Academic Writing Style

Academic Journal Writing: Academic Style
Dr Lauren Butterworth
Academic Writing Style
• Common style problems
• Sentence structure
• Paragraph structure
• Clarity and conciseness
• Highlighting information
• Discussing limitations
• Quoting, paraphrasing and synthesising
• Editing and Proofreading
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What is Effective Academic Writing?
• Effective academic writing refers to the skilful and well-structured
communication of ideas and information in an academic context.
• It is a style of writing that is characterized by clarity, precision, logical

organization, and adherence to specific conventions and guidelines.
• Convey complex ideas and research findings in a coherent and compelling

manner
Common Problems
• Trying to sound ‘academic’ – simple, clear, and precise is best!
• Too much description and explanation
• Overly long sentences
• Not writing in the style of the journal
• Not considering your audience – remember, it’s YOUR job to ensure your
paper is understood, not your readers!
Common Academic Style Features
Academic writing is generally:
• Formal in tone and style
• Written in an impersonal voice
• Critical and evaluative
• Avoids colloquialisms and contractions
• Is evidence-based and objective
• Is concise and precise
• Uses bias-free language
• Avoids generalisations
First Step: Check the Journal Style Guide!
Most journals will make the style expectations explicit:
• The length and style of the title
• The length and content of the abstract
• The format and structure of the manuscript (and what to include in each section)
• The referencing conventions
• The use of personal pronouns
• The use of active vs passive voice
• The formatting of tables and figures
• American vs British English
Should I write the draft in English?
… yes.
• It is much easier for a reader to understand a paper that has been written in
English than one that has been translated.
• For this reason, try to keep research notes, plans, and drafts in English as well.
Sentence Structure
A sentence requires a subject, a verb, and a complete idea. It often also includes an
object (direct and/or indirect).
The men spoke about their childhoods.
In English, the word order rarely varies. Native speakers will expect to see this order –
changing it can lead to readability issues.
* This doesn’t mean all sentences must be structured this way, but that these elements
should appear in this order.
Why is order important?
• Readers want the key information first.
• Putting the most important information at the beginning of the sentence forces
you, the writer, to consider what is most important.
• This then allows your reader to easily identify what is most important.
• This will help you write more clearly and concisely.
Compare the following:
Among the factors that influence the choice of parameters are time and cost.
Time and cost are among the factors that influence the choice of parameters.
With these values are associated a series of measurements.
A series of measurements are associated with these values.
Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

Several authors have evaluated the possibility of minimising the levels of background
compounds, both those released from the bag material and those from the previous sample
collection, using a cleaning procedure.
Several authors have evaluated the possibility of using a cleaning procedure to minimize the
levels of background compounds, both those released from the bag material and those from the
previous sample collection.

Several authors have evaluated the possibility of minimising the levels of background
compounds, both those released from the bag material and those from the previous sample
collection, using a cleaning procedure.
Several authors have evaluated the possibility of using a cleaning procedure to minimize the
levels of background compounds, both those released from the bag material and those from the
previous sample collection.

During pregnancy, the mother’s health status is determined by women’s access
to antenatal care via availability of health clinics and qualified personnel that
provide examinations and identify risky pregnancies. Access to specialized care
and a referral system allows women to receive appropriate treatment during
pregnancy and delivery, for example a planned assisted delivery at a hospital.
During delivery, the key factors are who carries out the delivery, where is takes
place and preparedness in case of complications. While a skilled birth attendant
(SBA) should be able to deal with normal deliveries, doctors may be required in
case of complications and the availability of appropriate equipment or medical
supplies (e.g. blood transfusions) is key for survival in emergency situations. The
use of antenatal care or use of skilled support during delivery faces several
barriers on the demand side, like the affordability of the service or women’s
perception of need and value.
Cameron, L., Diana, C. S., & Cornwell, K. (2019). Understanding the determinants of maternal mortality: An observational study
using the Indonesian Population Census. PLoS One, 14(6)https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0217386
Activity: Sentence Order
Rewrite the sentences so that they begin with a subject. There are several
possible ways to do this.
1. In relation to performance, this increased in direct relation to the number of
training sessions.
2. Concerning the side effects of the treatment, only one serious effect is
currently known about.
3. Regarding the best way to learn a language, several theories have recently
been developed.
Sentence Order Tips
• Keep the subject and verb close together, and close to the beginning of the
sentence.
• Avoid interrupting the subject and verb with a parenthetical clause.
The result, after the calculation has been made, can be used to …
• Avoid separating the verb and the direct object.
We can associate with these values a high cost.
• Put the direct object before the indirect object.
This occurs when in the original network there is a dependent voltage.

Sentence Length
• A simple sentence – a single independent clause.
• The researchers monitored the results.
• A complex sentence – one or more dependent clauses are joined with an
independent clause.
• The researchers, a team of qualitative and quantitative specialists, monitored the results.
• A compound sentence – two or more independent clauses.
• The researchers monitored the results and they found a causal connection.
• A complex/compound sentence – at least two independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses.
• The researchers, a team of qualitative and quantitative specialists, monitored the results
and they found a causal connection which was caused by the temperature of the
environment.
Activity: Sentence Length
Divide up this sentence into more manageable and shorter sentences that will help the reader
understand the content better. You may need to rearrange the word order and / or delete
unnecessary words.
The aim of our study was to assess changes in the level of tolerance of natives of one country
towards immigrants over the course of a 50-year period in order to be able to advise
governmental agencies on how to develop strategies based on those countries that have been
more successful in reducing racism as already investigated in previous studies, but not in such a
systematic way, and to establish correlations with data from the USA, which until now have been
reported only sporadically.

Paragraph and Section Structure
Readers of academic papers often do not read in order. This means you should:
• Ensure the main information is summarised clearly in the first paragraph of a

new section.
• Ensure each paragraph is clearly constructed with a topic sentence that

signals the key point.
• Use connective language to ensure the reader understands the logic and flow
of the information.
Effective paragraphs
A topic sentence
• States the main idea
• Ensures unity and focus
Development
• Elaborate on the topic
• Integrate evidence and examples to back up points
A concluding sentence
• How does the idea connect back to the overall argument, or the next point?
Topic sentences
• Express the main topic of the paragraph and show
its relevance to the argument or previous
paragraph.
• Act as signposts that guide the reader through the

paragraph.
In the socio-economic context, factors such as economic status,
levels of education and other health and demographic
characteristics influence maternal health outcomes at both an
individual and broader (national/community) level.
Logical Progression of Ideas
What order should information come in? Generally speaking:
• Known information before new information
• General before specific
• Be as concrete as possible as soon as possible
• Sub-topics should be introduced and linked clearly
1. Yang and Baker (2005) argue that “to master learning materials and extend understandings, students
need to write about the meanings they gain from their research” (p. 1).
2. Therefore, students are learning subject matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by researching
and writing assignment essays.
3. Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject.
4. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter.
5. This activity helps them to “crack the code” of the discipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44).
6. Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writing
conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their discipline.
3. Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject.
4. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter.
1. Yang and Baker (2005) argue that “to master learning materials and extend understandings, students
need to write about the meanings they gain from their research” (p. 1).
6. Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper 2006) clearly demonstrates that students learn the writing
conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their discipline.
5. This activity helps them to “crack the code” of the discipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44).
2. Therefore, students are learning subject matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by researching
and writing assignment essays.
Paragraphs – an argument
Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject. Firstly,
assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. Yang and Baker (2005) argue that “to
master learning materials and extend understandings, students need to write about the meanings they gain
from their research” (p. 1). Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper 2006) clearly demonstrates that students
learn the writing conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their
discipline. This activity helps them to “crack the code” of the discipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Therefore,
students are learning subject matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by researching and writing
assignment essays.
Paragraphs – an argument
Assignment essay tasks are set to assist students to develop mastery of their study subject. Firstly,
assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter. Yang and Baker (2005) argue that “to
master learning materials and extend understandings, students need to write about the meanings they gain
from their research” (p. 1). Secondly, research (Jinx, 2004; Zapper 2006) clearly demonstrates that students
learn the writing conventions of a subject area while they are researching, reading and writing in their
discipline. This activity helps them to “crack the code” of the discipline (Bloggs, 2003, p. 44). Therefore,
students are learning subject matter and how to write in that disciplinary area by researching and writing
assignment essays.
Questions to consider
• Who is my reader and what do they know?
• Do I need to define key terms or provide a more extensive
background?
• Can I assume a level of knowledge that allows me to skip to
the new idea or solution?
• How is each topic and sub-topic linked together?

• What key words are used in each sentence/clause?
• What logical connectors may I need to demonstrate

these relationships?
Discourse Markers
Discourse markers act as connectives. They play an important role
contextualising your claims, premises, and conclusions and
demonstrating the relationships between premises and the evidence
that supports them.
You can use discourse markers to:
• Show support (e.g. ‘in addition,’ ‘generally,’ ‘indeed’, ‘and’…)
• Show disagreement/contrast (e.g. ‘but’, ‘conversely,’ ‘however,’ ‘on

the other hand’…)
• Make a conclusive statement (e.g. ‘thus,’ ‘therefore,’ ‘to

conclude’…)
• Make a neutral connection (e.g. ‘for example,’ ‘firstly’…)
Discourse Markers
A word of warning!
Many writers overuse discourse markers, especially when

they are non-native English speakers or trying to sound
‘academic’.
• Using key words as logical connectors can be more

effective than overusing discourse markers.
• Choose them wisely and know why they’re necessary!
Logical Connections
How do key words and discourse markers create logic in the following paragraph:
Different writers have different methods of organizing their reports, and some seem to have no
discernible method at all. Most of the better writers, however, appear to be in remarkably close
agreement as to the general approach to organization. This approach consists of stating the
problem, describing the method of attack, developing the results, discussing the results, and
summarizing the conclusions. You may feel that this type of organization is obvious, logical, and
natural. Nevertheless, it is not universally accepted. For example, many writers present results
and conclusions near the beginning, and describe the derivation of these results in subsequent
sections.
Adapted from: Wallwork, A. (2013). English for Academic Research: Writing Exercises. Springer.
Logical Connections
How do key words and discourse markers create logic in the following paragraph:
Different writers have different methods of organizing their reports, and some seem to have no
discernible method at all. Most of the better writers, however, appear to be in remarkably close
agreement as to the general approach to organization. This approach consists of stating the
problem, describing the method of attack, developing the results, discussing the results, and
summarizing the conclusions. You may feel that this type of organization is obvious, logical, and
natural. Nevertheless, it is not universally accepted. For example, many writers present results
and conclusions near the beginning, and describe the derivation of these results in subsequent
sections.
Adapted from: Wallwork, A. (2013). English for Academic Research: Writing Exercises. Springer.
Clarity
• Ensures your reader understands exactly what you mean
• Use the correct words and consider synonyms carefully
• Avoid generalisations and vagueness
• Be as specific as possible
The lab technician demonstrated how to use the equipment.

vs
The man revealed the use of the equipment.
Conciseness
• Express ideas in the simplest and most direct way possible
• Consider sentence structure: where are your subject and main verb?
• Cut repetition and redundant information
The authors reject the conclusions.

vs
It was reported that the conclusions were not accepted by
the authors.
Removing Redundancy
• Consider what your reader already knows (this comes with creating a logical
structure)
• Choose specific and concrete words rather than general or abstract words
‘The process of measuring the results took some time.’
• Avoid strings of words with similar meanings

‘We have considered the various potential problems and issues.’
• Consider information that is implied by the meaning of another word

‘The specimen was yellow in colour.’
Activity: Removing Redundancy
In a very interesting paper, MacNamara (1967) stressed the need to consider the degree of bilingualism not
as a unitary component, rather as a level of competence in writing, reading, speaking and listening. In this
view, bilingual competence is seen as a continuum in which individuals may vary in the degree of
proficiency for each of the four linguistic skills. Several descriptors have been described in the literature that
are used to de fi ne proficient or less proficient bilinguals. One of the most common, as reported in many
papers, describes balanced bilinguals as those who have an equal mastering of both languages (Lambert,
Havelka & Gardner, 1959; Starsky and Hutch, 1970; Bobzyer Oncle, 2011). Several authors in the more
recent literature have argued that balanced bilingualism is very rare (see for example the following two
works: Beatens Beardsmore, 1982; Grosjean, 1997). Thus, according to the literature taken as a whole,
bilingual individuals may be more dominant in one language (L1) and have their second language (L2) as
the subordinate language.
Wallwork, A. (2013). English for Academic Research: Writing Exercises. Springer.
Activity: Removing Redundancy
In a very interesting paper, MacNamara (1967) stressed the need to consider the degree of bilingualism not
as a unitary component, rather as a level of competence in writing, reading, speaking and listening. In this
view, bilingual competence is seen as a continuum in which individuals may vary in the degree of
proficiency for each of the four linguistic skills. Several descriptors have been described in the literature that
are used to de fi ne proficient or less proficient bilinguals. One of the most common, as reported in many
papers, describes balanced bilinguals as those who have an equal mastering of both languages (Lambert,
Havelka & Gardner, 1959; Starsky and Hutch, 1970; Bobzyer Oncle, 2011). Several authors in the more
recent literature have argued that balanced bilingualism is very rare (see for example the following two
works: Beatens Beardsmore, 1982; Grosjean, 1997). Thus, according to the literature taken as a whole,
bilingual individuals may be more dominant in one language (L1) and have their second language (L2) as
the subordinate language.
Avoiding Ambiguity
Ambiguity tends to occur when a reader can interpret meaning in more than one
way. This is often due to:
• Poor word choice:
‘The researchers read the report with the microscope.’
• Poor structure:
‘To obtain results, data and procedural policies were used by the team.’
• Confusing use of pronouns
‘We cut the specimens into sections, then used them in the apparatus.’
Nouns vs Verbs
• Nominalisation is when we turn verbs into nouns, e.g., ‘to decide’ vs ‘decision’.
• Nominalisation is common in academic writing as it can seem more objective

and impersonal; however, it can also make writing dense and difficult to
understand.
• Verbs are doing words – as such, the help a sentence flow by adding action.
• Strings of nouns can be particularly difficult to understand.
“The fundamental principle for the efficacious elucidation of meaning
in documentation is the minimisation of abstraction of expression and
the abandonment of convolution of construction and, instead, the
utilisation of quotidian diction and the employment of syntactical
simplification.”
(Tredinnick, 2010, p.71)

Nouns vs Verbs
This version uses a lot of nominalisation:
‘The most important aspect of clear communication is the reduction of imprecision and
wordiness.’
This version uses mostly verbs:

To write clearly, it is important to reduce being imprecise and wordy.’
This version uses a combination of verbs and nouns:

‘To write clearly, it is important to reduce imprecision and wordiness.’
Activity: nouns into verbs
1. The installation of the system is done automatically.
2. Heating of the probe can be obtained in two different ways.
3. The evaluation of this index has been carried out by means of the
correlation function.
4. The monitoring of the kinetics was possible by irradiation.

Activity: nouns into verbs
1. The system is installed automatically.
2. The probe can be heated in two different ways:
3. This index was evaluated using the correlation function.
4. The kinetics were monitored by irradiation.

Clarity and Conciseness Overview
• Complex terms or structures will not make you sound
more intelligent!
• Write using the most simple and direct terminology that

you can.
• Keep your sentences short and to the point.
• Cut everything that is not essential. This will allow your

key ideas to become more prominent.
Highlighting Information
• If your readers cannot easily see and
understand your key findings and
contributions, you may risk not being
published.
• Alternatively, if you overstate your findings or

contributions, you may be accused of bias or
be seen as untrustworthy.
Highlighting Information
• Keep key information at the beginning of the sentence.
• Signpost information for the reader.
• Keep very important sentences short, then list implications.
Our results show that investment in hospitals and doctors in the Outer Islands would significantly
reduce maternal mortality. Indonesia has the lowest doctor-population ratio in South-East Asia [61] and,
unlike some other countries in the region such as Thailand, where the provision of skilled birth
attendants was followed by increased medical facility capacity and which experienced rapid downward
trends in maternal mortality, in Indonesia not all health centres can provide basic obstetric care [62].
Highlighting Tips
• Consider using bullet points and headings
• Use white space to break up information and draw the reader’s eye
to important paragraphs
• Use tables and figures where appropriate
• Use language that signals importance, eg. ‘importantly, significantly,

surprisingly, novel, cutting-edge, successful, superior’.
In this study, we set up a system to quantify the level of X in milk, relying on a particular
kind of pre-treatment allowing a low dilution of the sample.
In this study, we set up a system to quantify the level of X in milk. Our method is highly
effective and less expensive than other options currently available. In fact, it uses a
special pre-treatment, which means that the sample only requires a minimal level of
dilution.
Wallwork, A. (2013). English for Academic Research. Springer.

Qualifiers and Hedging
• Words like: may, many, could, most, frequently, commonly, probably, few, a
minority, numerous, unlikely, seldom
• Can be imprecise and indirect and make you sound unconfident in your
writing.
‘It was quite a large study’
• However, sometimes you need to avoid generalising and overstating.
‘Many students dislike group work.’
Discussing Limitations
• Don’t hide the limitations or ‘failures’ of your research – other researchers
need to know this information to build on and avoid doing the same thing.
• Hiding ‘bad’ results does not make your research sound more impressive – it
can be seen as misrepresentation.
• Most success stories come from stories of failure!
Discussing Limitations
• Avoid negative words like ‘unfortunately’ or ‘regrettably’. Instead,
frame limitations in a neutral way:
‘Although the respondent numbers were lower than expected, the data affirms that …’
• Be clear about what the limitations are and their implications:

‘Two of our samples were contaminated. This occurred because ... We thus plan to repeat our
experiments in future work. However, our analysis of the uncontaminated samples (24 in total)
supported our initial hypothesis that ...'

Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing involves using someone else’s ideas
but expressing them in your own words.
Paraphrasing should focus on expressing the idea

in your own way to support the point you are
making, not simply on substituting enough words
with synonyms to avoid plagiarism!
Reporting verbs
We connect evidence to our own argument using reporting verbs. They allow us not only to
introduce evidence but provide context as to how it connects to other ideas.
Citing neutral evidence:
Smith (2020) states that …, Smith (2020) claims that …, Smith (2020) expresses that …, It is thought
that … (Smith, 2020), This is supported by… (Smith, 2020), Research findings indicate/show that …
(Smith, 2020), This indicates that … (Smith, 2020), There is evidence to show that … (Smith, 2020)
Showing agreement:
Smith (2020) affirms that …, Smith (2020) emphasises that …, Smith (2020) argues that …, Smith
(2020) illustrates that …, Smith (2020) approves of Watson’s theory, suggesting …, It is argued
that … (Smith, 2020), The study indicates that … (Smith, 2020), As shown by Smith (2020) …
Showing disagreement:
Smith (2020) warns that …, Smith (2020) challenges this, suggesting …, Smith (2020) disagrees …,
Smith (2020) alleges that …, Smith (2020) speculates that …, This is disputed by Smith (2020) …
Paraphrasing
Original:
Active learning is the antithesis of passive learning. In a passive learning experience, students do not
actively engage in the learning process, but they may absorb some of the information being presented.
Examples of passive learning include attending a lecture, reading a paper, or watching a video. This
inertia can be a barrier to deep learning and can also make it difficult for the lecturer to determine the
level of learning and understanding that is taking place.
Paraphrased:
Active learning is the opposite of passive learning. When learning passively, students take in some of the
information being presented, but do not actively participate in learning. Different types of passive learning
include going to a lecture, reading an article, or viewing a video. This type of lethargy can stop deep
learning and make it harder for the lecturer to verify the level of students’ learning.
What do you notice about this? Is it good or

bad paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing
Original:
Active learning is the antithesis of passive learning. In a passive learning experience, students do not
actively engage in the learning process, but they may absorb some of the information being presented.
Examples of passive learning include attending a lecture, reading a paper, or watching a video. This
inertia can be a barrier to deep learning and can also make it difficult for the lecturer to determine the
level of learning and understanding that is taking place.
Paraphrased:
Active learning is the opposite of passive learning. When learning passively, students take in some of the
information being presented, but do not actively participate in learning. Different types of passive learning
include going to a lecture, reading an article, or viewing a video. This type of lethargy can stop deep
learning and make it harder for the lecturer to verify the level of students’ learning.
What do you notice about this? Is it good or

bad paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing
Original
‘The claim that there is more than one way to approach a problem is an important one because it
illustrates one of the central ideas of academic culture. That is, that knowledge develops through
debate and argument. […] Each scholar presents ideas he or she thinks best explain the real world and
criticises ideas that he or she does not agree with. As students, you are expected to learn how to take
part in this continuing debate.’ (Brick, 2006, p. 4)
Poorly paraphrased (plagiarism)

The view that there is more than one way to look at a problem is central to academic culture.
Knowledge develops through argument and students are expected to take part in this ongoing
argument.
Paraphrasing
Original
Poorly paraphrased (plagiarism)

The view that there is more than one way to look at a problem is central to academic culture.
Knowledge develops through argument and students are expected to take part in this ongoing
argument.
Paraphrasing
Original
Paraphrased version
Academic culture is based on the premise that there are many ways to view a problem, and scholars
argue the merits of their perspective over others’ views, thus creating knowledge. Students need to
learn to participate in this process (Brick, 2006).
What can you do to ensure you
paraphrase well?
What are the main ideas?
Active learning is the antithesis of passive learning. In a passive learning
experience, students do not actively engage in the learning process, but they
may absorb some of the information being presented. Examples of passive
learning include attending a lecture, reading a paper, or watching a video.
This inertia can be a barrier to deep learning and can also make it difficult for
the lecturer to determine the level of learning and understanding that is taking
place.
Paraphrasing Tips
• Ensure you understand the original
• Consider how the idea is connected to your argument or

point
• Focus on the meaning of the whole paragraph rather than

each sentence
• Cover over the original and explain it as though to a friend
• Write dot points that focus on the main ideas only
• Focus on the who/what (subject) of the sentence and what

they are doing (the main verb)
Paraphrasing Style Techniques
• Changing the verb tense:
• Giraffes will eat Acacia leaves and hay, eating up to 75 pounds a day. (future tense)
• A giraffe eats up to 75 pounds daily, including Acacia leaves and hay. (present tense)
• Changing the writing style:

• Many people reported symptoms of anxiety after the terrorist attack.
• The terrorist attack caused anxiety symptoms in a number of people.
• Using noun+noun phrases

• Technology derived from satellites is now very advanced.
• Satellite technology is now very advanced
Write a 20-40 word summary of the following text. Decide which parts
you might need to quote directly. Which words might be better
expressed by the original author rather than being paraphrased by you?
Researchers often believe they do not need to consider style when writing scientific papers. They consider style a
matter of ‘decorating’ their prose to make it more attractive to the reader. In our survey of 1,000 papers written by
Ph.D. students we found that this is not the case. It is much more fundamental than that and involves such things as
point of view and sentence structure. We tested six different approaches to writing papers. We found that the best
was to instruct writers as follows: As you begin to organise your thoughts and your findings, decide who your reader
is. It’s even useful to imagine a particular person, in some cases a colleague, in others a student. What attitude
should you assume? Are you trying to instruct and explain or to inform and persuade? Specialists in the same field
will be familiar with your subject and its particular jargon and so won’t need a lot of “prompting.” You should ask
yourself what essential information or meaning you want to put across in your paper. We believe that writers should
overcome the idea that they must adopt a certain ‘official’ style when writing technical papers. There is no one
correct or ‘official’ voice. It is a fallacy that serious scientific journals do not accept papers written in the first person.
Many researchers aspire to an objectivity they believe is obtained by using impersonal constructions or the passive
voice. They want to lay emphasis on the experiment or results and not on the observer. Scientific findings are no
more or less valid because they are expressed by an identifiable author. Our survey of the literature of early
scientific work highlighted that some of the greatest men of science, such as Einstein, Darwin and Louis Pasteur,
were also gifted writers, unafraid to report their findings in the first person. Even today their papers exude a degree
of warmth and immediacy.

Synthesising
• Synthesising is the process of referring
to multiple sources to support your
writing.
• Good synthesising demonstrates your
ability to interpret and consolidate
information.
• It is an important skill for advanced
academic writing, particularly when
writing literature reviews and research
reports.
Synthesising
Academic or study skills are traditionally seen as those skills required to successfully participate
in and complete an educational course. Possessing these skills is often cited as being crucial for
the retention and participation of undergraduate students (Fergy, Heatley, Morgan, &
Hodgson, 2008; Hafford-Letchfield, 2007), and there is growing recognition that tertiary
students need support in gaining the specific academic skills required for higher education
(Kimmins & Stagg, 2009). In recognition of their importance in assisting students adjust to the
“university” way of learning, most universities have study skills support services, and many also
offer specific workshops and lectures as students transition into their courses (Alter & Adkins,
2001; Brunhofer, Weisz, Black, & Bowers, 2009).
Hitch, D., Goldingay, S., Hosken, N., Lamaro Haintz, G., Macfarlane, S., Nihill, C., ... & Farrugia, D. (2012). Academic skills and beyond: A resource
based approach to support student success in higher education. Journal of Academic Language and Learning. 6(2).
Synthesising
Academic or study skills are traditionally seen as those skills required to successfully participate
in and complete an educational course. Possessing these skills is often cited as being crucial for
the retention and participation of undergraduate students (Fergy, Heatley, Morgan, &
Hodgson, 2008; Hafford-Letchfield, 2007), and there is growing recognition that tertiary
students need support in gaining the specific academic skills required for higher education
(Kimmins & Stagg, 2009). In recognition of their importance in assisting students adjust to the
“university” way of learning, most universities have study skills support services, and many also
offer specific workshops and lectures as students transition into their courses (Alter & Adkins,
2001; Brunhofer, Weisz, Black, & Bowers, 2009).
Hitch, D., Goldingay, S., Hosken, N., Lamaro Haintz, G., Macfarlane, S., Nihill, C., ... & Farrugia, D. (2012). Academic skills and beyond: A resource
based approach to support student success in higher education. Journal of Academic Language and Learning. 6(2).
Editing & Reviewing
‘Kill your darlings, kill your darlings, even when it breaks your
egocentric little scribbler’s heart, kill your darlings.’
- Stephen King
Editing Process
Editing and proofreading are not the same thing! They are unique processes
with their own goals and aims.
• Content Edit
• Style Edit
• Proofreading
The Content Edit
Looks at the overall goals of the writing:
• Purpose and aims
• Logic and structure
• Ideas and content
The Content Edit
Purpose and aims:
• Have I made the research aims and

objectives clear?
• Is it clear and appropriate for the audience?
• Does each main point or section have a clear

purpose?
The Content Edit
Logic and structure:
• Introduction and conclusion
• Logical order of ideas
• Linking between ideas/paragraphs
• Paragraphs with topic sentences and one

main idea
• Does the content ‘flow’ logically?

The Content Edit
Ideas and content:
• Are all points relevant?
• Is there any unnecessary repetition?
• Is anything missing?
• Is there sufficient and appropriate evidence

to support the claims?
The Style Edit
Looks at the language and expression:
• Is the style and tone appropriate for the journal

and audience?
• Are ideas expressed clearly and concisely?
• Are links between ideas, examples, and

evidence clear?
• Have you paraphrased effectively?
Proofreading
The final check:
• Spelling/typing errors
• Tenses
• Articles
• Sentence structure: run-ons, comma splices and
fragments
• Paragraphing
• Punctuation
• Subject-verb agreement
• Apostrophes
Activity: Editing and Proofreading
Edit the following paragraph for content and style, then proofread it:
Online learning has become convenient for students who have busy schedules. The history of
online education dates back to the 60s when the first computer were invented. Online learning
has become really popular in recent years. Because it’s increasingly easy accessing course
materials from anywhere with an internet connection is a significant advantage. Today, many
universities offer online courses. The benefits of online learning include flexibility, affordability,
and accessibility. Students can choose from a wide range of subjects online. In conclusion, the
convenience and accessibility of online education make it a great choice for today's students.
Editing Tips
• Give yourself distance between yourself and your paper. When you are less familiar with what
you’ve written, you’ll notice more errors or points of confusion.
• Set aside your draft for as long as possible before revising
• Edit in a different space
• Try printing your work and editing on paper
• Read your work aloud
• Try to put yourself in the shoes of your reader – someone unfamiliar with your work and ideas
but educated enough to understand them.
Resources
Textbooks
• Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers.
Springer.
• Wallwork, A. (2012). English for academic research: Writing
exercises. Springer Science & Business Media.
Online Resources
• Journal Evaluation Tool
• Beall’s List of Potentially Predatory Journals
• Web of Science Master Journal List
• Scimago Journal and Country Rank

Academic Writing Style

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Academic Writing Style

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Academic Journal Writing: Academic Style

• It is a style of writing that is characterized by clarity, precision, logical

• Convey complex ideas and research findings in a coherent and compelling

• Too much description and explanation

• Overly long sentences

• Not writing in the style of the journal

• The length and style of the title

• The length and content of the abstract

• The referencing conventions

• The use of personal pronouns

• The use of active vs passive voice

• The formatting of tables and figures

• American vs British English

The men spoke about their childhoods.

• This will help you write more clearly and concisely.

With these values are associated a series of measurements.

A series of measurements are associated with these values.

Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

• Ensure the main information is summarised clearly in the first paragraph of a

• Ensure each paragraph is clearly constructed with a topic sentence that

• Act as signposts that guide the reader through the

• Known information before new information

• General before specific

• Be as concrete as possible as soon as possible

• Sub-topics should be introduced and linked clearly

4. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter.

4. Firstly, assignment tasks enhance understandings about subject matter.

• How is each topic and sub-topic linked together?

• What logical connectors may I need to demonstrate

You can use discourse markers to:

• Show support (e.g. ‘in addition,’ ‘generally,’ ‘indeed’, ‘and’…)

• Show disagreement/contrast (e.g. ‘but’, ‘conversely,’ ‘however,’ ‘on

• Make a conclusive statement (e.g. ‘thus,’ ‘therefore,’ ‘to

• Make a neutral connection (e.g. ‘for example,’ ‘firstly’…)

Many writers overuse discourse markers, especially when

• Using key words as logical connectors can be more

• Choose them wisely and know why they’re necessary!

• Use the correct words and consider synonyms carefully

• Avoid generalisations and vagueness

The lab technician demonstrated how to use the equipment.

• Cut repetition and redundant information

The authors reject the conclusions.

• Avoid strings of words with similar meanings

• Consider information that is implied by the meaning of another word

• Nominalisation is common in academic writing as it can seem more objective

• Strings of nouns can be particularly difficult to understand.

(Tredinnick, 2010, p.71)

This version uses mostly verbs:

This version uses a combination of verbs and nouns:

1. The installation of the system is done automatically.

2. Heating of the probe can be obtained in two different ways.

4. The monitoring of the kinetics was possible by irradiation.

Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

1. The system is installed automatically.

2. The probe can be heated in two different ways:

3. This index was evaluated using the correlation function.

4. The kinetics were monitored by irradiation.

Wallwork, A. (2016). English for writing research papers. Springer.

• Write using the most simple and direct terminology that