The z-Transformation 23

Inverse transform formula

As mentioned above, the integrand in the inverse transform formula can be

evaluated using the residue theorem, and so

y(kT) L {res of (z _ 1 ~(~z- 0. 7)zk-l at z = 1 and 0.7}

[ 0.3zk ] [0.3zk]
z-0.7 z=l+ z-1 z=0.7
1- 0.7k for k = 0, 1, 2, 3,... (2.27)
which again agrees with the result obtained previously.
A point to remember when performing the inverse z-transform is that the
function values are defined only at the sampling instants. The transform
function does not contain any information for the time intervals between
samples, and so the sample rate must be chosen such that it is adequate
for the signal being represented. An example of two quite different time
functions, having the same z-transform, is illustrated in Figure 2.3. Hence,
,~

I \
1 --------- -- -- -------

'
T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T T 2T 3T 4 T 5T 6T

(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 Two signals having the same z-transform

starting withY (z) it may be difficult to deduce the time domain properties
uniquely. The modified z-transform, by permitting the calculation of y (t) in
the intervals kT ~ t ~ (k + 1)T, fork= 0, 1, 2, ... , alleviates this limitation
as discussed in section 2.7.

2.5 Pulse or z-Transfer Functions of Systems

The z-transfer functions for discrete system analysis can be arrived at by

starting with the continuous system illustrated in Figure 2.4(a). Introducing
an ideal sampler at the input side, we see that the output is defined by
Y (s) = G (s) U* (s) (2.28)
Since z-domain analysis can only define the output at the sampling instants,
we assume that a fictitious synchronised sampler exists and thereby obtain
24 Digital Computer Control Systems

(a) _u(_~---J..~I
U(s) .
G(s)
Y(s)
. Y(s) =G( )
U(s) s

(b)
~
U(s) : T
u*(~ ,..1
U*(s) ._
G(s)
_ _ __,_ ,
I 1,
. Y*(s)
I I
I -,' y*(~
L __ /~ - --·
: :T Y*(s)
-----------------~

Synchronised

(c) U(z)
----J,..~
I G(z)
Y(z)
... Y(z)=G(z) U(z)

Figure 2.4 Pulse transfer functions

the sampled output transform. Here Y (s) is the product of two transforms,
where one is periodic, with period 211-jT (U*(s)), and the other is not ( G(s)).
It can be shown that if such a product transform is sampled, the periodic
transform comes out as a factor of the result. This is the most important
relation for the block diagram analysis of sampled-data systems, namely

Y* (s) = (G (s) U* (s))* = G* (s) U* (s) (2.29)

We will prove (2.29) in the time domain and start by inverse Laplace-
transforming Y ( s) to give

y(t)=C- 1 {G(s)U*(s)}= ltg(t-r)u*(r)dr (2.30)

This can be further simplified by using equation (2.1) on u*, so that

y(t) = 1tg(t-r)~u(kT)6(r-kT)dr
~it g (t- r) u (kT) 6 (r- kT) dr

L g (t -
00

kT) u (kT) (2.31)

k=O
 The z-Transformation 25

Then using equation (2.4), the z-transform of y (t) becomes

Y(z) = ~y(nT)z-n = ~{~g(nT-kT)u(kT)}z-n

I: I: g (mT) u (kT) z-(m+k)
00 00

(2.32)
m=Ok=O
where m = n- k. Therefore

I: g (mT) z-m I: u (kT) z-k

00 00

Y (z)
m=O
G(z)U(z) (2.33)
is the z-transform ofthe output. Since the z-transform is the starred Laplace
transform with e•T replaced by z, we may express (2.33) as

Y* (s) = G* (s) U* (s) (2.34)

which is the result required. We have thus shown that by taking the starred
Laplace transform of both sides of equation (2.28) we obtain equation (2.34),
which has (2.33) as its z-transform.
Considering equation (2.33), when the input u (t) is a unit impulse at
time t = 0, we have, using equation (2.4), that

=I: u (kT) z-k =I: 6 (0) z-k

00 00

U (z) (2.35)

and so U (z) = 1 for a unit impulse. In this instance Y (z) = G (z), and
so G (z) is commonly referred to as the pulse transfer function. Note that
the output can still be a continuous function, but the standard z-domain
analysis only defines it at the sampling instants.
We will now use an example to illustrate how the pulse or z-transfer
function of a continuous system is obtained. Consider
Y (s) 1
U(s) =G(s)= s(s+1) (2.36)

Putting G (s) into partial fractions gives

1 1
G(s)=:;-s+1 (2.37)

and using z-transform tables for each term gives the z-transfer function as
z z z (1- e-T)
G (z) = z- 1 - z- e-T = (z- 1)(z- e-T) (2.38)
26 Digital Computer Control Systems

where Tis the sampling interval. Hence the digitised system has the transfer
function
Y(z) z(1-e-T)
G (z) = U (z) = (z- 1)(z- e-T) (2.39)

2.6 Discrete Approximations

Whenever we introduce sampling into continuous operations, the continuous

transfer functions need to be transformed into z-domain transfer functions.
The conversion can be carried out by substituting
z = e•T or s = (1/T)lnz (2.40)
to give the "exact" z-transform. However this substitution is awkward and
leads to complicated terms which are difficult to handle. It turns out that
far simpler "approximate" transformations can be used to give adequate
description for most cases. The two main methods in current use are
(i) numerical integration, and
(ii) pole-zero mapping,
which we now briefly describe.

Numerical Integration

In this technique, differential equations are transformed into difference equa-

tions by using some numerical method to approximate the integration op-
eration. To illustrate the technique, consider
Y(s) _ G(s) _ _a_ (2.41)
U(s)- -s+a
Cross multiplying gives
sY (s) + aY (s) =aU (s) (2.42)
Inverse Laplace-transforming, term by term, and assuming zero initial con-
ditions, results in
dy (t) + ay (t) = au (t) (2.43)
dt
For a digital representation, such a differential equation needs to be solved
at the sampling instants, and so we need to calculate

y(kT)=y((k-1)T)+ j kT
(-ay(t)+au(t))dt for k = 1, 2, 3, ...
(k-l)T
(2.44)
The integrand on the right-hand side can be solved numerically to give a
digital approximation. Several methods for doing this are available but we
shall only present some of the simpler ones here.