00:02

We know that there are two kinds of static war controller systems. One type is called SVC static war
compensator and another one is called STATCOM. The essential difference between these two shunt war
compensation systems lie in the static war generator units that they employ inside them.

00:30

variable impedance type static war generators inside. Whereas STATCOM employs a three phase inverter
based on power semiconductor switches working as a synchronous generator from a DC bus which is
usually self regulated. That means it will be a simple DC charged capacitor.

00:59

So STATCOM, the static war generator sitting inside a STATCOM is essentially a simulation of a
synchronous condenser. Whereas the static war generator sitting inside a SVC is a variable impedance
type static war generator where the impedance of a capacitance is varied continuously over a range by
means of a reactor.

01:28

the hose impedance is varied with the help of switches.

01:34

From this lecture onwards, we take up the study of static war generator units sitting inside SVC and
STATCOM. We take up the static war generators employed by SVCs first. They are usually variable
impedance type. So we are discussing variable impedance type static war generators in this lecture as
well as 304.

02:02

lectures that are to come. The first such unit, the first variable impedance type static war generator unit
that we are taking up for discussion is the so called FC-TCR. FC standing for fixed capacitor, TCR standing
for thyristor controlled reactor. These two units, the fixed
02:33

put in parallel They form a parallel impedance it is Very difficult to vary the impedance of a capacitor by
thyristor switching This is why we go for this route of doing things this way of doing things we don't do
any switching on the capacitor rather we put a Inductor in parallel to it and then we vary the

02:59

effective susceptance or effective impedance of the inductor with the help of thyristor switching so that
the effective impedance of the parallel combination of a fixed capacitor and a variable reactance

03:14

will simulate a variable capacity of reactants. For example, suppose we could vary the reactants or the
inductance from zero to omega L.

03:27

then reactants zero to omega L. Then we will be able to...

03:38

no sorry suppose we are able to make the reactance of an inductance what does the reactance of an
inductance it is omega L. Suppose we are able to increase this reactance from the minimum value of
omega L to a large value then the parallel combination of that variable reactance and capacitance will
become an effective capacitance which varies over a certain range ok. This is the idea.

04:08

The typical FCTCR based SBC system one line diagram is shown here. You have a high voltage
compensator bus. This is the bus at which you are connecting the compensator. It is at extra high
voltage. It could be 220 kV or 400 kV or even 1000 kV, 1200 kV, 750 kV, etc.

04:32

you use a step down transformer, Y delta transformer.

04:38

to interface this high voltage compensator bus or this is this also can be called the point of common
coupling PCC you can call it the PCC.

04:53

point of common coupling.

04:58

Okay, from the point of common coupling, you run a transformer, power transformer, the interfacing
transformer, which interfaces your SVC unit to the high voltage compensation bus. This is because
whatever devices you use in the SVC, it's usually very difficult to run the SVC at the high voltage level of
the high voltage compensator bus.

05:26

indeed the SVC is a high voltage unit but not so high as the transmission line voltage therefore you need
a transformer in between and anyway an electrical isolation between the high voltage compensation bus
and the SVC unit is also very desirable from safety point a few and electromagnetic interference point a
few so you construct a medium voltage compensator bus it's medium voltage that is where you are
going to

05:55

that is where you are going to connect your SVC. So SVC is running at a medium voltage and somewhat
higher current. Current level here will be obviously more than the current level here because of the
transformer. At the medium voltage bus, you use a TCR unit and a fixed capacitor. The TCR unit is
essentially an inductor in s eries with anti-parallel connected thyristors.

06:23

Here in this diagram, which I have taken from one of the textbooks which I will refer to soon, in this
diagram you see that the inductor is split into two inductors and connected in a particular way. Upper
half is connected here and lower half is connected after the thyristor. I have seen this kind of connections
in many diagrams. I think there is some practical reason for doing this, but I am not very clear about the
reason.

06:56

But practically they split it into two units and put it this way. The reason may have something to do with
the practical insulation engineering or I don't know. I'll have to admit that I don't know. Maybe you can
Google it and find out why it is done that way. But for analysis purpose, it is an inductron series with
thyristor and parallel connected thyristors. These thyristors will have to be triggered.

07:24

So there has to be a control unit for that. The control unit, usually this kind of SVC and STATCOM are
used to regulate the bus voltage as per some control law. Therefore the bus voltage will have to be
monitored. And that is where you have a potential transformer which is stepping down the bus voltage
and that information is given to the control system. And maybe you have a control system reference
setting here.

07:50

maybe you want to maintain this bus voltage constant that information is given here and this control
system which is now a composite of external control system and internal control system together will
finally deliver the firing angle for the two thyristors. Firing angle for the this thyristor will be given in the
positive half cycle of the voltage and firing angle for this thyristor will be given.

08:19

in the negative half cycle of the voltage. The two firing angles given to the two thyristors will be exactly
identical. It has to be, they have to be identical. Same value of firing angle should be used for both
thyristors in a cycle. But from cycle to cycle, both firing angles will vary as a group under dynamic
situations.

08:47

If the firing angle varies for one thyristor, firing angle will vary as per the same variation for the other
thyristor also. In one cycle of AC voltage waveform, the firing angle received by positive half cycle
thyristor and negative half cycle thyristor will have to be exactly equal. If you are varying firing angle, you
have to vary only cycle to cycle basis.

09:16

My point is when firing angle is expected to vary according to control action, the variation will not result
in the two thyristors receiving different firing angles. They will always receive same firing angle only and
together these two firing angles can be varied. So within a cycle, two thyristors will receive exactly same
firing angle. In the next cycle, both of them may receive a different firing angle. That is all.

09:47

Now, a comment regarding the symbol for the switches or the thyristors. From the diagram it looks as if a
single thyristor is used or a pair of thyristors is used. Not so. It's only a symbol. But that single thyristor
here represents actually many thyristors. This is so because a single thyristor used in fax controllers can
block 4 to 9 kV.

10:16

Typically 6 kV but then 4 to 9 is the range depending upon the manufacturer and the design and all and
such a single thyristor can carry 3000 to 6000 amperes in forward, forward conduction path. But even
this is not enough. Even though you are doing it at the medium voltage bus level.

10:44

A single thyristor will not be able to support even the medium voltage bus. Maybe the medium voltage
bus is 33 kV or 66 kV or even 110 kV. So you will need many thyristors in series to block this kind of
voltage. Typically 10 to 20 such thyristors are connected in series in the form of a string.

11:11

Many such series strings are connected in parallel to increase the current carrying capability. So this
single thyristor is actually a parallel connection of many strings, each string containing as many as 10 to
20 thyristors in series. Similarly, this single thyristor symbol stands for a parallel connection of many
strings, each of which is a series connection of many thyristors.

11:42
So it's not a very simple engineering problem there. It's somewhat complicated power electronic
engineering there. So many thyristors in series expected to share voltage equally under steady operation
as well as during switching also. Therefore, you'll have to arrange for equal voltage sharing under static
conditions and dynamic conditions by proper subsidiary or auxiliary elements across each thyristor.

12:12

you would have studied that in the undergraduate power electronic course. Similarly, many such
strengths are in parallel, so to ensure equal current division in the parallel strengths, again there some
kind of engineering is involved there to ensure that equal current division will take place. Okay,
otherwise the parallel strengths will get differentially heated up and the one which gets heated up more.

12:40

more may fail and that will put more load on the other parallel strings and they will also start failing etc.
So static and dynamic voltage sharing and current sharing should be ensured by proper auxiliary
components and control techniques. In addition, moreover, each thyristor has to be protected. So
protection of thyristors one by one, string protection,

13:09

individual thyristor level, at the string level and finally in the parallel string level. Okay. So all this complex
engineering system is modeled as a single switch or a pair of switches anti-parallel in our analysis. Okay.
Right.

13:34

This is how a TCR is going to be used in practice. A TCR will be used along with a fixed capacitor and the
system will be called FC. FC TCR system and it will belong to SVC. So the application will be SVC
application. Now there is another pair of components which I need to explain. That is this C and L. It's an
LC filter.

14:05

It is optional, but it is usually used.

14:10

the operation of TCR is not really dependent on this optional network. The function of this network is to
function as a filter. Soon we will see that the FC TCR unit will draw a current, reactive current, in fact
leading current from this compensation bus. However, that current is not purely sinusoidal.

14:37

you will be able to control the fundamental amplitude of that current and thereby you will be able to
simulate a variable impedance and thereby you will be able to simulate a variable static word generator
but in addition to drawing fundamental current due to switching taking place in the TCR leg the current
drawn has non-sinusoidal content the wave shape is not sinusoidal therefore harmonic currents are also
drawn

15:05

these harmonic currents if they flow through the transformer impedance this impedance has sorry this
transformer has series leakage impedance and behind the transformer you have a high voltage bus if you
find the Thevenin's equivalent of the power system behind this bus that is rest of the power system is
modeled as a Thevenin's equivalent that Thevenin's equivalent will have a series reactance that's called
the

15:33

short-circuit reactance at this bus. That's not zero. So from this point onwards, you have transformer
series impedance and the impedance of the bus or the short-circuit impedance of the bus. And then
behind that you have the source, the evidence voltage source. The harmonic current taken by the TCR
unit will have to flow through the impedance of the transformer and the impedance of the network to
the source.

16:02

and when harmonic currents flow through reactances they will produce harmonic voltage drops and
since the synchronous generators in the power system are not generating harmonic voltages they are
generating only sinusoidal pure sinusoids this voltage drop in the intervening impedance which are
harmonic voltage drops will finally result in this bus voltage distorting and this bus voltage also becoming
non sinusoidal and distorting
16:31

So voltage harmonics are produced because current harmonics taken by this kind of units travel through
system impedances backwards. We can't afford to have that. Therefore we don't want the harmonic
currents taken by this switched unit to flow through this transformer and through the system back to the
generating stations. We would like to supply these harmonic currents required by the TCR unit locally
itself.

17:00

Just the same way sometimes we supply the reactive power required by a load locally by a capacitor. In
fact it is only for that we are studying SVC and STEDCOM and all that. So it is a... this filter is a local
arrangement to supply harmonic currents needed by the TCR. But then this unit can supply only one
particular frequency harmonic. It's tuned.

17:29

for example suppose this is tuned for 5th harmonic then 5th harmonic current taken by the TCR unit will
circulate like this and that won't go through the system so system will be free of 5th harmonic current
but what about 7th harmonic, 11th and etc. well 11th and 7th will flow through the system now how do
you cure that problem? ok put one more tuned combination for 7th harmonic another combination for
11th harmonic etc.

17:58

That's a problem with this kind of harmonic filtering. You need a filter structure for each and every order
of harmonic you want to cancel in the line. Anyway, such optional harmonic filters, not just one unit, but
units tuned for different frequencies, typically for fifth harmonic, seventh harmonic, eleventh harmonic
and thirteenth harmonic, four such units in parallel will be used in practice.

18:27

but I call it optional because there are other ways of handling harmonics. If other ways of handling
harmonics are employed, then this may not be needed. Now we focus on the operation of a TCR. I'm
giving you two references for this topic. The first one is a reference book I have already told you about
before, Understanding Facts by Hingarani and Goigai. You can use section 5.2 for this topic. Second book,
Tyrester-based Facts Controllers for
18:57

Electrical Transmission Systems written by Mohan and Verma.

19:05

Mohan, I think Dr. Mohan is working somewhere in Canada and he's with industry, power industry. And
Dr. Rajiv K. Verma is a professor at IIT Kanpur, I think. It's an IEEE press book. It's an excellent book. In
fact, the second book is, in my opinion, better than the first book. Section 3.4 of the second book is a
very good textbook material for this subject. I mean, this topic, TCR topic.

19:36

PDF versions of both books can be downloaded from the internet. I have them, but I'm not uploading
them in the Eduse server because I don't know whether any copyright is involved here. If there's a
copyright issue, I don't want to do that. So you can please download, or preferably buy. The second book
is an excellent book to possess. I think Indian versions are available, Indian editions are available.

20:05

Anyway, downloading or buying, please get these two books and use particularly the second book for
this portion. Now let's get on to GCR unit working. We consider single phase thyristor controlled reactor
unit first. It's an inductance in series with a pair of anti-caparallel connected thyristors. It's connected to
between a bus and ground, single phase.

20:35

Let's call the bus voltages Vm cos omega t.

20:40

I am not calling it Bm sin omega t because it is only for convenience in drawing the waveforms etc. Also
because the firing angle for a TCR is usually measured from the peak position of the sine wave. Unlike
in the case of phase controlled rectifiers, we will start measuring alpha from the 90 degree position on
the sine wave. That is why I prefer a cosine format. So firing angle of T1.
21:09

T1 is the thyristor which is expected to conduct in the positive half cycle. So firing angle of T1 is alpha
degrees after the peak position of the voltage in the positive half cycle. Refer to this waveform. The blow
trace is actually the best voltage. So peak position is at zero. You wait for alpha degrees and fire the
thyristor here. T1. Similarly, thyristor T2 should conduct in the negative half cycle and that is fired

21:38

alpha degrees after the peak of negative half cycle voltage from here. So this is T2 firing position and this
is T1 firing position again and this is T2 firing position and so on. So alpha the firing angle of a TCR unit is
measured from 90 degree position of the voltage that is given to the unit.

22:06

the voltage given to the unit will be phase voltage in a three phase system. If you are using three such
legs in star formation, if you are using three such legs in delta formation, then the relevant voltage will
be line voltage waveform. Alpha will be measured from the peak of the line voltage respectively.

22:32

respectively I mean in the three phases right so alpha for the thyristors connected between R and Y line
will be referred to 90 degree position of VRY alpha for the leg connected between Y and B will be
referred to 90 degree position of VYB and so on in a balanced system that means in a balanced system

23:02

second leg y-b leg will come after 120 degrees after the alpha of the r-y leg and the alpha of the b-r leg
will come after another 120 degree with respect to the alpha of y-b leg or in other words three phase
symmetry will be maintained in firing. Now let's go back to the single phase uni t.

23:30

The thyristor T1 is switched on or fired at alpha as shown in this. This blue trace is the supply voltage,
bus voltage. So thyristor T1 takes firing here. Gate is issued to thyristor T1 and gate is held at least till
latching takes place. Okay.
23:52

So once the thyristor T1 is fired the bus voltage gets applied across L. That you can see by going to the
third waveform VL which is the voltage across the inductance. The thyristor T1 starts conducting
becomes a short circuit. Therefore the voltage of the bus will get applied to the inductor. So the inductor
voltage the green curve suddenly rises to whatever is this value. I think it will be Vm cos alpha.

24:22

It goes to that value and then follows this curve. So as the voltage across the inductance is following this
curve, the area under the voltage applied to the inductance will be increasing. The inductance will be
picking up voltage area. Now you remember the inductance.

24:43

V-I relationship, the inductance V-I relationship is.

24:52

V L is equal to L d I L by d t.

24:59

equivalently i L is equal to 1 by L integral V L D t plus some initial condition i 0.

25:11

Therefore, change in inductance current is equal to 1 by L integral t 1 to t 2 V L d t.

25:24

delta I L over the interval t 1 to t 2.

25:31
will be equal to the area of the voltage applied to the inductance between T1 second and T2 second
divided by inductance. From here you get the famous statement that change in inductor current.
Remember I said change in inductor current not inductor current. Change in inductor current naturally a
change has to be measured over a time interval.

25:59

So change in inductor current over a given time interval is equal to

26:06

area of voltage across inductance.

26:12

divided by dextrose value.

26:16

units area of voltage of which voltage curve voltage drawn as a function of time it is volt into second that
you want so volt second by Henry is going to be amperes so area of voltage waveform against time over
the same interval that you are considering on the left hand side divided by inductance will give you
change in inductor current in that time

26:47

This is the basic principle of inductor.

26:51

Okay. Now, if the inductor is starting at zero current before it starts accumulating area, then the initial
value is zero. So, this is not only the change, but it is the value of current also. If the initial value is zero,
change itself is the value. And that is the situation that we have here.

27:13
here the current is starting at zero so change itself is the current right so this is the inductor voltage
applied green curve is the voltage applied across the inductance as a result of t1 going on as a result of
this voltage getting applied to the inductance inductance starts picking up volt second that means area
of this as the area increases current increases in proportion.

27:43

or at this position, inductance has picked up maximum voltage area. In fact that voltage area is marked
here, shaded area A1.

27:55

As time progresses, now it starts getting negative voltage area. So whatever positive voltage area it has
accumulated is now getting depleted and now getting reduced by the negative area it is picking up.
Therefore its current starts coming down. So current in an inductor is a maximum when the area picked
up by the inductance, voltage area picked up by the inductance reaches a maximum.

28:24

when the voltage area picked up by the inductance turns back, current also turns back, current
decreases. Naturally, current will become zero when the inductor loses all the voltage area it has
accumulated before. In other words, current in the inductor will become zero when the negative area
acquired by the inductance is equal to the positive area acquired earlier. And because of symmetry of
the blue voltage waveform,

28:53

you can see that in order to acquire the same amount of negative area as that of positive area, this angle
has to be same as or in other words this much angle has to be same as this much angle. You can see the
shape and see that obviously it should be true. But we know what is this angle. It is pi by 2 minus alpha
in radians.

29:20

Therefore this angular gap also must be pi by 2 minus alpha in radians. Therefore the total conduction of
thyristor should take place for pi minus 2 alpha radians. Why am I talking about radians? Why not in
seconds? My answer is I am drawing the waveform against omega t, the angle coordinate. Right? But
then just now.

29:49

I said that it has to be area of voltage against time. Area of voltage versus time graph divided by L is a
current change. But here the area that I have marked as A1 and the area that I have marked as A2, after
noting that A1 is equal to A2, that area is the area of the graph versus theta or omega t. So how do I get
the area of the voltage versus time function?

30:18

axis scaling. I divide this area by omega then I will get the area of voltage versus time graph. So, A1 by
omega that's a volt second then you divide by L that is going to be the peak current of the inductor. So,
the maximum inductor current is going to be A1 by omega L where A1 is the area of voltage versus theta
graph starting from alpha to.

30:48

90 degree position. Okay. Now, the nature of this function, what kind of waveform is it? Well, you are
integrating a cosine function, so maybe this should be a sine wave or sinusoidal function will come. Not
exactly a sine omega t, but sine function will come. Right. So looking at this waveform, we observe that if
alpha is increased, this area A1 will come.

31:18

so the peak of the same wave will come down. Not only that, the conduction angle, this is the
conduction angle, which is five minus two alpha. When alpha increases, conduction angle becomes
smaller. So with increasing alpha, two things happen to the inductor current.

31:36

First thing that happens is the peak value of the inductor current will go down. Second thing that
happens is the base of the inductor current will also go down. Most of the time the inductor will remain
non-conducting. So the conduction base or conduction angle will also go down. So essentially, in short,
the inductor current content goes down. The area under the current waveform of the inductor goes
down. So inductor current content goes down.
32:07

But then we note that the inductor current is not a sine wave. When is it going to be a sine wave? When
alpha is 0, it will be a sine wave. When alpha is 0, what will be the value of this number? Obviously, it will
be Vm by omega L. Please verify. Vm is the peak of the sine wave. OK. It'll be Vm by omega L.

32:31

So the current in the inductance will become a sinusoidal current of magnitude, amplitude Vm by omega
L when alpha is zero. For any other alpha, it will have an amplitude which is less than Vm by omega L. It
will have a base which is less than pi radians. And therefore, for any other alpha, the fundamental
component of the non-sinusoidal inductor current will be definitely less than Vm by omega L.

33:03

this is our observation and as alpha goes to 90 degree so range of alpha is between 0 to 90, when alpha
goes to 90 the inductor doesn't conduct at all so both the fundamental amplitude as well as the entire
waveform becomes 0 so we will be able to vary the fundamental component of the current drawn by the
inductance from Vm by omega L which is the maximum to 0 which is the maximum

33:30

the capacitors all the while in the fctcr system the capacitor will be all the while drawing a fixed amount
of leading current. The lagging current drawn by the inductor can be varied from Vm by omega L to 0.
Therefore the net current can be varied from Vm omega C which is the capacitor current minus Vm by
omega L to 0. In other words it will be this quantity.

33:59

by the fcr unit can be varied from this value.

34:09

minus any value between this number. So this way the capacitive current drawn by the FCTCR unit may
be varied from a maximum value to minimum value. Minimum value will take place and that value will
be omega Cvm minus Vm by omega L. Maximum value will be omega Cvm. So this way we will be able to
simulate a variable capacitance voltage.

34:36

That's the idea of FCTCR.

34:42

However, a problem remains. The problem is harmonics drawn by this TCR unit. Before we study the
harmonics, let's before we study the Fourier series of this waveform, let's note in passing. It's an
important point, but we note in passing that the maximum delay in obiring a firing angle change
command is t by 2 second. What do I mean by that?

35:11

Okay, let's say the system is running with a particular value of alpha. At some point in time domain,
because of certain control actions in the control unit, the TCR unit is commanded to change the alpha
from the present value to a new value.

35:31

may be the TCR unit was running at 45 degree delay. At a particular point in time, the control system
asked the TCR to get fired at 40 degree. But this command came.

35:49

after the 45 degree position on the sign.

35:54

Here, I mean here.

35:57

So it was after the thyristor T1 was fired that the control system changed its mind and started asking the
thyristor to get fired at 40 degree. But the 40 degree position is over and the firing has taken place
already. So your command will be obeyed only here after half cycle. This is the meaning of the
statement. But I am making a statement that this is the maximum delay possible.

36:26

So when the control system changes its mind and says that now fire at a new angle, your TCR will take
the command and start obeying it only after a maximum delay of T by 2 second. Sometimes it may be
able to follow the command immediately. Sometimes it may be able to follow with, let's say, 0.1T or 0.2T.
But the maximum delay it may suffer is T by 2. So please examine the statement and convince yourself.

36:56

that the maximum delay in obtaining a Ferran angle change command is T by 2. This doesn't mean that
there is always a delay of T by 2. This means that there is, there can be a delay between a change
command and actual obedience to that and that delay could be zero or anything between zero to T by 2.
T by 2 is the maximum delay. T by 2, T is the cycle time, 20 milliseconds for 50 hertz.

37:24

number is going to be important in the transfer function modelling of the system because there is a
delay in command obedience. That means there is a transportation delay. You will need e to the power
minus s t term. That is because of the delay in obeying a command. But then we don't know how much
is the delay. The delay is a statistical variable actually. It can be 0, it can be t by 2, it can be t by 3, t by 4
etc. with certain probabilities.

37:50

But in approximate analysis we will say since there is a maximum possible delay of t by 2 let and that will
be the worst case let us do the designs for the worst case delay. So we will the transfer function of this
TCR will contain at least one factor which is the type e to the power minus s t, s t d where t d is the time
delay and that value of time delay will be t by 2.

38:17

Now let us get quantitative on TCR. The symbol introduced here is ILF alpha. Capital letter stands for
amplitude. L stands for inductance. F stands for fundamental. So amplitude of the fundamental
component of this TCR waveform, the amplitude of fundamental. You can see easily that the
fundamental component is a sine function.

38:44

if the voltage is a cosine function indicating that there is 90 degree delay between fundamental
component of current and the voltage. That is expected. It is an inductor. So you get a 90 degree lagging
fundamental component of current whose amplitude is given by this expression. How do you get this
expression? This expression is obtained by doing Fourier analysis on this waveform. It is mathematically
somewhat tedious.

39:13

But you know how to analyze a waveform by Fourier analysis, Fourier series. There is no particular
additional knowledge you can gain by doing that during the class hour. So I am not doing that math. So
many people have done it and the results are there in the test book. And we don't gain any additional
electrical engineering knowledge by doing Fourier series integrations. So let's accept the result from the
test book. And the test book says the Fourier analysis will give you . I AM OMITTING THE FOURIER SERIES
DERIVATION

39:40

the fundamental component is Vm by omega L into some function of alpha. When you write functions of
alpha, remember alpha has to be in radians. So what is special about Vm by omega L? That is going to be
the amplitude of fundamental component of current when alpha is zero. When the inductor is
conducting over the full cycle. When the inductor is behaving as if there is no switch in series. The switch
is permanently closed.

40:09

then it will be Vm by omega L. And now, at a particular alpha, the value is less than that. So it is 1 minus
some quantity linearly proportional to alpha and some other quantity proportional to sine 2 alpha. It is 1
minus 2 by pi alpha minus 1 by pi sine 2 alpha. Alpha is in radiance. Therefore, susceptance of this TCR
unit at fundamental frequency. Let us give it a symbol BL alpha. B stands for susceptance.

40:37
unit MOS or Siemens, 1 by reactance is susceptance. Susceptance is obtained by dividing current
amplitude by voltage amplitude. So divide the current amplitude by voltage amplitude, you get 1 by
omega L and this function. Susceptance of the inductance, TCR, unit is this. Range of alpha is obviously 0
to 90. But where is the 0 degree position? At the center of the sine wave.

41:06

at 90 degree position of sine wave is the reference point. From there you can delay it by another 90
degree, that's the maximum you can do. So zero to 90 degree is the range of alpha. So this function is
plotted against alpha in the zero to 90 degree range in this graph. Okay. And what is on the y-axis is
omega l into b l alpha. I bring this omega l here, it's a kind of normalization. Then the curve will start at
one and go to zero.

41:36

And the equation for BL alpha is reproduced here after slight modification, bring the pi as a common
factor. And write omega l as xl. So this equation is same as this equation. And the plot of that equation is
shown here after normalizing. Omega l into BL alpha is what is plotted here. Initially it is linear, it is
linearly decreasing on alpha, but then it starts bending. So it is a non-linear curve. It is not a straight line.

42:05

and that immediately cautions us that when you are trying to control the TCR, remember that the
transfer function, steady state transfer function between susceptance and alpha is non-linear function.
So you will get a non-linear control system unless you linearize this non-linear relationship using another
non-linear relationship so that the cascade of two non-linear relationships will become straight line,
linear relationship.

42:33

So if you want to design a linear control system, you have a problem of linearizing this nonlinearity by
using another nonlinear operation. Keep that in mind. We will see how to do that later. Because we
would like to design control systems which are linear. Because there's so much design literature available
for linear control systems. So we take note of the point that the basic transfer relation between
susceptance and alpha in TCR is a nonlinear function.

43:02
So if you want a linear control system, linearize this nonlinearity first by using a complementary
nonlinearity function somewhere in the control loop. You notice that significant change in the
susceptance will take place only in the 0 to 40 degree range. By the time you reach 0 to 40 degree, about
15, you have changed from 100% to 15%. The remaining 15%, 1, 5.

43:32

will taper down to zero in the remaining 50 degree. So it looks like, out of the total control range of zero
to 90 degree, the first half will take care of most of the variation, 80% of the variation. Okay. So the
response of the quantity susceptance to alpha is very enthusiastic in the beginning and then very
sluggish towards the end.

43:59

Those are the observations you can get from the relationship as well as the plot. Next, we don't forget
about the harmony.

44:10

The harmonic content. First question to be raised is what kind of harmonics are present? Are both odd
and even harmonics present? Are only odd or only even? The answer is only odd. Why is it only odd?
Why not even? The answer is the positive half cycle of the waveform. Which waveform? I L. Positive half
cycle of the waveform is exactly like the negative half cycle. Half wave symmetry.

44:38

and therefore only third odd harmonics. And precisely for that reason that we want the alpha to be same
for T1 and T2. In one cycle of the sine wave, the firing angle you gave for T1 and the firing angle you gave
for T2 must be equal. Otherwise within one cycle there will be two different half cycle areas. And that
will bring even harmonics back into picture. Not only that.

45:08

that will bring DC component into picture. If this waveform is different from this waveform in terms of
area, not only in terms of shape, but in terms of area, then the Fourier series of this waveform will
contain a DC component. That means the TCR will be taking a DC component from AC supply. This DC
component.
45:32

will flow through this transformer. And if it flows through a transformer, transformer magnetic flux
density will not be symmetric around origin. There will be a DC bias in the magnetism of the transformer.
If there is a DC bias in the magnetism of a transformer, when the AC voltage is moving from positive half
cycle to negative half cycle up and down,

46:01

flux density will also move around its question point, which is usually origin, but now it is biased. Okay.

46:13

Suppose this is the BH curve of the magnetic material of the transformer. It's like this.

46:22

saturating BSGAR.

46:26

When you apply AC voltage, the magnetism will move like this symmetrically. But suppose there is a DC
component in the current, then maybe it will get biased to a new point. There is a fixed DC magnetism
here and this becomes the quiescent point instead of this. Therefore, now the variation will be like this.

46:53

the this has to be same as this. Up and down should be same. But then you see the variation in H. That
means the magnetizing current becomes large. Not only that. The magnetizing current is different in one
half cycle compared to the other half cycle. So the transformer is now going to produce even harmonics.
Of course it will produce odd also. So the saturating transformer will produce even harmonics as well as
odd harmonics. That is bad.

47:23
So we don't want the DC component in the TCR current. We don't want even harmonics in the TCR
current. And therefore, we want the TCR current to have half wave symmetry.

47:39

Therefore, the alphas given to the two thyristors must be equal in one cycle. If alpha is varying, it should
vary for both in the same cycle. If that is done, then the harmonics will be only odd in nature. And the
expression for the harmonic currents taken from the textbook is given here. It is ILN alpha where...

48:07

capitalized stands for amplitude, n stands for harmonic order, l stands for inductance and alpha is the
function variable. So it's the amplitude of nth harmonic. It is Vm by omega l 4 by pi into this
trigonometric function sine alpha cos n alpha minus n cos alpha sine n alpha by n into n squared minus
1. This expression goes to 0 by 0 form when n is 1. That is why I'm saying don't apply it for n is 1. For n is
equal to 1 I have this equation.

48:38

this can be applied for all odd harmonics other than one so 3, 5, 7 etc.

48:47

And the harmonics of a single phase TCR versus alpha is plotted here. By the way, I have taken these
graphs from the two textbooks I mentioned. Okay. I didn't want to, because it's difficult to draw these
graphs by, especially this graph by hand. So, this comes from Hingarani's book. So the harmonics of a
single phase TCR unit are plotted here.

49:17

this curve is the third harmonic amplitude this curve is the fifth harmonic amplitude we notice that the
third harmonic amplitude goes to a maximum here at the angle 30 degree and we also notice that 3
times 30 is 90 the same rule is applying for the other one so when I mean fifth harmonic, seventh etc the
fifth harmonic reaches the maximum point here and that is at 18 degree which is 5 into 18 is 90.
Similarly so you can say
49:46

Nth harmonic reaches a maximum value at that alpha where N alpha is 90. But that doesn't mean that
there is only one maximum. There is another local maximum for 5th harmonic that is happening here.
That is not N alpha is 90. But that is a lower maximum. So the global maximum is here. Okay, absolute
maximum. That is always at N alpha is 90. We also notice that other than third harmonic, except third
harmonic.

50:14

all the other harmonics seem to be reaching zero level at certain angles. 5th harmonic reaches zero level
at 37.5 degree I think. That must be something to do with this numerator expression going to zero. Okay,
we can find out the angle at which it will go to zero. So, as alpha varies the third harmonic rises, reaches
a maximum and then falls.

50:41

Fifth harmonic first rises and then goes to zero again rises. So a different alpha you have different
composition of third and fifth harmonic, seventh harmonic, etc. By the way, this curve which is the which
is similar to this curve and what is this curve? This is the susceptance curve. But won't the curve of
susceptance and fundamental amplitude look the same? Because voltage into susceptance is
fundamental amplitude. So these two curves are identical.

51:10

except for scale and here they have mentioned that I1 fundamental amplitude but the scale is into 10 so
here it is 10 so into 10 means 100 percent so essentially the maximum value of the fundamental
component is taken as 100 percent for normalization and with respect to that the amplitude of other
harmonics are plotted here okay now let's pay some attention to the third harmonic amplitude
maximum

51:39

amplitude of third harmonic will happen at alpha is equal to 30 and that number can be calculated from
this expression by putting alpha is 30 and incidentally it is 0.138 Vm by omega L. Let us calculate the
fundamental as that number. That is done by putting alpha is 30 in this expression, this expression and it
turns out to be 0.39 Vm by omega L. So
52:05

can we express the third harmonic amplitude as a percentage of the fundamental amplitude will be
0.138 by 0.39 into 100 that's around 35 percent. So you have 35 percent max third harmonic content if
you are running at alpha is 30 degree that's bad too much of harmonics. Similarly you can carry out such
calculations for fifth, seventh etc and you get to the conclusion that something has to be done about this
third harmonic otherwise okay.

52:35

is going to be bad harmonic injection. But that is what, that is when we remember that we have been
told many times in many subjects that third harmonic current will not flow in the lines of a three-phase
system. We have been told that third harmonic will circulate in delta. So why don't we simply put the
three legs of a three-phase TCR unit in delta configuration and get rid of the third harmonic.

53:03

the third harmonic will simply circulate inside delta why should third harmonic circulate in delta is third
harmonic the only harmonic that will circulate in delta the answer to the second question is no all triplen
harmonics all triplen odd harmonics will circulate in delta so 3, 9, 15 etc so all triplen harmonics will
circulate in delta why is it so?

53:30

because 120 degree phase difference between the three phases will become 360 degree phase
difference when you go to third harmonic. 360 degree phase difference means in phase. So the third
harmonic currents coming from the three legs of the TCR unit will be in phase. And therefore, they will
simply go around in delta. And that gives you the first thing to do for controlling harmonics.

54:00

but before we get back to that.

54:05

Let us look at the TCR current for two firing angles. We should have looked at this graph even before, but
now is the relevant time because we want to see how the harmonic content varies with alpha. Of course
we have a graph here, but the graph is not, you know, eloquent enough. The waveform will speak better.
So at alpha is 15 degree, you see this is the TCR current.

54:33

it is nearly a sine wave. Of course we know that if alpha is zero it will be a pure sine wave. So you are
starting with pure sine wave with alpha zero. So from pure sine wave you are degrading the sine wave
little by little as alpha increases. And as you degrade the sine wave you are also doing another thing to it.
You are hitting the top of the sine wave and flattening it. The amplitude is also being brought down. So
the waveform

55:03

starts out as a large amplitude sine wave and as alpha is increased the waveform will sit down in
amplitude. Amplitude decreases and time gaps will start appearing in the waveform. The waveform will
become worse and worse. And finally when alpha is 60 degree you have just a cuspy current, a little
current. Most of the time it is non-conducting and then you have small cusp. Obviously this waveform is
very much more distorted than this wave.

55:33

Two things have happened to this waveform compared to this. The fundamental component has
decreased very much. And the harmonic currents have become more important because of time gaps.
So two opposing things are happening here. The amplitude is coming down for the fundamental. And
the harmonic is becoming richer and richer. Well, that is why.

56:02

you increase alpha the fundamental component is going down but the harmonics are significant enough
they haven't gone down as enthusiastically as the fundamental fundamental simply sits down like
anything here but these things are not so, they are not giving up therefore the harmonic content of the
waveform becomes more and more important at high values of alpha close to 9

56:30

Now the voltage across the thyristor is also given here, voltage across inductance is given here. Okay.
These two, if you add this and this, you will get a sine wave. Okay. Now I have raised the question here,
can there be even order harmonics? I have answered yes. If the alpha value in positive and negative half
cycle are different, in that case IL alpha will contain a DC component also.

56:59

what is wrong with having a DC component. Now let's see how we can control the...

57:09

harmonics in TCR. We have already seen one method.

57:18

we can connect because anyway we are going to make a three phase TCR only so three single phase TCR
units can be connected in delta that will take care of the triple harmonic currents and therefore the line
currents will now contain only the fundamental fifth harmonic and seventh fifth seventh eleventh
thirteenth etc.

57:46

23, 25 etc. But then by looking at the expression for the harmonic amplitude I see a n cube relationship
here for large n. Therefore, I expect that after 13 it's really going to be negligible. So we need to pay
attention only to 5, 7, 11 and 13th harmonic. The higher harmonics will have naturally very low
amplitude because of 1 by n cube relationship in the

58:16

or at least 1 by n squared relation because there is a 1 there is a n here so I can say it is at least 1 by n
squared relationship and therefore large harmonic orders will have negligible amplitude. So if you handle
the 5, 7, 11 and 13th harmonic then you will have a pure sine wave current drawn by 3 phase TCR
provided you have connected in delta and provided the following assumptions are true. What are my
assumptions?

58:44

I am assuming because I want to get rid of the third harmonic I wanted to circulate completely within the
delta loop that's possible only if the three harmonics, third harmonics have same amplitude and that is
for that it is necessary that these three inductances are exactly the same so value of L in the 3 LX must
be equal. It's also necessary that the thyristors are fired with same firing delay in these three units.

59:11

Of course within a unit these two should be fired with the same firing angle and these two also must be
fired at the same firing angle. These two also must be fired with the same firing angle but maintaining
120 degree difference. So three phase symmetry should be maintained accurately in firing. That means
okay let's take this thyristor and let's take this thyristor. This one and this one.

59:40

The time gap between this firing and this firing must be exactly T( 20miliseond is the timr period of a
sinusoidal wave) by 3. That is 6.6666 millisecond. That corresponds to 120 degree. The time gap
between firing of this thyristor and firing of this thyristor must again be T by 3. Like that. 120 degree
symmetry should be maintained accurately. That's another assumption.

01:00:10

and the line voltages must be balanced. Now suppose the line voltages are balanced but these three
inductors are not exactly the same then the triplen harmonics in particular the third harmonic will have
different amplitude in the three phases and therefore they cannot be circulating completely. So if you
have different amplitudes for the third harmonic but the angles of all the three are 360 degree.

01:00:41

then they will tend to circulate, but because of different amplitudes, something has to leak out into the
line. Because if some current is coming this way and not all of it is going this way, then something has to
come out here. So the three lines will carry residual third harmonic and similarly residual triplen
harmonics if the inductances have different values. Similarly, if the inductances are of the same value,
but the firing is not exactly at 180 degree, sorry 120 degree spacing.

01:01:11

then also the same problem. Third harmonic and triplet harmonics will appear in the lines. And finally,
everything is fine with the TCR, but the voltages are unbalanced. Then also there is a problem. The third
harmonics will not have same amplitude in the three phases, so they will not circulate. There will be a
circulating component and a leaking component into the line. The third harmonic currents will resolve
themselves into two sets. One component will circulate.

01:01:42

and the component which cannot circulate will flow out of the line out into the line or into the line.
Okay. So these are the assumptions I am assuming that the voltages are balanced and three phase
symmetry is maintained in firing and thyristors are fired with same firing angle for all the three phases
and the value of L is the same in all the three phases then triplet harmonic currents will circulate in delta
and will not be present in the line current.

01:02:08

and therefore now the line current will contain only 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, 17th etc. Here is the graph
which shows the harmonic components after removing the third harmonic. Actually it is this graph only
but I am lifting out the third harmonic and preparing it again and then I note that the fifth harmonic will
provide a maximum of this many percentage of fundamental so

01:02:37

harmonic amplitude is expressed as a percentage of fundamental amplitude.

01:02:44

Vm by omega L. Normalization is Vm by omega L. So you have 5, 7, 11 and 13 can provide significant

harmonics. But 17 negligible actually. 13 is also negligible. So you need to bother only about 5 and 7.
That is what it boils down to. Also in the next graph you have total harmonic content.

01:03:14

versus fundamental RMS at a particular value of alpha. For example, alpha is zero. I'm sorry, this graph is
a mistake.

01:03:26
because in the test book I have taken this from, they have a different way of measuring alpha, so I will
correct before I upload the PDF file, but please the correction needed is...

01:03:40

correction needed is 90 to 180 should be read as 0 to 90. This 90 to 180 should be read as 0 to 90. Our
our alpha measuring convention is from the 90 degree position so it is 0 to 90. So at alpha is 0.

01:03:58

the fundamental amplitude is V m by omega l that is what I am calling 100 percent. If that is what I am
calling 100 percent what are the other numbers? What is meant by total harmonic current? That is
simple. You square the

01:04:14

RMS value of each harmonic component and add the squares and then take root That's a total harmonic
current. So total harmonic current is nothing but square root of sum of RMS square of each harmonic
order except fundamental You compare that RMS value with the fundamental RMS value. That's what
we are doing here Okay, you see that the fundamental

01:04:43

RMS value comes down from 100% to 0 alpha 90. The total harmonic content is going to a maximum of
around 5 or 6% and that also tapers down to 0 as you go to 90. So it looks like it is ok. There are
harmonics but not much, maximum of 5%. However, if this harmonics

01:05:09

this maximum of 5 or 6% is troublesome. In fact, it is troublesome. We don't want even that much. What
do we do about that? Well, you can use parallel passive tuned harmonic filters in parallel to TCR. I've
already mentioned that. So.

01:05:29

this diagram.
01:05:32

you are putting one tuned unit here, but you may have to put more than one. The equivalent circuit of
this diagram is shown.

01:05:43

here this is the passive tuned filter this is the transformer leakage reactants and this is the the abenin
sequel under the power system behind your PCC ok. So, this is the network.

01:05:57

Let's assume that the bus voltage here and the bus voltage at the medium voltage bus, both bus voltages
remain undistorted. Is that assumption correct? Well, why should they get distorted? Is the sinus
synchronous generator in the system or generating stations producing distorted sine waves? No, they are
producing good sine waves. Then why should they be distorted? Yes, they may be distorted if harmonic
currents are flowing in the system impedances.

01:06:27

However, you are trying to make the harmonic currents flowing in the system impedances go to zero.
Suppose you succeed, assume that you have succeeded. Then no harmonic currents will be flowing in
the system impedance. I mean this impedance and this impedance. If no harmonic currents are flowing,
then the sinusoidal voltage will be present here and here. If the voltage is sinusoidal and rated, you know
what is the current that will be taken by TCR at a particular value of alpha. For example,

01:06:55

for alpha is equal to 15 this will be the current taken for alpha is 60 this will be the current taken ok. So,
let us model the TCR as a current source load current source it is a current which is a function of alpha
and time this current has a Fourier series Fourier series expresses a time function as sum of many time
functions sum of many current sources therefore, this current source can be thought of as many parallel

01:07:25

The first current source is a pure sinusoidal fundamental current source. Second current source is a pure
sinusoidal 250 hertz current source, fifth harmonic. Third current source is a pure sinusoidal 350 hertz
current source. Like that many current sources are in parallel. We know the value of amplitudes of each
current source. So, it is a many source problem, linear time invariant network and many sources. Apply
superposition theorem.

01:07:56

Let's focus on the 5th harmonic current source. We want to solve the circuit for that current source
alone. So other current sources will be opened. And this voltage source will be shorted. So your 5th
harmonic current source, which is sitting inside this, will see one impedance in this path and another
impedance in this path. The impedance it sees in this path will be transformer leakage reactance plus
system impedance, both referred to the medium voltage bus level.

01:08:27

and the impedance it will see here is the impedance of this LC combination and I'm assuming that it is
tuned for 5th harmonic therefore it will be zero impedance will be zero at 5th harmonic so that 5th
harmonic current source will simply circulate into the shot because if this impedance is zero and this
impedance is not zero definitely it will go through the shot so no 5th harmonic will flow through this
path similarly if I put a 7th harmonic tuned combination

01:08:55

13th harmonic and 11th harmonic etc. all tho se harmonic current sources will circulate in the short
circuits. They will not go here. This is the idea.

01:09:08

but then suppose you have only one unit here and that is tuned for fifth what will happen to the seventh
harmonic current source when you try to solve it seventh harmonic current source will see some
impedance which is not zero and it will see some other impedance in parallel here so if this is not zero
and this is also not zero so seventh harmonic current will divide between this path and this path
according to parallel current division and impedance levels whichever is the lower impedance will get
more of the current

01:09:39
and that will usually be the spot.

01:09:42

Therefore that is why you need many tuned combinations to take out harmonics one by one. If you are
ready to do that, maybe you can take out the first four harmonics, then this current flow into the power
system will be nearly purely sinusoidal with hardly some point 2.3 percent total harmonic distortion.

01:10:10

How over.

01:10:13

Suppose this transformer impedance is very small and this bus is like an infinite bus, then this will be
very small. And suppose this inductance has series resistance. So what will be the impedance of this
tuned network at 250 Hertz? It is expected to be zero, but it's not zero because of the series resistance.
Now suppose this impedance is very small and the series resistance is large compared to that. Then even
fifth harmonic will flow here.

01:10:43

more. Most of the 5th harmonic will flow into the power system. This is the problem with passive
harmonic filter. Because though it is tuned, at the tuned frequency the impedance will not be clean zero.
Right? Therefore a passive filter is going to be somewhat ineffective if you are installing it at a powerful
strong bus. What is a strong bus? A strong bus is

01:11:11

the short circuit capacity is very very large or equivalently the evidence impedance is very very small a
strong bus is a bus which is closer to infinite bus it is close to infinite bus so at a strong bus if you put a
passive filter it may not work because the impedance of the passive filter tuned frequency may be more
than the bus impedance or the short circuit impedance of the bus so most of the current will flow into
the

01:11:41
So all these factors should be taken into account before deciding for passive filters. But they are used. In
practice, passive tuned harmonic filters are used in parallel to TCR. Typically four units will be used to
cancel, to circulate fifth harmonic, seventh harmonic, eleventh and thirteenth harmonic. But then there
is a problem that is going to come up with that. The problem is at fundamental frequency what will this
behave like? It will be capacitive.

01:12:10

Please convince yourself, suppose this is tuned for 5th harmonic, then at the fundamental, the
impedance of this will be capacitive. And similarly the other units, so at fundamental all these units will
behave like capacitance. They will draw leading reactive power that will interfere with your design. You
will have to account for the leading current drawn by these filter capacitor units before you decide the
design for this capacitor.

01:12:41

the fixed capacitor in the FCTCR unit. What I mean is the capacitor that you are using in the harmonic
filter structures will also contribute to the fixed capacitor that you are talking about in FCTCR unit that
should be accounted in the design. And with that, sometimes it is possible to avoid this capacitance
altogether and use the capacitances in the filter themselves as the fixed capacitance portion.

01:13:12

There are some more techniques for handling the harmonics in 3-phase TCR. We will continue the
discussion in the next lecture.