14 Leadership __ Introduction influence on 2 £70UP- It is an important part ofa influe ad the group working under him Leadership is a process of Mie able (O18 "sj ¢ must . enterprise. Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce su om nates to work with confidence and 2val. It is the driving force which gets i lone by others. A good leader achieves maximum cooperation from the group ication and by motivating, He is.also members by providing two-way commun! b able to coordinate the activities of the followers to achieve common objectives, Leadership can be an important modifier of behaviour of people working in the organisation. Effective leadership is necessary for inspiring the people ven objectives. It provides a cohesive to work for the accomplishment of giv d develops a spirit of co-operation. force which holds the group intact an Effective leadership is also essential for efficient direction of human efforts towards the predetermined goals. “The fact that a leader can have an immense effect on the performance of those under him has been noted for centuries that while some officers receive only grudging obedience, others are able to inspire their men to do the seemingly impossible and do it willingly. The same phenomenon has been noted in other organisations, including business organisations. It is not sur- prising, therefore, that business would like to discover some way of selecting better leaders and for training its managers in effective leadership! techniques. But while the power of good leadership to produce extraordinary resulls is & 7 produce facts about what it actually consists of.”! fance of Leadership ie significance of leadership in mana; i rhea : igement will be clear i func ‘a ieraina Performed by a leader. The functions are ohiee ” i) Determination * of goals. A leader performs the creative function of ———— 1. Emest Dale, Management : The: Tokyo, 1973, p. 412. ory and Practice, McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd 294LpapensiP ing down goals and policies for the followers, Hi i ert the goals and policies, le acts as a guide in is " (i) Organisation of Activities, A good leader divides Organisation ac- jvtes among the employees in @ systematic manner, The relationships be- tween them are clearly laid down. This reduces the chances of eonfhet petween them. 295 (iii) Achieving Coordination. A \eader integrates the goals of the indi- viduals with the organisational goals and creates a community of interests. He keeps himself informed about the working of the group. He shares infor. mation with the group for the coordination of its efforts, (iv) Representation of Workers. A \eader is arepresentative of his group. He takes initiative in all matters of interest to the n group. He also attempts to fulfil the psychological needs of his followers. (») Providing Guidance, A \cader guides the subordinates towards the achievement of organisational objectives. He is available for advice whenever a subordinate faces any problem. (vi) Inspiration of Employees. A good leader inspires the subordinates for better performance. Motivation is necessary for getting the desired work from the subordinates. The leader motivates the employees by providing them economic and non-economic rewards. (vii) Building Employees’ Morale. Good leadership is indispensable for high employee morale, ‘The leader shapes the thinking and attitudes of the group. He develops good human relations and facilitates interactions among the members of the groyp. He maintains voluntary cooperation and discipline among followers. (vii) Facilitating Change. Leadership is the mechanism to convince workers about the need for change. Dynamic leadership is the corner-stone of organisational change. An effective leader is able to overcome resistance to change on the part of workers and thus facilitates change. What is Leadership ? Chester Barnard viewed leadership as the quality of behaviour of individuals whereby they guide people or their activities in organising efforts.” A leader interprets the objectives of the people working under him and guides them towards the achievement of those objectives. He also creates and sustains enthusiasm among them for achieving organisational objectives. In the words Of Louis A. Allen, “A leader is one who guides and directs other people. He pe 2 Chester 1, Bamard, The Functions of the Executive, Harvard University Press, ‘Cambridge, Mass., 1938.GANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR oR . ‘ 2 by influencing thei, 296 urpast direction is function of leadershj gives the efforts of his fo oni must Cape i hip shaviour.’’”? Managers jsational h ad te dias tows organisations. subordinates $0 that the to lead the s@l process of influencing of grouD goals. According z i 5 thers in choosing ang ‘Theo Haimann, is f rs the work of other y vely dil ides and influence’ individuals and the or. Aina od ey mediatin berween 1H en satisfaction “ auaining specified Essen hs ‘hat both wit bra” maxi - . ganisation in such a wc ay s of influence on a group in views leadership a8 “2 PFT cific ii ee ra rion at a given point of cn ae ri nisttn ty caves, giving them the experiene of hoping ed objectives, giving oat ie of eaderstiP provided. of influencing. followers or sub- ys related (o a situation objectives and satisfaction Wi process while ineffective in Leadership is a psychological f ordinates and providing guidance to them. i ee which means a leader may be effective in one y . another. To be effective, @ leader should change his leadership style depending upon the requirements of the situation. Characteristics of Leadership , : teadership reveals that it has the ‘An analysis of the above definitions of following characteristics : 1. Leadership is a process of influence. Leadership is a process whose ‘ercised by the leader on group mem- important ingredient is the influence ex bem. A person is said to have an influence over others when they are willing to carry out his wishes and accept his advice, guidance and direction. Suc- cessful leaders are able to influence the behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of their followers. 2. Leadership is related to a situation. When we talk of leadership, it is always related to a particular situation, at a given point of time and under a specific set of circumstances. ‘That means leadership styles will be different under different circumstances. At one point of time, the subordinates may accept the autocratic behaviour of the leader while at a different point of time and under a different situation, only participative leadership style may be successful. That is why, it is said that leadership is alw: i ays particular and not general. 3. Louis A. Allen, uis A. Allen, Management and Organisation, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York, p. 5. 4. Theo Haimann, Professional fessional Management, Eurasia Publishing House, New Delhi 1976, p. 440.LeADERSHIP 297 3, Leadership is the function of stimulation, lind a motivating people to strive wilingly to ater, onan isthe fron aders are considered successful when they are able to aborting an individual interests of the employees to the general interests of the ca oe ion. sucessful leader allows his subordinate to have theirindivideee sot up by ane in meh @ way that they do not conflict withthe anisational objectives. en this con; i i enthusiastically to achieve these goats. ™Y * *hieved, workers act 4, Leadership gives an experience objectives. Under successful leadership, that his operation, however minor it organisational objectives. It happens of individuals, gives them recognitios activities performed by them. 5. Employees must be satisfied with the type of leadership provided. Only short-term productivity of employees can be increased by pressure and punishment. This approach is not in the long-term interests of the organisation. Force generates counter-force which results in a decreased long-term produc- tivity. Long-term interests of the organisation are best served when managers allow subordinates to influence their behaviour, particularly when subordi- nates are knowledgeable and competent. A good manager recognises the fact that leadership is a shared function. A good leader shares everything with his followers ; he shares credit, blame, ideas, opinion and experience, Leadership vs. Managership Leadership is the ability to enthuse the followers towards a definite goal. It is the process of stimulating members of the group towards a particular direction. Leadership is a part of management, but not all of it. A manager is required to plan and organise, for example, but all we ask of a leader is that he gets others to follow. The fact that he can get others to follow him is no guarantee that he is going in the right direction. That means a strong leader can be a weak manager because he is weak in planning or some other managerial duty.” All work performed by a leader may not be management work. This explains why although a good manager must be an effective leader, many Outstanding leaders have, in fact, been exceedingly poor managers. The reverse is also possible. A manager can be a weak leader and still be an acceptable manager, especially if he happens to manage people who have Strong inner achievement drives. But, usually, it is essential that a person to be an effective manager must also be an effective leader. See eee of helping attain the common every person in the organisation feels may be, is vital to the attainment of when the manager feels the importance n and tells them about the importance of 5. Keith Davis, Human Behaviour at Work, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Lid New Delhi, 1975, p. 101.LeADERSHIP 299 workers in all matters, It is also true that a work- aoe leaders for different purposes. The members om wk pe bet aimuenced by one leader while doing their jobs. But as regards they personal problems, they may go to another leader for advice. Still they sty follow another leader as far as their recteation is concerned. : Management often tries to suppress informal leaders. But i remembered that the trouble they cause reflects the desires of the gro. they are suppressed, the workers may become more antagonistic to manage- ment, morale may fall even lower and new informal leaders may step to the fore. Therefore, it is better to work with informal leaders. There are many ways in which a manager can build up good relations with the informal leaders working with him. Among other things, he can pass necessary information to them first, seek their advice on technical and human relations problems and assign them to train others. STYLES OF LEADERSHIP Leadership style refers 10 a leader's behaviour. Behavioural pattern which the leader reflects in his role as a leader is often described as the style of leadership. Different leadership patterns exist among leaders in different times and in different situations, Leadership style is the result of leader’ s philosophy, personality, experience and value system. It also depends upon the types of followers and the organisational atmosphere prevailing in the enterprise. Different types of leadership styles are : (i Autocratic leadership. (ii) Participative leadership. (iii) Free rein leadership. In practice, a leader may use different styles over a period of time, but one style tends to predominate as his normal way of using power. For example, A ® ® i © BN TSZ > YS (2) Autocratic (b) Participative (o) Free Rein Fig. 1. Types of Leadership Styles (Ais the leader)300 factory supervisor who is n "| ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIoug ally autocratic, may be participative in dete, eine rein in selecting a departmental represen, mining vacation schedules ae be noted that this classification is no tative for safety committee. It scientific. In practice, a leader are thousands of inbetween styles of power i his own way. Power use exists along @ continuum ranginy to no power use at all; and effecti along this continuum as shown in Fig. 2. 1. Autocratic or Authoritarian Leader adopts a combination of styles because there power which each manager applies in ig from total power ve managers usually show some flexibility bordinates, “We determines policies forthe group without consulta trem and does nok Give detailed information about Tuture plans, but simply tells the group * immediate steps they must take. He gives personal praise or criticism to cach member on his own initiative and remains aloof from the group for the major part of the time. Thus, under this style, all decision-making power is cen- ‘ er ‘The autocratic leader gives orders which must be obe tralised in the leader as shown in Fig. hiS prerogative to decide and order and subordinates’ ob! they are told to carry out. He does not give subordina in(Jucnce his behaviour Autocraiic leadership may be negative bgcause_{¢ fa). Leader adopting this style stresses. ligation to do what tes the freedom to foliowers are unin- formed, insecure and afraid of leader's authority. Such a leader may be called strict autocrat who relies on negative influences and gives orders which the subordinates must azcept. Leadership can be positive also because the leader may use his power to disperse rewards to his group. When his motivational style is positive, he is often called a bénevolent autocrat. The benevolent autocrat is effective in getting high productivity in man; y situations and he can develop effective human relationships. There is another type of autocratic leader, known as manipulative autocrat, who makes (he subordinates feel that they are participating in decision-making process even though he has already taken the decision. Thus, autocratic leader makes his subordinates act as he directs and does not permit his subordinates to influence his decision. He assumes that people basically work for money and want security. Because of such assumptions about human beings, he exercises tight control and super subordinates, But these assumptions do not hold good in the motivational style is negative, people will dislike ion_over his all the situations. If it. Frustration, low morale and conflict develop easily in euoopee situations, The wanserdie Trdndgement has been successful cause i strong motivation to the manager. It permits quick decision-making as onl) one’ person decides for the whole STOOP Thay also tesa saeeesTaL in suchSHIP 301 ons where subordinates are reluctant to take initiative, industry, thi . }, this siwal te common and has often succeeded. I iti i ena a . In future, it is less likely to (i) The coming generation is less amenable to rigid direction and control. (g) The standard of living of people is rising. (3) There is now social awareness among the people; they look for social and egoistic sat at 2 Pace or Democratic Leader ‘A democratic | der is one who gives instructions onl i group. Hesces to it that policies are worked out in group discussions and fit eccepaNE OF group, He makes it lear that prise or ames « lei ip ‘ision-making by the group as shown,jn Fig. 1 (b), sharing of power by allowing the group to make decisions and to let decisions emerge fromrthe group. Participative manager decentralises managerial au- thority. His decisions are not unilateral like that of the autocral arise from consultation with the group members and participation by them. Unlike an autocratic manager who controls through the authority he possesses, a participative manager exercises control mostly by using forces within the group. Some of the advantages of participative leadership are : I increases the acceptance of management's ideas. bk improves the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the organisation. Att increases the cooperation between management and employees. 1t leads to reduction in the number of complaints and grievances. 5-4 increases the morale of the employees. 3. Free Rein ox Laissez Faire Leader A free rein leader docs not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself as shown in Fig. 1 (c), He is represented by the chairman of the board who does not manage, but leaves all responsibility for most of the work to his subordi- hates, The free rein leader avoids power. He depends largely upon the grouP to establish its own goals and work out its own problems. Group members work themselves and provide their own motivation. The leader exists a2 his group the information and Contact person with outsiders to bring for Tesources it needs to accomplish its job. i Free rein leadership ignores the manager's contribution approxima inthe same way as the autocratic leadership ignores that ofthe group. It fas 10 give the group the advantages of leader's inspired motivationwe ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVigy, 302 i adership position, gives all responsibility “a ansa tke wot ana him to the group eee rea ‘0 lead, limiting his authority to maintain the contact of d ; a ey a Persons i is is also known as permissive style of les ership, Where tefea catadiog 7 lt aban oF authority and leting iepanwanhemrs its own. This mode of ea can Produce 00d and quick results if the subordinates are highly educated and briltian, People who have a sincere desire to go ahead and perform their responsibj. ities, There is one more style of leadership popularly known as Paternalistic Leadership. Under this, the leader assumes that his function is paternal or fatherly. His attitude is that of treating the relationship between the leader and his group as that of family with the leader as the head of | family. He works to help, guide, protect and keep his followers happily working together as members of a family. He provides them with good working conditions, fringe benefits and employee services, This style has been successful particularly in Japan because of its cultural background, It is said that employees under such leadership will work harder out of gratitude. However, in the modern complex industrial relations system, this attitude may not result in maximum niotiva- tion. Instead of gratitude, it might generate resentment among the subordinates, LIKERT’S MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AND LEADERSHIP Rensis Likert and his associates, of the University of Michi, an extensive survey of | Management and leadershi ip pat of organisations. Within the basic style categories gan, conducted terns ina large number of task orientation and System I - Exploitative authoritative, System 2 ~ Benevolent authoritative, System 3 ~ Consultative, System 4 ~ Participative (Cemocratic), Sees 8 Rensis Lik The Human Organisation, ba MeGraw-HilBook Co, New York, 1967,LEADERSHIP «ance, Hitler, an obscure house painter in his youth, . instre apparently by sheer force of personality. Canons Gert World War, he never rose higher than corporal even when heavy eect sis created many new openings. This shows that he did not get leadership qualities by inheritance. Under complex business environment, suecess in management cannot be thought of without formal and informal acquisition of management knowledge and training. Management education helps to brighten the inborn qualities of the managers. If an organisation wants to have good managers who are capable of leading and guiding the human resources effectively, it can do so only through management education and training. Leadership qualities by themselves are not sufficient for achieving ef- fectiveness. Situational factory have a considerable influence on both emer- gence and effectiveness of leaders. A leader may be effective in one situation and ineffective in another. Thus, it cannot be accepted that leadership is a single trait of personality that will make itsclf felt under all circumstances and with all types of people at all times. The great-man theory of leadership does not provide a scientific, verifiable and predictable explanation of why, how and when leaders emerge and become effective and what critical qualities are required for achieving greatness in leadership. Some people feel that just as there are born singers and artists in various fields, there could also be born leaders. It is difficult to completely rule out the inborn or genetic nature of certain leadership qualities. We find leaders with certain inborn qualities in various fields who bend situational factors to their advantage. But at the same time, it is also true that leadership qualities can be acquired through education and training. Leaders are made out of those individuals who have the potential to acquire leadership attributes. TRAIT THEORY OF LEADERSHIP Trait theory seeks to determine universal personal characteristics of effective leaders, Numerous physical, mental and personality traits were researched during the period from 1930 to 1950. On the surface, at least some identifiable traits turned up. For instance, in 1940, Charles Bird examined twenty lists of traits attributed to leaders in various surveys and found that none of the traits appeared on all lists. Leaders were characterised by a wide variety of traits ranging all the way from neatness to nobility." In the late 1940s, Ralph Stogdill reported on the basis of at least fifteen Studies that leaders possess intelligence, scholarship, dependability in oe cising responsibilities, activity and social participation and socio-econom Status, He also found traits such as sociability, persistence, initiative, brows how to get things done, self-confidence, alertness, insight, cooper ? eer '2, Quoted by Emest Dale, op. cit. p. 415.30 ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR popularity, adaptability and verbal facility in ten leadership studies."* Persons who are leaders are presumed to display better judgement and engage them- selves in social activities. The study of the lives of successful leaders reveals that they possessed many of these traits. Some of the important traits of an effective leader are discussed below : 1. Intelligence. This trait seems to hold up better than any other. Leader generally have somewhat higher level of intelligence than the average of their followers. They possess the ability to think scientifically, analyse accurately and interpret clearly and precisely the problems before them in terms of different aspects and perspectives, 2. Physical Features. Physical characteristics and level of maturity determine personality of an individual which is an important factor in deter- mining success of leadership. Height, weight, physique, health and appearance of an individual are important for leadership to some extent. 3. Inner Motivation Drive. Leaders have relatively intense achievement type motivational drives. They have the inner urge to keep accomplishing something, To initiate suitable activities at proper time is the habit of a leader. He works hard more for the satisfaction of inner drives than for extrinsic ‘material rewards. 4. Maturity. Leaders generally have broad interests and activities. They are emotionally mature and have balanced temperaments avoiding menacing extremes so that they may not become thoughtless victims of the circum- stances. They also have high frustration tolerance. 5. Vision and Foresight. A leader can’t maintain his influence unless he exhibits his trait of looking forward well in advance and imagination for handling his followers. So he should imaginatively visualise trends and devise his policies and programmes with foresight based on logical prégrammes. 6. Acceptance of Responsibility. A reliable leader is one who is prepared to shoulder the responsibility for the consequences of any steps he contem- lates or takes. He is always aware of the duties and obligations associated with the position he holds. 1. Open-mind and Adaptability. A leader is ready to absorb and adopt new ideas and views of others as may be demanded by the situation, He is not critical of others. He is prepared to accommodate others’ viewpoints and ‘modify his decisions, if need be. Flexibility is another name for open-mind- edness which makes the leader more identified with the group. , 8. Selfconfidence. A good leader has conceptual clarity about the things he is going to do, He has confidence in himself whenever he initiates any 3. Tone nan. Inroducton to Management, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. p. 127.an si? ore gction. Self-confidence is essential to motivate the followers and outs their morale. ; ; 0? an Relations Altitude. A good leader is considerate of the 9, Huns success as a leader largely depends on the cooperation of the jlo, ‘a successful leader possesses the human relations attitude. He peopl: Tg to develop social understanding with other people. He approaches He ems in terms of people involved more than in terms of technical sat nvolved. Heis constantly busy in achieving the voluntary cooperation Sc sre followers _ —_ 10, Fairness and Objectivity. A good leader is fir and objective in oth subordinates. He must be free from bias and prejudice while dealing © emotionally involved with the followers. Honesty, fairplay, justice verimegnity of character are expected of any good leader. criticism of Trait Approach ‘rit studies have not produced clear results because they do not consider the whole leadership environment. Personal traits are only a part of the whole environment. Though a certain trait exists, it will not become active until a certain situation calls for it. Thus, there is no sure connection between traits and leadership acts. Leadership is always related to a particular situation. A person may prove successful in one situation duc to some traits, but may fail in another situation. Another shortcoming of the trait theory is the failure of its supporters to formulate a common list of traits found in all successful leaders. For instance, good health is desirable in many leadership situations, but there are also successful leaders in other situations who do not enjoy good health. There are so many exceptions to any general statement about leadership trait that it hardly applies. The theory also fails to mention the traits which are necessary to maintain leadership. Measurement of a trait usually occurs after a person becomes a leader and it is difficult to suggest the traits which are prerequisites of a successful leader. BEHAVIOURAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP The behavioural approach is based on the premise that effective leadership 's the result of effective role behaviour. Success in leadership depends more on what the leader does than on his traits. A leader uses conceptual, human ie ‘echnical skills to influence the behaviour of his subordinates. There is a wee interaction between the leader and the followers, and leaders produce “rent styles while dealing with the workers. ‘ Behavioural theories of leadership propose that specific behaviours Tentiate leaders from non-leaders. Many behavioural scientists have at- me 0 identify appropriate behavioural patterns of leadership style. the important contributions in this regard include Ohio State Studies,ORGANISATION THEORY AND BRA VI 312 Managerial Grid of Blake and saci ey sa ge els en ge behaviours ao 1310 identify their behavioural patterns, t they itl J aheores are static 8S they consider the leadership siyy, haviour variables which are GYM They have failed to exp not the situation ny behaviour is effective in one situation, py * ation. ThUS, situational variables are not considered. In tad fi itis the situation which determines the effectiveness of a particular leaders style. MICHIGAN STUDIES he University of Michigan conducteg empirical studies t0 identify styles of leader behaviour that results in higher formance and satisfaction of a group. As a result of these studies, two distinct styles of leadership were identified as follows : (i. Production-centred (Task oriented) Leadership. The production-of. ented leaders emphasize P! use of procedures, rules and close roductivity by the supervision of subordinates. They concentrate on the technical aspect of the job; employees are scen as t h the goals of the organisation, ols to accomplis! (ii) Employee-centred (Relation oriented) Leadership. The employee- centred leaders concentrate on human relations and emphasize delegation of authority, concern for employees’ needs, welfare, advancement, etc. Leaders who are described as employee-oriented stress the relationship aspect of the job. They eel that every employee is important and take interest in everyone, accepting their individuality and personal needs. Exhibit 3 : Comparison of Leadership Orie! Production-centred Leader The Institute for Social Research at t ntations Employee-centred Leader 1, Treats subordinates as human beings. Emphasizes technical aspect of 0. 3 Shows concer forthe well-being of | Relies on work standards, procedstes employees. | and rules. s close supervision 3, Encourages and involves the | Exercise employees in setting and | Employees are seen imy tementh yoals. ! woduction process. The Michigan studies found that both the siyles of leadership led 1° increase in production, but it was slightly more in case of production % ,b-centred style. However, the use of direct pressure and close supervision jol Ted to decreased satisfaction and increased turnover and absenteeis™ as a tool in the 4 Ne 5 , Michigan, Survey Ré 150. 4 N.Mi . *y Research Centre, 19. NN OO AMAR MEL oe ee ae Moraleamoné Ann Arbor, Michigan, Survey Research Centre, 1951: aaSHIP 33 ntred approach led to improved work-flow procedures and more neler in interactions resulting in increased satisfaction and decreased cobeser and absentecism. This suggested the superiority of the employee- Jeadership style. Tannenbaum and Schmidt'* elaborated the concepts eric gam studies by identifying the range of possible leadership behaviour available oa manager. As shown in Fig.2, type of action is related to the ‘of authority used by the boss and to the degree of freedom available tohis subordinates in reaching decisions. The actions shown on the extreme Jeft characterise the manager who maintains a high degree of control. Such a manager iS said to exercise boss-centred leadership. The actions shown on the extreme right characterise the manager who allows a high degree of freedom for the subordinates. Such a manager is known as employce centred leader. The continuum of leadership behaviour has already been discussed in this chapter. Evaluation of Michigan Studies ‘The value of Michigan studies lies in the analysis of two leadership styles, viz, task and employee-oriented leadership. Instead of restricting to traits of leaders, they concentrated on the behaviour of leaders. These studies are criticised on the following grounds : (i) The Michigan studies failed to suggest whether leader behaviour is acause or effect. They did not clarify whether the employee-centred leader- ship makes the group productive or whether the highly productive group induces the leader to be employee-centred. (ii) The Michigan studies did not consider the nature of the subordinates’ tasks or their personal characteristics. Group characteristics and other situa- tional variables were also ignored. (iti) The behavioural styles suggested by Michigan studies have been termed as static. A leader is supposed to follow cither of the two styles, viz., task orientation and employee orientation. But in practice, a practical style may succeed in one situation and fail in another. Moreover, leaders don't festrict themselves to a particular style. They adopt both the orientations in Varying degrees to suit the particular situation. OHIO STATE LEADERSHIP STUDIES The leadership studies initiated by the Bureau of Research at Ohio State University attempted to identify various dimensions of leader behaviour. Ulimately, these studies narrowed the description of leader behaviour to two mensions : Initiating Structure and Consideration.'® As. ; Robert Tannenbaum and Warrent H, Schmidt, op . cit. e os per M. Stogaitl and Alvin E. Coons, Leader Behaviour, Its Description and “asurement, The Ohio State University, Ohio, 1957ue (Low) ~ Consideration —+ (High) (Low) = Initiating Structure —> (High) Fig, 3. Ohio State Leadership Quadrants. Initiating structure refers to the leader's behaviour in delineating the relationship between himself and members of the work-group and in endeav- ouring to establish well-defined patterns of organisation, channels of com- munication, and methods or procedures. On the other hand, consideration refers to behaviour indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the relationship between the leader and the members of his staff." The research studies also showed that initiating structure and consideration are two distinct dimensions and not mutually exclusive. A low score on one does not require high score on the other. Thus, leadership behaviour can be plotted on two separate axes rather than on a single continuum, The four quadrants, in Fig. 3 show various combinations of initiating structure and consideration. In each quadrant, there is a relative mixture of initiating structure and con- sideration and a manager can adopt any one style. MANAGERIAL GRID The two dimensions of leadership, viz., concern for people and concern for production have been demonstrated by Robert R. Blake and Janes S. Mouton in the form of a grid.'® The word ‘grid’ means an iron grating, a frame-work of parallel bars. Blake and Mouton identified five basic leadership styles of practising managers representing various combinations of the aforesaid two dimensions as shown in Fig. 4. It is, however, important (o point out that these basic styles are a matter of convenience rather than a fact. A brief description of these styles is given below : 1. The 9, 1 Managerial Style (Task) People are regarded as an instrument of production under the 9, | managerial style, Itis an autocratic style of leadership. This style places a heavy emphasis 17. Ibid. 18. Blake, R.R. and Mouton, J.S., The Managerial Grid, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, Tex, 1984,SHIP MS and job requirement, ‘The use of power in the authori i on oy Mf control. Human relationships and eee cepa the ™ jationship between the manager and his subordinates is based a the qe re of authority and obedience, Subordinates are expected to carry out oe with an unquestioning obedience. ‘They are taken as merely means for ve the tasks assigned to them. Little attention is given to their development me unicating with them beyond the issue of instructions and orders onmonfict erupts among the subordinates, the manager following this Ae ies 1 suppres i because ofthe posible leet tat ent may Hen the work. Ifthe conflict is between a subordinate and the boss, the oil of the boss is to win. Re 3 e°9 $s 1-9 = 8 |country Chub) x ¥ 2 Rs e 5 § j (Middle Road) 4 3 2. |impoverished) Bila 1 2S A Sri6p 785.9 (Low)—Concem for Production -> (High) Fig. 4. Managerial Grid. 2. The 1,9 Managerial Style (Country Club) Under this style of management, work is done leisurely. At best people are regarded rather than driven. Subordinates are expected to turn out some work to avoid trouble. The boss is more of a big brother than the autocratic leader. Social relationships are more important. The group, not the individual, is the key in the organisation. The aim is to achieve friendliness and harmony among the members of the organisation. 3. The 1, 1 Managerial Style (Impoverished) A manager with this orientation exerts minimum influence on the contacts With group members. He expresses little concern for production or people. In 4 supervisory position, he is most likely to be found executing messenger carrier functions, communicating orders from the layer above to the layer below. He is an expertin passing on blame to others for failures in such a way that he absolves himself from responsibilities, yet he rarely initiates ctcism spontaneously. His criticism is strictly in self-defence. MNT involvement in organisation's purpose and with its people is all that he wants.oS M6 ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR ‘The 1,1 orientation stands for '*message-carrying’’ minimum contact, ‘Through minimum contact and non-involvement, the 1,1 style reduces the heed to take active steps with respect to managerial responsibilities. The less such a subordinate sees his boss, the better it is. Subordinates or members of the group are left to find for themselves the ways of doing the job. Being present, yet absent, is the 1, | orientation. 4, Tho 6, 5 Managerial Style (Middle Road) ‘The ‘'people’’ dimension in the work situation is as important as the “production dimension, The 5, 5 style seeks to maintain a balance between the (wo. A basic assumption of this style is that people will work willingly ‘and so as they are told if the reasons for doing so are explained to them However, just enough is communicated so that people have a general sense ‘of what ix going on. If too much is told, it is feared that they might resist. Enough concern is shown for the people so that adequate production may be achieved. This is seen in the 5, 5 approach to management development, sunication, and performance reviews. Meetings arc held to listen to their ns and to create a sense of participation in decision-making. Another important aspect of 5, 5 concern is the informal relationship. It does not just monitor the grapevine or oversee work performance but actively uses the informal system towards organisational purposes. For instance, if a particular procedure, method or technique emerges from the informal system and if it proves to be a good organisation action, 5, 5 style takes steps to formalise the informal action by putting it in writing so that it may become a part of formal operation 5. The 9, 9 Managerial Style (Team) A basic need of people that is met by the 9, 9 style is the need to be involved and committed to work, A major difference between 9, 9 style and other managerial styles isin goal setting and its use as a basic management approach to a large variety of problems. The capability of people to be involved in organisational objectives through commitment to objectives is fundamental, 4 other words, the 9, 9 orientation aims at integrating the people and pro- det s dimension of work under conditions of high concern for growth. The cy is the involvement and participation o s iti i and execution of work This brings bout the Lind ae planning high organisation accomplishment. renitiaatsto ership behaviour is 8, 9, ie, maximum concern for both pret ; th i people. I may be noted thatthe five positions emphasised inh Meiapetal Grid are rarely found in their pure form in actual life. That means, a manager may have a style of 8, 2, oF 4,6 or some other. Nevertheless, Managerial GradLBADERSHIP ‘ widely used as a technique of managerial training and for identifying * ous combinations of leadership styles, v 317 In essence, the Managerial Grid has 8iven popular terminology to five styles within the four quadrants of the Ohio State Studies. However, there is ‘one basic difference between the two, In behavioural model that examines how leader actions are perceived by others. Both these frameworks can be combin ed as illustrated in Fig. 5. 9 8 | (Country Club) (Team) 1 High High Structure Consideration and High s and Low Consideration 5 Structure 5-5 (Middle Road 4) Low structure High Structure| 3 and Low consideration (impoverished) 1234563789 (Low)—hnitiating Structure — (High) Concern for Production Fig. 5. Ohio State Studies and Managerial Grid Combined. TRI-DIMENSIONAL LEADER EFFECTIVENESS MODEL W4J. Reddin added effectiveness dimension to the two dimensions of Mana- gerial Grid and other models. This was done to integrate the concepts of leadership style with situational demands of a specific environment. When the style of a leader is appropriate to a given situation, it is termed ‘effective’ and when the style is inappropriate to a given situation, it is termed ‘ineffective’! In Reddin’s 3-D Management Style Theory, three-dimensional axes Tepresent task orientation (similar to initiating structure or concern for pro- duction), relation orientation (similar to consideration or concern for people) and effectiveness orientation as illustrated in Fig. 6. The difference between the effective and ineffective styles ane the actual behaviour of the leader but the appropriateness of the behaviwe Task Dimension —> Fig. 6. Three Dimensions of Leadership Style. i in which it i ird dimension is environ- the environment in which it is used. In fact, the third i ment, It is the interaction of the basic style with the environment that results in a degree of effectiveness or ineffectiveness. AN OVERVIEW OF BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH Michigan studies and later Tannenbaum and Schmidt identified two basic leadership styles and studied them as a continuum of leadership behaviour, But Ohio State studies marked a departure from these. Instead of a single continuum of two leadership orientations, they used two separate dimensions, viz., initiating structure (task orientation) and consideration (relationship orientation). Under these studies, what the leader does was regarded as more critical than the traits of leaders, Further, it seems that employee-criented leadership is recommended as more effective than the task-oriented leader- ship. The behavioural approach to leadership is often termed as static because of its emphasis, On a particular style for a leader and ignoring the situational factors which in practice influence leadership effutiveness toa gr For instance, in armed forces, a high initiati . Pen ae nA ORY O ean This 2 Sevocates that leadershij is swongly affocs which a leider ‘emerges and in which hewn a ite = ‘88sunptionsSHIP BADER 9 at there exists an interaction between a group and its leader ma to follow the person (known as leader) who is capable of retin aspirations. ‘Thus, leader is a means of achieving the goals of the group i the members. He recognises the needs of the situation and then acts accordingly ‘The focus in the situational approach to leadership is on observed behaviour and not on any hypothetical inborn or acquired ability or potential for leadership. In other words, the emphasis is on the behaviour of leaders and their followers and the type of situation, Leadership process is thus a function of the leader, the follwers and the situation. It can best be explained in terms of the interaction between the leader, those being led and the nature of situation in which they operate. In other words, a person becomes a leader not only because of his personal attributes, but “also because of various situational factors and the interactions between the leader and the group members. Fiedler’s Contingency Model The situational theory contends that there is no one best style of leadership universally applicable to all situations. A leadership style may be effective under,one situation and ineffective under the other. Ficdler identified two basic styles of leadership and on the basis of studies tried to analyse their effectiveness under different situations.” Leadership Styles. Fiedler set forth two major styles of leadership : ( task-oriented or controiling, structuring leadership under which the leader gains satisfaction from seeing tasks performed; and (ii) relationship-oriented or considerate leadership under which the leader tries to achieve good inter- personal relations with the subordinates. Least-Preferred Co-worker Scale (LPC). Fiedler developed a least- preferred coworker scale to measure the two basic styles, viz., task-oriented and relationship-oriented. LPC ratings are made by people in a group as to those with whom they would least like to work. In developing this scale, Fiedler asked the respondents to identify the traits of a person with whom they could work least well. Respondents described the person by rating sixteen items on a scale of attributes such as the following : Pleasant_ lh Eee Unpleasant Friendly_ Unfriendly Accepted. Rejected On the basis of research, Fiedler founé that low-LPC a cumnpleting tasks successfully, even at the expense of interperso! ee i Ifill Book 2%. Fred E, Ficdler, A Thory of Leadership seeciveness. MEG IN Company, New York 1967, p- 13.ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIOUR a jon and valuing job perfor. k completion a 8 F ships, gaining self-esteem iaenedie good interpersonal relationships, are mance. High-LPC leaders COT ction from relationships with others, . i tis: 7 : more conor on or task accomplishment. Fiedler argued and are not influenced i -LPC score and type of that a correlation exists belwest! aed cao because the caer leadership. Low LPC reflects TT lowed that are fikely 0 inftinge'on cannot I eal gs Le reflects relationship-oriented leadership, a he eae can overlook negative traits and retain a strong interper- sonal relationship regardless of its effect on task arcomplishment: _ Situational Variables. Fred E. Fiedler analysed three major situati onal variables which exert powerful influence on the leader’s behaviour and his effectiveness. The three variables are : (i) leader-follower relations, (ii) task structure, i.e., the degree of structure in the task that the group has been ‘ De assigned to perform and (iii) position power, i,e., the degree of informal power ‘and formal authority enjoyed by the leader. rt (i) Leader-member relations. These refer to the compatability between ~ group members and managers. If group members respect the manager and Us: / also feel a personal attachment, then formal authority is less important in N wh “getting work accomplished. Fiedler believed leader-member relations to be a si situational variable, , ‘1 Task structure. The nature of jobs and how tasks are structured ~ influence leadership. If tasks are highly structured, with formal guidelines and well defined expectations, authority is also formalised and both managers , and employees will be at ease with a directive style of leadership. If tasks are unstructured, such as in creative research labs, group members and managers ( expect I ive leadership with more conciliatory behaviour, wsdl wos ss . ii) Position power. The Position power of leaders is influenced by § organisational culture, the formality of management hierarchy and the style of work environment. Therefore, the values and beliefs of employees and auneit ioe Philosophy of top management towards leadership and the eeu 2 itude towards leadership will Partially determine what style is Favourableness of Situation The three variables discussed above determine whether a gi ituati Biven situation j: of favourable or unfavourable to the leader. The favourableness of a situation may be defined as “‘the degree to which the situation enables the leader to exert his influence over his group," —___Se ts Fru fUP VFP LEADERSHIP CPP UUP vVup ufU , YUU a Fiedler perceived eight possible combinations of the three situational variables as shown in Exhibit 4. As a leadershi ion varies from high to low on these variables, it falls into one of the eight combinations or situations. The most favourable situation is one in which the leader-follower relations are very good, the leader enjoys great position Power and the task structure is well defined. On the other hand, the most unfavourable situation signifies that the leader is disliked, the leader has little Position and the task is un- structured. Exhibit 4. Fiedler’s Situational Combinations Situationat | Leader- Task | Position | Situational Combination | Follower | Structure | Power | Favourableness Relation 1 Good High Strong HIGH 2 Good High Weak 3. Good Low Strong 4, Good Low Weak 5 Poor High Strong 6. Poor High Weak 1 Poor Low Strong 8. Poor Low Weak Low After having developed the framework for classifying group situations, Fiedler attempted to determine the most effective leadership style for each of the eight situations. He came to the conclusion that : (@ Task-oriented leaders tend to be most effective in situations that are either very favourable or very unfavourable to them. (ii) Relations-oriented leaders tend to be most effective in situations that are intermediate in favourableness. Task-oriented style | Relationship-oriented | Task-oriented style considerate style ee Favourable leadership Situation intermediate Unfavourable leadership situation in favourableness for situation leader Fig. 7. Leadership Styles appropriate for various crow — swiemes In general, high control situations (1, 2 and 3) call for task~ leadership because they favour the leader to take charge. A ae, ioe Situation, as in combination 8, also calls for task-osiented leaders se cs a itrequires the leader to take charge. But the situational combinal fooa 4 Sand 6 represent moderate control situations which call for telations p-orient leadership, i.e., leaders must get the cooperation of their subordinates,| m ORGANISATION THEORY AND BEHAVIO\ 7 ‘Thus, itis not feasible to suggest an ideal or normative style of leaders, » that will suit all situations, We cannot blindly condemn or recommend Meio cratic or any other style of leadership ignoring the preven ee nd their favourableness. A leader can be effective oo oe able 1 is style according to the dynamics of the situation variables, : y! Fiedler seems tobe emphasising a single continuum of oo behaviour, suggesting that there are only two basic leader praia ee iw oriented and relationship-oriented. But evidence indicates that 1 behavi- our should be plotted on two separate axes rather than a single continuum, ‘Thus, a leader who is high on task behaviour is not necessarily low on relationship behaviour, Any combination of the two dimensions may occur, Fiedler’s model is considered as a significant contribution to the litera- ture on leadership. It emphasises that leader's effectiveness is neither purely a matter of Icadership qualities nor that of the type of situation. It is the result of an interaction between the two. The model brings out the fact that task oriented (autocratic) leaders should not be condemned out of hand, They are needed in some situations as identified earlier and can achieve good results, It does not give much credence to the argument that leaders can switch over from one style to another depending upon the nature of the situation. Successful Leader vs. Effective Leader A leader is successful when he is able to get the desired results from the followers or subordinates. In other words, the success of a manager is mea- sured by the production or productivity of the group he leads. Using this yardstick, we can easily measure the degree of success of a manager. Let us Suppose that a leader is able to get the things done by the group by using threats, persuasion or any other tactic. He will be called a successful manager. But a successful leader is not necessarily effective. In the above example, if the subordinates do the work because of threats, they will not be happy and their morale will be low, ‘Though the deader is successful, he ts Ws, is attitudinal in nature. Effective leaders not only Concentrate on production, but also on the needs and aspirations of the followers, The more managers adapt their style of Meader behaviour to meet the particular situation and the needs of their followers, the m they will tend to be in reachin, anisational goal: successful leaders may be having cf er ofeifecia ean be highly ingffeetive if their style of leadership is i i ighly i , ‘appropriate jo the needs 'of the situation and meets the r « of the subordinates. They will be highly ineffective if the subordinalts are not satisfied ‘with the leadership style of the manager. : 23. Paul Hersay, Management Concepts and Behaviour, Marvem Publishing Co, Little Rock, 1967, P. 15.LEADERSHIP : 323 In short, managers could be successful but ineffect . tive. Such managers will have only a short-run influence over the behaviour of subordinates. On the other hand, if managers are both successful and effective, thelr influence will tend to lead to long-run productivity and employees satis isfaction. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory Also known as life cycle theory of leadership, Hersey and Blanchard’ situ- ational theory” advocates linking leadership styles with various situations so as to ensure effective leadership. This approach is an integration of the existing body of knowledge about leadership (such as Grid approach, Ohio State studies, and Argyris’s maturity-immaturity model) into a mould of leadership styles appropriate under different situations. Hersey and Blanchard based their theory on an interaction among : (1) the amount of direction (task behaviour) a leader gives : (2) the amount of socio-emotional support (relationship behaviour) a leader provides : and 3) the maturity level that followers exhibit on a specific task or function?> This theory is clearly built on the research at the Ohio State that showed that authoritarian leader behaviour (task emphasis) and democratic leader behaviour (relationship emphasis) are not “‘either/or’’ styles. Some leaders mainly direct activities, and others concentrate on providing socio-emotional support for their followers. Still others use both styles simultaneously. Some even use neither. Maturity, the third variable, is built on the work of Argyris. Maturity i. the capacity to set high hut attainable goals, plus the willingneSs and ability to take responsibility and to use education and/or experience. People tend to have varying levels of maturity depending on the specific task, function, objective that they are attempting to accomplish. The level of maturity is defined by three criteria : (i) Degree of achievement motivation. Gi) Willingness to take on responsibility. (iii) Level of education and/or experience. According to Hersey and Blanchard, as the level fo maturity of the follower continues to increase in terms of accomplishing a specific task, the leader should begin to reduce task behaviour and increase relationship behavi- if lower moves into an above-average level of maturity, the leader “Toul d Geereanee Ep et atationchin betwen SAN bias es both task and relationship behaviour. At this maturity Tevel, thére is @ Teducticn of close supervision and an increase in delegation as an indication of trust and confidence. Saeco 24. Paul Hersey and Kenneth H. Blanchard, Management of Organizational Behaviour, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ., 1982 2S. ibid aa,