After half bridge converter, we take up single phase full bridge converter and, uh, see how sine

wave
pulse width modulation SPWM is implemented in such a full bridge converter in this lecture. The single
phase full bridge converter circuit is shown here. There are four switches numbered S1, With the anti
parallel diodes, D1, D2, D3, D4, respectively, they are arranged in the form of a H bridge.

This is also called H bridge, because the shape is that of the English alphabet uppercase H. The load is
connected between the center point of the two switch limbs, which are designated as R and O in our
analysis. And the negative of the DC battery is given the name capital N. We would be interested in the
potential, the leg potential, V O N and V R N, also the load potential V R O.

The load circuit, as in the case of HBC, here also the load circuit can be a passive load or it can be a grid
load or active load. In both cases, you need the help of a low pass filter to get rid of the high frequency,
switching frequency components in the circuit. Um, pulse stream that you're going to apply across ro The
voltage across RO will be the sequence of pulses with varying width, the width program DS per a
reference, sinusoidal voltage.

I have also shown the DC side current filtering that is usually required. We don't want to pass on the high
frequency switched components in the current IDC to the battery VDC. So we put a. CL filter or LC filter
and for damping that filter properly, we would like a little resistance in the line. Of course, we realize that
the resistance R will dissipate power, but then that is unavoidable.

We dissipation small and design the values of L and C such that the value required for R is, um, in the
small range. Usually the internal resistance of the DC source itself will fulfill the function. And the cable
resistance, cable inductance, the connecting cable inductance will usually be sufficient to fulfill the role
of the inductance L.

C will be a large electrolytic capacitor. C will normally hold, uh, a DC voltage of Vdc plus a little, very little
switching frequency ripple. It will be kept very little, very small.

In a full bridge converter. The voltage values that you are putting across the load, our terminals will be
B, D, C, or minus BDC, usually because you want to operate the switches or the semiconductor devices
and switches only in order to reduce the or ation in them. And in order to make the converter efficient,
we would like the power semiconductor devices to be either on or off.
And of course, we don't want S1 and S2 to be simultaneously on and we don't want S3 and S4 to be
simultaneously on even during switching transients. So we will implement blanking time between the
switching signals of S1 and S2 and blanking time will be implemented between the switching signals of
S3 and S4 too.

Now if you consider or if you assume that we are using the same kind of switches that we used in HBC.
here also, then we have two extra switches of same rating, but then we don't have two capacitors. Uh,
the two capacitors are not required here. Of course, you need a filter capacitor, but by spending, um,
resources on two more switches, we get an advantage.

The advantage is that in a half bridge converter, the voltage VRO was synthesized using Vdc by 2 and
minus Vdc by 2. But here we are synthesizing it using V dc and minus V dc. Therefore, there is a doubling
of voltage capability of the converter. You can make higher voltages across R o. In fact, double.

And since the switches have same current rating as in the case of H b c, you will be able to handle the
same level of current in this converter also. So, voltage having been doubled, current capability
remaining the same, power capacity of the converter will be double that of H b c. That is a. Benefit you
get by spending on two more switches and by, uh, spending a little on the electronic circuit, which are
required to drive the two extra switches.

So, full bridge converter for the same kind of devices will have double the power capacity as that of, uh,
half bridge converter. Of course, assuming you are using same value of Vdc. Both in full bridge as well as
half bridge converters. A switch when it is in off condition will have to support full V dc.

It was so in the case of H b c and it is so in the case of F b c. For example, suppose S 1 is on, then the
voltage across S 2 will be the full supply voltage V dc. It will be that way in the case of H b c also. So, the
voltage rating of the 4 switches used in full bridge converter will be same as the voltage rating that you
have to use in half bridge converter if you are using the same battery V dc.

So, using same voltage rating and same current rating switches, two more of them in full bridge
converter, we are able to get doubling of power capacity. This is why full bridge converter is used. You
need full bridge converter at higher levels, higher levels of power. Coming to the sine wave pulse, of
course, full bridge converter also can be square wave modulated.

That is, if you switch on G1 and G4 or S1 and S4 together and keep it on for 10 millisecond and then you
switch them off and then switch on G2 and G3 and keep it on for another 10 millisecond, the voltage
VRO will be, uh, plus VDC minus VDC square wave 20 millisecond, 50 hertz square wave. But then who
wants square wave?

All meaningful applications nowadays, you want a sine wave, not a square wave. Because as explained
under HBC, square wave is very difficult to filter and convert into a 50 Hz sine wave. Because what is to
be filtered in is 50 Hz sine wave, what is to be filtered out is 150 Hz sine wave, 250 Hz sine wave, etc.

The gap between what is to be filtered in and what is to be filtered out is just 100 Hz, between 50 and
150. So, in a square wave inverter, the harmonics you have in the output are low order harmonics, ok.
And we have learnt how to shift the harmonics in the spectrum by a large gap by using pulse width
modulation.

That is what pulse width modulation does. Pulse width modulation does, it introduces a large frequency
gap between what you want and what you do not want. Or in other words, pulse width modulation
affects a frequency shifting or frequency translation, harmonic components are translated deep into
high frequency range, thereby making your filtering job easy.

So let us discuss how we can implement SPWM in a full bridge converter. In a full bridge converter there
are two possibilities to implement sine wave pulse width modulation. One is the so called bipolar SPWM.
which we did in HBC, half bridge converter. It is exactly the same logic. You have a reference waveform,
which can be any continuous waveform, but if the reference waveform, you will call it as PWM,
otherwise you will simply call it carrier PWM or PWM.

So reference waveform, which is usually a sine wave of certain amplitude. Amplitude is at electronic
level, not at power level. So it's a scaled copy of the waveform that you want to synthesize across the
load, which is embedded within the filter. So V reference t typically could be 5 volt sine wave or 1 volt
sine wave or 10 volt sine wave, but generally never above that.

So it's a sinusoidal signal with the amplitude of, let us say, VCM as shown here. So it is a VCM sine
omega t. And it is being compared with a triangle whose amplitude is plus minus V t p. And for linear
modulation, V c m has to be less than or equal to V t p. Modulation index in the context of SPWM is
defined as V c m by V t p.

We want modulation, amplitude modulation index to be between 0 to 1. We give these two waveforms
to an electronic comparator. The comparator output will be high whenever the reference voltage is
more than the triangle voltage. And comparator voltage will be less, output will be low whenever the
reference voltage is less than triangle voltage.

The same logic we had at HPC. The output of the comparator is given to blanking circuit and after
inversion, again it is given to blanking circuit. The blanked versions are positive. driver stage because the
blanked version pulses may not have enough capability to drive a large current into the gate of IGBTs
and their voltage level also may not be suitable.

We need about 15 volt for driving IGBTs and MOSFETs properly. So you need a driver stage which will
probably amplify the signal and which will reduce the output impedance of the driver. So, that it can
deliver a large current and charge up the gate capacitance very rapidly thereby affecting a rapid
switching of the device.

So, the functions of the driver stage will be to boost up the current capability of the drive and to adjust
the voltage levels of the drive to be compatible with the driving requirements of IGBT or MOSFET as the
case may be. Plus, this electronic block contains Either level shifting or isolation. This is needed because
there are two high side switches here.

This switch is a high side switch with respect to point N, whereas this switch is a low side switch with
respect to point N. This switch can be driven by giving a gate signal with respect to this terminal, but this
switch cannot be driven by giving a gate signal with respect to this terminal. Because when the switch
switches, this potential is expected to go to V dc, which could be a very large number.

The switch will switch on only if you give around 15 volt between these two, not between this and this.
So, if you give 15 volt between this and this, this will start switching and as it switches, V dc voltage will
start appearing here and then the G3, A3 voltage will come down. So, switching will not complete.
In fact, the device will find itself in the active region and therefore will suffer heavy power dissipation
and may even burn out, ok. Therefore you have to supply 15 volt between G3 and E3, not between G3
and N for the switch and similarly for S1. This is accomplished by two methods, one is called level
shifting, second is called isolation.

Isolation is very popular. For isolation, we can use optocouplers or pulse transformers. For level shifting,
you'll have to rely on integrated circuits manufacturers by various manufacturers. If you assemble a level
shifting circuit using your own discrete components, it's not likely to function properly.

You'll run into problems. So, level shifting gate driver circuits are available as a IC package with all
protection features and all. from various manufacturers. You can use one such driver IC. Anyway, this
block, driver plus level shifter or isolator, will be needed to float the gate signals and then send it to G1
and G1.

So, this line goes for S1. This line, there are similar driver and level shifter isolation units in all the four
lines. So this line will go to G4 and E4. So G1, S, sorry, S1 and S4 will switch on and off simultaneously. It
is the same control signal going to both. Only that they go through different channels and different lines.

But the signal is supposed to be the same. S1 and S4 are supposed to switch on and switch off
simultaneously. When S1 and S4 are switched on, Naturally, S 2 will be off and the potential V ro will be
V dc and when S 3 are switched on simultaneously, after switching off S 1 and S 4, you will be putting V
ro is equal to negative V dc.

So, you are going to use two values plus V dc and minus V dc across ro. You will apply plus V dc for some
time, minus V dc for some time within one triangular interval or triangle. So, during one triangle period
T s, you will apply V dc for some time, minus V dc for some time. So, it is bipolar modulation modulation.

You will apply or you will adjust the duration such that the average value of voltage you apply over T s
seconds will be one of the instantaneous values taken up by the reference voltage within that interval.
Which reference value? One of the values in that interval, that's all we can say. We have discussed that
in the context of HBC.

So, essentially, SPWM modulation selects some values from the instantaneous graph of V reference T. It
selects one value from, for each TS interval. The sequence of those values, one per TS interval. will be
interpolated by putting a smooth curve through them by low pass filtering operation. So, low pass filter
will extract these values and then fill the gap by passing a smooth curve through that, through them and
thereby simulating V reference t into some amplification factor.

If t s, the sampling interval is very small compared to t, the period of the waveform, I mean, V reference
waveform. Then, this method will work very well and so, the pulse stream will contain a fundamental
component which is an exact copy of V reference T. The copy will be V dc by 2 into 1 by V tp in the case
of half bridge converter and it will be V dc into 1 by V tp in the case of full bridge converter because the
voltage forming values are plus V dc and minus V dc in.

Full bridge converter. So the multiplication is by VDC, not by VDC by two, and therefore bipolar is PWM
in full. Bridge converter is no different, exactly the same as in the case of bipolar modulation in half
bridge converter, except that wherever there's VDC by two U, right VDC doubling a voltage. So the
fundamental component in VRO is going to be M-A-V-D-C-S omega.

where m a is the amplitude modulation index, which is the amplitude of sine wave divided by amplitude
of triangle. The frequency modulation index m of f s by f naught has to be an odd integer and the
triangle wave has to be synchronized to the sinusoidal reference wave preferably. All these points are
exactly the same as in the case of HBC.

I say preferably because it's This business of synchronizing a waveform to another waveform involves
phase locked loop and some hardware. Well, if you want to cut the cost and reduce the complexity of
the design, you would like to check out the synchronization system. Okay, you are permitted to do that
provided MF is large.

The small amount of sub harmonics generated by lack of synchronization between sine and triangle may
not be very serious if MF is very large. By very large, I mean something like more than 21. So, if the
switching frequency, triangular frequency is more than about 1 kilohertz, you can dispense with
synchronization, uh, strategy, but then, ok, at low values of Mf, it is just not advisable to desynchronize.

There has to be synchronization for low values of Mf, low means less than 21. Further, we know the
harmonic behavior of HBC output, we have discussed it at great length. Here also same kind of harmonic
behavior will be exhibited by FBC output under bipolar modulation. After the 50 hertz component,
which is given here M A V D C sine omega t, other components will appear.

First one will appear at M f, which is the switching frequency M f into f naught. At that frequency, there
will be a strong component. Then There will be side bands around MF, MF plus or minus 2, MF plus or
minus 4, like that. The next group of harmonics will appear centered around 2MF, at 2MF plus or minus
1, 2MF plus or minus 3, etc.

The next group of harmonics will appear as a band centered around 3MF, 3MF, 3MF plus or minus 2,
plus or minus 4, etc. And the next group will be centered around 4MF, and it goes like that. So there is
that. central component and, uh, sideband components, a bunch of components, centered around
every integer multiple of mf.

This is the harmonic picture. Of course, the magnitude or the amplitude of those harmonics will vary
widely with modulation index. For each modulation index, there is a particular amplitude factor. But the
location of components will not change with modulation index. I mean amplitude modulation index.

Only the amplitude will change with modulation index. The table of harmonic components were given
under HBC. The same table works here. Only that normalization of the table is with respect to V dc in
the case of full bridge converter, whereas it is with respect to V dc by 2 in the case of HBC. So, if you
multiply all those numbers by V dc, it will be correct for Uh, a full batch converter, so I'm not repeating
that table here.

Okay, so the only difference between FBC with bipolar SPWM and HBC with bipolar PWM is that
wherever, VDC by dose there, you put VDC, that's all. And therefore, if you're using bipolar SPWM in a
full disc converter, your frequency modulation index has to be an odd in detail. Okay. It has to be in de
because you want to avoid sub harmonic generation.

It has to be synchronized with the S wave because you want to avoid sub harmonic generation. You, it
has to be odd in de because you want to avoid, um, half wave asymmetry. You want waveform to be
half wave symmetric so that you won't have even harmonics appearing. Therefore, you want them up to
be odd.

However, there is another option available for implementing sinusoidal pulse width modulation with full
bridge converter, an option which is just not there in the case of half bridge converter. This option will
become clear if you look at this switches. You realize that you can put plus Vdc by switching this and this
on.

You can put minus Vdc by switching this and this on. But then you can put zero across RO by keeping
these two on simultaneously or these two on simultaneously. In fact, there is only one way in which you
can put VDC across RO. That is by switching S1 and S4 on. And there is only one way in which you can
put minus VDC across the load.

That is by keeping S2 and S3 on. But there are two ways in which you can put zero across the load. They
are keeping S1 and S3 on simultaneously. Naturally, S2 and S4 will be off. Or, keeping S2 and S4
simultaneously on, with S1 and S3 kept off. In both cases, VRO will be zero, if you neglect the switch
drops etc.

Can the current flow? Yes. If it is a positive current, then current will be flowing through the closed
switch S1, through the load. and then through D3. If it's a negative current, the current will be flowing
through D1 and closed to switch S3. Similarly, if you're using S2 and S4 for closing this, or applying zero
voltage, and if the current is positive, current will flow through D2, load, and closed S4.

And if the current is negative, current will flow through D2.

D4, load and closed S2. So there is current flow path, whether it is positive or negative. You can put a
short by switching on S4 and S2 together or S3 and S1 together. That means our alphabet set, the set of
numbers we can use to construct VRO is not really 2, it contains 3. We can use VDC, minus VDC and 0.

So, we can do three level modulation. We can use three values and therefore, it is modulation. Not only
three level modulation, we can do a unipolar modulation. What is unipolar modulation? Well, suppose
you want to construct positive half cycle of the sine wave for the embedded load within the filter. Is
there any need to apply a negative Vdc to the load at all?

Why don't we apply positive Vdc and then zero? positive V dc and then 0. So, adjust the time duration
for which you apply positive V dc and 0 voltage. You can adjust the positive average and positive is the
average you want to generate in the positive half cycle. So, you can generate positive average and
thereby positive half cycle of sine wave by making use of V dc and 0 values.

You do not need to put minus V dc. You do not make the voltage. You don't have to make the voltage
jump by 2 V dc, because when you put V dc and minus V dc, every time you change the switches, you
are making the voltage jump by 2 V dc. Jumping by 2 V dc will definitely increase the harmonics
compared to jumping by V dc.

Similarly, to construct the negative half cycle, we may use the values minus V dc and 0 only, or in other
words, you are using only unipolar harmonics. That is, you are constructing positive half cycle using only
one polarity of voltage, which is plus V dc and zero. And you are constructing the negative half cycle of
the output by using only one polarity, which is minus V dc and zero.

And hence, it is called unipolar modulation. That is a special case of three level modulation. Three level
modulation is a modulation where three values are used to construct a waveform. That is it. How you
make use of the three values is your business. And, if you make use of the three values, the way I
suggested just now, it will be called unipolar modulation.

So, the possibility of unipolar And, obviously, it is not there in a half bridge converter because you cannot
put a zero across R and O, right. So, let us go to unipolar modulation. How do we do that? Well, the
answer is you need two comparators. One comparator has to work with reference voltage V reference T,
which is of course V C M sine omega t.

And the other comparator has to work with an 180 degree copy of that. That is multiply that waveform
by minus 1, make it minus V reference. Triangle is common for both comparators. Therefore, upper
comparator output is high whenever reference voltage is more than triangle voltage. Lower comparator
output is high whenever Minus V reference is more than, uh, triangle.

On other words, whenever reference voltage is less than the triangle. Minus V reference should be more
than triangle. That means V reference is less than triangle. That is when the output is going to be high.
Now, the upper comparator output is used for one limb. That is one. one leg of the converter. It is used
for the S1, S2 leg.

And of course, S1 and S2 should not go on simultaneously. Therefore, for S1, straight line is used and for
S2, inverted line is used. And the second comparator output is used for the other limb, S3, S4 limb.
Straight wire is used for S3 and inverted wire is used for S4. Of course, you will have blanking, then
driver, isolation or level shifting, etc.,

as in the case of, um, SPWM modulator, sorry, bipolar SPWM modulator. All that I am not showing here,
but this is for S1, this is for S2, this is for S3, and this is for S4. Now, let's, uh, they are logic signals, they
are all logic signals. Now, let's, uh, see how it happens here. I am showing one cycle of the triangle
during positive half cycle of the reference waveform.

One cycle of the triangle occupies t s seconds, and t s is very, very small compared to period of the
reference waveform. Therefore, in this small interval, the reference waveform may appear like a
horizontal straight line, or at the worst, a slightly inclined straight line. That is why I am drawing an
inclined straight line.

The value of the reference waveform indeed changes within T s, but not much. Okay. So, the
intersection points with the triangle are V r 1, V r 2. That is the intersection by V reference and triangle.
But then, what is the, what are the intersections by V, minus V reference and triangle? Minus V reference
is drawn here.

This is V reference and this is minus V reference. The intersection will take place at minus V r 3. and
minus V R 4, which are actually this value and this value, here and here, negative of them. Now, apply
the comparator logic. This line is going to be high whenever the reference voltage is more than triangle,
so up to this.

Here it will go low, and again it will go high here, because reference will become more than triangle
there, and from then onwards it will remain high. So, this is the control signal or logic signal for S1. So, S1
is going to be on here and on here. It is going to be off here. And S2 is complement of that.

So, S2 is off here and off here and it is on here. Now, coming to this line, whenever minus V reference is
more than triangle, minus V reference is this. That is not more. It is actually less. So, up to this point.
Yes, this line is going to be low, ok. At this point, V reference becomes minus V R 3 and so, in this case,
in this interval, the triangle has a larger negative magnitude than the reference value.
Therefore, reference value is more positive than the triangle value and therefore, comparator output
changes. Therefore, S 3 will go on. So, S 3 is on here, off here and off here. Correspondingly, S 4 is on
here, off here and on here. Now, let us see what is the waveform generated. When S 1 and S 4 are on,
we will be putting V dc.

S 1 and S 4 on, so V dc, V ro is equal to V dc. And now, you have here S 2 is on and S 4 is off. S2 is on
and S4 is on. So, that is a zero across the load. So, S2, S4, S4 on. So, zero across the load. Once more, S1
and S4. So, pulse. You get pulse, BDC. And here it is. S1 and S3, S1 and S1 and S3, that is a zero across
the load.

So, we are putting two zeroes, zero intervals. One zero interval is constructed by S2 and S4 on, ok? And
we give more or less equal load to the other pair. The second zero interval is constructed by S1 and S3
on. And then the active voltage is Vdc only. And that is constructed only one way, S1 and S4. So, S1, S4,
S2, S4.

So, what is the switching at this edge? S1 switches off and S2 switches on. So, there is switching only in
one leg. What is the switching here? S2 switches off, S1 switches on. Again, switching only in one leg,
the right leg. Here, S4 switches off, S3 switches on. The switching is in the left leg. And here also, S3
switches off, S4 switches on, again left leg, ok.

So, when there is a switching in one leg, of course, one leg switching will involve one switch going off and
the other switch going on. So, when there is a switching operation in one leg, the other leg is switching
free in unipolar modulation. But in bipolar modulation, both legs will switch simultaneously.

So here we are staggering the leg switching. And by staggering, we are able to get unipolar modulation.
Of course, the number of times the switches switch in one second will be the switching frequency or
the triangle frequency, fs. That is... Once in every triangle cycle, all the four switches are completing a
pair of operations.

What is that pair? All the four switches, they go on once and off once. They have to go on once and off
once. That pair of switching is called one switching operation. In one switching operation of a switch,
there is an on switching and off switching. And all the four switches will do that once in a triangle cycle.
And therefore, the switching frequency of all the switches will be, um, the triangle frequency fs. Only
that, there is a staggering of the even instant at which switching takes place. When switching in one leg
takes place, the other switches, or the other leg is switching free. Whereas in bipolar, switchings of both
legs will take place at the same instant.

That is the essential difference between unipolar and bipolar, otherwise switching frequency of the
switches remain the same as triangular frequency. However, as a result of staggering, we are able to put
two positive pulses in the output voltage VRO, ok. This is one positive pulse and second one, ok. If you
continue drawing the diagram, this will extend and will become a second pulse.

The sec, the second half of that is coming from here. Ok. Also notice that the intervals T1 and T2 are
different. That is because Vr1 is not equal to Vr3 and Vr2 is not equal to Vr4. Vr3 and Vr4 are values here
and here. Vr1 and Vr2 are here and here. And therefore, the two zero intervals are not equal in length.

They are different, T1 and T2. And therefore, The width of this positive pulse may be different from the
width of this positive pulse. However, there are two positive pulses in the output in a various triangle
frequency, uh, every triangle way, cycle. So there is an apparent doubling of frequency in the RO
output.

This apparent doubling of frequency will reduce the harmonic content of VRO and it will make the
filtering job easier for us. Now, let us see what happens when the reference waveform is a negative
number. So, here the reference waveform is this negative, ok. And negative of that reference is this.
Now, S 1, S 1 uses reference waveform, not negative reference.

So, S 1 uses this waveform. Therefore, this 1 will go on. This is where S2 will go off. So these are the
signals for S1 and S2. And S3 and S4 make use of negative reference. That is this. Therefore, S4 will go on
here and S3 will go off here. And now if you work out what is the voltage across VRO, you will see that
these are zero durations and these are negative voltage durations, negative VDC pulses you get.

Therefore, the negative half cycle is being constructed using negative V dc and zero values. Once more, s
2, s 3 on, s 2, s 3, therefore polarity and s 2, s 4, that is a short, s 2, s 3 on again, that is negative V dc, s 1,
s 3, that is a short. Again, 3 on, this is the pattern. Now, let us find out this time interval t 1 and this time
interval t 2.
We want to find out what is the average value of this rectangular waveform, average extracted over 1 t s.
Can we find that average value as the instantaneous value of the signal V reference somewhere in this
stretch.

Are we lifting one instantaneous value somewhere in that stretch from V reference as our average value,
because that is what PWM should do. And for that, we will have to find the average value of V ro. And
for that, we have to find out T 1 and T 2. If you find 2, the time for which V dc is applied is T s minus T 1
minus T 2.

And, then we may multiply V dc into T s minus T 1 minus T 2 divided by T s is average value. So, let us
evaluate T 1 and T 2. T 1 is easy. The slope of this line is V tp by T s by 4 because one quarter cycle. So,
slope is V tp by T s by 4. And, therefore, this much time is nothing, but V r 1 by the slope. And, then this
much time is nothing but T s by 4 minus that time.

So, T 1 is V r 1 by V t p by T s 4 by 4. This is the slope, this is the value, ok.

Sorry, I have to make a correction here, I did not delete some portions.

These are the correct equations. T 1 is T s by 4 minus, ok, we will repeat that, this much is T s by 4.
Subtract this much from that, this time, you will get this time and this time is V r 1 by slope of the line.
Slope of the line is V t p by T s by 4. So, T 1 is T s by 4 minus V r 1 by V t p by T s by 4. T 2 is similarly T s by
4 minus V r 2 by V t p by T s by 4.

So, it is T s by 2, 1 minus V r 1 plus V r 2 by 2, average of the two by V t p. Similarly, T 2 can be expressed

as T s by 4 minus V r 3 by V t p, T 2 is this. So, it is this time plus this time, ok. So, that gives you T s by 2
into 1 minus average value of R 3 and R 4, V R 3 and V R 4 by V T p. Now, the time for which V dc is
applied is T s minus T 1 plus T 2.

You can work out that and express it this way. It is the average value of the four values divided by V T p
into T s. Now, the average of VROs Multiply this time by V dc and divide by T s. So, V dc by V tp and
average of four numbers, right? Now, let us see whether the average of these four numbers, where are
the numbers actually?

V reference 3 is this number

and V reference 4 is this number. So, average of these four numbers. Will that average be an
instantaneous value of the waveform we reference? The answer is yes. Repeated application of Rolle's
theorem. Rolle's theorem says that if these values Vr1, Vr2, then the average Vr1 plus Vr2 will be a point
in the waveform somewhere in this interval, within this interval, provided the waveform waveform.

It depends on continuity, ok. So, there will be some in, some time instant at which the value will, value
of the waveform will be V r 1 plus V r 2 by 2. Similarly, between these two time instants, there will be
one time instant at which the value of the waveform will be V r 3 plus V r 4 by 2. Now, you take those
two points V R 1 plus V R 2 by 2 and V R 3 plus V R 4 by 2.

There will be one value between this and this some time instant at which the value will be average of
these two and that will be average of four numbers. So, you will be able to find out some time instant at
which the V reference t will go through that value. So, you are constructing one of the values in the
reference waveform only and that value will occur within this t s interval.

So, you are selecting one value from the instantaneous graph of V reference t within the triangular cycle
interval that is what PWM should do. Now, if the cycle period t s is very very small compared to the
period of the waveform. Then, this average of four numbers can be taken as the instantaneous value of
V reference itself and therefore, we can write V d c V reference bracket t by V t p.

That will be the average of V r o or embedded average of V r o, ok. V reference is m, V c m sin omega t. V
c m by V t p is m a. Therefore, So, M A B D C sine omega t you will get provided T s is much much less
than capital T. Otherwise, you will get it approximately, ok. So, if the switching is done at very high
frequency, you will get the embedded average of pulse width modulated waveform as M A B D C sine
omega t to a very close degree.

Well, if switching is not that fast, if the modulation, frequency modulation index is not very large, it is
only in 10, 20 etcetera, then the embedded average of VRO will be approximately M A V D C sine omega
t, ok. Finally, we note that switching frequency of the switches is F s only. It is same as in the case of
bipolar modulation.

But there are two pulses in VRO in one triangle cycle and three level modulation is being used. So, there
should be significant differences in harmonic picture and MF, what are the constraints on MF? MF has to
be integer, that is to avoid subharmonic generation. MF has to be synchronized, that also is, sorry, the
triangle has to be synchronized to sign, that is also to avoid subharmonic generation.

However, in bipolar modulation, MF has to be odd for preserving half wave symmetry. Is there any such
constraint on MF in unipolar modulation? The answer is no. It can be odd or even I'm showing you
simulation results, which illustrates that the output voltage BRO will process half wave symmetry
irrespective of whether MF is odd or even here we have simulation result of.

Um, Uh, Converter, Full Bridge Converter, Unipolar Modulation, Frequency Modulation Index is 4,
Reference Waveform Frequency is 50 Hz, and therefore switching frequency is 200 Hz, because MF is 4.
And Modulation, Amplitude Modulation Index is 0. 8, so I am looking for a 160 amplitude, Vdc is 200.
I'm showing you the pole voltages, this voltage, this voltage, and this voltage.

The three voltages. This is the first right pole voltage. This is the left pole voltage, and this is the
difference between two pole voltages, which is the load voltage. Pole voltage obviously will move
between 200 and zero or VDC and zero pole voltage will have DC content. In fact, that Vdc by 2, ok.
This pole voltage also will move between Vdc and 0.

This will also have an average of Vdc by 2 over a 20 millisecond period. I am showing you two cycles
here. So, the average of this waveform to this time base, 20 millisecond, is going to be 100. These two
averages will subtract out when we calculate Vr0. And, therefore, VRO will contain no DC and only AC,
bipolar AC without any DC component, ok.

And there are two pulses in every switching cycle. If you count the number of pulses in VRN, count the
number of pulses in VBN, sorry, VON, they are the same. But if you count the number of pulses in VRO,
you will get double the number of pulses you counted there, ok. In every switching cycle. I will put two
cycles or two pulses.

Okay. That we already know, but what we want to know is, is there half wave symmetry? Yes, there is
half wave symmetry. Consider the structure of the waveform between 20 and 30 millisecond and the
waveform between 30 and 40 millisecond. At every time point, corresponding time point in the second
half cycle should have equal and opposite value.

So you take this time point, it's positive. And here it is negative. You take this point it is zero, but then it is
zero here. Zero is the opposite of zero. This way you can convince yourself that it is half wave symmetric.
Even with an even modulation index. And here is the case where MF is 5. Odd modulation index.

Switching frequency is 250 Hz. Once again we see that this is an exact replica of this except for sine.
Therefore half wave symmetry is there. So concluding, in unipolar modulation it doesn't make any
difference. You can take odd MF or even MF. It has to be an integer and it should be preferably
synchronized with the sine wave.

I mean the triangle preferably should be synchronized with the sine wave, especially when MF is low. If
MF is very large, MF is greater than 21 and odd, you can probably. Um, dispense with the
synchronization, but it has to be integer. It can be even or odd, it won't make any difference. Now
coming to the harmonic spectrum, the harmonic spectrum of unipolar modulation will not contain
harmonics centered around odd multiples of MF.

So, it will not have the MF component, MF plus or minus. Uh, two component, mf plus or minus four
component, that entire side band is missing. I'm switching at fs is equal to one kilohertz. So strictly
speaking, I should have got a band here around one kilohertz. You will get that band in bipolar, but you
don't get that in unipolar.

In unipolar, it is missing. This is because of appearance of two pulses in every triangular cycle in the
output. That doubling of number of pulses. has made the basic switching frequency in the output pulses
equal to double the switching frequency of switches. So the basic harmonic frequency involved in the
output signal VRO is not FS, rather it is 2FS in the case of unipolar.

Therefore you get side, side bands around multiples of 2FS. So you get 2FS side band. two fs bunch of
components, you get four fs bunch of components, et cetera, or equivalently the harmonic order is 2mf
band and 4mf band. Of course, the 2mf component is missing, but 2mf plus or minus 1 will be there, plus
or minus 3 will be there, plus or minus 5 will be there, and 4mf plus or minus.
These values are also same. as the values that come from the bipolar modulation. Only that, in the
bipolar modulation table, you check out some rows. The rows corresponding to MF band, 3MF band,
etc., you simply remove. The remaining thing is the harmonic spectrum of unipolar modulation. But in
bipolar modulation, we have observed that the MF band is very, very large band.

I mean, large amplitude band. In particular, we noted that at the modulation index, amplitude
modulation index of 0. 8, we noted that the M f frequency component, that is the component at M f into
f naught or equivalently at the switching frequency is around 80, 0. 82, as much as fundamental. And M
f plus or minus 2 also contributed significantly.

In fact, those three were the most dominant harmonic components. And 2mf plus or minus 1, 2mf plus
or minus 3, etcetera, were way below. But now, that large amount of harmonics simply disappears. And
so, these three, these two become significant. So, at 0. 8 modulation index, these three are, these two
are the significant harmonics.

Of course, these are also there, ok. I would say, you take these two and these three. That can be used to
calculate THD, ok. So their amplitudes are much less than the troublesome amplitudes of the M of band
and three M of band. Two M of band will have much lesser amplitude compared to M of band. And four
M of band will have much lesser amplitude than the three M of band.

So you're selecting those ones which are low in amplitude and therefore our filtering job will be easier
on two counts. One, there is no m f band. The band to be filtered out is 2 m f. There is a doubling of
frequency. If you remember our discussion of low pass filter, doubling of applied frequency will reduce
the gain of the filter by a factor of 4.

So, if you design the filter to have a gain of 1 by 100 at m f frequency. It will have 1 by 400 at 2 mF
frequencies and therefore, much better harmonic reduction will happen in the final filtered output or
in other words, I can use slightly lower value of components. I can design the filter for a resonance
frequency which is double the filter resonance frequency in bipolar modulation.

So, if I increase the resonance frequency of the filter, I will be reducing the component size. Both
inductance and capacitance in the filter will go down in size. They will become smaller and less costlier
and less dissipative. I can either do that or I can settle for a much better filtering performance using the
same components.

Second reason why the filtering is going to be better is, not only that the frequency which is to be
filtered out is doubled. But, the amplitude of the components to be filtered out is much less now. That
way also filtering becomes more effective. Okay, finally concluding, we say unipolar modulation, the
conclusion is put in another way.

I am concluding that unipolar modulation increases the efficiency of the converter. How does that
happen? Well, the switching frequency can be reduced by a factor of two. If unipolar modulation is
used, suppose you design a filter for bipolar modulation, say you use the same filter for unipolar
modulation, then you can switch the unipolar modulated inverter at half the switching frequency, right?

You can. And if the switching frequency is reduced to half the old switching frequency, switching losses
in the devices will come down and therefore the converter will become more efficient. Now, even after
reducing the switching frequency to half the level, the filter inductor size can be reduced further,
because you do not have to use the same filter size as in the case of bipolar, because the amplitude of
harmonics is not as much as in the bipolar case.

There is not only a frequency doubling, but the amplitude is also much less. So, we can make use of that
factor. And, therefore, design a filter with lower value of inductance. So, filter size can be reduced even if
you are reducing switching frequency by 2. So, we can make use of the advantage of switching
frequency halving, efficiency will improve and you can reduce the filter inductance also because of
reduction in amplitude of the harmonic components.

Moreover, since the harmonic components are much less here. the harmonic voltages that the filter has
to support. Notice that I don't have the filter here.

The filter circuit was like this, right? For a

resistive load. If this is a sine wave and this is a, this kind of a wave, who's taking the difference? This
inductor. So the
Now, if these switched frequency components are large in amplitude, the magnetic flux density in the
core also will be oscillating between large limits because an inductor can support switched voltages only
by having corresponding magnetic flux density variation inside the core. If the switched frequency
components are low in amplitude, then the switched frequency components in the magnetic flux density
in the core also will be lower in amplitude.

And therefore, eddy current loss and hysteresis loss in the magnetic material, the inductance will also
decrease. That will also aid in efficiency. Therefore, unipolar modulation can improve the efficiency of
the converter. That, uh, completes our study of sine wave pulse width modulation in a full bridge
converter.

And we conclude that unipolar modulation is definitely much superior to bipolar modulation and when
you can do unipolar modulation, there is absolutely no reason why you should do bipolar modulation at
all. With that, we close this topic.