00:00

We continued with the topic of average modelling and control of half bridge converter. We developed
the average model for this converter in the last lecture. Now we make use of this average model to
control the converter in the current control mode.

00:22

So the exact topic in this lecture is linear current control using fixed frequency pulse width modulation in
an HBC which is working as a DC-DC converter. After we develop this topic, we will simply change the
reference signal to an AC and study the performance of the controller for AC reference following and
take note of the differences and possible modifications if any.

00:53

For simplicity, first we consider the current control of a DC-DC converter. The system that is being
considered is described here. We have a pair of sources which are equal. Their DC voltage is VDC by 2
each, but now they could contain some disturbance signals. In general, some kind of...

01:21

ripple signals or even sudden changes in DC voltage itself etc. So everything other than VDC by 2 is
represented as delta VDC by 2 as a function of time. For example these two sources may be getting
generated by rectification of AC line and therefore there is rectifier ripple so that will go into this
function and maybe suddenly the AC voltage reduced or even down.

01:50

and then there will be a change in the DC content also. That will also be put under this. It will be
interpreted as a step change in the DC voltage. So all disturbance quantities are put under delta VDC by
2. Then we have two switch diode pairs. And then the open circuit voltage of the terminal is available
here. We have moved the switch resistances to.

02:15

and clubbed it along with the resistance to the inductor. So what you see here will be the open circuit
voltage. Okay. And then what is flowing in the line is the local averaged current I bar G and what you see
here is the local average of the RO voltage under open circuit conditions. And what you have here is a
grid voltage which is right now taken to be a DC voltage of capital VG plus a little disturbance.

02:46

which could be bipolar disturbance or even unipolar sudden change in DC voltage kind of disturbance.
We have three objectives in this control. The first and foremost objective is we want the local average
current which is flowing out of the inductance into our grid source to be a constant, at least under steady
state.

03:11

it must be a constant and we are going to set that constant as high reference, capital A reference
indicating that it is a DC value. Under steady state at least, we want this current to remain at that value,
exactly at that value.

03:28

and it will reach that value only through a transient phase. And we want that transient phase to be a
well-controlled, damped, and fast transient phase. So we are specifying steady state behavior with zero
error, and we are asking for a well-controlled, preferably non-oscillatory, very well-damped, and very fast
transient phase.

03:57

That's the first objective. Second objective is we don't want this grid current to depend in any way on the
grid voltage disturbance. So when the grid voltage undergoes bipolar or unipolar disturbances which will
be caught in this function delta Vgt.

04:24

when it undergoes disturbances we don't want this current to change we want this current to change
only when we ask it to change by changing the reference setting otherwise we don't want it to change or
in other words we are asking for 100% grid voltage transient rejection

04:47
If the grid voltage undergoes a transient, our current should reject it 100%. It should behave as if it is
unaware of it. Similarly, third objective, we don't want any change in the grid current when the DC side
voltage is undergoing transients.

05:07

When the DC side voltage has ripple content or sudden changes etc. We don't want the grid current to
change away from high reference. So we are asking for 100% ripple rejection for DC voltage ripples.
These are the three objectives in a DC to DC converter. We attempt the simplest controller possible
which is PI controller.

05:35

So let us see whether PI controller can satisfy these objectives. So a PI controller based current control
loop is described next. In PI controlled current control loop, there is a reference setting, I reference T,
which in general contains a constant component and maybe a change component because we would
probably want to change the output current. Then we will do it by...

06:03

setting a change here. For example, suppose we were asking for 5 ampere before and after sometime we
decide that we need only 3 ampere, then we will change 5 to 3 and that change will be interpreted as a
step change, okay, a 2 ampere negative step or maybe our reference itself is disturbed or maybe we
want, you know, 5 ampere current with 1 ampere oscillation around it.

06:32

our reference signal will contain a DC component plus a possible change component. If there is no
change we want, then this will be zero, that's all. Then the actual current is sensed by a current sensor. A
current sensor will be put here and that will be converted to a voltage possibly. We assume that gain is
one and so the current is brought back here and that is given with a negative sign, negative feedback.

07:00

So if there's a difference between reference and actual, by actual I mean the average value, local
averaged value of I, not instantaneous. Okay. So does it mean that we will have to do a local averaging in
hardware or software before we pass on the signal to this point? No. Actually what we pass on is the
actual.

07:26

Inductive current waveform with all its ripple and all that But then what we really want to control is the
local average only so we are developing the diagram for local average The effect of feeding back the
actual current along with its ripple Or in other words the effect of ripple in this line will be addressed
separately. We will be discussing that Okay

07:54

Right now we could have drawn two diagrams indicating the diagram for local average and another
diagram for the ripple content. Being a linear time invariant system we can draw two diagrams to handle
the two signal processing taking place. Okay. So my point is this is the diagram for studying the behavior
of local averages.

08:23

there is another similar diagram for studying the effect of ripple in the control loop. I haven't drawn it
here, but I'll be discussing that. So for the time being, let us assume that local average variable is fed
back here. Now the error is calculated in an error amplifier, and that is passed through a PI controller,
which is represented as Kp plus Ki by s.

08:49

it can be represented as k i by s into 1 plus s tau i where tau i is by definition k p by k i. The output of that
is going to be modulating signal, but modulating signal normalized modulating signal normalized
modulation signal should not cross 1 and minus 1 that will result in over modulation. So, we want to
prevent that therefore, the

09:17

PI controller does not know that it cannot provide a output which crosses 1. So, you will have to do a
limiting. So, some kind of clipping or limiter circuit or software is used to limit the maximum value of MT
to plus 1 and minus 1. Of course, when the limiter is working, the control loop is in a limited mode. It is
no more linear control. It will enter into non-linear modes. Normally, we assume the limiter is not
working.
09:48

So the output is the modified or limited normalized modulation signal. And from our local average model
we know that modulation signal, normalized modulation signal into DC voltage.

10:06

is the open circuit output voltage average. So we have to...

10:26

multiplied by Vdc by 2t which is capital Vdc by 2 plus delta Vdc by 2t disturbance in the input voltage.
The resulting signal will be Vroct with over bar that is local average of converter terminal voltages
available here. And from that we have to subtract the grid voltage which is a dc plus possible variation.

10:54

the resultant voltage is what is applied across RL impedance. So divide by the impedance, 1 by RE plus
SL, and that will be the local averaged current in the grid, which is expected to be I reference plus delta I
bar T under steady state, because our setting is I reference. We want I reference here. And actually, we
don't want delta I unless delta I reference is there.

11:22

So, if delta I reference is there and not there, if it is 0, I want this current to be exactly equal to I
reference, even this must be 0 despite delta V g t and delta V d by 2 acting. This is the control objective.
Now, this Laplace transform 1 by R e plus S tau, I write as 1 by R e plus by 1 plus S tau, where tau is L by R
e.

11:48

Now there are actually three inputs here for small signal diagram. Okay, what is the operating point?
Operating point is, steady operating point is the operating point that you have when the disturbance
quantities are zeros. So assume that this disturbance is not there, this is not there, this is not there. Then
what is the steady operating point? The answer is, okay.
12:17

It is DC steady state because we are giving a constant input. So input is a kind of DC. So under steady
state, this also will become constant. Let us say that particular constant. Once again, I repeat, deltas are
not there. So we are trying to find out the steady operating point. System has become steady state, in
steady state. So this current is a steady DC current, local average. Local average is steady DC current.

12:46

Now we want to see what that value of steady DC current is. Of course, I have written it as I reference,
but I'm going to show that it is I reference. So let us say this steady local average current is different from
I reference, capital I reference. Suppose it is less, then there is a positive DC quantity coming here. That
positive DC quantity produces two components of output.

13:12

One is that quantity into Kp itself. Second is that quantity into Ki integrated. So the empty signal will have
a constant value plus a linearly increasing value. That linearly increasing value will increase the terminal
voltage after getting multiplied by a constant Vdc by 2.

13:37

and that linearly increasing terminal voltage will produce a linearly increasing voltage into RL impedance.
So, its current will increase. So, it is no more in steady state. Now, suppose it is the steady current does
less more than I reference, then the error is negative here. So, this will start decreasing linearly. So, this
voltage will start decreasing.

14:04

and therefore this current will start decreasing. So we conclude if we assume that this current under
steady state is less than capital I reference, then the conclusion is it won't remain there it will increase.
And if we assume that the steady state current here is more than capital I reference, then we conclude
that it cannot remain there it has to decrease. Now let us assume it is exactly equal to capital I reference.

14:32
then there are zero here. So the Kp portion will produce only zero output. That doesn't help you. But the
Ki by S, the integration portion, would have already produced some output here, and that will not
change anymore. And that output will be exactly correct output to produce the correct output voltage
here, to produce the correct difference voltage here.

15:00

to produce the correct current here. Well, what must be the difference voltage here? It must be RE into
capital I reference. And the steady state inductance is short. So you need a voltage difference of RE into
capital I reference. So the voltage here must be RE into capital I reference. Therefore the voltage here
must be VG plus RE into capital I reference.

15:26

And therefore, the signal here must be Vg into sorry Vg plus capital I reference into Re divided by Vdc by
2. That must be the signal here and that must be the signal here and that must be the integrated output
and it should it won't change anymore because here it is zero. This is the only possible steady state. This
is how integral control will assure or ensure that.

15:55

error is zero here and therefore these two quantities are equal here and therefore the output quantity is
exactly tracking the input quantity. Remember this works only for DC steady state because DC is the only
quantity for which an integrator output can remain constant with zero input or in other words DC is the
only frequency for which an integrator can work as an infinite gain.

16:24

DC is the only frequency for which the loop gain of this control system is infinity and therefore steady
state error is zero. And since we are asking for a DC current following, we will get zero steady state error.
So the equilibrium or steady state operating condition is this is exactly equal to I reference. Now against
that background of that steady state.

16:49

there are three possible small signal disturbance inputs. One is change in the reference itself. There
intentionally we are asking for a change. Second is a change in the DC voltage, signal component or small
signal component, which we don't want and we don't like, but which is there. Third is a possible change
in the grid voltage because it is not under our control, though we don't want it.

17:19

So there are three small signal inputs which can disturb the output. So all the three can give rise to a
change in i. So delta i bar. Delta i over bar can be produced by delta i reference, delta vdc, and delta vg.
Therefore, there are three transfer functions under consideration.

17:48

delta I bar S divided by delta I reference S, then delta I bar S divided by delta Vdc S and delta I bar by
delta Vg. When we find one transfer function, we will keep only that disturbance input live. Other two
disturbance inputs are set to zero in order to find the relevant transfer function.

18:15

we follow this procedure and we find the three transfer functions. First we prepare the diagram, small
signal block diagram for finding the output to control, output to reference transfer function, delta I by
delta I reference. In this case the disturbance is 0 here, 0 here, so you are not adding anything. Of course
you are adding DC quantities, but they are taken care of in the steady state diagram.

18:45

So, steady state diagram is removed from this diagram and diagram is drawn for the variations only. In
that case, capital I reference will be removed, this I reference will be removed from here, ok. This
quantity will be m naught that will be removed, steady state modulation signal magnitude will be
removed, here also it will be removed and this multiplication by Vdc by 2 will be modeled as a multiplier
gain, right.

19:14

and here Vg will be removed only delta Vg will be removed but that is going to be 0 in the first transfer
function therefore the block diagram reduces to this level.

19:27
and the transfer function of this can be obtained and designed. So, this is the transfer function we
designed and the other two transfer function will be analyzed and examined whether they are
satisfactory. So, we design the output to control transfer function. By that I mean what is the variable
you are using to control the output. So, output to control transfer function.

19:54

Now here we make two design choices to carry out the design. The first design choice is make the time
constant of the PI controller equal to time constant of the RL impedance, tau y is equal to tau, so that
this will cancel this denominator and simplify the transfer function. This gives us one equation for Kp and
Ki.

20:18

k p by k i must be equal to tau because tau i is k p by k i and now that is made equal to tau. So, that is the
first equation. With that design choice implemented we will find out the closed loop transfer function
using standard feedback theory. You can show that it is this delta i by delta i references k i v d c by 2 r e
by s plus k i v d c by 2 r e. Steady state d c steady state gain is obtained by putting s is equal to 0. You will
get 1.

20:47

you should get one. That is why we are using integral control. When we get a steady state gain of one,
the meaning is that error is zero. And with error zero, you are able to make something here only because
of integration. Right. So with this design choice, we get a first order system. It's DC steady state gain is
one indicating that whatever change you ask for will be established in the output if it is a DC change.

21:17

That is if I apply a step here after some time at least the same step will come here. The final steady state
of delta I will be same as what number you are asking for. So steady state step response gains unity there
is no error. Now this is the first order transfer function. The bandwidth in radians per second for a first
order transfer function is straight away this number.

21:44

you put the number as s plus something then that number is the AC steady state bandwidth in radians
per second. Reciprocal of this number is the time constant of the system. Therefore closed loop system
time constant is 2 Re by kivdc. Closed loop system bandwidth is kivdc by 2 Re. Right.

22:07

2.2 times time constant will give you the rise time in step response. So you multiply this number by 2.2,
you will get the rise time. You know what rise time is. It is the time taken by the output to move from
10% of the steady state to 90% of the steady state when the input is a step. OK. Now, the design is not
complete. We need to complete the design and calculate kp and ki. We have only one equation now.

22:38

second equation or the second design choice, we have to choose the closed loop bandwidth as a
particular number. So let us call this number as the closed loop bandwidth and use the symbol omega by
BW. We are going to choose it. Once we choose it, since VDC, RE, etc. are known, you will be able to
work out KI. And once you work out KI, you can work out KP from equation one. Now how do you
choose this closed loop bandwidth?

23:07

That is where the second diagram which I have drawn here comes into consideration. What is the second
diagram I am talking about? What I mean is though this diagram is for average current, what I am
feeding back is not average current, what I am feeding back is the entire current. So it contains the
average component as well as the ripple component. Here I have taken care of only the average
component.

23:36

I should take care of the ripple component also and then see what the loop does to ripple component.
Now let us work that. Without drawing a second diagram, we can work it out from here. So there is a
ripple component here. That ripple component comes to the summing node. There is no such ripple
component in the reference signal and therefore the entire ripple component with a negative sign
becomes error signal here.

24:04

and that error is never going to disappear because it is a ripple and that error is going to be subjected to
the gain of this block Kp gain is there and Ki by s integrator will also produce an integrated copy of the
ripple so this MT is going to have a ripple content and that ripple content is going to get multiplied by
this Vdc by 2 in the loop

24:31

But then actually what happens is it is being subjected to a comparison process like this. So here now
among the two waveforms which are being compared, one is a triangle, second one contains a ripple at
the same frequency as the triangle. That means the reference waveform now has a...

24:58

erratic variations at the same frequency as the triangle. And this results in the width of the S signal or S1
switch. Width of the ON period or T ON, this T ON will vary in a haphazard and random manner from
cycle to cycle.

25:20

This results in erratic switching if the ripple is going to control the switching because the ripple is the
result of switching and that very ripple is brought back in the feedback loop to decide the switching.
Here we are violating one basic principle of feedback control.

25:41

The tool that we are using to control the current is switching. And that tool, the switching activity is
proceeding in a time scale of T s seconds. That is you are implementing a corrective action or switching
correction action once in T s seconds. But as a result of that corrective action, an undesirable ripple
component generates in the loop. Now that

26:08

triple component is now trying to correct itself by changing the switching points. So the corrective action
and the corrected action are taking place at the same time scale. That is something which you cannot
achieve in the control system. You will have to do the corrections slowly. Otherwise haplosat corrective
action will take place.
26:34

In physical hardware this kind of switching bad switching will be immediately evidenced by audible noise
emanating from the equipment and you know highly spiky and random waveforms creating lot of
electromagnetic interference etc. Well let me explain further what I mean by erratic switching. Okay in
pulse width modulation cycle after cycle of

27:00

triangle wave the width of pulses will gradually increase or decrease But it is gradual for example in one
particular triangle cycle suppose s1 was kept on for 52% of the time In the next triangle cycle, I don't
expect it to be kept on for 85%

27:19

It was 52% in this cycle. So in the next cycle, I won't be surprised if it is 53, 54, or even 49, et cetera. But I
don't expect it to jump to 85. And even if it jumps to 85, I don't expect it immediately next cycle for it to
jump from 85 to 12.

27:40

So if the duty ratio of the switch S1 jumps around like that instead of gradually increasing or decreasing,
then it is erratic switching. Now this kind of jumping around switching can happen if the ripple is allowed
to interfere with the comparison process depicted by this diagram. And that is going to happen if the
ripple in the control loop has large amplitude. And that is going to happen.

28:08

if the ripple in the inductor current is large and the control loop does not attenuate it sufficiently. Okay,
two aspects. First of all, the amount of ripple that you are feeding back. Secondly, what the control loop
does to that ripple. Control loop may attenuate it and by the time it reaches the modulation

28:31

modulator, maybe it is not very high in amplitude, maybe it won't interfere with the switching much.
That is what we want to happen, right. So, to ensure that the ripple which is fed back to the summation
point.
28:46

is attenuated within the loop sufficiently so that it doesn't create unnecessary random switching in the
comparator. This is what we want to ensure. So we want to kill the ripple. We want to provide the ripple
with a low gain. On other words, for the ripple frequency, the loop gain magnitude should be small.

29:14

So we want the loop gain magnitude to be small for ripple frequency. And what is the ripple frequency?
Triangle frequency or switching frequency. So at that frequency, the loop gain of the system must be
small. Otherwise the ripple, instead of getting attenuated, it may get amplified. So we want to kill the
ripple. So we want the loop gain at switching frequency to be small, very small if possible.

29:44

and therefore we want the closed loop bandwidth to be much smaller than the switching frequency
because if the loop gain is to be small at switching frequency then the closed loop bandwidth will be
much before loop gain sorry much before switching frequency so we want to keep closed loop.

30:04

bandwidth at a low value such that our ripple will get attenuated within the loop and it will stop creating
problems for us this is the idea therefore bandwidth closed loop bandwidth must be selected as a small
number compared to switching frequency how small

30:26

Well, actually it depends upon how much of ripple is there. It depends upon the value of inductance you
are using. So it's not very straightforward. But as an industry practice or as a thumb rule, it is generally
kept at around one tenth of switching frequency. It is never taken above that. Some people use one fifth,
sorry, one twentieth. So it is between one twentieth to one tenth. Let us take it as one tenth.

30:53

So, our closed loop bandwidth in our designs will be one tenth of the switching frequency right.
31:04

So we decide that bandwidth frequency is omega s by 10, where omega s is two pi into fs, right? Or two
pi by Ts, where Ts is the period. With this choice, our closed loop time constant will be 10 Ts by two pi.
I'm using this TCL is two R, okay? So closed loop, because.

31:32

1 by omega bandwidth is time constant. So, it is going to be 10 T s by 2 pi 1 by this quantity right 1 10 by

omega s. So, substitute for omega s etcetera you will get 1.6 T s is going to be the closed loop time
constant 2.2 times that will be step response rise time. So, 2.2 into 1.6 T s is the step response rise time.

31:58

and the closed loop bandwidth is 1 tonne of the switching frequency. Closed loop bandwidth in hertz is 1
tonne of the switching frequency in hertz. And Ki value and Kp values are now solved. Ki is Re by Vdc by 2
into omega s by 10. Kp is omega s L by Vdc by 2 into 10.

32:19

These calculations are illustrated for a simulation example which we will be carrying out, carrying
throughout lectures. Our simulation example DC voltage is 250 volt.

32:32

I mean Vdc by 2 and the grid is 120 volt DC right now. Later we will make it shine wave. Switching
frequency is 3.15 kilohertz. That number is selected because I wanted a odd multiple of 3 because we
will be extending this to 3 phase. And the resistance, total resistance including switch resistance and
inductor resistance is 0.25.

33:02

Therefore tau of the oral circuit is 0.2 seconds L by Re. Bandwidth, closed loop bandwidth is selected to
be 1 10th. Therefore it is 315 hertz. In radians it is 1,979.2. Therefore the closed loop time constant is
0.505 millisecond.
33:26

and closed loop step response rise time is 2.2 times that it is 1.11 millisecond Ki values evaluated as 1.98
and Kp values evaluated as 0.396. There are different ways to implement this PI controller in a simulation
diagram in particular if you're doing simulation and simulating you would have simply put a PID block or
PI block

33:55

Same thing can be done in symmetric platform. You can put a Laplace domain transfer function, but then
I chose to implement it in symmetric software by this technique, okay? Because it is this technique that
you will use in analog electronics to implement it if you are doing it by hardware. The technique
involves...

34:17

converting the error quantity into a current and pushing that current into a series RC network and taking
the voltage of that network as output. So, the I reference and I bar are given to a voltage to current
converter circuit with a certain gain k. So, output current of this circuit is going to be k times I reference
minus I in amperes.

34:46

that current is flowing into R and C. Therefore, the output voltage is RK, I reference minus I, plus K by C,
integral I reference. So this is the proportional portion and this is the integral portion. Obviously, the
proportional gain KP is R into K and the integral gain is K by C. After selecting some convenient value of K,
you may calculate R and C. In simulation, I am selecting K is 0.001.

35:14

Therefore my R should be 396 and C should be 505.3 microfarad and this is what I have used for
simulation. Now on simulating this diagram.

35:30

in symmetric software. My reference signal initial operating point is reference was 5 ampere so the
output was running at 5 ampere and the steady state operating modulation

35:57

It was running under that condition under steady state. At 100 millisecond, I stepped up the reference
signal to 5.5 ampere from 5. So my delta I reference is the 0.5 ampere step. So the step response I'm
studying, it is shown here. 5 to 5.5. And the current in the output, average value of current in the output
response.

36:23

from 5 it goes to 5.5 but it takes a little time to do that and there is a first order exponential transient in
BTV and that transient seems to get over in about half a division here which is about 1 millisecond and
which is as per prediction because the rise time is 1.11 millisecond. The modulation signal immediately
kicks up from 0.48.

36:51

to something like 0.68 or 0.7 and then exponentially comes down as the integrator acts and finally it
settles at some number close to 480 millivolt close to 500 millivolt it settles down.

37:09

the converter terminal output voltage average value it should be 120 plus 0.25 into whatever current is
flowing so 120 plus 0.25 into 5 ampere is 121.25 so this number is 121.25 it has to become 120 plus 5.5
into 0.25

37:36

which is of course very close to the previous value. It will become that under steady state it will become
that. In between there is a transient. It is this transient rise in voltage which is driving the inductor to
increase its current. Under the action of this extra voltage inductor current is rising. Okay, this is the
control action.

38:01
So till now we were discussing one of the three transfer functions we are interested in. The control to
output transfer function. Now let us prepare the block diagram for disturbance input to output. Delta I
by delta Vg. Read the voltage disturbance. How does it come to the output side? When we prepare this
transfer function, the other two disturbances are sent to ground. They are not there.

38:30

So, once more go back to the PI control loop. This is the location we are going to introduce. We are not
going to introduce anything here. So, this becomes a straight line and we are not going to introduce
anything here. So, that is what is shown. Now this is the feedback loop. So, since what is introduced here
is with a negative sign.

38:55

I am making minus delta VG as my input and then putting a positive sign.

39:02

Okay.

39:04

Now this negative will make it a closed loop negative feedback system. So, workout the transfer function
and use the design choice 1 and 2.

39:18

Then we may show that delta I by delta Vg is minus 1 by L. That means when delta Vg increases, current
decreases. That is reasonable. And then it's a second order denominator. Numerator, there is an S. So
this is the bandpass function. Bandpass function. It has two time constants. One of them is
corresponding to omega BW.

39:47

The time constant corresponding to that is how much was that?

39:54

1.59 TS that is a small time constant but this 1 by tau what is this time constant that is 0.2 second so this
is a large time constant in the control transfer function delta I by delta I reference this term was getting
cancelled but in the disturbance to output transfer function that term does not get cancelled so the
dynamics of this transfer function is decided by this time constant because that is a larger time constant.

40:24

So this dynamics will settle down only slowly. It may take many hundreds of milliseconds to settle down.
Whereas the other transfer function, Delta I by Delta I reference was governed only by this time
constant. And so it settled down in about 1.1 millisecond. Whereas this disturbance will settle down only
with something like 0.5 second.

40:52

at least half a second it will take to settle down. Right. Now if the disturbance in VGT is a step, then the
steady state change in I bar due to that is zero. That is because of integrator having infinite gain for DC.
Right? Suppose this is a DC quantity. Then.

41:23

Delta I will be zero. Why should it be zero? Okay, let it be zero, then error is zero. What is output? Is it
zero? No, because of integrator, it would have produced something. And that something into VDC by two
will be exactly equal to the step, so that the sum will become zero, and then there won't be any output.
Output will be zero. So that is possible. So because of integral control, DC disturbances in the grid
voltage

41:53

will be ignored by the current. But of course there will be some transient. So after a little up and down, it
will come back to the same old value, delta I will become zero. However, if this disturbance contains AC
components or ripple components, then this integrator will not provide infinite gain for that. And
therefore, some delta I will appear. For example, suppose in delta VG, suppose there is a 100 Hertz
component.
42:23

How do you find out the 100 Hz component amplitude in output? Will there be a 100 Hz component?
Yes. Because you substitute S is equal to J 100 into 2 pi. Then evaluate this transfer function. You will get
some magnitude and angle. So magnitude or amplitude of 100 Hz disturbance here into the gain
magnitude will give you the amplitude of output 100 Hz disturbance.

42:51

and phase will give you the phase difference between them. The point is it's not zero. You will get some
ripple in the output current. So there is no transparency here. Ripple rejection from grid to grid current,
ripple rejection from grid voltage to grid current is not 100 percent. If the grid voltage has a ripple, grid
current will get that ripple.

43:17

Okay. This is what is coming out of simulation result here.

43:24

the system was running under steady state with 5 ampere setting right 120 volt DC voltage in the grid
and then from T is equal to 100 millisecond onwards a 20 volt peak 100 hertz AC disturbance was
introduced in VGT

43:48

and that results in a 100 Hz disturbance in the current. However, the convertor output voltage also is
seen to have a 100 Hz. Why? Because if there is a 100 Hz disturbance in the current, there will be a 100
Hz disturbance in this error and therefore there will be a 100 Hz disturbance in the modulation quantity
which is seen here in this graph.

44:16

and therefore there will be a 100 Hz disturbance in the converter output and that 100 Hz disturbance
will try to cancel with this 100 V 100 Hz disturbance but the cancellation is not perfect because if the
cancellation is perfect then there will not be any 100 Hz component here and if there is no 100 Hz
component here then there will not be any 100 Hz here but then there will not be any 100 Hz here also
and so this cannot contain 100 Hz

44:45

I'll repeat it once more. Suppose there is no disturbance in the output, then zero here. Zero amplitude
100 hertz. And therefore, zero amplitude 100 hertz component. Therefore, zero amplitude 100 hertz
component. Therefore, no cancellation. And therefore, there is some amplitude 100 hertz component.
And so there will be some hurt.

45:12

amplitude 100 Hertz component here contradiction so now you say there is 100 Hertz component here
and Therefore there is a 100 Hertz component here and therefore there is a 100 Hertz component here
and therefore there is a 100 Hertz component in the Converter output voltage as you see here, but they
are not canceling completely So there is a remaining 100 Hertz component, which is small of course and
that produces a small

45:39

100 Hz component current. This phase system comes to equilibrium. Now, if the gain of this block were
infinity at 100 Hz, then this could have gone to zero. But the gain of this block is not infinity for anything
other than zero frequency. So it is not infinity at 100 Hz.

46:04

That is why it requires a little input here to produce 100 Hz component here, which is necessary to
cancel this 100 Hz. And since it requires some input here, some 100 Hz component has to come from
here. That is why cancellation is not perfect. So ripple rejection from the grid side is not 100% okay. It is
only partial.

46:31

Similarly, we develop the small signal transfer function for delta I by delta Vdc, but now there is a small
catch here. So let us evaluate how much will the converter output voltage change when delta Vdc or
when Vdc changes. Converter output voltage is modulation signal into DC voltage. So in general, it is MT
into Vdct, instantaneous value.
47:00

expressing MT as steady state value plus variation and expressing total DC voltage as steady state DC
voltage VDC by 2 plus variation and then subtracting the steady state quantity from that we will get the
change quantity in the output voltage.

47:26

So, you will get three terms the change quantity will contain three terms m naught delta V

47:37

by two.

47:41

and then DC voltage VDC by 2 into delta m and then product of two small quantities which is ignored. So
only two quantities of which this will be treated as a disturbance input. This will be treated as coming
from the feedback loop. So disturbance input here and then the closed loop. OK.

48:09

So, delta m which is the output of PA controller will get multiplied by V dc by 2 that will be one
component in delta V roc. Second component is straight away m naught into the disturbance in dc
voltage. These two components together will be the disturbance in the convert output voltage. Since the
grid voltage is not disturbed in this transfer function.

48:34

Convertor output voltage disturbance itself is the disturbance of voltage across the impedance RL and
Therefore converter output voltage disturbance divided by the RL impedance is straight away the
disturbance in current and that is fed back Once more find out the transfer function. It is similar to this
transfer Similar to the transfer function except for a sign change and appearance of M naught
48:56

So it is M0 by 2L, S, same transfer function, same behavior. And therefore, disturbance rejection from the
DC voltage side is also not perfect. Because the PI controller has finite gain at disturbance frequencies.
However, if the disturbance is a DC disturbance or step disturbance, then that will be rejected. So if the
DC side voltage disturbance is a permanent step-like disturbance,

49:25

then the current will come back to setting after some time. But if the disturbance contains oscillating
components, then the current will also have oscillating components. This is our conclusion. And
simulation also, simulation verifies it. Okay. So here we have the simulation at.

49:48

Till 100 milli second the system was operating steadily at 5 ampere output, 250 volt DC, 120 volt VG and
around 480 milli volt modulation signal, normalized modulation signal. And T is equal to 100 milli second
I switched on a disturbance component along with 250 volt DC side. That disturbance was a 20 volt peak
100 hertz AC disturbance.

50:18

system responds and settles down to a new steady state where the current is seen to have 5 ampere DC
continues but around that there is a small amount of 100 Hz component. This small amount of 100 Hz
component will become error in the loop and produces certain delta M quantity here which is seen in
this graph and that delta M quantity will produce some variation here.

50:48

and that variation sorry that will produce some variation here which will cancel this variation partially
leaving some remnant variation here which is going to produce the final small variation in the current. If
the gain of this block anywhere either here or here or here where infinity at 100 hertz then this current
would have gone back to 5 ampere without any

51:15

But unfortunately the gain anywhere is not infinity at 100 Hz. Gain is infinity only for 0 Hz. That is why
only DC disturbances are rejected completely in steady state. But AC disturbances will not be rejected
100% in steady state. So we conclude. Our P-I control strategy is excellent in following reference current
changes of DC type or step response.

51:45

Steady state error and step responses zero.

51:51

However, if the disturbance quantities, I mean change in the reference current or change in the grid
voltage or change in the DC side voltage contains oscillatory components, then the output will have
oscillatory components. Rejection of ripple from VG will be less than perfect. Rejection of ripple from
VDC side will be less than perfect.

52:21

and following of reference oscillations will be less than perfect. I mean if you apply some oscillations at I
reference terminal, I bar will exhibit oscillations but not exactly the correct amplitude and phase. For
example, suppose you are setting a reference of 5 ampere plus 1 ampere at

52:50

Well, the 5 ampere will be followed exactly, but the 1 ampere at 50 hertz will not be followed exactly.
Maybe it will be followed like 0.99 and instead of sin omega t, you will get sin omega t minus 7 degree or
something like that. Imperfect following of AC references. These are the conclusions we arrive at.

53:17

Now what is the cure for DC side imperfect disturbance rejection and the AC side or grid side imperfect
disturbance rejection? We will first see the solutions for these two problems. After that we will take up
the issue of the inability of the system to follow the oscillatory reference currents. It doesn't follow
accurately.

53:47
That is an inability. But that is very crucial to us. Because finally, we want to set a 50 Hertz current
reference and make it follow 50 Hertz current into the grid. Finally, we are going to make it a DC-AC
converter. So we have two problems now. One is disturbances from the DC side is percolating down to
the grid current. It doesn't get rejected completely. Disturbances from the grid voltage side is also
percolating into the grid current.

54:16

it doesn't get rejected completely. And our third problem is when we set a constant current reference,
the system is able to follow it without error. But when we set an oscillatory component of reference
current, system will not be able to follow it 100%. These are the three problems we see in PI controller.
First, we will solve the less than 100% disturbance rejection property.

54:43

and then we will solve the inability to follow AC reference currents. This we will do in the next one or
two lectures.