Cattle Production and Management

HISTORY

Scientific classification

Kingdom:Animalia Phylum:Chordata Class:Mammalia Order:Artiodactyla Family:Bovidae Subfamily:Bovinae

Genus:Bos Species:B. Taurus Binomial name:Bos taurus

Cattle, common term for the domesticated herbivorous mammals that constitute the genus Bos, of the
family Bovidae, and that are of great importance to humans because of the meat, milk, leather, glue, gelatin, and
other items of commerce they yield.
Modern cattle are divided into two species: B. taurus, which originated in Europe and includes most
modern breeds of dairy and beef cattle, and B. indicus, which originated in India and is characterized by a hump at
the withers. The latter are now widespread in Africa and Asia, with lesser numbers imported to North America
(primarily in the southern United States), Central America, and northern and central South America.
The general characteristics of cattle can be provided through their classification. They belong to the order
Artiodactyla (even-toed, hoofed mammals) and the suborder Ruminantia (four-compartmented stomachs and a
decreased number of teeth, with the upper incisors missing).
Like others of the family Bovidae, they have paired, hollow, unbranched horns that do not shed. Other
Bovidae that are so closely related to true cattle that they can still interbreed include the anoa, bison, gaur, Indian
and African buffalo, and yak.
European cattle probably are descended from the wild cattle, B. primigenius, of Europe and were first domesticated
in southeastern Europe about 8,500 years ago.
The zebu, or Brahman, cattle, B. indicus, were domesticated in southern Asia about the same time or a little
later. Early records indicate that cattle were used for draft, milk, sacrifice, and, in some instances, for meat and
sport. Some of these early uses have continued in modified forms into the present, such as in bullfighting, as in
sacrificing animals for religious purposes, and as in considering cows sacred.
The concept and formulation of modern breeds of cattle began in the midregions of England, in northern
Europe, and on the Channel Islands during the mid-1800s, and most modern breeds were formed in the latter half of
that century. Cattle with similar characteristics, however, were present in these areas even before the concept of
breeds became dominant. Today about 274 important recognized breeds exist, and many other varieties and types
that could be described have not attained breed status. Thus, new breeds continue to evolve, such as the Brangus,
Santa Gertrudis, Charbray, Beef Master, and Braford.
Beef cattle have been bred and selected primarily for the production of meat, and many breeds have been
developed or adapted for special conditions. The major breeds of registered beef cattle in North America, listed in
order of numbers, are Angus, Hereford, Polled Hereford, Charolais, Shorthorn, Santa Gertrudis, Brahman, Brangus,
and Red Angus. In recent years, several “exotic” breeds also have been imported, including the Simmental,
Gelbvieh, Fleckvieh, Limousin, Maine-Anjou, and Chianina. These later arrivals have been used primarily for
crossing with the major American breeds to increase the size and milking ability of the crossbred offspring for
commercial production
Dual-purpose breeds are breeds that have been selected for both meat and milk production. They include the
Milking Shorthorn, Red Dane, Red Polled, and Pinzgauer. Many of the animals classified as either dairy or beef
breed, particularly those of continental Europe, could alternatively be classified as dual-purpose breeds.

OVERVIEW OF THE BEEF CATTLE INDUSTRY

The beef cattle industry is one of the least develop among the livestock and poultry industries in the
country. For the past 11 years, cattle inventory has only increased at a rate of 4.3 percent per year. Per capita annual
consumption of beef in 1999 was 2.70 kg.

INVENTORY

 Slow growth in inventory from 1.68 M in 1990 to 2.48 M in 2000 (4.31% average growth rate)
 Backyard farms accounts for 92% of the total inventory; 8% are in commercial farms
 From 1990 to 2000, average annual growth rate of backyard farm was 5% while the commercial farms
grew by less than 1%/year
 The top five producing regions are Ilocos, Southern Tagalog, Central Visayas, Northen Mindanao and
Western Visayas. These regions accounts for more than 53% of the total cattle population.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND SITUATION

 Beef supply increased from 127,867 tons in 1990 to 234,042 tons in 2000 (6%/yr ave. growth rate); 19% of
the supply in 2000 comes from importation
 Average per capita consumption increased from 1.00 kg in 1983 to 2.70 kg in 1999
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES OF BEEF PRODUCTION

 Increasing demand for beef, income elasticity of demand for beef is higher that other meat,
 Ability to transform low quality and fibrous feed materials (e.g. grasses and crop residues) into high value
protein food product
 Abundant supply of crop residues especially in small farms,
 Favorable climate for fodder production and,
 Cattle production and meat processing technologies are available for increased productivity.

CONSTRAINTS IN THE CATTLE SECTOR

 Low breeding base.

 High financing cost for breeder operations.
 High cost of inputs.
 Lack of infrastructures.
 Competition for use of land
 Changing policy guidelines e.g. pasture lease, tariff,
 Import substitutes particularly carabeef, and
 Policy to unify and integrate the beef industry

INTERVENTIONS

 Build up population base through well-defined breeding program

 Increase animal productivity through improved husbandry practices and application of biotechnologies
 Promote appropriate feeding and encourage utilization of nonconventional feedstuffs
 Effect strict quarantine procedures and efficient disease control/eradication programs
 Improve marketing / pricing system
 Review policies on importation and credit system

BEEF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

RANCHING OR EXTENSIVE SYSTEM

Cow-calf operation

The initial and most fundamental step in the beef enterprise is the production of the claves and
raising it to weaning age. The calf is, so to speak, the raw material out of which the finished animal will
eventually be made. The breeding herds in which calves are produced need little grain or other fattening
feeds. Consequently, the raising of beef calves is confined chiefly to those sections that have an abundance
of comparatively cheap, low carrying capacity grazing lands. Hence, we find the important ranches located
in provinces that are sparsely settled or in hilly areas where the land is too rolling to be farmed to advantage
(i.e. Nueva Ecija, Nueva Viscaya, Masbate, Mindoro, Bukidnon etc.)

The aim of the cow-calf operation is to produce stockers and feeders. It has the following
characteristics.

a. Uses grade or Philippine cows and purebred or high-grade bulls.

b. Involves selling calves at weaning as stockers; or as feeder stocks after grazing them out on the
ranger; or as fat slaughter cattle after feeding them out, or selling heifers to other ranchers for
breeding purpose depending on the availability feeds/pastures.
c. Extensive use of native pastures and minimum outlay for supplemental feed/concentrates and,
d. Maybe integrated with orchard or coconut plantation

Purebred Program or Breeder Farm Operation

The breeding of purebred or registered cattle is a highly specialized form of beef production.
Because of the relatively large amount of capital required for animals and equipment and because of the
skill and sound judgment that must be possessed by the manager before success is possible, this phase of
cattle breeding is one better suited to men of considerable experience than to beginners. It should, however,
be the ultimate goal of a large number of breeders, particularly if it is to be carried on in connection with
the production of the highest type of cattle for the open market.

The aim of the purebred program or breeder farm operation is to produce breeder stocks to be sold
to other ranchers. It uses purebred cows and bulls and requires large capital for animal/equipment, better
feeding and salesmanship.
FEEDLOT FATTENING OPERATION

Feedlot fattening of cattle has become important to the livestock industry of the Philippines for
three main reasons. 1) it provides the farmer with extra income, 2) it gives him year-round work and allow
the use of cheap, plentiful farm by products such as corn stovers, hay, silage, rice straw, copra meal, rice
bran and sugarcane top which might otherwise be wasted; and most important 3) it helps meet the urgent
demand for high-protein foods in the Filipino diet.

Because of its high nutritional value and appealing flavor, a properly fattened cattle is in great
demand in the market place. However, feedlot cattle operations have found popular acceptance only in
Batangas, Tarlac, and Pangasinan, with few operations found in other of the country like Masbate,
Bukidnon, Cotabato, and Iloilo. While some large fattening operations exist, the majority of farmers work
on a small-scale, fattening two or three head at a time.

The object of a feedlot operation is to add weight to the animal and increase its value. The feedlot
fattening operation is characterized by the following:

a. Returns from cattle feeding come from the difference between the buying and selling price, and
the gain in weight.

b. Turnover of capital is faster this operation than in reaching. Feeder stocks are usually require a
fattening period of only 120 to 180 days from the date of purchase.

c. Use of high-energy feeds in order to give the cattle a better “Finish” (more fat covering the
carcass and appearance.

d. Requires very little land area. A sheltered feeding area of one and a half to two square meters per
head.

e. Located in areas where large quantities of livestock feeds are raised and,

f. May also be integrated with pineapple and sugarcane enterprises or any setup which produces
large quantities of by-product feeds.

BACKYARD CATTLE RAISING OR SEMI-SUBSISTANCE OR SMALL HOLDER

The backyard sector constitute 92% of the total cattle population. The aggregate share of the top
five regions are ilocos, southern Tagalong, Central Visayas, Northern Mindanao and Davao Region. The
aim is to produce livestock that can be sold to sugment from income. Backyard cattle raising is
characterized by the following:

a. one or two heads of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised on a farmer’s spare time.

b. farmers usually tethers animal to graze around the home lot and then supplements this with farm
wastes like rice straw or com stover/stalks when back in pain.

c. others practice soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), as a source of
protein, and rice bran, corn bran, or cops meal at1-2 kg/animal and,

d. in Batangas, force feeding (supa or supak) of feed mixture is a common practice among backyard
cattle raisers.

BEEF CATTLE BREDS, BREDING

AND REPRODUCTION

BREEDS AND CATTLE

 Great Britain led the world in the development of the principal beef breeds.

Ex:
Hereford
Angus
Shorthorns
 Galloway
 Other great beef breeds originated from India (Brahman or Zebu), France (Charolas,
Limoisin, Normandy). Switzerland (Simmental) and Africa (Afrikander)
 Hereford is believed to be the first breed developed in England. It was presumed bred from the white-faced
red cattle of the Netherlands to he smaller black Celtic native to England, particularly. Herefordshire, hence, the
name of the breed.

It is distinguished by its white-face, white flanks, white tails and while crest on is neck. The body ranges
from cherry to mahogany-red. It is of medium size but increase in weight gains and mature weight is attained by
breeders.

The Polled Hereford is a separate breed brought about by hornless mutations in 1901. They have the same
characteristics as the horned Hereford. But it became popular because of its homlessness.

The Aberden Angus is solid black with abdominal spot of white underneath. This was developed in
Scotland, in the countries of Aberdeenshire and Angus. The breed is noted for its high quality of meat, increased
weight gains and smoothness.

Other breeds from Europe created impact in cattle breeding in North America. The Galloway may have the
same origin as the Angus. It has very curly black hair.

The Shorthorns on the other hand was popular due to its excellent milk production but yield sizeable meat.
It is red to roan or white and red-spotted. The famous Sta. Gertrudis breed of Texas was developed in the famous
King Ranch of Kleberg Country, Southwest Texas. It is 5/8 Shorthorn and 3/8 Brahman.

The Brahman breed originated from India, where 30 or more strains exist. The more preferred are Guzoral,
Nellore, Gi and Krisna Valley strains.
These strains, together with the Brahman, are characterized by a pronounced hump, excessive skin on
dewlap and underline, large droopy ears and horns which tend to curve downward and outward. The color ranges
from near white through brown, brownish red and near black. It is heat tolerant, drought resistant and resistant to
ticks and other parasites.

Its popularly ranges to Central and South America, the gulf coast regions of the US especially Texas and
Florida, parts of Europe and Asia, especially Philippines and Thailand.

Lesser breeds were developed from Brahman crosses. These are Charbray (Charolois), Braford (Heretord),
Brangus (Angus), Brahorn (Shorthorn) and Beefmaster (Brahman-Shorthon-Hereford).
Modern Cattle Descended From:

Aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius)

Centers of domestication
 Eastern Europe
 Middle Asia
 Southeast Asia

India thought to be the homeland of primitive cattle which later expanded to Eurasia and North Africa.

 Characterized by great variety of forms. Through subsequent selection, many breeds were obtained with
very high degrees of specialization and uniformity as meat or milk producers or as beast of burden.

Some species related to the Aurochs also underwent domestication

 Yak (Poephagus grunniens)

o From mountains of Tibet
o Some regions of middle Asia
o South Siberia

 Genus Bibos
o (B banteng) or Ban cattle
o (B frontalis) or gayal
o From India, Malay archipelago and Indochina, particularly Burma.

 Probably first domesticated during the stone age, within 10,000 B.C. from the wild ox or Bos primigenuis

 Modern cattle family Bovine, genus Bos

1. Bos taurus – of Europe origin such as Shorthorn or Jersey. Those are without humps and therefore of
temperate origins.
 2. Bos indicus – of tropical origin such as the Brahman or Zebra of India or Afrikander of Africa. There
are hump cattle.

3. Crosses of two, Sta. Gertrudis (5/8 Shorthorn, 3/8 Brahman) and Brangus (5/8 Brahman)

There are 278 identifiable breeds worldwide

 33 as beef breeds
 18 as draft breeds
 39 as meat-draft
 54 meat dairy
 21 dairy-daft
 61 meat – dairy – draft
 51 dairy breeds

Beef breeds are quite limited in distribution and importance. In the Philippines, the most impact was carried
through the Brahman through the pioneering of efforts of Mr. Antonio Nocom of Ansa Farms of Tiboli and
Tantangan in South Cotabato and Lipa, Batangas, Sarangani Cattle owned by the Consunji’s.

Christopher Columbus and others brought cattle to the New World. They were valued mainly for milk,
butter, hides and work.

No cattle are native to the North American continent except the Bison or buffalo. Later, the Bison was
breed with domestic cattle which resulted in a modern breed known as beefalo. At present the Mathling Corporation
of Lanao del Sur, holds the distinction as the only Southeast Asian breeder of the beefalo. In fact, it holds the most
number of beefalo. In fact, it holds the most number of beefalo semen outside of North America.

Cattle then were slaughtered at seven to nine years of age. It is considered wasteful to slaughter at an earlier
age due to plentiful wild games.

The cattle raising expanded into Ohio and Kentucky where corn was raised at low cost.

In 1805, cattle was first driven overland to seaboard markets such as New York City.

The first cattle marketed by rail originated in Levington, Kentcuky in 1852. The cattle were driven to
Cincinati, Ohio, by rail to Cleveland on lake Eric, then by boat to Bufalo, N.Y, by rail to Albarry then by boat via
the Hudson River to New York City.

By 1860, railroads extended beyond the Mississippi river which opened the great cattle expansion of the
Southwest, i.e., Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, etc. to range cattle production and Misouri, lowa, Nebraska etc. to
cattle feeding.

BEEF BREEDING

Breeding is then defined as the controlled propagation of cattle to improve qualities desirable to
man.

Modern Goal:

1. To develop types that will meet market demand

2. Be productive under adverse climatic conditions
3. Efficient in converting feeds to animal products

Variations due to Genetics and Environment

Cattle traits are either qualities or quantitative

Quantitative traits show disccontinous variations

 Coat color
 Homed or polled
 Certain blood characteristic
o Blood types
o Presence or absence of particular enzymes

Generally, inheritances of quantitative traits are simple in accordance with the laws of heredity
Environment plays a very minor role.
 The quantitative traits show continuous variations between the extremes. The mean types among the
characteristics are most frequent to change. These are:

 Growth rate
 Liveweight
 Body measurements and maturity
 Milk yield
 Milk composition

Such traits are influenced by many genes with each exerting relatively small effect. Environment factors
are responsible for a considerable part of the variation.

There is no distinct borderline between qualitative and quantitative traits. Qualitative traits can be analyzed
with regard to a single gene and its behavior. Quantitative traits are best studied by appropriate statistical methods. It
permits the analysis even with unknown member of genes or their interrelationships.

It is possible to establish the fraction of total variation in the population that is caused by the additive
effects of the genes. This fraction is known as heritability.

 A heritability of 1.00 show that variations observed in the population of the traits is determined by genetics.

 A heritability of 0.00 means that it is entirely due to environment

 A heritability 0.50 means that the variation is equally due to genetic and environment.

Some heritability estimates in beef cattle and others (for comparative purposes only)

Beef
 ADG (from weaning to slaughter) = 0.40

Dairy
 Fat and protein content of milk = 0.55

Merino sheep
 Daily weight gain from weaning to slaughter
o Group = 0.30
o Individual = 0.60

Chicken
 Egg size = 0.60

Generally, heritability is very low for fertility and resistance to infectious disease and high for growth rate,
body size at maturity and composition of milk.

BREEDING SYSTEMS

Breeding systems are defined as several types of mating to combine desirable qualitative and
quantitative characteristics through mating systems which are planned or non-random.
Random mating (or unplanned) – this means each possible mating in a population has the same
probability or occurrence. Normally used in breeding experiments to minimize genetic changes in a control
population wherein selected population are controlled.

Inbreeding – mating of closely related individuals within a breed.

To increase homozygousity and decrease heterozygousity of the inbred.

Close breeding – matings of close relatives e.g., father – daughter, son – mother, brother, sister

Brahman Brahman
sire X Dam

Female
When the male matures and breeds the dam or mother, then this is close breeding. Or if the F 1 is a
female and once mature is bred to the sire, then this is close breeding.
 Line breeding – breeding of not so close relatives, e.g., cousins. This is a form mild inbreeding
designed to concentrate the genes of a certain ancestor of the genetic constitution of the progeny.

Strain breeding – a very mild form of inbreeding which leads to increase

Homozygousity within the strain in the long term.

Effects of Inbreeding:

1. marked decrease in fertility

2. reduces vigor
3. decrease in growth rate of offspring.
4. reduces viability of the offspring

Crossbreeding – meeting of individuals from two or more established purebreds.

 To increase heterizygousity
 To take advantage of hybrid vigor or heterosis.

Hybrid vigor is defined as the average quality of the first generation exceeding the average of the
two parental breeds. Heterosis is displayed mainly in the fitness traits. Fertility and viability.

Example:

1. Brahman X Angus

F1 50% B 50% A

2. Afrikander X Hereford

F1 50% Afrikander 50% Hereford

Types of Crossbreeding:

Systematic crossbreeding – two or more breeds are involved in a breeding program lasting several years.
This way, a crossbred which may eventually stabilized into a breed, e.g., Brangus (Brahman x Angus). Charbray
(Charolsis x Brahman) may occur. Or a crisscross or triple cross can be developed with the best desired
characteristics such as daily gain, carcass weights, etc.

Example: A, B, and C are breeds

A triple cross:

A x B

F1 50% A x 50% B
(breed to C)

(a triple cross) F2 25% A 25% B 50% C

Upgrading the mating of purebred sires to nondescript or native female and their offspring generation after
generation.

Example:

100% B (Brahman) x 100% BC (Batangas Cattle)

Sire Dam

F1 50% B 50% BC (select the female then bred later to

100% B)
 F2 75% B 25% BC (select the female then bred later to
100% B)

F3 87.5% B 50% BC (select the female then bred later to

100% B)
REPRODUCTION

Reproductive phenomena

a. Sexual maturity (bulls/heifers) – 6-8 months

b. Estrus cycle = 18-24 days (21 days average)
c. Estrus duration
 Exotic/European breeds = 14-18 hours
 Indigenous/Zebu = 10-12 hours
d. Ovulation = 10-14 hours after end of estrus
e. Parturation = average 283 days
f. A bull ejaculates about 2-12 ml of 500 or more sperm cells per ml
g. The sperm cells survive the oviduct up to a maximum of 48 hours
h. Many sperm cells reach the oviduct in 6 to 7 hours after deposition in the vagina.
i. There are many thousand egg cells produced by the female but those released are very
few. One mature egg cell is released at anytime.
j. One egg cell is fertilized by one sperm cell at the oviduct (fallopian tube)

Signs of Estrus

a. Mount others
b. Reddening and swelling of the vulva
c. Mucous discharge
d. Isolates herself
e. Seem sickly and has no appetite
f. Frequent urination, restlessness and sometime bellowing or mooing and
g. Standing still when mounted (the only reliable or true sign of estrus; estrus is defined as the period
of sexual receptivity of the female to the male).

Due to the reproductive phenomena in both male and female cattle, a simple guideline is adopted when
artificial insemination (AI) is practiced, thus’

“Females observed in estrus in the morning, are inseminated late afternoon of the same day. Those observed in the
afternoon, are inseminated not later than noon time the next day.”
Artificial insemination (AI) and Embryo Transfer (ET) are modern reproduction techniques which multiply
countless times, the capacity of superior male or female, respectively.

Through a dilation technique for example, a IB ejaculate can be diluted up to 20% with a standard motility
concentration. This technique multiplies the number of times that can be serviced by the bull as against one service
through natural breeding. The diluted sperm cells can then be preserved indefinitely by freezing it then put in liquid
nitrogen tank.

The estrus of female can also be manipulated or synchronized using drugs such as Prostaglandin F 2 alpha.
Estrus are then predetermined and a large number of females are inseminated almost at the same time.

Embryo Transfer involves superovulation of superior females. Several folk les can develop and multiple
ovulation can occur. Insemination can be done and the embryos are collected non-surgically. The collected embryos
can be frozen and stored in liquid nitrogen tanks for future transfer to surrogated dams. Or transfers can be done to
surrogate dams treated to synchronize estrus and physiological ready to receive and implant the embryos. This is
also done non-surgically.

SOME INDICATORS OF GOOD BREEDING OR REPRODUCTIVE MANAGEMENT

a. Conception rate (Pregnancy) – percent of breeding females that conceived versus the total
exposed females.

cows pregnant at end of breeding season

 CR = X 100
Cows exposed during breeding season

Pregnant = 65
Exposed = 100
CR = 65%

A 65% AI rate is very high , an 85-90% natural rate is exceptional

b. % (90 or 120 day) non returns

 Percent of breeding females confined pregnant at 90 or 120 days, by
pregnancy diagnosis, versus the total exposed females. This is similar to conception rate.

c. Calving Rate – percent of breeding females that give birth versus the total exposed
females.

d. Calving Interval – the average length of time (in days) between successive calving.
 Can be calculated for each cow or the entire herd
 One year is ideal. Eighteen (18) months is common.

e. First heat after partition – the occurrence of estrus after giving birth to a young. First heat
is related to calving interval.

NUTRITION

Unlike the monogastric animals’ ruminants can totally subset on highly fibrous diets, like grasses, legumes,
tree leaves, and can efficiently utilize farm by products concentrates. This is due to the unique digestive anatomy of
the ruminant, a foregut fomenter with a four-compartment compound stomach namely; the reticulum, rumen,
omasum and abomasums.

The reticulum together with the rumen forms the fermentation region. Specially, the reticulum is the
receiving area for the feed from the esophagus and the ingesta from the rumen back to the mouth during rumination.
The rumen is about 70% of the compound stomach and is non-glandular, but can transport volatile fatty acid (VEA)
through the villi. In the rumen, the ingesta are ruminated and masticated several times to reduce particles size for
more efficient digestion by the microorganism. The rumen fluid abounds with bacteria, protozoa and fungi, which
are responsible for the continuous degradation of nutrients contained in the feed into fermentation end-products.
Carbohydrates are acted upon by enzymes released by the microorganism to yield VFA, CO 2 and CH4. The VFA
consists mainly acetic, butyric and proptonic acid, which produce major energy sources for the animal. The
fermentation gases are continuously eructated. If not the animal suffers from bloat. Feed proteins in the rumen are
likewise broken down by the microorganisms into ammonia and CO 2. Ammonia is absorbed across the rumen wall,
enters the circulatory system, is converted into urea in the liver and filtered out in the kidney via the urine or
recirculated into the digestive system via the salivary glands.

The efficiency of rumen microbial digestion is dependent on particle size of the feed, chemical structure of
the cell wall, nutrient deficiency and may other dietary factors. Particularly, the saliva plays important role of
maintaining the neutral pH inside the rumen, where acids are constantly product.

The omasum is filled with lamella, which increase the surface area for absorption for water, VFA and
bicarbonate. The unabsorbed nutrient then flow into the abomasums, which is a glandular compartment capable of
secreting popsin and HCL. This is the cite for initial digestion of proteins into polypeptides. Compared with the
neutral pH of the rumen, the abomasums is highly acidic.

From the abomasums, the chyme flows into the duodenum where secretions from the liver, pancreas and
the intestine allow further breakdown of nutrients into simple compounds for absorption similar to monogastric
animals.

The bacteria can also synthesize water-soluble vitamins and can utilize non-protein nitrogen from plant into
microbial protein. The microorganisms also pass into the small intestine and are themselves digested as sources of
energy, protein and other nutrients.

NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Water. The main components of feed are water and dry matter. The dry matter contains the
organic material and inorganic elements. Water is essential in the transport of metabolic products and
wastes and in most chemical reaction in the body. The amount of water consume by cattle depends on the
water content of the feed, body size and environmental temperature. A deficiency in water intake depresses
feed intake.
 Energy. All animals require energy for maintenance, growth, work and production. The amount of
energy required for each of the above function varies with body size, level of production and physiological
state. The most common source of energy for ruminants are carbohydrates, namely the soluble (starch and
sugar) and structural (cellulose and hemi cellulose), carbohydrates lipids are the other source of energy
from plants.

The unit of measure is digestible energy or TDN. DE is the gross energy of the feed intake the
energy contained in the feces. TDN is the sum digestible carbohydrate, protein, fiber and fat. One kilogram
of TDN is equal to 42 kcal of DE.

Proteins. Proteins are large chemical units made up of amino acids.Monogastric animals consume
and digest proteins to be able to use amino acids from synthesis of muscles, tissues and other body
components. In numenats, proteins are first utilized by the microorganism in the rumen for their own
growth and reproduction. Microbial fermentation of proteins produces ammonia and CO 2 as main and
products. Undigested feed proteins and the microorganism from the rumen are passed on to the lower
gastrointestinal tract. Where these are then enzymatically digested and absorbed as amino acids. Thus,
microbial protein becomes an excellent source of amino acids. Thus, microbial protein becomes an
excellent source of amino acids for numinants.

It is therefore clear that protein requirement of the numinant is influenced by the requirement of
the rumen microorganisms. This suggests that feed proteins must contain rumen soluble protein for use by
the microorganism and rumen soluble protein as source of amino acids by the host animal.

Minerals. The animal nutrition of numinants is largely influenced by the mineral status of the soil
where the animals are grazed. In the country, phosphorus is the single most limiting mineral since the soil
and therefore the grasses are deficient in this element. Deficiency in P results in low feed intake, low
production levels and severe cases osteoporosis.

Soil is likewise deficient in the normal diet of ruminant and is the best provided in ad libitum in
the form of blocks or loose form.

Calcium. Magnesium and potassium are normally sufficient in grasses it satisfy the requirements
of the animals feeding large amounts of concentrates and grains may lead to deficiencies in these minerals
ad should be supplemented.

The trace dements cobalt, iron, iodine, copper, manganese, zinc, and selenium are best provided
for numinants in small amounts in areas where soil deficiency for these dements are known.

Vitamins. The water soluble vitamins including, Vitamin C are synthesized by the rumen
microorganism. The fat-soluble, Vitamin K is feeds, while Vitamin D is synthesized in the skin when the
animals are exposed to sunlight. Vitamin is synthesized from carotene which abundant in young, fresh
grass, but devoid in mature grasses, most crop residues and some gains. Animals may tolerate low dietary
intake of Vitamin A has been stored in the liver.

COMMON FEEDS FOR RUMINANTS

Forages

Forage is the natural cheapest feeds for ruminants and includes not only grasses but also legumes.
A number of grass species are available in the country consisting of native and introduced species.
Leguminous vines and trees also abound. Grasses at pre-flowing stage average 8% CP while legumes
average about 20% in grasses, CP level drastically goes down to 4% at maturity which is way below the
requirement of the animals. Hence, a grass legume pasture is in deal ration for ruminants. Season of the
year, amount of rainfall, fertilization, grazing management are other factors the nutritive value of grasses.

By-products roughages

As an agricultural country, farm by product roughages constitute a potential source of feed for
ruminants. Most of these are highly fibrous (rice, straw, com cobs, sugar cane tops), low in CP and TDN
and have poor digestibility. The amounts of these feeds voluntarily consumed by the animals are limited.
As such, concentrate supplementation is a must for more efficient utilization of by product roughages.
 A few agro-industrials by products have high nutritive value close to that of concentrates, such as
spent brewer grains and pineapple pulps.

Concentrate

Unlike in developed countries, little amount of gain is fed ruminants locally. Instead, agro-
industrial by-product concentrates constitute the bulk of supplements to roughages. Copra meal, rice bran,
wheat pollard are commonly used by-product concentrates, contain from 20% as in case of molasses to
21% in copra meal.

Use of urea in ruminant ration

Urea has long used as partial protein source ruminants in other countries. The capacity of
microorganism to utilize nitrogen into microbial protein makes is possible to incorporate small amount urea
in the ration of ruminants. Urea is instantaneously degraded by microbial urease into ammonia, which is
utilized by the microorganism, and excess is absorbed across the rumen wall and circulated in the blood.
High concentration of ammonia in the blood is toxic and fatal to ruminants. Hence, urea as supplement for
numinants must be used with caution. The following guidelines are recommended for safe use of urea.

1. Add fertilizer grade urea at not more than:

a) 1%of the ration (Dm basis)
b) 2.3% of the concentrate mixture, (air-dry basis) or
c) 25.30% of the total dietary protein

2. Adequate source of energy (molasses.com. etc) must be feed with area

3. Sufficient amounts of minerals particularly S in case molasses is must

be available.

4. If possible daily allowance of urea should be consumed in small

amounts throughout the day rather than just one feeding.

5. Urea whether fed in granules of dissolved in water should will mixed.

HERD MANAGEMENT

The goal of herd management is to produce a crop of high quality, heavyweight calves. The factors that
contribute to the accomplishment of this goal are;

a. early sexual maturity of females

b. high conception rate
c. high calf crop
d. early rebreeding after calving
e. excellent milk production of life cows
f. availability of a year round feed supply and
g. others

Qualities of management, plane of nutrition and farm infrastructures are important determinants of profit or
loss.

HERD DIVISION

Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition of various age groups of the herd. Prevent
premature breeding which seriously affect the growth of young bulls and heifers and prevent high rate of
abortion resulting from butting and fighting of animals.

Animals may be divided into the following herds:

a. Pregnant herd – composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the breeding herd
during the breeding season.

b. Breeding herd – consists of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. After the breeding
season, pregnant animals are transferred to the pregnant herd.

c. Heifer herd – composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifer calves are included
in this herd after weaning.
 d. Steers Leeders or fattening herd – consists of growing cattle and those to be fattened for
the market.

e. Bull herd – consists of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeder cows.

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING FEMALES

a. Lactating and pregnant cows

Once the cows are determined pregnant, they should be separated from the herd to
prevents injury and possible abortion due to riding, butting and fighting with other animals. The
signs of pregnancy are the cessation of estrus or heat and the enlargement of the abdomen and
udder. However, a more reliable pregnancy test is through palpation 60-90 days after breeding.
Palpation is the manual examination of the reproductive tract by way of the rectum and colon to
verify pregnancy in cattle. This method needs training and experience.

b. Open cows and replacement heifers

Open or non-pregnant cows and replacement heifers should be given the right amount of
feed daily to ensure that they are in the right physiological status. Animals with reproductive
problems and those which fail to settle after the clean-up breeding period should be called.

MANAGEMENT OF CALVES, GROWERS AND FATTENERS

a. Calves
Calves should suckle colostrums milk from their mother within three hours after calving.

b. Grower
Growers are usually maintained at the pasture with very little attention. They are given
salt and mineral supplement.

c. Fatteners
Fatteners require a shorter period to reach slaughter weight. They are generally bigger,
mature, or nearing maturity. However, one and a half to two year-old animals weighing 200-300
kg are preferred. They may be fattened either in feedlot, on pasture, or both areas.

MANAGEMENT OF BREEDING BULLS

Breeding bull should be selected purebred because it contributes 50% of the genetic makeup of the
offspring. They should be in good condition at the start of the breeding season. Selected bulls should be3
given supplement feeding of grains or concentrated 60-90 days before and after the breeding period
depending on their condition. A breeding bull should be kept in the herd as long as he is aggressive enough
to mate. However, to avoid inbreeding a bull should be kept out of the herd after two and a half to three
years when the offspring reach the breeding age.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

CATTLE IDENTIFICATION

This practice is necessary for management purposes and to denote ownership. Branding with hot
iron is the most common method of identifying cattle. The animals should be legally branded. The brand
must be properly registered by the owner with the livestock identification office of the municipality
concerned. The owner brand is placed on the animals left foreleg.

Putting ear legs or ear notches are other effective methods of identifying cattle.

DEHORNING

Dehorning

a. Dehorning cattle requires advantages;

b. They occupy less space in transit or shipment
c. They are more uniform in appearance

Methods:

a. Very young calves whose horn buttons grow a little can be dehorned by applying caustic soda or a
commercial dehorning paste on the horn button.
 b. Calves with horn buttons or horns not over 1.5-2.0 cm long can be easily dehorned with dehorning
irons.

c. Older animals are dehorned with either a metal spoon, Barnes dehorner, a dehorning clipper, or hand
or electric saws.

CASTRATION

Bull calves can be castrated any time, but preferably when they are a few weeks to seven months
of age. The slit and the cap methods are both effective ways of surgically removing testifies. Bloodless
castration can also be done with Burdizzo pinchers or emasculator. Castration tends to decrease the rate of
live weight gain by 15% - 20%, it should be resorted to only when there is difficulty in separating males
from females, e.g., inadequate fencing or limited availability of pasture paddocks.

RECORDING-KEEPING

Records list genetically-superior cattle that may be used for breeding. Moreover, slow-gaining
heifers, bulls that produce undesirable hereditary traits, and those that do not perform satisfactory despite
good feeding and management can be identified, too. These animals are called or removed to improve the
herd quality and to increase profit in beef production.

SELECTION AND CULLING

Breeding stock with poor performance should be called for slaughter. These are as follows:

a. A cow that calves every one and a half to two years.

b. A cow that produces a little amount of milk and raises a small calf despite good feeding and
management.

c. Small, weak, and unhealthy animals which are susceptible to diseases and may become the source of
infection of the herd if not removed on time.

d. Heifers that do not come in heat in spite of proper age, good size, healthy condition, vigor and strength.

e. Heifers that fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd

f. Bull ad cows which have undesirable hereditary defects such as inverted teats, hernia, dwarfism, bull
dog, cryptorchidism (failure of one or both teats in descend normally), and the like.

ANIMAL HEALTH PROGRAM

HERD HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Herd health management must integrate livestock medicine with modern production technology.
The responsibility of a programmed health and care and disease control is equally divided between the
veterinarian devices such a program with due consideration to the local conditions and resources while the
livestock raisers implements it with optimal supervision. Their complementary activities have the objective
of attaining healthy and productive animals. Even with such efforts, diseases or abnormalities may still
occur and these must be reported promptly for early suppression and treatment.

The slow growth of the cattle industry in the country in spite of the efforts to increase the number
of the species may be partly attributed to low conception rate (<50%), a high preweaning and postweaning
mortality rates (>10%) and annual death losses in mature cattle (>2%). These death losses affecting young
and mature stocks are expectedly high inasmuch as these animals do not get the benefit of an effective
disease control program. The readily identifiable causes of deaths among cattle herds fall under the broad
categories of infectious, nutritional and parasitic diseases. Although variations in their degree of incidence
and severity of illness occur between herds and age groups, the ultimate effect is the poor production either
due to death or setback in growth and reproductive efficiency of the animal.

Some suggested disease preventive measures are:

a. Start with healthy stocks. Purchase animals must be rigidly examined for abnormalities, defects or
signs of illness, must come from reliable sources of known study parental stocks and must be under
isolation for a minimum of 30 days after purchase.
 b. Work-ups for parasite and disease control such as deworning, detisking and immunizations must be
done during the isolation period

c. For the unconfined stock or pastured herds, maintain a similar program with emphasis on their proper
application on a continuing basis. In areas where there is a high incidence of liverfluke, deworning
withd effective flukecides every 3-4 months will help control this parasite.

d. Provide adequate quality ration since well nourished cattle do not perform better but are more resistant
to infectious and parasitic agents.

e. Give optimum protection from environmental stress by providing proper housing and clean water
supply.

f. When individually confined or herd quartered, practice simulation in the pens. Prompt waste disposed
should be done to rid houses and pens of pests and insects which thrive on manure and other wastes.

g. Graze in pasture relatively safe from infective stages of internal parasites particularly liver fluke. For
the latter, snail control and pasture management should complement regular deworning with an
effective flukscide.

h. Deworn regularly for other internal or gastro enteric parasites. Matures stocks may serve as carriers of
parasites. Where parasitism’s with nematodes is high, deworn 3 to 4 times year or as recommended.

i. Detick with effective chemicals with due consideration on proper concentration and frequency as
recommended by the manufactures.

j. Unproductive breeding stocks must be called out of the herd and replaced with tested or potentially
good breeders.

k. Conduct regular checks for the presence of parasitic disease. Random focal examination conducted at
regular intervals may help check the increase in the incidence and severity of parasitisms.

l. During disease outbreaks or when the animal is visibly ill, segregate it immediately and seek
immediate veterinary assistance. Intensify efforts of environmental control through sanitation and
disinfection on contaminated quarters and utensils.

m. Immunize regularly against diseases prevalent in the area, community vaccination may be arranged
with the proper authorities way ahead of expected diseases outbreaks.

n. Segregate the cattle from other animals like carabaos, goats and sheep to avoid intertransmission of the
disease among these species.

HEALTH PROGRAM FOR CATTLE

Before Breeding:

a. If there is a group of animals from which breeders are to be selected, pick out those which are
potentially good ones based on physical characteristics, temperament or previous reproductive
performance and pedigree if known.

b. Blood test the animals for diseases such as brucellosis and leptospirosis especially in areas where these
diseases are known to occur or when reproductive failures suggest, presence in the area. Consult the
provincial veterinarian or any other veterinary authority for guidance.

c. Deworning animals with wide spectrum anthelmintics. Where liverfluke is widespread or is confirmed
to be present in the animal or herd, treat it simultaneously with any available flukecides.

d. Inject with Vitamin ADE to improve the reproductive performance.

e. Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area i.e. FMD, hemorrhagic septicemia, blackleg,
brucellosis anthers. All vaccination must be spaced out and accomplished preferably before breeding
or pregnancy.

Pregnancy Period:

a. Maintain animal on high plane of nutrition. Provide nutritional supplements. Such as minerals and
vitamins, if necessary. Deficiencies of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals during gestation have been
 linked to increased mortality and poor livability of calves inject Vitamin ADE in the second or third
trimester of pregnancy.

b. Where immunization of bacterial deceases are indicated (Salmonella Pasteur-dia Leptospira) bacterial
may be given at 7-8 months of pregnancy. The protection conferred is not only for the dam but also for the
calf by way of passive immunity through the colostrums.

c. At about the lest 2 to 3 weeks of pregnancy, deform against common intestinal roundworm using
wide spectrum dewormes.

Calving and Post-calving:

a. Segregate expectant cows from the herd at least one week before calving.
Provide adequate and comfortable quarters. Avoid an necessary stresses caused
By excitement, transport unsanitary environment, adverse climatic conditions etc.

b. Prepare calving area. An ideal calving pen should be a small, clean and dry area preferably free
from build-up of filth and manure. Clean straw as bedding in the maternity area is a practical material to
reduce gross contamination and subsequent infection of the calf. Before calving, the genital area and the
udder should be washed thoroughly to reduce gross contamination and infection of the calf during suckling
time.

c. For day old calf, cut the umbilical cord and paint the remaining stump with strong tincture of
iodine. It must suckle after parturition to receive the colostrum. If the calf is unable to suckle, assist or train
it to nurse on the dam.

d. To prevent uterine infection in the dam, antibiotic boluses may be inserted high up into the vagina.
Retained placents (unexcelled beyond 24 hours) must be removed by gentle traction and when
unsuccessful, inject pitocin or exytocin as indicated. Flush genitalia with mild antiseptics like diluted Lysol
or potassium permanganate solution.

Calves up to Weaning:

a. In area where internal parasitism is common especially acaris infection, deworm calves as early as
to 4 to5 weeks, repeat after 30 days. Dose with piperazine compounds or any equivalent dewormer in their
proper dosages.

b. When necessary, as when calves appear weak, unthrifty looking or runty, supplement nursing
calves with multi-vitamin/mineral preparation preferably Vitamin B complex. Water –soluble nutritional
supplements may be made available at all times to the calves.

c. Since calves are easily infected with ticks and other external parasites, spray with appropriate
insecticides. These chemicals are potentially poisonous if applied improperly. Seek technical advice as to
the proper dosages, formulations, and interval of application. For cattle ticks the general advise is to apply
the chemical solutions at interval of 3 weeks for 5 consecutives times.
d. Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area when the calf is 6 moths or more before weaning.

e. Repeat deworming against gastrointestinal parasites at 2 to 3 moths and again immediately before
weaning.

f. To reduce the stressful effect of weaning the calf from the dam, allow it to creep feed a few weeks
in advance of their weaning. Leave the calf in the pasture or conal where creep is located until final
weaning is done.

Yearling- Growing Period

a. when immunity due to previous vaccination has lapsed, repeat the procedure as in A-5

b. Repeat tick control as in C-3.

c. Treat against liverfluckeas i9n A-3. repeat flukecide treatment every 3 moths especially in areas
where this parasites is every common. Where such treatment has considerably reduced infection, dosing
may be repeated twice a year thereafter.

d. For sporadic incidence of specific diseases, consult a veterinarian for proper treatment and control.
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Acaricide - a substance or preparation used in killing ticks and mites.
Anthelmintic - a drug administered as drench, bolus, injectible or mixed in feed. To Get rid gastrointestinal
parasites.
Breed - a group of animals possessing certain well-defined distinguished. Characteristic and having the having the
ability to reproduce these characteristic in their offspring with reasonable degree of surety.
Breeder stock - animal intended for breeding purposes.
Breeding herd - these are dry cows and heifers ready for breeding.
Bull - a male breeding cattle of any age.
Bull herd – the breeding males used for breeding the cows and heifers.
Bulling - when a cow tries to ride other cows or when she stands if others try to ride her. A “bulling” is in heat.
Calf - young cattle of either sex under one year
Calf crop – the number of calves born.
Calving - act of giving birth in cows.
Calving interval - the average length of time in days between successive calvigs.
Castration - removal of the testis from the scrotum or any method that would render the tester functionless.
Cattle (oxen) - general term for any class of animals of bovine family, genus Bos.
Cencaria - infective larval stage of fluke of the snail host.
Colostrum – milk produced during the first 3-5 days after parturition which contains high protein, vitamins and
minerals, and antibodies that supply essential immune bodies to the newly born animals.
Concentrate – feed which contains less than 18% crude fiber with high digestible nutrients.
Conception – pregnancy
Cow – nature cattle has given birth
Crossbreeding – the mating of two different breeds
Dressing percentage – the percent which the weight of the chilled carcass is of the liveweight
Enzoolis – disease already known to prevail in an areas either indigenous or exogenous.
Estrous cycle (heat cycle) – interval from one estrus to the next estrus.
Estrus (heat period) – the sexual period in female when they are receptive to mating.
Extraction rate – relative proportion of the number of cattle slaughtered to the total cattle population
Fattener – feeder or sleet herd these consist of those ready for market and the growing cattle
Feeders – animals of sufficient age, weight, and condition that they are immediately placed in the fattening lot.
Feeder stock – cattle which is fattened prior to slaughtering
Feedlot – area with its physical facilities used for cattle fattening
Fertilization – union of egg and sperm cells
Finishing/Fattening – deposition of unused energy as fat within the body tissues.
Flukecids – drug used as drench, bolus, injectible or mixed in feed to get rid of flukes.
Flushing – feed livestock with plenty of feeds to make them gain weight just before or during breeding season.
Grassland – a kind or an area which the natural dominant plant form is grass.
Gestation – pregnancy; period from fertilization to birth.
Grade – an animal produced by mating a purebred sire with a female of less than purebred.
Hand feeding – system of feeding wherein fees are brought to the animals.
Hay – cut and dried forage for livestock feed.
Heifer – young female cattle usually under three years old that has not yet given birth.
Herbage – grass and other herbaceous vegetation for animal feeding.
Herd any number of cattle under one management, maintained in one premise which are allowed to associate or
come in contact with one another.
Heterosis – hybrid vigor, the increase vigor of F1 crosses over the average of the parent breeds.
Inbreeding – the mating of closely related animals such as brothers and sisters
Marbling – deposition of intra-muscular fat.
Parturition – a general term for giving birth.
Post-partum – the period after birth
Pregnant herd – these are pregnant females that are normally grouped with the breeding herd during the breeding
season.
Proven site – bull which has sufficient data to show its good genetic potential and excellent breeding performance
Purebred – an animal of pure breeding eligible for registration in its receptive breed association
Ration – feed allowance for one animal for 24 hours (1 day).
Replacement stock – yearling heifer or bull raised primarily for breeding purposes.
Roughage – feed which contains at least 18% crude fiber and low digestible nutrient
Shrink – a loss in weight from feed lot to market. Difference in feedlot or off-range weight and selling weight or
slaughter weight (usually in percent).
Silage – any fermented feed material stored in a silo for feeding.
Silent heat – a condition where in animals are physiologically “in heat” but have not shown any visible signs.
Silo – a structure usually sealed when full to exclude air and used for storing silage.
Stag – castrated male cattle operated after the secondary sex characters have been developed.
Steer – castrated male cattle operated before the sex characters have been.
Stocker – cattle purchased for utilization of considerable roughage from growth prior to fattening.
Tethering – restraining an animals with a rope or chain so as to allow limited movement.
Upgrading – improving the genetic potential of an animal by using purebred sire on native animal.