– pressure in the system

– material in the pump

Typical dairy pumps are the centrifugal, liquid-ring and positive displacement pumps. The three types have different applications. The centrifugal pump is the type most widely used in dairies.
The centrifugal pump, shown in Figures 6.7.1 and 6.7.2, is mainly used for low-viscosity products, but it cannot handle heavily-aerated liquids. The liquid-ring pump is used when the air content
is high. The positive displacement pump is used for gentle treatment and high viscosities.

Fig. 6.7.1 Fig. 6.7.2

The most common type of sanitary pump in Main parts of a centrifugal pump.
the dairy is the centrifugal pump.
1. Delivery line
2. Shaft seal
3. Suction line
4. Impeller
5. Pump casing
6. Back plate
7. Motor shaft
8. Motor
9. Stainless steel shroud and sound
insulation

SUCTION LINE
Before we discuss the pumps themselves, it is important to understand the facts and problems connected with pumping.
The pump should be installed as close as possible to the tank or other source from which the liquid is to be pumped, and with as few bends and valves as possible in the suction line. This
should have a large diameter in order to reduce the risk of cavitation.

DELIVERY LINE
Any throttling valve must be fitted in the delivery line, possibly together with a check valve. The throttling valve is used to adjust the flow rate of the pump. The check valve protects the pump
from water hammer and prevents liquid from flowing back when the pump has stopped. Normally, the check valve is situated between the pump and the throttling valve.

CAVITATION
Cavitation can be detected by a crackling sound in the pump. It occurs when the pressure drops locally below the vapour pressure and small vapour bubbles form in the liquid. The pressure
increases as the liquid continues further into the impeller, and the vapour condenses very rapidly. The vapour bubbles collapse at a very high velocity and at a local pressure, which can be as
high as 100 000 bar. This is repeated with a high frequency and can cause pitting damage to the surrounding material, particularly if it is brittle.
Cavitation occurs when the pressure in the suction line is too low relative to the vapour pressure of the pumped liquid. The tendency to cavitate increases when viscous or volatile liquids are
pumped.
Cavitation in pumps results in reduced head and efficiency. As cavitation increases, the pump gradually stops pumping.
Cavitation should be avoided. However, should the pumping conditions be very difficult, and the pump cavitates slightly but is otherwise operating well, it is still possible to use the pump. This is
because dairy pumps have impellers of acid-proof steel, which is very resistant to wear caused by cavitation. Some damage to the impeller may occur when the pump has been in operation for
a long time.
The possibility of cavitation occurring in a pump can be predicted by calculation. See NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head) on the following page.

How to avoid cavitation

The general rule of thumb is:
Low pressure drop in the suction line (large pipe diameter, short suction pipe, few valves, few bends, etc.)
High inlet pressure to the pump, for example a high liquid level above the pump
Low liquid temperature

PUMP CHART
Pump charts are invaluable for selecting a pump for a given application. Three curves are needed to select the correct pump.

Flow rate and head, QH curve

Required motor power, kW
NPSH (net positive suction head)

The charts are drawn on the basis of tests with water. The data in the chart must be recalculated if liquids with other physical properties are to be pumped.
The required flow rate, Q, is usually known when a pump is going to be selected. In the example shown in Figure 6.7.3, the flow rate, Q, is 15 m3/h. The required head must usually be
calculated. Here we assume 30 m.
Locate the flow rate on the bottom Q scale. Start from this point and follow a vertical line upwards until it intersects a horizontal line indicating the required head, 30 m, on the H scale. This
point does not meet any of the QH curves indicating the impeller diameter. The nearest larger impeller size, in this case 160 mm, should be chosen. The resulting head will be 31 metres liquid
column.
The next step is to follow the vertical 15 m3/h line downwards, until it intersects the power curve for the 160 mm impeller. A horizontal line to the left of the intersection indicates a power
consumption of 2.3 kW. To this figure a safety margin of approximately 15 % must be added, giving a total of around 2.6 kW. Therefore, a 3 kW motor can be used.
If the pump is fitted with a motor of a certain size, always check that the motor is not overloaded. There should always be a safety margin for excess load.
Finally, the 15 m3/h vertical line is followed to the NPSH curve, to the right in the top diagram. Following the horizontal line to the right, shows
that the required NPSH value is 1 metre.

HEAD (PRESSURE)
When selecting a pump, it should be remembered that the head, H, in the flow chart is the head of the pump when the liquid flows into the
pump without suction lift or inlet pressure.
To obtain the actual pressure after the pump, it is necessary to consider the conditions on the suction side of the pump. If there is a vacuum
in the suction line, the pump must do part of its work before the liquid reaches it. The pressure at the outlet is then lower than that given in
the chart.
On the other hand, if the suction line is flooded to give positive pressure at the pump inlet, the outlet pressure will be higher than that shown
in the chart.

NPSH (NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD)

As previously mentioned, in planning a pump installation, it is important that the suction line is laid out so that the pump does not cavitate. An
NPSH curve is included in the flow charts (Figure 6.7.3). The NPSH of a pump is the necessary excess pressure above the vapour pressure
of the liquid required to avoid cavitation. This is called NPSHreq.

Before this can be used, the available NPSH of the suction line in prevailing operation conditions must be calculated. This figure, NPSHav,
should be equal to or higher than the required NPSH, which is the value in the chart.
Fig. 6.7.3
Pump chart for a centrifugal pump.
The following formula is used to calculate NPSHav in the system:
pa = pressure in bar abs at the liquid surface
pv = vapour pressure in bar abs
dr = relative density
hs = static suction lift in metres liquid column
hfs = pressure drop in suction line, metres liquid column

Formula 6.7.1

Note that hs is negative for suction lift and positive for inlet pressure.

SHAFT SEALS
The shaft seal is often the most sensitive component in a pump, as it must seal between a rotating part, impeller or shaft, and a stationary part, the pump casing. Normally a mechanical seal is
used.
A rotating seal ring has a lapped sealing surface which rotates against a lapped stationary seal ring. A liquid film is formed between the sealing surfaces. The film lubricates the seal and
prevents direct contact between the two seal rings. This means minimum wear and long life for the seal. If the pump runs dry, the lubricating liquid film in the seal is destroyed and wear on the
sealing rings is increased.
The mechanical seal is usually balanced. This means that it is insensitive to the pressure in the pump. The sanitary mechanical seal needs no adjustment and causes no wear on the shaft. It is
available in single or flushed versions.

SINGLE MECHANICAL SHAFT SEAL

Single mechanical seals, Figure 6.7.4, are standard in most sanitary pumps for the dairy industry.
In a mechanical seal the stationary seal ring is fastened to the back plate of the pump casing. The rotating ring can be fitted inside or outside the pump and is sealed with an O-ring. The
rotating ring can move along the shaft and is pressed against the stationary ring by a spring.
 Fig. 6.7.8
Flow principle in a centrifugal pump.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP TYPES

Different types of centrifugal pump are available, depending on the application requirements.

These types are:

Standard centrifugal pump

High inlet pressure centrifugal pump
Multi-stage centrifugal pump
Self-priming centrifugal pump

STANDARD CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

This is the cheapest and most commonly used centrifugal pump, as it is suitable for most non-viscous applications.
The standard pump has some limitations regarding high inlet and system pressures, as well as aerated applications. In these cases other centrifugal pump types should be used.

HIGH INLET PRESSURE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

This pump is specially designed for applications with high inlet pressure requirements, such as filtration systems.
The special-purpose parts in this pump are a specialized motor, heavy-walled pump casing, thick backplate and a hygienic internal mechanical shaft seal to withstand the high inlet pressure,
Figure 6.7.9.
 Fig. 6.7.9
Centrifugal pump adapted for high inlet
pressure.

MULTI-STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

This pump is specially designed for high outlet pressure requirements at relatively low capacities. Pumps of this type are typically used as booster pumps.
The pump consists of several stages and it works in a similar way to several pumps coupled in series.
Its special-purpose pump design includes several impellers and intermediate casings, thick backplate and a hygienic internal mechanical shaft seal, Figure 6.7.10.
The motor is either standard or special purpose, depending on the level of inlet pressure.

Fig. 6.7.10
Multi-stage centrifugal pump for high outlet
pressure.

SELF-PRIMING CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

This self-priming pump is specially designed for aerated applications, such as CIP return systems.
The pump is a standard centrifugal pump that is equipped with a tank, two non-return valves and a tee.
If it is only pumping fluids, the pump works as a normal centrifugal pump. However, if air/gases enter the pump, the special tank/non-return valve design will create a vacuum and separate and
expel the air/gases through the pump discharge until only fluids remain. The pump will then resume work as a normal centrifugal pump.
 Fig. 6.7.11
Self-priming pump equipped with tank and
valves.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP APPLICATIONS

The centrifugal pump is the most commonly used pump in the dairy industry and should be selected if it is suitable for the application in question. The reason for this is that a centrifugal pump
is usually cheaper to purchase, operate and maintain, and is also the most adaptable pump for different operating conditions.
The centrifugal pump can be used for pumping of all liquids of relatively low viscosity which do not require particularly gentle treatment. It can also be used for liquids containing relatively large
particles, provided of course that the particle size does not exceed the dimensions of the impeller channel.
A disadvantage of the centrifugal pump is that it cannot pump aerated liquids; it loses prime and stops pumping. It must then be stopped and primed – filled with liquid – and started again
before it can continue pumping. Consequently, the centrifugal pump is not self-priming and the suction line and pump casing must be filled with liquid before it can operate. The installation
should therefore be carefully planned.

FLOW CONTROL
It is seldom possible to select a standard pump that fits the required capacity exactly. Some sort of adaptation must therefore be made by:

throttling – highly flexible but uneconomical

reducing the impeller diameter – less flexible but more economical
speed control – flexible and economical

The three alternatives are illustrated in Figure 6.7.12.

Fig. 6.7.12
Methods of flow control in a centrifugal
pump.

THROTTLING
The most simple flow control is to fit a throttling valve in the pump outlet line. It is then possible to adjust the pump exactly to the required pressure and flow rate. This is the correct method if
the pump is used for varying pressures and flow rates. The disadvantage is that throttling is uneconomical when pressure and flow are constant.
Throttling can be carried out with orifice plates in the pipe, with manual or automatic control valves or with a mechanical flow controller, which is often fitted in milk treatment lines.

REDUCING IMPELLER DIAMETER

A lower pump curve than the maximum curve is obtained by reducing the original impeller diameter D to D1 (Figure 6.7.13). The new diameter D1 can be roughly determined by drawing a
straight line from O on the chart through the required operating point A to the standard curve B, for impeller diameter D. Read pressure H and the required new pressure H1. The new impeller
diameter D1 is obtained from the formula:

Formula 6.7.2

The most economical pump installation is obtained if the impeller diameter is reduced to diameter D1. Most pump charts have curves for different impeller diameters.
 Fig. 6.7.13
Flow reduction when the impeller diameter
is reduced from D to D1.

SPEED CONTROL
Changing the speed will change the centrifugal force created by the impeller. Pressure and capacity will then also change – up for higher speed and down for lower.
Speed control is the most efficient way of regulating a pump. The speed of the impeller is always exactly right for the performance of the pump, and therefore also the power consumption and
the treatment of the liquid.
A frequency converter can be used, together with standard three-phase motors. They are available for manual or automatic control of flow and pressure.

PUMPS FOR 60 HZ
Most centrifugal pumps are designed for 50 Hz, which means 3 000 rpm (revolutions per minute) for a two-pole motor. The power supplies in some countries operate at 60 Hz, which means
that the speed increases by 20 % to 3 600 rpm. Pump curves for 60 Hz are available from pump manufacturers.

HEAD AND PRESSURE

DENSITY
The head in metres liquid column is independent of the density of the liquid being pumped. However, the density is of great importance to the discharge pressure and for the power
consumption.
If the pump and the viscosity of the liquid are the same in the different cases, the liquid column will be lifted to the same height (10 metres in the example), regardless of the density. The pump
head in metres liquid column is the same. However, as the density – the mass of the liquid – varies, the pressure gauge readings will also vary (Figure 6.7.14).
The pump pressure in metres water column is consequently obtained if the pressure in metres liquid column is multiplied by the relative density.
The pump must do more work with the heavier liquid than with the lighter. The power required changes proportionally to the density. If, in example A, the figure requires 1 kW, then example B
will require 1.2 kW and example C only 0.8 kW.

Fig. 6.7.14
Comparison of liquid and water columns
for products with different densities.

VISCOSITY
Liquids of higher viscosity create higher resistance to flow than liquids of lower viscosity. When liquids of higher viscosity are pumped, the flow rate and head are reduced and power demand
increases because of increased flow resistance in the impeller and pump casing.
Centrifugal pumps can handle liquids of relatively high viscosities, but are not recommended for viscosities much above 500 cP, because the power demand rises sharply above that level.