it has sorne interesting features from the climatic aspect in hot-
humid regions and therefore deserves attention.
When high narrow buildings are placed relatively far apart, they do not reduce
the air speed near the ground level (see detailed discussion in chapter 3). In fact
such buildings can increase appreciably the low level air speed, thus improving the
ventilation potential for lower buildings between them and in the streets.
The occupants of the high storeys enjoy lower temperature, as well as lower
humidity (as the vapor is generated at the ground level). This is in addition to the
better ventilation potential and the view offered from the high storeys.
Providing high standard, although expensive, housing in a city can also increase
its attractiveness for professionals and high income popoulation groups, an
attraction which is an asset for towns of developing countries.
7.7 Design Details of Open "Green" Spaces in Hot-Humid Regions

The climatic objectives in planning urban open "green" areas (parks, playing
grounds, etc.) in hot-humid regions should be:
~~~~ ________...__TQ_p_r_QxLde_sbade_toctbe_user_s_oLthese_ar:eas. _____ ~------------~--------
- To minimize blocking of the wind within the open spaces.

- To improve ventilation conditions in the built-up areas around the open
spaces.
7-18
- To minimize floods in the more sensitive urban areas.

Because of the high precipitation in hot-humid regions, local plants do not need
irrigation most of the year. Therefore, it is possible to maintain "green" areas with
less maintenance work and expenses than in arid regions.
The impact of plants on human comfort in hot-humid areas can be a mixed bag.
The shading provided by trees is always welcomed. However, the blockage of the
wind and the contribution to the humidity level by evaporation from the leaves
increases human discomfort.
Trees with a high trunk and wide canopy are the most effective plants in
providing usable shade. If densely placed, they of course block the wind.
Therefore, the best strategy with such trees is to have them only at the spots
where their shade will be utilized, such as near benches, children play areas, along
pathways, etc.
High shrubs block the wind and "contribute" to the humidity level without
provision of shade. Therefore, their introduction should be minimal in parks in hot-
humid regions, although they have aesthetic and functional uses as area dividers,
etc.
A combination of grasses, low flower beds and shade trees with high trunks is
thus the most appropriate plants combination in p~rks in this climate.
Low lying areas prone to floods can be grassed and planted with trees which can
withstand flooding. If the vegetation can withstand a given height of water for a
few days, then such areas can be utilized as flood controls during and immediately
after rain storms. During the periods between the storms, such areas can again be
useful public green spaces for recreation, grazing, etc.
7-19

j
!')
Carmona, L. S. de (198%). "Human Comfort in the Urban Tropics". In W.M.O.

(1986) pp. 354-404. 'v',./Ho iVIJ, Gs·'2-
Chandra, S. and P. W. Fairey (1981): "Passive Cooling by Natural Ventilation: A

Literature Review." Florida Solar Energy Center. Cape Canaverale.
f
Davis, Ian R. "

(198'4): "The Planning and Maintenance of Urban Settlements to
Resist Extreme Climatic Forces." In W.M.O. (1986) pp. 277-312 •• V>·''·· "'~ i
Dunne, T. (198.#}: "Urban Hydrology in the Tropics: Problems, Solutions, Data

Collection and Analysis." In W.M.O. (1986) pp. 405-434 •• \1\.lt'/ v 1\1"'.
Givoni, Baruch (1969): Man, Climate & Architecture. Applied Science

Publishers. Paperback 2nd Edition. Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Jauregni, E. (198'4): "Tropical Urban Climates." In W.M.O. (1986) pp .. 26-45.
,
Lansberg (1984): "Problems of Design for Cities in the Tropics." In W.M.O.
(1986) pp.461-472.
Lyons, T. J. (198~): "Climatic Factors in the Siting of New Towns and

Specialized Urban Facilities." In W.M.O. (1986) 473-486. Wt'vW- N.;, GS 2
Nieuwolt, S. (198'4.). "Design for Climate in Hot-Humid Cities." In W.M.O.-

(1986) 514-534. \A;W\io fvv .651
W.M.O. ( 1986). Urban Climatology and its Applications with Special Reference
~~~--'-~-~---~~_D-Q~_hJ~JI".9~ing~~!J.kal-C..QDJ~_r_e_r:Lc~_bel.cUo__ M_e_xi.co_City_. ___ ~ ..~~ ___ _
November 1984. W~i.O, ~v)o. 652.
7-20
Figure 7.1 Areas with annual temperature range (warmest-coldest month) of

5oc (Landberg, 1984).
Hourly means of air temperature at singapore (Nieuwolt, 1984).

Figure 7.2
lt JUN( 1111
•c
: '
..'
' ~
JO
u ,.... ""
:
26
ll ·~
NOON
~---------------------~L.t/r 11 lunc,~L__lO__tl_b~J!IL<l-Uiil!>_b_UJnL<._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
:4 .. .. 0
l hn.,. 1966: 0
!6 • 11.00
Rtrlu. ~0 sunny days mote 1tun 9 hours of lun1oh1ne e.J.ch day 11 t;65)
:"0 cloudy d.lyS lcu tb.an I hour of sund\tnt: ucb CS.ay (196.5)
Tlu:: two aroups were cqu.ally cflunbulct.J a..,er the ddft:ren1 mon!ht of !he yur.
Figure 7.3 Temperature during sunny and cloudy days in Singapore (Nieuwolt,
1984).
7-21
Figure 7.4- Maximum and minimum air temperatures measured in Tallahassee

Florida in July 1985.
Hu rr ic& ne Vind J
Figure 7.5 Use of topography and forests for protection from Hurricune
winds (Carmona, 1984}.
8-1
Chapter 8: Design Principles For Composite Climates

This chapter deals with regions which have more than one stressful main season.
Specifically, the climatic types discussed are the monsoon climate, having two
stressful hot seasons: a hot dry and a hot humid, and regions with hot humid
summer but cold winters, with temperatures below the freezing point.
The conflicting comfort and building performance requirements during the
different stressful seasons call for buildings which can change their thermal
performance characteristics . This subject will also be addressed in this chapter.
As the urban design issues for hot dry and hot wet regions were discussed in
details in chapters 6 and 7, respectfully, this chapter will be a shorter one, and
concentrate on the changes in the urban "performance" requirements during the
different seasons, and design solutions to deal with them.
8.1 Design Principles for Monsoon Climate
8.1.1 Climatic Characteristics
Regions with \1\onsoon climates have two distinctive hot seasons: a hot - dry one
(usually April-June in the Northern Hemisphere) and a hot-humid-wet one (usually
July-September). Regions with Mon soon climates are found mainly in India, South-
east Asia and West Africa. The condition of central India (Delhi) will be assumed
in the following.
High temperatures, low humidity and intense sunshine are prevalent during the
hot-dry season. Winds are often dust-laden . The climate in this season is very
similar to that prevailing in the hot-dry regions discussed in Chapter 6.
Somewhat lower temperatures (still too high from the human comfort
aspect),high humidity, cloudy skies and heavy rains occur during the hot-humid
season. The climate then resembles that prevailing in the hot-humid regions
discussed in Chapter 7.
Typically, the wind directions are different during the hot-dry and the hot-
humid seasons. In India the winds in the \1\onsoon season are blowing northward
over the Indian Ocean, where they accumulate the high moisture content. On their
------wa~y N~r:-tt:le laAe-tt:l~y may-&~oJ~v" f-ro s-o~::~tfl~eas,t 0 0'1::1"tfl -w~st. 91::1FiA tl"\ A0t- -----___,
dry season the wind usually blows from Central Asia towards the Indian Ocean
and Australia, thus being mainly northern winds.
8-2
The winter (November-February) is mild, with plenty of sunshine and

comfortable temperatures.
The annual patterns of the average maximum and minimum temperatures, with
the associated humidity conditions in Delhi, India, plotted on a Psychrometric chart
by Padmanabhamurty (198\\ is shown in figure 8.1. In this figure the data for the
conditions in the urban area, as well as in the surrounding rural area, are shown in
juxtaposition, demonstrating the urban effect o_f the heat island.
8.1.2 Comfort and design Objectives in Monsoon Regions
Urban and building design in regions with Monsoon climates have to deal with
the different climatic conditions prevailing in the hot-dry and the hot-humid
seasons, as well as with the winter conditions. For each one of the three different
seasons, characterizing regions with monsoon climates, different and often
conflicting comfort requirements may exist and different urban and building
performance objectives would be appropriate. The design guidelines however
should lead to indoor and outdoor optimal conditions year round.
During the hot dry season, daytime ventilation of buildings is undesirable
because it will introduce hot, dust-laden, air into the building interior.
Outdoors, where daytime temperatures are much higher in this season than
indoors, light wind is physiologically desirable to provide adequate sweat
evaporation and reduce the physiological impact of the high solar radiation.
In the evening and night hours indoor and outdoor ventilation is very important,
both for physiological comfort and for flushing out heat stored during daytime in
the building materials, as well as to cool the mass of the "urban structure".
Protection from the intense solar radiation is of primary importance both
indoors and outdoors, to prevent overheating of pedestrians in streets and to
minimize the elevation of the indoor temperature.
During the hot-wet (the \~onsoon) season the primary objective is that of
providing ventilation even during the rains, to facilitate sweat evaporation in spite
of the high humidity, while pr~venting rain water penetration into the building
through the windows (open for ventilation). Rain protection for pedestrians
--O·Y-tdoo.r-,.--ma,i.n.l¥~ine..--tl:le~com.m.er_ci.aLan.d_cultur.aLcen.ter_Lin_~tbe_ur_b_an__s~iiQ.n_~,__ll_----~-· --- i
also very important.

8-3
Although the average solar radiation is weaker in the hot-humid season than in
the hot-dry one, it can add significantly to physiological heat stress and buildings
heat load. When the sky is clear, in days or hours between the cloudy periods,
solar intensity can be very high. Therefore solar protection is important both
outdoors and indoors in this season as well.
The desired thermal performance characteristics of the building during the hot-
humid season are very different from those desired during the hot-dry season. The
high humidity makes daytime ventilation essential for physiological comfort. The
smaller outdoor temperature range does not enable the achievement of large
reduction of the indoor temperature below the outdoor's daytime level, even in an
un-ventilated, high-mass building.
The design objectives concerning solar radla tlon are different in the hot seasons
(both dry and wet) and in the winter. During the hot seasons protection from the
sun is essential indoors as well as outdoors. However, during the winters and the
transition comfortable periods solar energy, which is then plentiful, is desirable.
It can also be utilized for space heating when heating is needed. Solar energy can
be used for domestic hot water heating year round, and design provisions for such
utilization should be provided.
The conflicting performance requirements during the different seaso[ls call for
building types which can change their thermal performance characteristics and the
relationship between the indoor and the outdoor temperature patterns during the
different seasons. Thus, the building should have high lnteria and 11
closed"
characteristics during the hot dry season and behave like an open but sheltered
11 11 11 11
building during the hot-wet season.

Design principles aiming at achieving these conflicting objectives are suggested
later on (8.1.6).
8.1.3 Urban Design Objective in Regions with Monsoon Climate
Because regions with a monsoon climate have two very different stressful
seasons the urban design should · try to alleviate the dim a tic discomfort and
hazards both in the hot-dry and the hot-humid seasons.
~~~~- ~------The-fact-that~the-pr.evailin&-w-ind-di~eGtloRs-ar-e-c:IH-fer-en-t-dur-ing-the-not--dry-and- --_-:__·~.~
the hot-humid seasons can be utilized in considering several elements of the urban
design, such as in -.choice of location, land-use planning, nelghborhood structure, r
etc.
8-4
Thus, in choosing locations for new cities or neighborhoods and in planning the
overall structure of the city the following objectives could be stated:
- Minimizing the temperatures in the urban area.
- Securing good urban ventilation, mainly during the hot-humid season.
- Minimizing the hazards of floods during rainy season.
- Providing shade and rain protection for pedestrians, mainly in the commercial
and cultural areas.
8.1.4 Locational Considerations in Regions with Monsoon Climates
The best locations in this climate type are sites with high elevation above the
general level of the region, with slopes facing the wind direction during the hot-
humid season and enabling fast drainage of the water during the intense rains.
In estimating the reduction in daytime temperatures with elevation above the
"general" level of a region a distinction should be made between sites close to the
sea and inland areas (e.g. beyond about 50 km).
In inland areas the drop of the near-ground air temperature with elevation is
about 0.6-0.8 C per 100 meters. However, when air coming from the sea flows over
rising land during the daytime hours, it is heated by the warmer ground. Therefore
in hills near a sea the actual change of the daytime air temperature with elevation
is rather small.
In India the main wind direction during the hot-humid season is from the south.
It means that southern slopes will enjoy better ventilation potential than northern
slopes.
Flat areas at the bottom of hills, as well as flat valleys, are prone to floods and
therefore should be considered as the least favorable in this climate type.
8.1.5 Neighborhood Design with Respect to Urban Ventilation
The urban ventilation objectives are different in the two stressful seasons. ln the
hot-humid season natural ventilation' of the buildings~ as well as mild wind speeds in
the streets and other open areas, are very· desirable for minimizing thermal stress
outdoors and indoors.
In the hot-dry season low daytime wind speeds are needed for outdoor thermal
Go.m-f.o.r~t~wl:'ti-l.e.-i.ndo:okv.en.ti.la,tl.on-Js.,:,noLde.sir:able.;;a.LaU•.~:~~-
----------------------------------------------------------
·' As in· Central ·India the dominant wind direction during the hot-dry season is
from the north and during the hot-humid· season from the south, the design of
neighborhoods should encourage urban ventilation mainly by winds from the south~· ·
- - - - - - - ' " ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - " " ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : " _ _ - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ---- --------
8-5
The northern winds during the hot-dry season are often dust-laden. Reducing
the wind speed at the northern borders of the residential neighborhoods can thus
reduce the dust nuisance.
A specific placement of different building types can enhance ventilation by
winds from one direction while reducing the speed of winds from the opposite
direction. In the case of India the objective would be to enhance the southern
winds and to reduce the speed of the northern winds.
At the scale of neighborhood design this objective can be achieved by varying
the building's size and urban density from South to North. Smaller buildings (e.g.
single family and duplexes) could be located on the Southern part of the
neighborhood. Multi-story apartment blocks could be located on the Northern side,
with open spaces between the buildings, so that the Northern winds are reduced but
not blocked altogether. Groves of trees, on the Norethern edge of the neighborhood
and between the apartment blocks can filter dust out of the wind with some
reduction of the strong winds. (see also chapter 8.2.2).
In many areas, mainly those located far away from the ocean, the winds in a
given season blow from the same general direction day and night. In most cases
the wind speed at night is much lower than during the daytime.
In regions with monsoon climates this factor .poses a dilemma for the urban
planner. Too much suppression of the northern winds during the daytime hours of
the hot-dry season would prevent effective ventilation of the buildings and the
urban space as a whole during the night hours. Therefore the suppression of the
Northern winds should be moderate. "Intercepting" the wind by a wide strip of high
trees spaced not too close, reduces the strong winds more than the light winds, and
can be useful in modulating the Northern winds.
Protection from excessive wind speed inside the buildings is more easily
accomplished (e.g. by closing windows) than obtaining ventilation when wind is
absent at all. Concequently the main concern in the urban design in regions with
monsoon climates during the hot-humid season should be the prevention of
excessive heat stress by promoting urban ventilation by southern winds. Protection
------~~~:.!!.:::~~~~~~~...._~~......,...._,.,
duclog_tbe..boL.dr:y, eason · les c~itiGa-1-and-----......
could be accomplished by appropriate neighborhood design and planting details, as
discussed above.
8-6
8.1.6 Principles of Building Design in Regions with Monsoon Climate.

The different climatic conditions during the hot-dry and the hot-humid seasons
of the Monsoon climate call for different characteristic of the building's thermal
response to the outdoor conditions.
During the hot-dry season the outdoor temperature range is quite large, the
daytime temperatures well above the upper limit of the human comfort zone, the
air dust-luden and the humidity is low. Under these conditions indoor ventilation is
not desirable. A closed (unventilated) building, with appropriate design details, can
have indoor daytime temperatures well below the outdoors.
In order to achieve significant reduction of the indoor temperature below the
indoor level the building should be heated as slow as possible during the daytime
hours but having high rate of cooling during the evening and night hours. These
thermal performance characteristics can be achieved in buildings which are well
insulated and protected from solar radiation and have high mass within an insulated
envelope. when such buildings are not ventilated during the daytime their rate of
heating is small and maximum temperature is significantly lower than the outdoors.
During the evening and night hours, if such buildings are well ventilated, they
are cooled by convection, bypassing the insulation of the envelope, taking
advantage of the temperature_ difference between the interior and the cooler
outdoor temperature.
During the hot-humid season cross-ventilation is assential during the daytime
hours for minimizing the thermal stress, caused by the high humidity, in buildings
which are not air-conditioned. The smaller diurnal temperature range reduces the
potential for lowering the indoor temperature below the outdoor level.
Daytime ventilation would heat-up the interior of the building, bringing it close
to the outdoor temperature. The heat stored in the mass of the building's structure
may keep the indoor tempera tu re too high during the night hours for restful sleep,
a situation which may lead to accumulated fatigue and Unpaired. health and work
efficiency .
. Ventila ti.On of ·the· building may be needed also when l t is raining, because the
-~..--~.~-- ______:mt..gh:...:h.umLdlt~y~ma.y__;.b.e,..:a.cc.o.mpanie.d~:b_y...,;.te_m_p~er_a_tur_e~~to.o__bi~gh:J_o.r.._c_QJI).f9ftln__.~'lifl_. _____
air 10 ~ .The· objective in thjs case<is ·'td provide ventilation together with effective
prevention of rain penetration through the open windows.
8-7
Several building design feature may help to ameliorate the thermal stress
during the hot-humid season. Large roof overhangs, covered verandas or balconies,
etc. can prevent rain penetration even when the building's windows are open for
ventilation.
A more difficult problem is to speed up the rate of cooling of the interior in
high-mass buildings (note that high mass is essential during the hot-dry season).
Some un-conventional details of the building's structure can solve this conflict
with respect to the desir~able thermal characteristics during the hot-dry and the
hot-humid seasons. The main detail is that of the building's envelope. The objective
is to have a building that "behaves" like a high-mass, slow response, building when
the openings are closed, but behaves like a low mass, fast response, building when
it is ventilated.
The key for such dual performance charateristics is to have a composite
structure to the building's envelope, consisting of three main layers:
An external insulation layers
A core of high mass material (usually the load-bearing layer)
An internal light-weight layer
During the hot-dry season, · when the windows are closed (and effectively
shaded), the combination of external insulation and a high-mass layer internal to it
result in a high inertia envelope.
As a result the rate of rise of the indoor temperature is very small. The internal
light-weight layer has only a minor effect on the rate of the daytime temperature
rise, slowing it a little further.
During the evenings and night hours of the hot-dry season, when the building is
ventilated, the internal light-weight layer is the main element which determines
the cooling rate of the interior and enhances it. As a result the indoor air and
surface temperatures follow more closely the outdoor level, compared with the
behavior of a high-mass building.
During the hot-humid season, when the building is ventilated most of the time
the thermal response of such a building to the diurnal changes of the outdoor
_ _ _ _ _ __..,e mper.atu ,ould-b~los~ l"la~t 0 a-ligl"l-t-we4gA,t-l:H"'i·l~in g-t·AaA-te-ti'la· f a,_----~
high-mass building. In particular the indoor temperature during the night would be
closer to the outdoor temperature, improving the conditions for a restful sleep of
the inhabitants.
8-8
8.2 Design principles for Regions with Cold Winters and Hot-Humid Summers.
Regions with cold winters and hot-humid summers are found mainly in the
eastern parts of Continents (in China and in the U.S.A.) between the latitudes of
approximately 30 and 450 N. The climatic conditions of the eastern U.S.A. will be
assumed in the following when quantitative climatic information is cited because
more climatic data is available there than for East Asia.
However, the discussion of the human comfort requirements and the design
performance objectives would be directed mainly to developing countries with
similar climate. The general climatic conditions in the eastern regions of China are
similar to those in the eastern U.S.A. (see chapter 2.5.5). Unlike the U.S.A.,
however, the people in these developing countries can not rely on air-
conditioning, so that the attainment of reasonable comfort should be achieved by
approprria te urban and building design strategies.
Throughout this whole climatic zone the summers are humid and warm to hot,
while the winters are cold to very cold, and substantial heating is required in the
buildings. In the northern parts of this climatic zone the winters are more severe
than the summers while in the southern parts of summers may be the most severe
season.
The "ideal" urban and building design guidelines would be quite different and
often even contradicting in these regions for the summer and for the winter, but
the actua l settlement should provide acceptable comfort year round. Often it is
possible to suggest urban and building design schemes which would enhance human
comfort and energy conservation in both seasons, in spite of the different climatic
conditions and performance objectives. These possiblities will be illustrated mainly
in the sections dealing with urban ventilation, with the neighborhood plan layout,
and with building design.
8.2.1 Climatic Characteristics and Thermal Comfort Requirements
Summer daytime temperatures in this climatic type are oten above 30°C,
- - - - - --dcGGO rnpar:ti~ec:Lb.y uml dLt.y. inters are,________
cold, with temperatures often well below the freezing level.
8- 9
The dominant wind directions in regions with hot-hum id su mmers and cold
winters are often different in the two seasons. In the eastern U .S.A ., the winter
winds are mainly from the north- west and in summer from the south and south-
west. In eastern China · the winds in winter are mainly from the north and in
summer mainly from the south-east. These seasonal changes of the wind direction
can be utilized in urban and building design to enhance the wind in summer and to
suppress it in winter.
The combination of warm temperature and high humidity in the summer calls
for ample natural ventilation as the major strategy for minimizing thermal stress
in countries which cannot afford mass use of air conditioning.
The fact that the summer is also the ra iny season presents design difficulties.
Natural ventilation through open windows should be provided while rain penetration
into the building is prevented (e.g. by wide Southern screened balconies).
The need to provide ample natural ventilation in summer calls for specific
urban and building design guidelines. The urban structure should restrict as little as
possible the summer winds (from the south-west in eastern U.S. A. or from the
south-east in eastern China) through the urban space. The neighborhood and the
buildings should be "open" to these wind directions.
These objectives are direG-tly opposite to the winter design objectives
concerning the wind, which are to minimize as much as possible the wind speed in
the urban space and to minimize wind penetration into the buildings. But the fact
that winter winds are mainly from the North makes the attainment of these
different objectives possible.
Also the "ideal" layout of the building would be different in summer and in
winter in this climate type. In summer, when ample natural ventilation is a major
objective, the buildings should preferably be widespread, having maximum exposure
to the ambient air. In winter, on the other hand, a compact building with minimum
exposure will need less energy for heating and thus would be preferable.
It is possible, by specific building design (layout) details, to have a building
which, whenever it is desired, can be "exposed" and widespread but at other times
---:===-----i=
s ~c~lo::s::e::d'::"'"""'and corn R-ac_t. Ibe appro.j:lclat esLgo_ to acb.i eve tbes i-ller:e!l-t.--- - - - - - - t
characteristics is discussed below (8.2.4).
8-10
In evaluatiing the relative importance of the summer and winter conditions, and
the "tuning" of the design more to one of the seasons, the following factors should
be considered:
Personal protection from cold (e.g. by heavier clothing during waking hours
and heavier blankets at night) is more readily attainable than personal
protection from excessive heat stress.
Heating can be provided by simple and relatively inexpensive devices while
air-conditioning is more expensive and in fact unavailable to most people
in deveLoping countries.
Inexpensive passive solar heating systems can be designed for low cost housing
(although with some sacrifice of their aesthetics).
Prevention of wind penetra trion into a building in winter can be accomplished
by simple design solutions, such as tight windows, even in windy areas.
Effective cross-ventilation can be provided only lf the wind-speed around the
building has some minimum value (e.g. about 2m/sec.) and if air can flow freely
through the building from inlet to outlet openings (calling for specific building's
layouts).
Modern insulating materials can greatly reduce heating energy consumption
even in cold regions. Materials properties (e.g. insulation) are less effective in
modifying the indoor temperature when comfort is considered.
Therefore the summer comfort issues should have higher priority from the
urban design aspect, except in regions where the winter is much more severe than
the summer. Consequently the main urban design objectives in regions with this
climate type would be:
To maximize urban ventilation by southern winds in summer.
To minimize the penetration and speed of the northern winds in the urban space
in winter.
To maximize shading on sidewalks and other open urban spaces in summer while
maximizing solar exposure in_ winter.
The achievement of these objectives can be enhanced by a combination of urban
__ J:::onfiguration feel_tures, as (jiscussedin the following._---~_--..::.__ _______ ~~~-----~-------
~~~~~~~~~~--------:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- ----------
8-11
8.2.2. Density and Mix of Building Types

Taking advantage of the differences ln the prevailing wind directions in summer
and in winter, it is possible to have specific mix and arrangements of various
building types which will block the winds in winter but will introduce relatively
little resistance to to the urban wind flow in summer.
The prevailing wind directions in summer and in winter in this climate type are
close to those prevaillng in regions with monsoon climates during the hot-dry and
the hot-humid seasons, respectively. In fact the same global wind patterns which
are responsible for the climatic characteristics of the hot-dry and hot-humid
seasons in the monsoon regions are those causing the hot-humid and cold seasons in
this climate type.
In both cases the hot-humid summer is caused by winds reaching the region
after passing over warm oceans. The hot-humid season in India is caused by winds
originating over the Indian Ocean. The hot-humid summer in eastern China is
caused by winds blowing over the South China Sea and the hot-humid summer in
eastern USA by winds originating over the Gulf of Mexico.
The cold winter in the eastern USA is caused by winds originating over the
Arctic Ocean and the cold winter in eastern China by winds originating over
Siberia. The hot-dry season in Iodia is caused by winds originating in Central Asia
passing over and desending from the Himalaya mountains.
Some differences exist, though, between the design objectives concerning urban
ventilation in the regions with hot-dry season of the monsoon climates and in
regions with a cold winter.
During the cold winter in this climate type, it would be desirable to reduce the
urban wind speed as much as possible day and night. On the other hand, during a
hot-dry season in a monsoon climate it is important to have winds in the evening
and night hours, even when the daytime winds may be unpleasant and dust laden.
Therefore in regions with cold winter and a hot-humid summer it is desirable to
suppress the northern winds by neighborhood configuration as much as practical
while the southern, south-eastern or south-western winds should be "encouraged" by
~~~-~--~--t he-ur:.ban-Str-uc.tur:e. ------~- --- ·
To accomplish this objective, buildings of different heights and lengths should
be zoned in parallel strips from north to south. At the northern edge of the
8-12
neighborhood the highest and longest buildiings (e.g. multi-storey apartment

blocks) should be placed. Then smaller and lower building types would form urban
segments progressively more open to southerly winds. At the southern edge of the
neighborhood single family-single storey houses could be zoned.
Thus the whole neighborhood could consist of a combination of high multi-
storey long apartment blocks, "square" apartment blocks of medium height, three
and two storey town houses (row buildings), two-unit duplex houses and detached
single family houses .
Such composition of building types can also provide overall urban den si ties in
residential neighborhoods higher than those attainable in neighborhoods with single
building type, with a comparable environmental qualiity and natural ventilation
potential. A higher urban density is often desirable from economic and general
urban design considerations.
This scheme is illustrated in Figure 8.2
8.2.3 Street Layout in Regions with Hot-Humid Summer and Cold Winters
The street layout can also contribute to the control of the urban wind
conditions by utilizing the changes in the wind directions in summer and in winter.
By suitable street orientations it is possible to enable penetration of the summer
winds to the heart of the city while providing much higher wind resistance to the
winter winds.
Two examples will be given for such street layout, one for the eastern regions
of the USA and the other for eastern China.
In dealing with the impact of street orientation on the urban wind field the
discussion presented in Chapter 3.4.1 should be recalled. Therefore this point will
be summarized here in short.
When streets are perpendicular or nearly perpendicular to the wind direction,
and the buildings lining the streets form long rows (as is common in many cities),
the urban layout present the highest resistance to the urban wind. The main air
current flows above the building's roofs and the wind speed at the ground level is
greatly reduced.
--====-----'01"1 t i:l . ot be hand, w..ben th.e wi ·de streets or even obll ue
with an angle of up to about 45 degrees, the streets create obstacle-free
passageways through which the wind can penetrate into the heart of the city.
8-13
In addition to its impact on of urban ventilation and on wind exposure of

pedestrians, street orientation may affect the potential of the buildings along the
street to have effective cross ventilation.
When the streets are parallel to the wind direction, and the main facades of the
buildings are parallel to the street, then most of the rooms are in zones of wind
"suction". This is an unfavorable orientation of the buildings with respect to the
wind because effective cross-ventilation can be achieved only if at least one main
wall is in the "pressure" zone of the wind.
From this aspect, a street which is oblique to the wind by 30-60 degrees
provides the best orientation for natural ventilation of the buildings.
Considering jointly the issues of ventilation of the urban space as a whole and
that of natural ventilation of the buildings, it can be concluded that street
orientation which is oblique at about 30-45 degrees to the wind results in the best
overall ventilation conditions.
The application of the above considerations to street layout aimed at promoting
summer winds and supressing winter winds is illustrated below for the two regions
having hot-humid summers and cold winters, namely the eastern part of the USA
and eastern China.
In the eastern regions of the USA the prevailing winter winds are mainly from
NNW and the summer winds mainly from SSW. In this case wide streets running in
the WSW to ENE direction would provide high wind speed at street level in summer
while reducing greatly the wind in winter. In summer both the street space and the
building along the street, oblique to the prevailing summer wind by less than 45
degrees, would have good ventilation conditions. In winter, when the NNW wind is
almost perpendicular (angle about 70 degrees) to the street, the wind will be
effectively blocked from flowing through the street. (Fig. 8.3.a).
The first "line" of buildings in a neighborhood will thus protect the rest of the
neighborhood from the winter winds. Dense groves of high trees on the Northern
edge of the neighborhood can enhance the protection from the winter winds also
for the first line of buildings.
In east China the winter winds are from the north and the summer winds from
the south-east. In this case wide streets running in the E-W or ESE-WNW direction
would be almost perpendicular to the winter winds but oblique to the summer wind
8-14
by less than 45 degrees. Such street orientation will minimize the impact of the
wind in winter while enhancing the ventilation conditions both at the street space
and for the buildings along the streets (Fig. 8.3.b).
Incidentally, in the above two examples the street orientations chosen from the
wind consideration are also a good choice from the viewpoint of solar exposure in
winter of the buildings along the streets. However, the pedestrians on the sidewalks
of the main streets especially on the southern sidewalk, may not get any sun in
winter. Thus from the viewpoint of the environmental quality of the street itself in
the winter there is a conflict between the wind protection and the sun exposure
considerations.
Taking into account the whole year, summer and winter, in this climate type,
the orientation recommended above for the main urban streets seems to provide
the optimum conditions, as summer ventilation is more important than winter solar
exposure.
Any urban street network consists, of course, also of streets at right angle to
the main streets. The "local" ventilation conditions along these "minor" streets,
with the recommended overall orientation of the street network, would be less
fa vorable than along the main streets. However, from the viewpoint of the overall
ventilation conditions in the uroan area the role of the main urban streets is much
more dominant than that of the "local" streets.
Furthermore, secondary narrower streets which usually are perpendicular to
major avenues can be "broken" while crossing the main streets. In this way the
winter winds are interrupted at each intersection and cannot gain momentum.
8.2.4 Principles of Building Design in Regions with Hot-Humid Summers and cold
winters.
Buildings in regions with hot-humid summers which are not air-conditioned
should have in summer effective cross ventilation, solar protection and be able to
cool down fast during the night time. The building geometry most suitable to
achieve this performance is that of a wide-spread plan, with large area of the
external walls, relative to the floor area, and with large windows and facing~---
different directions, as summer ventilation is more important than winter solar
exposure.
-------------------~--------------~--------~ -~-- -~-~-

8-15
During the cold winter, however, the "ideal" building should have smaller
surface area of the external walls, small windows in the external walls a nd
minimum of doors openable to the outdoor. It also would be very desirable to
provide passive solar heating to the buildings. It is possible by special, although
unconventional, design details of the building to change markedly its thermal
characteristics during the different seasons, or even on a diurnal time scale.
To achieve these variable characteristics the building facades should be
"indented" by deep and narrow porches, equipped with insulated shutters. Large
doors should connect the porches to the adjoining rooms. The external envelope of
the building should be made of lightweight materials, with reasonable thermal
resideance (e.g. R = 2).
In summer the shut t ers of the porches should be open, so that the porche's space
form in effect part of the outdoor environm e nt , a lthough protected from sun a nd
rain by the roof. the walls between the porches and t he adjoining rooms are thus
exposed to outdoor temperature but shaded from the sun.
Large doors leading from the rooms to the porches, together with windows in
the external walls of these rooms, enable effective cross ventilation of the rooms
and enhance fast cooling of the interior during the evenings.
In winter the insulated shutters should be closed. They are now part of the
building's external evelope, which becomes smaller than when the shutters were
open. The overall heat less coefficient of the building is consequently greatly
reduced.
The porches on the southern facade of the building should also be equipped with
openable glazing exterior to the shutters. The glazing should be open all through
the summers (as are the shutters).
In winter the glazing of the southern porches should be closed, and thus
transforming the porch into a sun-space. The shutters could be open during the day
and closed during the evening and night hours, thus minimizing the nocturnal heat
loss and increasing the heating efficiency of the sun-spaces.
With these design details the thermal characteristics of the bulilding will be
very different in summer and in winter, leading to better comfort in summer and
less energy demand for heating in winter.
8-16
8.2 •.5 References for Chapter 8
Givoni, B (1987): "Urban and Building Design Concepts for Hot-Dry Climate".
Proceedings, Int. Conf. on Buildings Energy Management. Lauianne,
Switzerland, Sept;. 1987, Vol. I. pp. 79-89.
GivoAi B., W. Kroner & C. Dry (1987): "Changable Performance Requirements".

Int. Conf. on Building Energy Management.
Lausanne, Switzerland, Sept. 1987. Vol. IV, pp. 101-108.
£
Padmanabhamurty, B. (1984): "Some Aspects of the Urban Climate of India". In
WMO ( 1986) pp. 136-155. W1'<'(') tlo. t.~r :1,
WMO (1986): Urban Climatology and Its Applications with special Regard to
Tropical Areas. Proceedings of the Technical Conference. Mexico City,
November 1984. WHo f\fo. t;.:;·z
8-17
TEMPERATURE "c RURAL o.---o RURAL o---o

UReAN-- URIAN-
Figure 8.1: Annual patterns of maximum and minimum temperatures and

humidi ties in Delhi, India and in nearby rural area
(Padmanabhamurty, 198Lj.}.
----~~~- ~---~~-------~- - - -- - - - - -- i !
--~~-----------------------------~---·-----~
8-18
~
.
...
, •
:.
I ••• • •••••
• #
I• ••
•• •
I I •
•• ••
I
I
I
•• •. ~ •
•
'• ••• • • ~
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Figure 8.2 Schematic Neigborhood-·open to the southern summer winds- and --

protected from the northern winter winds.
3-19
~!INTER WINDS
~a)
SUMMER \UNOS
vllNTER \HNDS
(b)
--·~',
Street orientations suppressing the winter northern winds and

promoting urban ventilation by southern summer winds.
(a) eastern USA· tb) Eastern China.
REPORTS PUBLISHED IN THE WORLD CLIMATE APPLICATIONS PROGRAMME SERIES
WCAP - 1 CLIMATE AND HUMAN HEALTH. Proceedings of the Symposium 1n

Leningrad, 22-26 September 1986, Volume I
WCAP - 2 CLIMATE AND HUMAN HEALTH. Proceedings of the Symposium 1n

Leningrad, 22-26 September 1986, Volume II
WCAP - 3 ANALYZING LONG TIME SERIES OF HYDROLOGICAL DATA WITH RESPECT TO

CLIMATE VARIABILITY - Project Description
WCAP - 4 WATER RESOURCES AND CLIMATIC CHANGE: SENSITIVITY OF

WATER-RESOURCE SYSTEMS TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY.
Norwich, U.K., November 1987
WCAP - 5 FOURTH PLANNING MEETING ON WORLD CLIMATE PROGRAMME - WATER.

Paris, 12-16 September 1988
WCAP - 6 CLIMATE APPLICATIONS: ON USER REQUIREMENTS AND NEED FOR

DEVELOPMENT [Reports of the CCl rapporteurs on Users'
Requirements and Publicity (F. Si~gleton) and New Approaches in
Applications (D.W. Philips) to the tenth session of the
Commission for Climatology, Lisbon, April 1989]
WCAP - 7 DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION. [Report of the CCl Rapporteur on

Drought and Desertification in Warm Climates to the tenth session
of the Commission for Climatology (Lisbon, -April 1989)
(L.J. ·Ogallo) and lectures presented at the tralning seminar in
Munoz, Philippines (14-24 November 1988) by N. Gbeckor-Kove]
WCAP - 8 REPORT OF THE FIRST SESSION OF THE CCl WORKING GROUP ON CLIMATE
AND URBAN AREAS INCLUDING BUILDING AND OTHER ASPECTS AND SOME
RELATED PAPERS by Professors E. Jauregui and Shen Jianzhu,
Members of the Working Group
WCAP - 9 REPORT OF THE EXPERt MEETING ON CLICOM CLIMATE APPLICATIONS

(INCLUDING CARS), Geneva, 6-10 November 1989
WCAP - 10 URBAN DESIGN IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES by B. Givoni, University of

California, U.S.A.
------- --~----------·------·-----------
~-- ·-----------------~---- -------------~

1989 - GIVONI - Urban Design in Different Climates

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55"1 , !}8 8 .'}; ~s-1, S!

Part 1: Overview of Urban Climatology

2.4.3 The structure of the wind field over open country.

3.3.2 Quantitative effects of high-rise buildings on air speeds around

3.4 Width and Orientation of streets and buildings.

Part II: Urban Design Guidelines for Different Climatic Regions.

Chapter 7: Urban Design Guidelines for Hot-Humid Regions.

Chapter 1. Introduction and Human Comfort and Health Issues

many instances, contradiction between the requirements of indoor climate and

1.2 Human Responses to Thermal Stress

The predicted mean vote, Y, is given by:

can be defined quite clearly (Givoni, 1976).

balance is maintained, in spite of the lower evaporative potential, because the

On the other hand, if the nights are so uncomfortable as to prevent restful

----·--------·- ---- --~--- -------~~-------~-- - - - - - -- ---~~- - - - - -----------------·--- --

Temperature (£C) % Excess Mortality

It was shown · that a suitable procedure of "artificial" acclirnatizatlon,

significant physiological adaptation (almost complete), which can be achieved

1.5 References for Chapter 1

Chandler, T. J. (1976): "Urban Climatology and its Relevance to Urban Design".

Givoni, B. (1986): "Design for Climate in Hot-Dry Cities" in W.M.O. (1986).

Givoni, B. and R.F. Goldman (1973): "Predicting Effect of Heat Acclimatization on

Sakomoto-Momiyama, M., 1977: Seasonality in Human Mortality. University of

WMO (1986): "Proceedings, Technical Conference on Urban Climatology and its

Chapter 2. General Characteristics of the Urban CUmate

a} Radiation falling on vegetation is mostly absorbed by the leaves, which

---- --- ------- -·-- ---~--

In the open country a significant part of the absorbed solar radiation is

Hours per day

Surrounding country 1.7 6.6 4.3

H = latent heat transfer

There are five different and independent factors ·contributing to the

where T is the outdoor averag~ diurnal temperature. The total number at D D is

----·- -·~·--~ ·-··

The following points are relevant to this overall eva luation:

pr-esented below (section Z~4.4J; - - - -- -

---~ ------------------------- -----~---------------------- -- ----~---~--------~~---~--

2.4-.4 General Modifications of the Wind Field by Urbanization

TABLE 2.2 URBAN/RURAL WIND-SPEED DIFFERENCES FOR SEVERAL )

O-l2 18 o. 7 9 1.2 73 49 0.7 s 0.4 45

13-19 19 0.8 74 1.8 6 61 l.O 35 0.8 L

20-23 36 l.l 30 1.4 32 58 0.7 23 0.9 ll

' k_::;_~~~ k~~-m~:~ .~:~llS:t'~~~J:.~~OU! ~~-#;~,. _. __ .~-·. -~ . .. .. .. __ _ .. . -·-· . _

ztOJJ =• rtQ-ugf\ineS'Si p:aramet-e;r,o

Parameter Low medium high

Height (m) 4 20 100

Ig = (( n (Vi - V)2 I n) I V)Yz

* Extrapolation by Givoni from figure of Davenport.

TABLE 2,4: Values of ZG and p given by Por:eh &:: Paciuk

TABLE 2.5: Suggested Values of ZG and p for Various Terrain Conditions

Low wooded land, sparce trees; 400 0.20

Wooded land with high trees, small 400 0.25

Medium size towns, building height up 400 0.30

Centers of cities, buildings of more 500 0.40

Centers of large cities, buildings 600 0.50

2.4.7 Applicability and Limitations of the Wind Models in Urban Climatology.

2.5 Climatic Characteristics of Tropical Cities

mean urban/rural difference, at 6~.m. rea~hed about jo C. During the daytime

When··rneatr·rs -not-·cann-at--bcnn-tne·'lrrban-aiicf-tne~rtfral-sffes·:~~- a -centripeTal

are around 1-30 C."

2.5.4. Delhi, Bombay and Calcutta in India

Heat Island Heat Island

Padmanabhamurty· discusses also the relative .humidity and notes that it is

' k_::;_~ k-m~:~ .~:~llS:t'~J:.OU! ~~-#;~,. _. .~-·. -~ . .. .. .. _ .. . -·-· . _