Oil and Gas Industry
surface
Oil and natural gas are major industries in the energy
market and play an influential role in the global
economy as the world's primary fuel sources. The
processes and systems involved in producing and
distributing oil and gas are highly complex, capital-
intensive, and require state-of-the-art technology.
The oil and gas industry is one of the largest sectors in
the world in terms of dollar value, generating an
estimated $3.3 trillion in revenue annually. Oil is crucial
to the global economic framework, especially for its
largest producers: the United States, Saudi Arabia,
Russia, Canada, and China
What are Hydrocarbons?
 Primary constituents of crude oil and natural
gas.
 Organic molecules composed solely of hydrogen
and carbon atoms
Origin of Hydrocarbons:
The origin of hydrocarbons can be traced back to the
decayed remains of plants and animals that were
embedded in sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone,
limestone, and shale. These sedimentary rocks
themselves formed from deposits that settled in ancient
oceans and other water bodies. Over time, with the
influence of specific temperatures and pressures deep
within the Earth's crust, this organic material underwent
transformations, eventually forming oil and gas.
Petroleum, Crude Oil & Natural Gas
Petroleum: Encompasses both crude oil and natural gas.
Mixtures of hydrocarbons with diverse uses and
economic values.
Crude Oil: Hydrocarbon mixtures that remain liquid at
normal atmospheric conditions.
Natural Gas: Gaseous hydrocarbons at normal
atmospheric conditions. Primarily composed of
methane (CH₄).
Today’s oil is yesterday’s plankton
✓Small marine and lake organisms live in surface waters
✓They die, fall to the bottom and get buried into an
organic rich sedimentary layer
✓ If geologic processes heat and squeeze these rocks
sufficiently, they will create crude oil and natural gas
(hydrocarbons) from the fossils
✓Crude oil and natural gas will migrate toward the
Oil and Gas Companies
Energy companies, nationally owned and privately
owned, are some of the biggest companies that have
every existed in the world. Many of them are well
known, Exxon (U.S.), Chevron (U.S.), Saudi Aramco
(Saudi Arabia), Gazprom (Russia), China National
Petroleum Corporation (China), Equinor (formerly
Statoil of Norway), TOTAL (France), and ENI (Italy).
Additionally, companies that use oil and natural gas, like
autos, electric providers, and airlines are also among the
most well-known and largest companies.
The oil and gas industry is frequently divided into
three segments: upstream, midstream and
downstream. While each of these areas has a number
of independent companies, major companies in oil and
gas are often considered integrated, meaning their
businesses consist of a mix of upstream, midstream and
downstream activities. Companies can be private,
public, or state-owned, which impacts the amount of
information available.
Upstream
Upstream businesses consist of companies involved in
the exploration and production of oil and gas. These are
the firms that search the world for reservoirs of the raw
materials and then drill to extract that material. These
companies are often known as "E&P" for "exploration
and production.“
The upstream segment is characterized by high risks,
high investment capital, extended duration as it takes
time to locate and drill, as well as being technologically
intensive. Virtually all cash flow and income statement
line items of E&P companies are directly related to oil
and gas production
The upstream sector includes:
• Exploration – the searching for potential onshore or
offshore oil and gas reservoirs, and the drilling of
exploratory wells
• Production and maintenance of wells and facilities to
recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas
to the surface plant and to process the produced Downstream businesses are the refineries. These are
hydrocarbons the companies responsible for removing impurities and
converting the oil and gas to products for the general
public, such as gasoline, jet fuel, heating oil, and
asphalt.

Downstream companies manage the refining and

marketing of oil and gas. There is lower market
concentration than the upstream segment. Downstream
companies benefit from profit margins where they are
able to sell their refined products for more than the cost
of acquiring the crude resources

PRODUCTION OF OIL AND GAS

ONSHORE

• Wells are located close together on land, covering

areas from half an acre for thick oil up to 80 acres for
natural gas.

• They're connected by steel tubes that transport oil

and gas to a processing facility.

• Unlike offshore rigs, onshore operations can quickly

adjust, turning rigs on or off based on market demands.

OFFSHORE

• Uses a single platform, either stationary (bottom-

supported) or mobile (floating with anchors).

• Costs more than onshore drilling, with stationary rigs

being pricier than mobile ones.

• Most processing facilities are near the coast, close to

these rigs

Midstream

Midstream businesses are those that are focused on

transportation. They are the ones responsible for
moving the extracted raw materials to refineries to
process the oil and gas. Midstream companies are
characterized by shipping, trucking, pipelines, and
storing raw materials. The midstream segment is also
marked by high regulation, particularly on pipeline
transmission, and low capital risk. The segment is also
naturally dependent on the success of upstream firms

Product Transfer Metering Classifications

1. Fiscal Metering:
• For tax, royalty, and revenue.
• High regulatory oversight.
• Top-tier accuracy & regular calibration.

2. Custody Transfer Metering:

Downstream • Measurement at ownership change.
• Strict standards for financial transactions.
 • High accuracy & agreed-upon calibration.
3. Allocation Metering:
• Divides product among multiple parties.
• Guidelines vary by stakeholder agreements.
• Essential accuracy with flexible calibration.
Product Transfer Metering Classifications
Acceptable Custody Transfer Metering Methods
•Differential Pressure (DP) Flowmeters
•Turbine Flowmeters
•Positive Displacement (PD) Flowmeters
•Ultrasonic Flowmeters
•Coriolis Flowmeters
Product Movement Concerns: Quality and Quantity
Note: In all stages during movement of product,
VOLUME must be accurately measured, and QUALITY
must be maintained.
PDF # 7
NAKAHIWALAY
Electrical Power Systems
What is an Electric Power System?
An electric power system or electric grid is known as a
large network of power generating plants which
connected to the consumer loads.
As, it is well known that “Energy cannot be created nor
be destroyed but can only be converted from one form
of energy to another form of energy”. Electrical energy
is a form of energy where we transfer this energy in the
form of flow of electron. So, electrical energy is
obtained by converting various other forms of energy.
Historically, we have done it from chemical energy using
cells or batteries.
Electricity
Electrical energy has grown immensely over two
centuries because the flexibility it provides for its use.
The variety of use has led its demand to increase
monotonously. However, as the load or demand has
increased practically one requirement is consistent. That
is, we must generate the amount required by the load at
that very instant because this large amount cannot be
stored for delivering this high amount of demand.
Electricity cannot be mined from the ground like coal.
So, it is called a secondary source of energy, meaning
that it is derived from primary sources, including coal,
natural gas, nuclear fission reactions, sunlight, wind,
and hydropower.
Presently the generating stations we employ mainly
over the world are following:
• Natural Gas - Natural gas combustion alone, or as part
of a furnace/boiler system, propels turbines to create
energy.
• Coal - Most power plants use coal-fired steam turbines
to generate power, though a few converts coal to a gas
before using it in turbines.
• Petroleum - Petroleum can also be burned to produce
combustion gases or steam to power turbines.
• Nuclear Power - With nuclear power, nuclear fission
produces the energy-generating steam necessary to spin
turbines and generate electricity.
• Hydropower - Hydropower from dams and other
setups power turbines via flowing water.
• Wind - Like giant pinwheels, turbines capture energy
from the wind for conversion into electricity.
• Biomass - Derived from plant and animal waste,
materials are burned directly and used as other fuels to
power turbines or internal combustion generators.
• Solar - Energy from the sun is captured in photovoltaic
solar cells, heating fluids to produce steam and drive
turbines.
• Geothermal - Heat from within the earth is harnessed
to for heating water into steam to power turbines
Structure of Power System
The power system is a network which consists of
generation, distribution and transmission system. It
uses the form of energy (like coal and diesel) and
converts it into electrical energy. The power system
includes the devices connected to the system like the
synchronous generator, motor, transformer, circuit
breaker, conductor, etc.
The power plant, transformer, transmission line,
substations, distribution line, and distribution
transformer are the six main components of the power
system. The power plant generates the power which is
step-up or step-down through the transformer for
transmission.
Power Generation
In generating station, the fuel (coal, water, nuclear
energy, etc.) is converted into electrical energy. The
electrical power is generated in the range of 11kV to
25kV, which is step-up for long distance transmission.
The generator and the transformer are the main
components of the generating station.
The generator converts the mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The mechanical energy comes from
the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines,
or occasionally the internal combustion engine.
The transformer transfers the power with very high
efficiency from one level to another. The power transfer
from the secondary is approximately equal to the
primary except for losses in the transformer. The step-
up transformer will reduce losses in the line which
makes the transmission of power over long distances.
Step-Up Transformers:
Step-up transformers are designed to increase voltage
levels by having more turns in the secondary coil
compared to the primary coil. This results in a higher
induced voltage in the secondary coil, reducing current
according to the transformer equation. These
transformers are used in power stations for long-
distance transmission, minimizing energy loss as heat in
the transmission lines.
Step-Down Transformers:
Step-down transformers are engineered to decrease
voltage levels by having fewer turns in the secondary
coil compared to the primary coil. This leads to a lower
induced voltage in the secondary coil, but an increase in
current. Step-down transformers find applications in
distribution networks, providing a safe and usable
voltage for homes and businesses. The transformer
equation remains applicable, ensuring a balance
between voltage and current in the electrical system.
Transmission Systems
Power from generation plants is carried first through
transmission systems, which consist of transmission
lines that carry electric power at various voltage levels.
• Transmission Substation
The transmission substation carries the overhead lines
which transfer the generated electrical energy from
generation to the distribution substations. It only
supplies the large bulk of power to bulk power
substations or very big consumers.
The transmission lines mainly perform the two functions
1. It transports the energy from generating stations to
bulk receiving stations.
2. It interconnects the two or more generating stations.
The neighboring substations are also interconnected
through the transmission lines.
The transmission voltage is operating at more than 66kv
and is standardized at 69kv, 115KV, 138KV, 161KV,
230KV, 345KV, 500KV, and 765KV, line-to-line. The
transmission line above 230KV is usually referred to as
extra high voltage (EHV)
• Sub-transmission Substation
The portion of the transmission system that connects
the high voltage substations through the step-down
transformer to the distribution substations is called the
sub-transmission system.
The sub-transmission voltage level ranges from 90 to
138KV. The sub-transmission system directly serves
some large industries. The capacitor and reactor are
located in the substations for maintaining the
transmission line voltage.
The operation of the sub-transmission system is similar
to that of a distribution system. It differ from a
distribution system in the following manner.
1. A sub-transmission system has a higher voltage level
than a distribution system.
2. It supplies only bigger loads.
 3. It supplies only a few substations as compared to a
distribution system which supplies some loads.
fermentation, whereas many new drug substances are
produced by organic synthesis. Historically, most drug
substances were derived from natural sources such as
plants, animals, fungi and other organisms. Natural
medicines are pharmacologically diverse and difficult to
produce commercially due to their complex chemistry
and limited potency.

Distribution System

The component of an electrical power system

connecting all the consumers in an area to the bulk
power sources is called a distribution system. The bulk
power stations are connected to the generating
substations by transmission lines. They feed some
substations which are usually situated at convenient Fermentation
points near the load centers.
Fermentation is a biochemical process employing
The substations distribute the power to the domestic, selected micro-organisms and microbiological
commercial and relatively small consumers. The technologies to produce a chemical product. Batch
consumers require large blocks of power which are fermentation processes involve three basic steps:
usually supplied at sub-transmission or even inoculum and seed preparation, fermentation, and
transmission system. product recovery or isolation (Theodore and McGuinn
1992). A schematic diagram of a fermentation process is
MODULE 9 given in figure 79.3 . Inoculum preparation begins with a
Pharmaceutical Industry spore sample from a microbial strain. The strain is
selectively cultured, purified and grown using a battery
The Pharmaceutical Industry The pharmaceutical
of microbiological techniques to produce the desired
industry is defined as the discovery, development, and
product. The spores of the microbial strain are activated
manufacture of drugs and medications. It’s widespread,
with water and nutrients in warm conditions. Cells from
including research, chemicals, and the regulation and
the culture are grown through a series of agar plates,
involvement of government agencies. However, the
test tubes and flasks under controlled environmental
characteristics of the pharmaceutical industry differ by
conditions to create a dense suspension.
region.

The pharmaceutical industry is an important component

of health care systems throughout the world; it is
comprised of many public and private organizations that
discover, develop, manufacture and market medicines
for human and animal health (Gennaro 1990).

The pharmaceutical industry is based primarily upon

the scientific research and development (R&D) of
medicines that prevent or treat diseases and disorders.

Manufacturing Process in the Pharmaceutical Industry Chemical Synthesis

Basic production of bulk drug substances may employ
three major types of processes: fermentation, organic
chemical synthesis, and biological and natural
extraction (Theodore and McGuinn 1992). These
manufacturing operations may be discrete batch,
continuous or a combination of these processes.
Antibiotics, steroids and vitamins are produced by
Chemical synthesis processes use organic and inorganic
chemicals in batch operations to produce drug
substances with unique physical and pharmacological
properties. Typically, a series of chemical reactions are
performed in multi-purpose reactors and the products
are isolated by extraction, crystallization and filtration
(Kroschwitz 1992). The finished products are usually
dried, milled and blended. Organic synthesis plants,
process equipment and utilities are comparable in the
pharmaceutical and fine chemical industries. A
schematic diagram of an organic synthesis process is
given in figure 79.4 .
Biological and Natural Extraction
Large volumes of natural materials, such as plant and
animal matter, may be processed to extract substances
which are pharmacologically active (Gennaro 1990;
Swarbick and Boylan 1996). In each step of the process,
the volumes of materials are reduced by a series of
batch processes, until the final drug product is obtained.
Typically, processes are performed in campaigns lasting
a few weeks, until the desired quantity of finished
product is obtained. Solvents are used to remove
insoluble fats and oils, thereby extracting the finished
drug substance. The pH (acidity) of the extraction
solution and waste products can be adjusted by
neutralizing them with strong acids and bases. Metal
compounds frequently serve as precipitating agents,
and phenol compounds as disinfectants.
Pulp and Paper Industry
Print nalang PDF- hirap mag copy paste
Food and Beverage Industry
The Food and Beverage Industry includes all the
companies involved in transforming raw agricultural
goods into consumer food products. The overall industry
supply chain includes food processing, packaging, and
distribution. It does not cover raw food production,
which falls into the closely related agriculture industry.
This industry includes fresh food, packaged food, and
beverages (both alcoholic and non-alcoholic). From food
sold at the grocery store to cooked meals served at
restaurants, institutions, and events, this industry serves
a huge variety of retail outlets.
Examples of Food and Beverage Processing
• Turning fresh milk into anything from dehydrated
power to a fine cheese.
• Processing whole plants like carrots into diced or cut
packaged goods.
• Transforming grain into flour and then a variety of
baked goods.
• Butchering pig, cows, chickens, etc. (A single plant, for
example, can process 1000’s of cattle in a single day).
• Adding chemical components like preservatives to
enhance shelf life and reduce spoilage. Nutrient
fortification is another prominent example.
• Using proteins to manufacture the new wave of
synthetic meats: a great example of how this industry
creates not only new products but whole new product
categories
Food industries can be divided into following sections:
✓Consumer food industry (confectionaries, cocoa
products, bakery products, soft drinks etc.)
✓Grain processing
✓Marine products
✓Dairy products
✓Poultry and meat products
✓Fruit and vegetable processing
✓Fats and oils
Emphasis of food industries
Food industries emphasize on four different operations
namely food storage, food processing, food transport
and food preservation.
1. Food storage
Food storage includes improved storage of food such as
refrigeration cycles, refrigerants, and better insulation.
Food industries process the raw materials as soon as
they are recovered. Sometimes due to unavoidable
circumstances such as early arrivals, non-availability,
market price considerations which change according to
time, the raw materials have to stored before
processing. The storing area should be well ventilated,
shaded, should use water baths, and if necessary, cold
storage must be used.
2. Food Processing
Food processing involves conversion of raw plant and
animal tissues into edible ingredients and separation of
inedible and hazardous components, extraction of
concentration of nutrients, flavors, colors and other
useful components and removal of water.
Types of food processing:
(a) Refining and Milling:
▪ Sugar obtained from sugar cane is converted to
final sugar by refining process.
▪ Milling is the process of converting grain into
powder (flour) by mechanical means.
▪ In milling operation, grain is cleaned and crushed
between two steel rolls
(b) Canning:
▪ Fresh food like fruits, vegetables, meat, fish
etc. are preserved for long time storage by heat
treatment and sealing into air-tight containers.
▪ These cans may be made by tin, untinned
steel, which is often plastic-lined, aluminum or
glass.
 ▪ Heat treatment is given to the container by
placing them in a steam pressure vessel at a
temperature of 121˚C depending on container
size and nature of food.
▪ The toxin produced by microorganism is
clostridium botulinum. Therefore, processing
must be done to destroy this organism.
(c) Concentration:
▪ Foodstuff which naturally contains high percentage
of water is concentrated before preservation.
▪ Milk is evaporated from 8.6% solid content to 45%
solid content.
▪ Fruit juices are also concentrated before
marketing. ▪ Usually the volume is reduced to one-
third of the original volume.
▪ For food concentration three processes are
available- evaporation with evaporators, reverse
osmosis and freeze concentration.
(d) Freezing:
▪ Freezing does not kill the microorganisms
which cause spoilage, but freezing inactivate
microorganisms.
▪ Nutrients are not destroyed by freezing.
▪ Inactivation of enzymes by heat
treatment(blanching) is done before freezing to
prevent unwanted changes.
▪ To improve the quality of final product, the
amount of water in food is reduced before
freezing.
(e) Pasteurization and Sterilization:
▪ Heat treatment inactivates the microorganisms
but changes the taste of food and its
appearance. ▪ The high temperature short
time(HTST) method exposes the milk to 73˚C for
not less than 16sec, followed by rapid cooling.
This process is called pasteurization.
▪ Pasteurization kills pathogenic (disease
causing) microorganisms, eliminates food borne
disease and inactive enzymes.
▪ Milk can be stored for several months at room
temperature.
(f) Fermentation:
▪ All organisms are not detrimental.
▪ Fermentation produces carbon dioxide but no
putrid odor.
▪ Fermentation is decomposition
carbohydrate.
▪ These industries produce vinegar, wine, beer
and other alcoholic beverages. It is also used in
making bread, cheese, salting of food etc.
(g) Irradiation:
▪ Irradiation is required to kill microorganism
present in food.
▪ Irradiation is used to preserve proteinous food
such as meat, fish, fresh fruits, vegetables, flour,
spices etc.
▪ Irradiation does not denaturate protein, does
not alter taste and does not leave any
radioactive residue in the food.
▪ Loss of vitamins is less as compared to
canning, freezing or drying.
(h) Packaging:
▪ The objective of packaging is to store and
transport safely without deterioration of food.
▪ Containers are sealed so that no outside
contaminant can enter and cause food spoilage.
▪ Cardboard boxes, cans, glass bottles,
polythene, plastic coated paper, finely woven
cloth are commonly used for packing.
Food regulatory policies in the Philippines
Food Safety Act of 2013
Food Safety Act of 2013. Republic Act (RA) No.
10611, also known as the “Food Safety Act of
2013” defines food as any substance or product
whether processed, partially processed, or
unprocessed that is intended for human
consumption. The law primarily aims to
strengthen the food safe. This law shall aim for a
high level of food safety, protection of human
life and health in the production and
consumption of food. It shall also aim for the
protection of consumer interests through fair
practices in the food trade regulatory system in
the country.
In line with the implementation of the Food
Safety Act of 2013, the Department of
Agriculture and the Department of Health
issued Joint Administrative Order 2015-007
specifying the responsibilities of food safety
regulatory agencies (FSRAs) and food business
operators in the development and
enforcement of food safety standards and
regulations in the country. The said order
mandates the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) to ensure food safety through the
development and issuance of authorizations
that cover establishments and facilities engaged
in the production and distribution of food
products. All food establishments are mandated
to comply with the regulatory requirements
related, but not limited, to the regulations
mentioned in Table 1.
of