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Towards a comprehensive model of human memory

Research · June 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2103.9606

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Towards a comprehensive model of human memory

Jie Zhang

jiejohnzhang@gmail.com

July 1st, 2016

Abstract

Zhang model is developed through a series of assumptions and hypotheses by reverse engineering. The
model intends to integrate everything we know about the human memory into a single memory model. It
was first proposed in 2004, which posited the memory process and function of sleep. Based on this
model, Zhang further hypothesized a continual activation theory, which explained several mysteries that
were related with human brains: such as, dreaming, restless legs syndrome, schizophrenia and sudden
infant death syndrome. In this article, the original Zhang model is revised and numerous new
assumptions and hypotheses are proposed. As a result, the revised Zhang Model will cover many
subjects, such as: attention, emotion, memory classification, working memory, temporary memory,
learning, sleep, dream synthesis, amnesia and hallucination.
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Introduction

Zhang model is developed through a series of assumptions and hypotheses by reverse

engineering. It includes: a) gathering facts and findings that are related to this project from scientific
research publications; b) creating a memory model that fits all collected facts and findings; c) testing the
model. If either the model itself or any of the logical predictions from the model are inconsistent with any
known facts that were collected, the model is rejected. As a result, the model is able to account for many
results observed in literature. However, one weakness of the original Zhang model is that it cannot
explain the findings that new semantic learning can be gained in patients with large medial temporal lobe
(or the hippocampal complex) lesions. This issue will be addressed in this revised model, and some new
assumptions and hypotheses will also be introduced.

Reward system and punishment system

To build a human brain, a self-organizing system, the first thing is to create two essential brain
systems: the reward system (the pleasure center) and the punishment system (the un-pleasure center).
These two systems are so crucial for a human brain that the pleasure center creates motivation and is the
driving force for human beings to want to be “alive”, while the punishment center protects people by
avoiding painful experiences and keeps human beings “alive”. (The purpose of life, therefore, is to try to
have the pleasure center stimulated as much as possible, or we can say to find happiness).

Dual-system theory of attention

Throughout waking life, a human brain is bombarded by an overwhelming amount of information

for processing every minute. With a limited information-processing capacity, the brain needs to have a
mechanism to ensure that the most important information is selected for further processing while certain
other information is inhibited from receiving further processing. This mechanism is the attention system.
Zhang model proposes that the attention system can be divided into two functional groups: the selection
system and the attentional control system. Since there isn’t a “little man” (homunculus) within the human
brain to help the selection system for decision-making, the selection rule has to be a very simple one.
Zhang proposes that the information with the highest strength will always be the one selected for
processing at any given moment. This rule for selection is pre-hardwired before birth and cannot be
changed. Thus, the only way to make information that does not have the highest strength to be processed
at a given moment is to deliberately make it the highest through the attentional control system. In the
Zhang model, the attentional control system is a top-down process that is executed by the conscious
mind with effort. It achieves the goal of top-down control through two approaches: enhancement and
inhibition, either by directly raising the strength of the information that needs to be processed to the
highest or inhibiting (blocking, filtering and attenuating) competing information so that only the target
information will be left and become the highest. The inhibition can be done from the early stage, the late
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stage, or both, depending on what techniques are used. Attentional control is highly adaptive and is a
flexible and efficient way of extracting critical information from a flood of input. In general, the selection
system is characterized as implicit, automatic and fast; the attentional control system is characterized as
explicit, deliberate and effort consuming.

The information strength is specifically defined in Zhang model as the strength of information
when it is in an activated format. Its value defines the processing priority. For sensory inputs, the
information strength is directly related to the salience of the input. The more salient the input (and the
more powerful the stimuli is), the higher the information strength. When a sensory input is selected for
processing, a new information strength (the Evalue, termed from the “emotion value”) will be assigned to it
by a brain mechanism during processing. Its value is decided based on how much the information
stimulates the reward or punishment system during processing. This brain mechanism is the generator of
what we call “emotion”. Zhang proposes that one of the functional purposes of the brain emotion system
is to evaluate and rank the processing priority. Thus, for retrieved memories, information strength is the
assigned value (Evalue) by the emotion mechanism from previous processing. The more emotion the
information evokes during processing, the higher the information strength is valued. Evalue is assumed to
be saved as part of the feature attached to the corresponding memory item (or event). Generally
speaking, the value of the information strength reflects the importance of the information to our survival.
Therefore, we can also say that the selection rule is based on the processing priority.

Activation theory of emotion

As mentioned earlier, humans have two essential brain systems: a system that makes a human
have desire to want to be “alive” (to encourage and reward a human to do anything beneficial to his
survival); and a system that can keep a human stay away from harm’s ways and maintain “alive”. These
two brain system are the so called reward system (the pleasure center) and the punishment system (the
un-pleasure center). These two brain systems motivate our desire to pursue potential rewards, avoid
potential losses, and drive almost all of our behavior.

When information in processing stimulates the reward system and/or the punishment system, a
series of reactions, both physiological and mental, will be activated automatically, in order to make us
ready to react and deal with the situation. The Zhang model proposes that emotions are the mental
responses to the activation of the reward system and/or the punishment system. Its functional purpose is
to encourage the stimulation of the reward system and to discourage the stimulation of the punishment
system. Activation of the reward system and/or the punishment system is both necessary and sufficient to
lead to emotion experience. The higher the activation, the more intense the emotion is. Although it can
often lead to emotional experience, a cognitive appraisal is neither necessary nor sufficient to trigger an
emotional event. As proposed earlier, emotion is recorded as an E-value in memory format, and its value
defines the processing priority when it is retrieved from memory stores.
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Associative retrieving

Information for processing can come from different sources (sensory inputs, retrieved memories
and representations from all stages of processing). One of the main sources of information for processing
comes from the associative retrieval mechanism. Zhang believes that the functional purpose of this
mechanism is to supply information related to past experiences in regards to the information being
processed. The associative retrieval mechanism is a slave system to attention. When an item of
information is selected for processing, the associative retrieval mechanism will immediately begin to
retrieve associated memory information as long as the attention lasts. However, associative retrieving is a
time consuming process. Once the attention changes to the next selection, the associative retrieval
mechanism will automatically switch to the next target, and supply the working memory with associated
memory information about the new selection.

Declarative memory = DMIWA + AL + Ev alue

Memory has been generally divided into three main categories: sensory memory; short-term
memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory can be further divided into two types: declarative
memory and procedural memory (nondeclarative memory). Tulving (1972) further sub-divided declarative
memory into episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory represents our memory of
experiences and specific events in time in a serial form, from which we can reconstruct the actual events
that took place at any given point in our lives. Semantic memory , on the other hand, is a more structured
record of facts, meanings, concepts and knowledge about the external world that we have acquired.
However, the classifications of episodic memory and semantic memory are not ready to be used in Zhang
model, because they overlap and gap in definition. Thus, a new way of classification is needed.

DMIWA, AL and Evalue Hypothesis: Declarative memory can be divided into three basic memory
components: declarative memory item without association (DMIWA), associative link (AL) and Evalue (Fig.
1). Here, the term “item” is used to emphasize that memory trace is saved in one item (piece or chunk)
and can only be retrieved as one item. Note that in the Zhang model, the associative links are not
physical links, such as synapse connections between neurons. Instead, it should be understood as
assigned relationships between DMIWA. If we use an analogy with neurons as houses, neuron
connections as roads, and DMIWA as people, then the associative links would be the relationships
among people. The human brain creates new neuron connections every day to improve communication,
just like a city needs to build new roads every year to improve traffic. But the associative links, just like
relationships between people, can be changed and redefined any minute. On the other hand, Evalue, as
mentioned above, is proposed as an emotion factor which is assigned to each DMIWA. It can also be
assigned to a group of associated DMIWA (for example, an episodic memory or an event). As Evalue is an
assigned value by the brain evaluation (emotion) mechanism from previous processing, its value defines
the strength of memory at retrieved and activated states. The functional purpose of Evalue is to supply the
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historical rating result about how important the memory is to our survival. It directly affects the selection
sequence for the attention system.

Human Memory

Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory

(Short-term Memory)

Declarative Procedural Declarative Memory Procedural Memory

Working Memory Working Memory (Explicit Memory) (Implicit Memory;
Non-declarative
Memory)

DMIWA AL EValue
(Declarative Memory Item (Associative Links) (Emotion Value)
Without Association)

Figure 1. Types of human memory

The differences between DMIWA and semantic memory can be demonstrated by a typical
semantic example: “Paris is the capital of France”. When saved and retrieved as one item without using
any associative links, “Paris is the capital of France” is both DMIWA and semantic. But more often, it is
saved as “Paris”, “capital”, “France” etc., and is retrieved by combining them with associative links. In this
case, “Paris is the capital of France” is not a DMIWA, while “Paris”, “capital” and “France” are.

Thus, each DMIWA can be evaluated by two measures: the information strength and the memory
strength. The information strength is expressed by Evalue, and it is the strength of DMIWA at the activated
state when retrieved from the long term memory. On the other hand, the memory strength is the strength
of DMIWA at the saved state in the long-term memory. It reflects how well the DMIWA can be retrieved.
Once registered in the long-term memory, the memory strength of DMIWA depends on the amount of
practice that it has received. Each successful activation/recall will increase its strength by a small
amount. However, the memory strength of DMIWA will decrease following the Ebbinghaus forgetting
curve over time when no attempt is made to retain it.
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The memory strength of DMIWA can be divided into three ranges by two thresholds: a low-
threshold DL and a high-threshold DH. When the memory strength of a DMIWA is below the low-threshold
DL, it cannot be retrieved. When the memory strength of a DMIWA is equal or greater than DL, but less
than the high-threshold DH, the DMIWA can be retrieved through direct match, cued recall and associative
link. When the memory strength of a DMIWA is equal or greater than the high-threshold DH, not only can
the DMIWA be retrieved through direct match, cued recall and associative link, but also through free
search.

The strength of AL can only be divided into two ranges. When the strength of a given AL is below
a given threshold, the associated DMIWA cannot be retrieved through this link. When the strength of a
given AL is equal or greater than the given threshold, the associative link is successful and the associated
DMIWA can be retrieved.

Evalue can be further divided into two subtypes: E value-P (the Evalue of punishment subtype) and
Evalue-R (the E value of reward subtype). When a piece of information in processing leads to the stimulation of
the brain punishment system, an E value-P will be assigned. On the other hand, when a piece of information
in processing leads to the stimulation of the brain rewards system, an E value-R will be assigned. The more
the brain punishment/rewarding system is stimulated, the higher the value of the E value-P/Evalue-R. In other
words, the higher is the emotion that the information in processing evokes, the higher the E value. Thus,
zero E-value means emotionally neutral. However, the functional purpose of the E value is to define the
processing priority for the selection system.

Declarative working memory and procedural working memory

Declarative WM and Procedural WM Hypothesis: Working memory (WM) can be divided into two
subsystems: declarative working memory for processing declarative (conscious) memory, and procedural
working memory for processing procedural (nonconscious) memory (Fig. 1).

Baddeley’s (2000) working memory model is created by expanding short-term memory into a
dynamic processor. It consists of an episodic buffer, a central executive and two subsystems: the
phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketch pad. However, the way that working memory is defined in
the Baddeley model makes it very difficult to be used for analyzing multiple memory systems. To
overcome this, Zhang divides working memory into two subsystems: declarative working memory and
procedural working memory. Here the procedural working memory is a slave system of the declarative
working memory. It executes motor programs based on commands received from its master system (i.e.
the declarative working memory). This division was first proposed in Zhang’s earlier paper (2004 &
2005a).
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However, the term “working memory,” can cause confusion at times, especially in this article,
when “working memory” is mainly used to mean “the brain processor” instead of “short-term memory”. For
example, in the Zhang model, “declarative memory” and “procedural memory” are memories; “working
memory”, “declarative working memory” and “procedural working memory” are brain processors. To avoid
any confusion, the term “working memory” in the rest of the article will be replaced by its short form of
“WM” whenever possible, and should be understood as “brain processor” of which the short-term memory
is only a part.

Temporary memory

Temporary Memory Hypothesis: The human brain has two temporary-memory stores: one for
declarative memory and one for procedural memory. To avoid interference during waking, the declarative
temporary-memory store is evolved for temporarily holding associative links (AL) and certain types of
Evalue, while the procedural temporary-memory store is evolved for temporarily holding procedural
memory. Both stores have limited capacity. Information in both temporary-memory stores is stored in a
quickly accessible and stable form.

In the original Zhang (2004) model, both declarative memory and procedural memory are treated
as basic memory formats and are assumed to be saved directly into temporary-memory store to avoid
interference during waking. In the modified Zhang model, the declarative memory is further divided into
three basic memory components: DMIWA, AL and Evalue. Here, Evalue can be further divided into two
subcomponents, Evalue for single DMIWA (Evalue-S) and Evalue for a group of associated DMIWA (Evalue-G).
This time, only memories of associative links (AL) and Evalue-G (which can cause catastrophic interference
if saved directly into the declarative long-term memory store) are assumed to be saved into the
declarative temporary-memory store during waking time, while DMIWA and E value-S are assumed to be
saved directly into the declarative long-term memory store. The declarative temporary-memory store is
assumed to be located at the hippocampus (for AL) and the amygdala (for Evalue-G). Please note, by
definition, memories saved in both temporary memory stores belong to long-term memory, not short-term
memory.

Function of sleep

Function of Sleep Hypothesis: With limited capacity, both declarative temporary memory and
procedural temporary memory stores have to be cleared periodically to avoid overload. The function of
sleep is to process the memory saved in the temporary memory store, transfer and encode that data to
long-term memory stores. Thus, sleep has two different stages: the declarative memory processing stage
and the procedural memory processing stage. Rapid-eye-movement may be observed when the brain
processes the eye motor related program in the procedural memory processing stage (Zhang 2004).
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It can be described in a loose manner that NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep is for
processing declarative memory and REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is for processing procedural
memory. However, this statement is not precise because during the procedural memory processing
stage, rapid eye movement can only be observed when eye related procedural memory is being
processed. It cannot be observed when eye related procedural memory is not being processed, even
though other motor programs are still being processed. As a result, observing rapid eye movement
indicates that the brain is in the procedural memory processing stage; however, not observing rapid eye
movement does not guarantee that the brain is in the declarative memory processing stage.

Brain continual activation

Continual-activation Hypothesis: To maintain proper brain function, both declarative WM and

procedural WM must be continually activated throughout one’s lifetime. When the level of activation of
either subsystem descends to a certain threshold, the continual-activation mechanism in the brain will be
triggered to generate a data stream from the memory stores to flow through the subsystem in order to
maintain brain continual activation (Zhang 2005a).

The human heart, once it first begins beating inside the womb, needs to maintain “beating” until
death. This is no different for a human brain. Once activated, it has to be continually activated all lifelong.
When the brain cannot be activated externally through sensory inputs, it will activate itself from within.

The requirement of continual activation can be easily met during waking time, since the five
senses continuously pass information to both declarative and procedural WM for processing. However,
this is not the case during sleep time, when the sensing rates of all the sensors are slowed and the
arousal thresholds are increased. As proposed earlier, sleep has two stages: NREM sleep for processing
the declarative memory in the declarative WM; and REM sleep for processing the procedural memory in
the procedural WM. The questions are how the brain maintains the continual-activation in the procedural
WM during NREM sleep, and the declarative WM during REM sleep. To answer these questions, Zhang
(2005a) proposed that there is a continual-activation mechanism in each subsystem of WM to carry out
this task. When the activation level of either subsystem descends to a certain threshold, the
corresponding continual-activation mechanism in the brain is triggered to generate a data stream from
memory stores to flow through the subsystem in order to maintain brain continual activation. Therefore,
the existence of the continual-activation mechanisms provides a safeguard for life to go on during sleep,
and is also a necessary condition for animal hibernation.

Memory process

Zhang (2005a) memory model can be divided into three processing states: the waking state, the
declarative memory processing stage during sleep and the procedural memory processing stage during
sleep.
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During waking time, the sensory memory is continuously receiving information from all five
senses. The information is first held in the sensory memory store. By attention, some of the information
will then be passed to the declarative WM for processing. To process the incoming information, the
declarative (conscious) WM will retrieve related information from the declarative temporary memory store
and the declarative long-term memory store. According to the “DMIWA, AL and Evalue Hypothesis”,
declarative memory can be divided into three basic memory components: a pure memory item part
DMIWA (declarative memory item without association), a pure relational part AL (associative link), and an
emotion factor Evalue which defines the processing priority for the corresponding DMIWA when retrieved.
These three components of all newly created, enhanced and modified declarative memories have to be
dealt differently and saved separately while awake. Without interference, the processed DMIWA and
Evalue-S (Evalue for single DMIWA) will be sent directly to the declarative long-term memory store for rapid
memory saving, while the processed AL and E value-G (Evalue for a group of associated DMIWA), due to
interference, can only be sent to a transit memory store – the declarative temporary memory store (the
hippocampus and the amygdala), for rapid memory saving. In the meantime, the declarative WM may
send a request to the procedural (non-conscious) WM for a response output. To process this request, the
procedural WM will also retrieve corresponding procedural memory from the procedural temporary
memory store and/or the procedural long-term memory store. The processed request will then be sent to
the procedural temporary memory store for rapid memory saving. At the same time, the processed
request will also be passed to the motor output. The results of the motor output will then be monitored by
the five senses and fed back to the WM for modifying (Fig. 2).

Environmental Input
(Incoming info)

Sensory Memory
(Sight, hearing, touch, taste & smell)

Info attended to

Saving
Declarative AL Saving Procedural
Temporary Temporary
Memory Declarative Procedural Memory
Retrieval Working Working Retrieval
Memory Memory
Saving
Declarative DMIWA Procedural
Long-term Long-term
Memory Retrieval Retrieval Memory
Working Memory

Motor Output

Figure 2. Memory model for the waking brain

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During the sleep period, the sensing rates of all the sensors are slowed and the arousal
thresholds are increased. The brain is now in an off-line state. Without interference, the brain will retrieve,
encode and transfer data from temporary memory store to the long-term memory store. Memory
processing during sleep has two stages: the declarative memory processing stage and the procedural
memory processing stage. As mentioned earlier, in a not very precise way, we can say that NREM sleep
is for the declarative memory processing, and REM sleep is for the procedural memory processing. While
asleep, both declarative and procedural temporary memory stores are in retrieval-only mode. To ensure
both processing states remain uninterrupted, communication between the declarative WM and the
procedural WM is generally blocked during sleep.

During the declarative memory processing stage of sleep, the declarative WM will retrieve Al,
Evalue-G and DMIWA from both the temporary memory store and the long-term memory stores, combine
and save them together into the declarative long-term memory store. It is during this process that these
previously separated memory components during waking time are now finally reunited during sleep (Fig.
3). On the other hand, during the procedural memory processing stage of sleep, the procedural WM will
retrieve data from the procedural temporary memory store, encode and transfer to the procedural long-
term memory store (Fig. 4). During sleep, both the declarative temporary memory store and the
procedural temporary memory stores are emptied and ready for use during the next waking period.

Environmental Input
(Incoming info)

Sensory Memory
(Sight, hearing, touch, taste & smell)

Minimum info attended to

Declarative Procedural
Temporary AL Temporary
Blocked Continual
Memory Retrieval Declarative Procedural Memory
Activation
Working Working
Filing Memory Memory
data
Declarative Procedural
Long-term Continual Long-term
Memory DMIWA Activation Memory
Retrieval Working Memory
Blocked motor output with lowered muscle tone

Motor Output

Figure 3. Memory model for the sleeping brain (NREM)

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Environmental Input
(Incoming info)

Sensory Memory
(Sight, hearing, touch, taste & smell)

Minimum info attended to

Declarative Procedural
Temporary Continual Temporary
Blocked Retrieval
Memory Activation Declarative Procedural Memory
Working Working
Memory Memory Filing
Declarative data Procedural
Long-term Continual Long-term
Memory Activation Retrieval Memory
Working Memory
Blocked motor output with paralyzed muscle

Motor Output

Figure 4. Memory model for the sleeping brain (REM)

The brain scalp electroencephalogram (EEG)

The electroencephalogram measures the potential difference between two points on the surface
of the scalp, which mainly reflects the neuron activity of the underlying neocortex. Since the neocortex
mainly consists of the declarative WM and the declarative long-term memory, EEG results mostly reflect
activity of declarative memory. According to Zhang model, sleep can be divided into two memory
processing stages: the declarative memory processing stage during NREM sleep, and the procedural
memory processing stage during REM sleep. During NREM sleep, the declarative WM retrieves AL and
Evalue-G from the declarative temporary memory store, combines them with corresponding DMIWA and
saves the completed form of declarative memory back into the declarative long-term memory store. This
is a well-organized, involuntary data transferring process. As a result, it should generate a synchronized
EEG pattern. If dividing NREM sleep into more detailed sub-stages, it is probably like this: stage 2 NREM
sleep - encoding associative link between individual DMIWA; stage 3 NREM sleep (formerly stage 3 & 4)
– encoding associative link and Evalue-G among groups of DMIWA. Since encoding relationships among
groups of DMIWA requires support and co-operation from all resources of declarative memory, as a
result, stage 3 NREM sleep is the deepest sleep stage. During REM sleep, the procedural WM is busy
processing procedural memory. In the meantime, the resource of declarative memory is mainly left alone
and has nothing to do. Similar to wakefulness, the declarative WM can now devote all its resource to
process the “sensory input”. The only difference between REM sleep and waking state is that the
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“sensory input” in REM sleep is simulated and internally generated. Thus, the brain EEG pattern will
demonstrate desynchronized characteristics that are similar to the waking state.

Familiarity and recollection

The ability to remember the past is supported by two processes: familiarity and recollection.
When we pay attention to a sensory input (stimuli), the previously saved DMIWA which corresponds to
the input will be automatically matched during the encoding process. If the memory strength of DMIWA is
greater than the low-threshold DL, a sense of familiarity is created. The confidence rating of familiarity
increases with the memory strength of DMIWA. A 100% confidence rating will be reached if the memory
strength of DMIWA is equal or greater than the high-threshold DH. Thus, familiarity is a fast process with
direct retrieval, but more sensitive to perceptual manipulations since slightly different stimuli will be
encoded as a different DMIWA. With prolonged attention on the input, the brain (the associative retrieval
mechanism) will start to retrieve associated DMIWA following associative links (AL). The retrieval of
associated DMIWA provides more associated information about the studied information. This process is
called recollection. Recollection is a slow process with indirect retrieval.

Fast learning and slow learning

Declarative memory learning can be done through two approaches: fast learning and slow
learning. Fast learning can be achieved by creating associations between newly learned low strength
DMIWA and old high strength DMIWA. Thus, retrieval of related old high strength DMIWA will help to
supply information about the newly learned low strength DMIWA. Although using association properly can
lead to successful learning within a few trials or even a single trial (fast learning), the retrieval process can
be a slow process since it involves the recollection process (fast learning leads to slow retrieval). On the
other hand, slow learning is achieved by directly creating high strength DMIWA through gradual,
incremental and repeated learning. Since high strength DMIWA can be directly retrieved without the help
of associative links, as a result, slow learning leads to fast retrieval. This feature has been extensively
used in declarative memory tasks that require speedy answers and many professional skill tasks that
require speedy mental conversion to quickly give corresponding motor commands.

Semantic memory and episodic memory

Declarative memory has been traditionally divided into two subtypes: semantic memory and
episodic memory. Semantic memory refers to general world knowledge (facts, ideas, meaning and
concepts) that we have accumulated throughout our lives. Episodic memory is our memory of
experiences and specific events that occur during our lives. Although the episodic-semantic distinction
has clear heuristic value, it has not escaped criticism as some declarative memories do not fit neatly into
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either category. This raises a significant challenge for how to define and understand semantic/episodic
memory.

In the Zhang model, declarative memory can be divided into three memory components: DMIWA, AL
and Evalue. Both semantic and episodic memories can, therefore, be simply expressed as DMIWA plus AL
plus Evalue. To better define semantic/episodic memory, we will compare these components and find the
distinction between these two types of memories. Since E-value only affects processing priority after
retrieval and doesn’t contribute to any distinction between these two types of memories, we can simplify
the comparing process into only two components: DMIWA and AL. Thus, the differences between
semantic memory and episodic memory can be listed below:

1. The number of associative links contained in semantic memory is AL≥ 0, while the number of AL
contained in episodic memory is AL≥ 1. Typical semantic memories contain from zero AL up to a
few AL, but typical episodic memories normally have more AL.
2. In semantic memory, all DMIWA involved are well learned and have high memory strength. But in
episodic memory, DMIWA that is learned from a single experience or event (with low memory
strength) is connected to existing DMIWA that have high memory strength.

The above distinctions suggest that semantic memory reflects the types of memories that are
acquired through slow and repeated learning (with high strength DMIWA), while episodic memory reflects
the type of memories that are acquired through fast, one or few trial learning (by using AL to associate
newly learned, low strength DMIWA to certain well-established associative memory network). As a result,
episodic memory relies heavily on associative links for successful retrieval. Damaging the declarative
temporary memory store (hippocampus) will impair retrieval of many episodic memories. On the other
hand, only some complex semantic memory relies on associative links for successful retrieval (many
simple semantic memories do not use any associative link at all). Damaging the declarative temporary
memory store will therefore have less effect for semantic memory retrieval. In general, semantic memory
and episodic memory represent two different learning approaches, and represent two extreme learning
stages of declarative memory, with many other declarative memories falling somewhere in-between. To
summarize, all declarative memories that are learned through single trial in which associative links are
used, are episodic memory in nature; and all episodic memories can be eventually converted to semantic
memories after enough repeated learning. For example, memory of an event that is recalled the first time
belongs to the episodic memory; but after many, many times rehearsals of this event, the memory will be
converted to semantic memory.

Initial creation of declarative memory network in a new born

The long-term declarative memory store for a newborn is basically blank. Thus, right after birth,
an infant does not have the ability for fast learning since there is no high strength DMIWA to associate
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with. The only learning ability for the newborn is slow learning through repetition. During this period of
time, the infant cannot have any episodic memory. After many, many repeated practices, eventually
some high strength DMIWA are created. Using these DMIWA as targets for association, the infant is
finally capable of creating associative memory that can be retrieved. To create the first few high strength
DMIWA is surely a very difficult task, which will likely take months of practice to fulfill. After the creation of
the first few high strength DMIWA, the infant starts to have the ability to create some episodic memory,
but it is likely short-lived because the small amount of high strength DMIWA that are available as
associative targets will be frequently used for new learning later on. The interference makes the early
associations harder to retrieve. This leads to infantile amnesia.

Retrograde amnesia, Ribot gradient, memory consolidation & reconsolidation

Retrograde amnesia is a loss of memory that was learned before an injury or the onset of a
disease. It is often temporally graded, consistent with Ribot’s Law (memory loss is larger for recent
periods than for remote periods). To explain the Ribot gradient, the standard model of memory
consolidation (Squire et al. 1991) assumes that memories are first dependent on a hippocampal memory
system for their retrieval. Through consolidation, memories gradually become stored in the neocortex,
making them independent of the hippocampal system. If the hippocampal system is damaged, recent
memories are lost as they still depend on that system. Older memories have already been stored in the
neocortex through consolidation, and are thus spared. Although the standard model of memory
consolidation seems to explain the Ribot gradient well, some findings demonstrating that the
consolidation process can last 25 years or more (Nadel et al. 1997) put into question the validity of the
model, as a consolidation process lasting that long would not serve any purpose.

However, the Ribot gradient can be easily explained by the Zhang model without using the
concept of the standard model of memory consolidation. As stated earlier, Zhang proposes that the
declarative memory can be divided into three components: DMIWA (declarative memory item without
association), AL (associative link) and Evalue. During waking time, all newly created DMIWA and its
corresponding E value-S (Evalue for single DMIWA) will be directly saved into the declarative long-term
memory store in the neocortex; while all newly created and modified AL and E value-G (Evalue for a group of
associated DMIWA) will be first saved into the declarative temporary memory store and later transferred
and re-encoded to the long-term memory store during sleep. Different with the standard model of memory
consolidation which assumes that the transfer process is a long and gradual one, Zhang model assumes
that the transfer process is a fast one. All AL in the hippocampus and Evalue-G in the amygdala can be
transferred to the neocortex over the course of a single night’s sleep. If the hippocampus is damaged
before sleep, all associative links that are saved in the hippocampus will be lost. This includes not only all
of newly learned AL, but also all of modified AL (most reactivated AL, if not all, need a certain extent of
modification). Since we normally use more recent long-term memories than remote long-term memories
 15

during waking time, the hippocampus should contain a higher percentage of AL of recent long-term
memories than that of remote long-term memories prior to the damage. Thus, damage to the declarative
temporary memory store (hippocampus) will often cause Ribot gradient. However, whether Ribot gradient
occurs or not greatly depends on how many recent long-term memories versus remote long-term
memories were activated prior to the damage of the hippocampus.

With the same thinking, Zhang model directly predicts that an amnesia patient will have minimum
retrograde amnesia if the hippocampus is damaged right after a long night sleep, when the declarative
temporary memory store is emptied. On the other hand, the amnesia patient will have severe retrograde
amnesia if the hippocampus is damaged after a long awakening, especially with sleep deprivation when
the declarative temporary memory store is full of newly learned, reactivated and modified AL.

One widely reported observation that generated a great deal of research interest in recent years
is that after a memory trace is activated by means of retrieval, the memory becomes labile and has to go
through a consolidation process all over again. This phenomenal is termed as memory reconsolidation.
Since the Zhang model does not suggest that memory needs long-term consolidation in the first place,
the model will automatically decline the concept of memory reconsolidation. However, the above
phenomenal can be easily explained by the Zhang model. According to the Zhang model, when a piece of
declarative memory is retrieved, all the strength of DMIWA that is involved will increase a little bit. At the
same time, all the associative links involved will go through a certain extent of modifying and updating.
Due to interference, these modified associative links cannot be saved back to the declarative long-term
memory directly; instead, it has to be saved into the temporary memory store (the hippocampal memory
system) first, and then is transferred back to the long-term memory store later during sleep. As a result,
damaging the temporary memory store before sleep will lead to the loss of the associative links saved
inside, and thus make that piece of declarative memory irretrievable.

It should be noted, however, that damage of the hippocampal memory system affects only
associative links. Many simple semantic memories (like DMIWA) which don’t have any associative link
shouldn’t show any sign of memory loss. Following the same logic, general semantic memory should be
less affected than episodic memory as the latter heavily relies on associative links. Also, if the
disablement of the hippocampal memory system is only temporary and can be recovered later, then re-
learning these “lost” memories will be a much easier task than learning something new since these
memory items (DMIWA) were never lost.

Anterograde amnesia and new semantic learning

Anterograde amnesia means a person has difficulty to create new declarative memories after the
event that caused the amnesia. According to the Zhang memory model, all newly learned associative
links (AL) (one of three components of declarative memory) must be saved into the declarative temporary
 16

memory store (hippocampus) first during waking time, and later transferred/encoded into the long-term
memory store (neocortex) during sleep. If the declarative temporary memory store is damaged, no new
AL can be created. This means that fast, associative learning is impossible. Since AL are necessary for
both episodic memory and some semantic memory learning, hippocampus damage leads to a loss of the
ability to create any new episodic memory and certain semantic memory. However, the slow learning,
which is achieved by directly creating high strength DMIWA in the long-term memory store through
repeated learning, will not be affected by hippocampus damage. Therefore, amnesia patients are still
capable of DMIWA (certain simple semantic) learning.

Priming, simple classical conditioning, procedural and nondeclarative memory

Declarative (explicit) memory refers to memories that can be consciously recalled and its content
can be “declared”, such as facts and verbal knowledge. While declarative memory is subject to conscious
recollection, nondeclarative (implicit) memory is expressed through performance and covers what the
declarative memory is not. Since the finding that a bilateral resection of the medial temporal lobe causes
profound declarative memory impairment, a widely accepted practice to judge if a task is nondeclarative
or not is to see if amnesic patients can learn it normally. According to the Zhang model, this is not a
correct practice. As damage of the declarative temporary memory store only affects AL learning, amnesic
patients are still capable of DMIWA learning. Thus, amnesic patients can gradually learn certain kinds of
declarative memories.

Priming (the improved ability to detect, produce, or classify an item based on a recent encounter
with the same or related item) has been classified as nondeclarative memory mainly based on the
findings that amnesic patients can do as well as healthy people. In a typical perceptual priming task,
participants in an experiment group are given a set of stimuli – say, a word list on which the word “beat”
appears (but for the control group, a similar list on which “beat” does not appear). Then, participants
might be asked to complete a word stem such as “b e _ _”. Priming effect is assessed by comparing the
number of responses with “beat” in the experimental group to the number of responses with “beat” in the
control group. Typically, previous presentation of the word “beat” increases the likelihood that participants
will respond with the word “beat”.

Priming can be explained by the Zhang model in the following way: when we pay attention to the
word “beat”, the DMIWA of “beat” saved from prior learning is activated immediately. With prolonged
attention on the word “beat”, activation will also spread out to other associated DMIWA. Two things about
“spreading”: first, spreading to DMIWA that is associated to the word “beat” only happens when the
attention is still on the word “beat”; second, “spreading” is a slow process that activates the associated
DMIWA through associative links. All activated DMIWA will have a small increase of the memory strength.
This memory strength increase makes it more easily retrieved. Thus, the priming phenomenon is merely
reflecting the existence of two intrinsic brain properties: 1) activating a DMIWA will increase its strength;
 17

2) the higher the memory strength, the easier/faster the memory can be retrieved. Since both brain
properties are not acquired from learning (but pre-hardwired before birth), not only is priming not a
nondeclarative memory, but it also doesn’t belong to any kind of memory at all.

Simple classical conditioning is another example that is labeled as nondeclarative memory mainly
based on the findings that it can be accomplished by amnesiacs. Classical conditioning is a learning
process in which an innate response to a potent stimulus is elicited in response to a previously neutral
stimulus. This is achieved by repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the potent stimulus. Pairing
the sound of a “bell” with the image of “food” in the famous Ivan Pavlov’s dog experiments is an example
of classical conditioning. This kind of pairing is obviously “declarable”. According to the Zhang model,
damaging the hippocampus only makes the creation of new associative links impossible. The ability to
create new DMIWA is not impaired. Thus, some simple conditionings, in which only a simple pairing of a
conditioned stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) is needed, can still be accomplished
through repeated learning in the absence of the hippocampus. Please note, amnesiacs cannot learn
these tasks by gradually strengthening CS-US associations, as they are incapable of doing so. Instead,
they learn these tasks by gradually strengthening the newly created DMIWA of the pairings (no
associative link is created). Classical conditioning, therefore, should be classified as a kind of declarative
memory.

Procedural memory is the unconscious memory of skills and is responsible for knowing how to do
things such as riding a bike and playing a guitar. The basic requirement for procedural memory is that it is
not declarable. According to the Zhang model, the procedural WM receives commands from the
declarative WM. Therefore, for most (if not all) tasks that contain procedural memory, declarative memory
is always involved. Any task that has been classified as procedural memory based on the findings that it
can be learned by amnesiacs should be re-evaluated. One of the examples is the mirror drawing task.
The task is for the subject to draw a line between two concentric outlines of a five-pointed star while
seeing one’s hand and the star reflected in a mirror. Since drawing a line between two concentric outlines
in the non-mirrored space is a well-mastered skill for every adult since a very young age, the challenge
for the mirror drawing task is not the “drawing” part but instead, the mirror-conversion part, which is
declarable. For example: to draw an upward-moving line in the mirror requires sending a motor command
to move the hand downward. Mirror-conversion follows a very simple rule and can be easily figured out
after several attempts (amnesiac or not). The bottleneck for speeding up the task is the mirror conversion
part. In this case, associative memory is not necessary, although it can be helpful. Repeated practice can
help create high strength DMIWA of pairings to speed up the conversion process. Although learning how
to trace a line is a procedural memory task for a very young child, learning how to trace a mirror-imaged
star for an adult is a declarative memory task rather than a procedural memory task.
 18

Dream initiation, PLMD, RBD and sleep paralysis

According to the Zhang model, sleep has two stages: the declarative memory processing stage
and the procedural memory processing stage. During the declarative memory processing stage (NREM
sleep), the declarative WM will retrieve AL and Evalue-G (emotion value for a group of associated DMIWA)
from the declarative temporary memory store and DMIWA from the declarative long-term memory store. It
is very much like a memory replay process. Through this replay, the brain combines these three
declarative memory components that were separately saved during waking, and saves them into the
declarative long-term memory store together. During this process, the declarative temporary memory
store is emptied and ready for use during the next waking period. This is a pre-hardwired, automatic and
involuntary process. The conscious mind has no control of it, and only negatively “watches” from the
sideline. If awakened during this period of time, the sleeper will have a thought-like mentation, which has
been defined as type I dream (Zhang 2005a). Sleep terrors may occur during this period of time when the
brain is retrieving, processing, and filing the most scary image memory data and highly emotional events.
Nevertheless, during this period of time, the procedural WM receives no motor command from the
declarative WM, since the declarative WM is busy with declarative memory processing. This means that
the procedural WM has nothing to do during this period of time. According to the continual-activation
hypothesis, a continual-activation mechanism inside the brain will be triggered to automatically and
randomly retrieve data from the procedural memory stores. This randomly retrieved data stream will flow
through the procedural WM to maintain the brain continual activation (Fig. 3). Sleepers do not act out of
this randomly retrieved procedural memory because by nature their muscle tones are lowered. However
for some reason, sometimes either the lowered muscle tone is not lowered enough or the data stream is
too strong, and the following sleep disorders might occur: sleep talking, tooth grinding and periodic limb
movement disorder (PLMD).

During the procedural memory processing stage (REM sleep), the procedural WM will retrieve
data from the procedural temporary memory store, process, transfer and encode it to the procedural long-
term memory store (Fig. 4). To safeguard this procedural memory processing from being disturbed,
communication between the declarative WM and the procedural WM is blocked. Thus, no motor
command from the declarative WM (generated from dreaming, for example) can reach the procedural
WM during REM sleep. Normally, it is very hard to break through this barrier, as the sleeper has to try
very hard to increase the brain activation level to a near arousal state. On the other hand, to prevent the
sleeper from acting out of the strong procedural memory data stream that is being processed in the
procedural WM, the main skeletal muscle system is paralyzed. Sometimes, the paralyzed muscle does
not recover fast enough after waking, leading to sleep paralysis. For some people this paralysis is
incomplete or absent during REM sleep, leading to REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD). Please note: this
is contrary to the popular belief that RBD occurs when sleepers act out their dreams. According to Zhang
model, a motor command that is generated from the declarative WM (from dreaming mind, for example),
 19

has to break through two barriers to be executed physically: 1) the barrier between the declarative WM
and the procedural WM, and 2) the barrier from muscle paralysis. Breaking through either barrier requires
the brain activation level to reach the arousal state. For healthy people, it is normal to act out dream once
or twice a year, and it always comes along with awakening (for example, briefly jerking an arm or leg
while waking up from a nightmare). In the case of RBD, although the barrier from muscle paralysis is
incomplete, the motor command from the declarative WM should still be effectively blocked by the barrier
between the declarative WM and the procedural WM. So, the RBD patients still cannot act out their
dreams. What they may act out on is the procedural memory that is being processed in the procedural
WM.

One question that readers may raise is why most RBD sufferers have a feeling that they are
acting out their dreams? This can be explained by “dreaming out of act” effect. For RBD sufferers, some
part of the motor program that is processed during REM sleep may break through the barrier from the
incomplete muscle paralysis and cause a certain body movement (kicking for example). This body
movement will be detected by the sensory system. During sleep, sensory input is not fully blocked. High
strength sensory input can still break through the barrier between sensory and declarative WM, and be
processed by the declarative WM. Most likely, the involuntary body movement that is generated by the
procedural memory processing will be interpreted as “fighting” by the conscious mind (the declarative
WM), and thus prompts a dream that is related to fighting. If awakened after the initiation of the “fighting”
dream, the sleeper will likely think that he was acting out his dream. Thus, the differences in body
movements during REM sleep between a healthy person and a person suffering from RBD are: the
former arouses right before body movement, while the latter arouses after body movement.

Although the main skeletal muscle system is paralyzed during REM sleep, the small muscle
system is not (and doesn’t need to be) paralyzed, this is why we have rapid eye movements when eye
related procedural memory is being processed. During REM sleep, the declarative WM has nothing to
process because external sensory inputs are blocked. When the activation level in the declarative WM
becomes too low, according to the continual-activation hypothesis, a continual-activation mechanism
inside the brain will be triggered to automatically and randomly retrieve data from the declarative memory
stores. This randomly retrieved data stream will flow through the declarative WM to maintain the brain
continual activation. As a result, the brain will attempt to make sense and interpret them. With the
involvement of the brain association system and the emotion system, the vivid dreaming event will start
shortly after (Zhang 2005a).

Dream construction and synthesis

Now, the question is that if this randomly retrieved memory data from the brain continual
activation mechanism should only provide the declarative WM with some simple chaotic and random
inputs (images for example), then how can it lead to a vivid, story-like dream event?
 20

Please note that during waking time, the declarative WM receives information that is available for
processing from several different sources: sensory inputs, retrieved memories and representations from
all stages of processing. In normal conditions, these retrieved memories have never been perceived, or
confused with sensory inputs. This suggests that the information retrieved from long-term memory and
the information received from sensory inputs is projected to two different brain areas. As a result, our
mind can clearly identify the retrieved memories as what we have already known.

To explain dream construction, two assumptions are needed here. The first assumption is that in
order to send the declarative memories generated from the continual-activation mechanism to reach the
part of the brain that normally receives integrated sensory inputs, the brain has to temporarily open a
special pathway to allow them to pass through. This will lead to the second assumption that when the
pathway is opened, not only can the activated memories generated from the continual-activation
mechanism pass through the special pathway, but also retrieved memories from the associative retrieval
mechanism can pass through the special pathway. With the help of these two assumptions, we are now
ready to create a model to explain how vivid, dream-like dreams are synthesized.

Once entering the REM sleep mode, the procedural WM starts to process procedural memory. In
the meantime, the declarative WM has nothing to do. This leads the activation level in the declarative WM
to fall. When the activation level reaches the continual-activation threshold, the continual-activation
mechanism is triggered. According to the continual-activation theory, the continual activation mechanism
for the declarative WM will send activating pulses to the declarative long-term memory store. These
activating pulses will randomly activate declarative memories and send them to the part of the brain that
normally receives integrated sensory inputs during waking time. As a result, the declarative WM will treat
these activated declarative memories as if they were from sensory inputs, and process them the same
way as they would be processed during waking time. This way, the “simulated” inputs from retrieved
declarative memories will in turn activate the whole declarative WM. During this process, the attention
system will select the “simulated” input that has the highest information strength to process first, and then
the second highest to process next, and so on. Once a “simulated input” is selected for proc essing, the
associative retrieval mechanism will start to retrieve the associated memory from memory storage. As
assumed earlier, some of the retrieved memory, if not all, is “leaked” to the integrated sensory area
through the special pathway along with the memory activated by the continual-activation mechanism. As
a result, the integrated sensory area receives information not only from the continual-activation
mechanism (randomly activated information from long-term memory store), but also from the associative
retrieval mechanism (input associated to the information being processed, which is originally supposed to
be sent to a different brain area for retrieved memories). This leads to a very interesting brain
phenomenon: the brain receives “simulated” sensory input both randomly and associatively. The
hallucination effects that are generated by the continual-activation mechanism is random and chaotic in
 21

nature, while the hallucination effects that are generated by the “leaked” associatively ret rieved memory
will create a story-like dream as it follows and associates to what the dreamer is thinking.

The above dream construction and synthesis model will lead to the following sleep and dream
phenomena:

1. Hallucinatory perceptions in REM dream are the results of the projection of activated/retrieved
memory to the integrated sensory area.
2. Which way a dream develops depends on the competition between the input from the continual
activation mechanism and the associative retrieval mechanism. The selection of random input
from the continual activation mechanism makes a dream jump from one storyline to another. On
the other hand, the selection of “leaked memory” from the associative retrieval mechanism makes
REM dreams vivid and story-like. As a result of this function, one of the amazing features of REM
dreams is that whatever a dreamer is thinking will become true either immediately or shortly after,
as long as the dreamer keeps his attention on that thought. This suggests that the development
of the storyline in REM dreams can be voluntarily controlled to a certain extent.
3. Dreams are often bizarre in nature. Although simulated sensory input that leaked from the
associative retrieval mechanism can create hallucinatory perceptions that associate to the
dreamer's thought, the percentage of association may often be far off of 100%. This can
sometimes lead to a feeling of déjà vu.
4. “Leaking” of activated memory from associative retrieval mechanism will weaken the ability for
both logical thinking and sound judgment, because the leaked information is originally intended to
supply the mind with what we know.
5. Without external input, the top-down control is greatly attenuated in dreams. Also, hallucinatory
perceptions that are generated from the associative retrieval mechanism can increase and
intensify emotion in dreams. For example, a thought of fear will lead the dreamer to "see" a
hallucinatory image that is associated to it and further intensify his fear. This is why most
nightmares end with awakening.
6. During sleep, the temporary declarative memory store is in retrieval only mode. All newly created
and modified AL from dreaming cannot be saved. This will create a similar situation to amnesia.

Lucid dreaming

The human brain treats all input from the integrated sensory area as external input by default.
Almost all of human memory is created by processing external input during waking time. As a
consequence, the human brain will naturally assume all "simulated" sensory inputs during REM sleep are
from external sensory. This is why we are consistently duped into believing that we are awake in our
dreams. However, one type of special REM dreams is the so-called lucid dreams, in which one is aware
one is dreaming. Lucid dreams have no qualitative difference from regular REM dreams, and the
 22

techniques to have lucid dreams are often very simple. One of the easiest techniques is through dream
recall, by finding any hints that the dreamer is in a dream scene (a scene that could not happen when
awake), and attaching a logical reasoning to that scene (for example, "If I see this scene again, I am in a
dream and I can fly within a dream”) and save it. Thus, when the dreamer experiences the same dream
scene again, the brain has a chance to pick up that associated reasoning and become lucid. In this case,
the dreamer will experience “flying” which is generated by the associative retrieval mechanism in his
dream. However, due to sleep amnesia, lucid dreams are normally short-lived. Once the dreamer loses
track of the fact that he is in a dream, he will return back to normal REM dream again.

The sleep-wake state diagram

The Zhang model proposes that the sleep-wake state diagram can be expressed as a function of
the brain activation level in the declarative WM by a bifurcation curve of the catastrophe theory. The
catastrophe theory studies and classifies phenomena characterized by s udden and dramatic changes in
behavior arising from small changes in circumstances. In cusp geometry, a bifurcation curve loops back
on itself, the system alternately follows one solution, jumps to the other, follows the other back, and then
jumps back to the first (Fig. 5). During waking time, the declarative WM is in a relatively higher level of
activation state. In order to go to the sleep state, one needs to lower the brain activation level to reach a
critical value (the threshold for sleep TS) by lowering all sensory input and brain activity. At TS, the
transition occurs from the waking state (a higher level of consciousness state in which the declarative WM
is fully available to process external sensory input) to the sleep state (a lower level of consciousness state
in which the WM is assigned for memory transferring and editing, and as a result, only external sensory
input with high information strength above a threshold can reach the declarative WM for further
processing). During the sleep period, the declarative WM is in a relatively low level of activation state.
Transition from the sleep state to the wake state occurs when the activation level of the declarative WM
rises up to the threshold for arousal TA (Fig. 5). Both TS and TA increase/decrease with fullness/emptiness
of the temporary memory store, here TA> TS. In other words, it is easier to fall asleep when the temporary
memory store is fuller, and it is easier to wake up when the temporary memory store is emptier (Fig. 6).

A unified theory of dream, hallucination and schizophrenia

A hallucination is a perception in the absence of external stimulus that has qualities of real
perception. The continual-activation theory proposes that REM dreams are hallucinations in sleep, and all
hallucinations, whether asleep or awake, come from the same brain mechanism and are synthesized in
the same way as REM dreams that were described above. Although the continual-activation mechanism
is assumed to have evolved to support the sleep period, it can also be activated with certain conditions
during waking time. According to the Zhang model, hallucination happens when the brain activation level
drops below the continual-activation threshold. There are two approaches to get into the hallucination
state: lowering brain activation levels below the continual-activation threshold (for example, dreams in
 23

States of Consciousness
Continual-Activation
Threshold
Awake

TA
TC

TS

Asleep

Brain Activation

Figure 5. Sleep-wake state diagram; T S = sleep threshold; T A = arousal threshold; T C = the continual-activation threshold.
States of Consciousness

Continual-Activation
Threshold Awake

TC TA2 TA1

TS1 TS2

Asleep

Brain Activation

Figure 6. Sleep-wake state diagram; T S moves from position 1 to position 2 after 16 hours awake; T A moves from position
1 to position 2 after 8 hours sleep.
 24

REM sleep, and hallucination by sensory deprivation during waking hours) and increasing the continual-
activation threshold to a higher value (for example, by stress, dehydration, hunger, fatigue and
hallucinogenic drug etc.).

Let’s only consider the first approach mentioned above by assuming the continual-activation
threshold is a constant. We can divide human brains into three groups based on the values of their
continual-activation thresholds (Fig. 7). In the first group, the continual-activation threshold TC1 is lower
than the sleep threshold TS1 – the sleep threshold after a full night’s sleep. Figure 7 indicates that people
in this group will not hallucinate during waking time even under voluntary sensory deprivation, because
they will always fall into sleep before the continual-activation threshold is even reached.

In the second group, the continual-activation threshold TC2 is higher than the sleep threshold TS1,
but is lower than both the sleep threshold TS2 and the normal brain activation range during arousal (TS2 is
the sleep threshold after 16 hours arousal). People in this group will not hallucinate during normal daily
activities, but may hallucinate with sensory deprivation.

Continual-Activation
States of Consciousness

Threshold
Awake
TC1 TC2 TC3

TA
TS1 TS2

Asleep

Sensory deprivation Normal Brain Activation Range While Awake

Brain Activation

Figure 7. Sleep-wake state diagram; T S1 = the sleep threshold after 8 hour sleep; T S2 = the sleep threshold after 16 hour
awake.

In the third group, the continual-activation threshold TC3 is higher than the sleep threshold TS1,
and can be either lower or higher than the sleep threshold TS2, but is within the normal waking brain
activation range. People in this group may experience hallucinations during waking hours, even without
sensory deprivation. Many of them will be diagnosed with schizophrenia. Zhang model proposes that
 25

most delusions are, directly or indirectly, the result of hallucinations. And since hallucinations or delusions
alone can often be enough to lead to a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the culprit of schizophrenia is, in most
cases, hallucinations. Note that although all the people in the third group have the same brain condition
with the high value of continual-activation threshold, only some of them will be diagnosed with
schizophrenia.

Now, one question may arise: if hallucinations are sufficient to lead to the symptoms of
schizophrenia, why don’t all the people in the third group show symptoms of schizophrenia? The answer
is that people are affected differently by hallucinations. According to Zhang model, hallucinations are
triggered by the continual-activation mechanism and synthesized by the associative retrieval mechanism.
The most important feature of this synthesis process is that it works in a positive feedback manner. For
example, if a person hears voices with negative comments in his hallucination and becomes angry, he will
likely receive more negative-related comments from the associative retrieval mechanism. This may lead
to paranoia, and affects how he thinks, feels and acts. But, if he ignores the negative voices and directs
his attention to something pleasant instead, he will likely experience a pleasant hallucination that
associates to what he is thinking. Actually, there are many normal, healthy people who try to get into the
hallucinatory state (through lucid dreaming, isolation tank and hallucinogenic drug etc.) in order to obtain
a pleasant hallucination experience (in which they can do whatever they want – like flying for example).
Although the fundamental cause of the symptoms of schizophrenia is hallucinations due to brain
malfunction (of the continual-activation threshold), how much it affects a person’s behavior, to a large
degree, depends on how he reacts and copes with hallucinations. This leads to a very important
understanding that proper treatment through psychological means can also play an important role for
treating symptoms of schizophrenia, besides medications.

In summary, the unified hallucination theory proposes that all hallucinations (REM dreams, lucid
dreams and waking hallucinations), no matter to a healthy person or a schizophrenia patient, are
generated from the same brain mechanism (the continual-activation mechanism) and are synthesized by
the “leaked” memory retrieval from the associative retrieval mechanism. Therefore, having the ability to
hallucinate is a healthy brain’s normal function. Unfortunately, hallucinations can also occur when the
continual-activation mechanism is mistakenly triggered during waking time due to the malfunction of the
continual-activation threshold. When such hallucinations (and its by-products: delusions etc.) significantly
affect how a person thinks, feels and behaves, schizophrenia is diagnosed.

Continual-activation theory of RLS and SIDS

The creation of the continual-activation theory can directly lead to several assumptions by
considering what happens if this continual-activation mechanism malfunctions. The continual-activation
theory of schizophrenia (Zhang 2005b) that was described above is one of such examples. The following
two assumptions, the continual-activation theory of restless legs syndrome (RLS) and the continual-
 26

activation theory of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), were also created with the same thinking
(Zhang 2005b & 2005c). Since there are no further updates for these two theories in this article, only a
brief summary will be provided below.

The theory of RLS and the theory of schizophrenia are very much alike: both are caused by
impairment of the continual-activation threshold. However, the RLS is due to dysfunction of the continual-
activation threshold in the procedural WM. According to the continual-activation theory, when the
activation level of the procedural WM descends to a given threshold, the continual-activation mechanism
in the procedural WM will be triggered to generate a data stream from the procedural memory store to
ensure that this brain subsystem remains continually activated. To the RLS patient, the continual-
activation threshold is impaired and increased to a higher activation level. This will cause the continual-
activation mechanism to be turned on when the effected individual is at rest while awake. Since the
procedural memory data stream retrieved by the continual-activation mechanism goes against the will of
the conscious brain during waking time, the RLS patient will have very unpleasant feelings and a strong
urge to move the legs/body. The voluntary movement of the affected extremities can temporarily relieve
this unpleasant urge because, to stretch and move the legs, the declarative WM needs to send a request
to the procedural WM. This will shut off the continual-activation mechanism. However, because of the
dysfunction of the continual-activation threshold, the continual-activation mechanism, which causes the
painful sensations and urge to move the legs, will be triggered again as soon as the sufferer sits or lies
down again (Zhang 2005b).

On the other hand, the continual-activation mechanism may also fail during sleep time:1) failure
of activating the continual-activation mechanism in the procedural WM during the NREM sleep period; 2)
failure of activating the continual-activation mechanism in the declarative WM during the REM sleep
period. In the first situation, if the brain does not maintain activation in the procedural WM last a certain
time period, it will cause the overall nervous system to fail, since this subsystem regulates and monitors
many critical systems such as heart rate, respiratory rate and blood pressure. This explains why sudden
infant death occurs quickly, with no signs of suffering during sleep. In the second situation, loss of brain
continual activation in the declarative WM during the REM sleep period, will lead to an unconscious
(coma-like) condition. This creates a condition in which a baby cannot wake in response to potentially
dangerous situations, such as apnea or any respiratory problem. "Back to sleep campaign" and other
health promotion programs for reducing the risk of SIDS can only reduce the SIDS cases that are caused
by the latter situation type. This explains why SIDS cannot be eliminated, even when all the known risk
factors have been reduced. In summary, the continual-activation theory of SIDS proposes that failure to
activate either continual-activation mechanisms during sleep is the root cause of sudden infant death
syndrome (Zhang 2005c). Since the continual activation mechanism is believed to be located at the
brainstem, SIDS is caused by brainstem abnormalities.
 27

Conclusion

With the concept of reverse engineering, Zhang model intends to integrate everything we know
about human memory into a single memory model. By introducing a series of new assumptions and
hypotheses, this revised and refined model emerges as an initial stage for the comprehensive memory
model. The model is ready to explain many known facts and observations. In addition, several possible
ways to test this model are also suggested in this article.

Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Jeremy Tebbens, Jie Luo, Laura M. Luo and John Lee for valuable
discussions on this manuscript.

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