Al Majd International School
6. ELECTRICAL ENERGY
6.1 ELECTRIC CHARGE:
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field. The unit for charge is coulombs
There are positive charges and negative charges, Opposite charges attract and like charges
repel.
MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS
All objects are initially electrically neutral, meaning the negative (electrons) and positive
charges are evenly distributed.
However, when the electrons are transferred through friction, one object becomes
negatively charged and the other positively charged.
The object to which the electrons are transferred (gain of electrons) to becomes
negatively charged
The object from which the electrons leave from (loss of electrons) becomes
positively charged
Transfer of electrons only take place, not protons
Attraction and repulsion between two charged objects are examples of a non-contact force
This is a force that acts on an object without being physically in contact with it
Note :
Charging a body involves the addition or removal of electrons.
There are three main ways that we can charge a body: Friction, Conduction, Induction
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 36 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
CONDUCTORS & INSULATORS
A conductor is something which allows electric current to flow through it freely whereas an
insulator prevents any electric current flowing through it.
Conductors have free flowing electrons which allow the passage of electric current through
the structure (ie, metals)
Insulators have tightly bound electrons that are not free to move in the structure (ie,
rubber, plastic)
In the above example, when the cloth and rod are rubbed together, the electrons are
transferred to the cloth making it negatively charged and the rod is positively charged (loss of
electrons)
Charging by induction
The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged object near to it,
but not touching it, is called charging by induction.
ATTRACTION OF UNCHARGED OBJECTS:
Charge a comb, by rubbing through the hair (or charge a balloon), it will pick up the small pieces of
paper.
A charged comb attracts an uncharged piece of paper because of force of attracting for the
closer charge is greater than the force of repulsion for the farther charge.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 37 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Notice the total charge isn’t different. Nothing picked up extra electrons. The electrons that
are present are just rearranged.
Note :
An object low binding energy can lose electron easily and an object having high binding
energy can gain electrons easily.
Binding energy is a certain amount of energy needed by an object to lose electrons.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 38 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.2 CHARGED CONDUCTORS:
ELECTRIC FIELD:
It is the region around a charged conductor where other charges can experience force of attraction or
repulsion.
Note :
The field lines show the direction a positive charge would move if placed in the field.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 39 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.3 CHARGE, POTENTIAL & CAPACITANCE
CHARGE:
Coulomb is the SI unit of electric charge which is equal to the amount of charge transported by a
current of one ampere in one second.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL:
The Potential difference between two points in a circuit is the amount of energy transferred
by each unit of charge passing between those two points.
The unit of voltage, the volt (V), is the same as a joule per coulomb (J/C)
V=
Potential in volts is the work done in bringing 1 coulomb of positive charge from earth to that
point
Potential difference can be measured using a voltmeter
The voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the part of the circuits
A potential difference of 1 volt tells us that 1 joule of energy is transferred for each coulomb
of charge that is moving through the circuit.
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE POTENTIAL:
When charge accumulate from one body to another body, the body said to electric potential
+ve charge – High Potential
-ve Charge – Low potential
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 40 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Potential of earth is always Zero.
All points on a charged conductor are at the same potential
CAPACITANCE :
The amount of charge stored in capacitor is called capacitance
C=
Capacitance is measured in Farad (F)
PARAMETERS REPRESENTATION UNITS
Charge Q C - (Coulombs)
Potential V V - (Volts)
Capacitance C F - (Farad)
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 41 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.5 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE IN A SIMPLE CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT:
It is a closed loop for the electrons to flow through
CURRENT:
Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge
I=
Q = It
Unit of current is AMPERE and it is measured using AMMETER
Ammeter should be connected in series with proper polarities at any point.
Current always remains same in a series circuit
Note : 1 mA = 10-3 A
VOLTAGE:
It is the amount of energy of each charge.
It is measured in Volts (V)
Voltmeter is an instrument is used to measure voltage.
It should be connected across the component (parallel) where, the potential difference has to
be measured.
The sum of potential difference around the conducting path is equal to potential difference
across the battery.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 42 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
V= V1+V2+V3
CURRENT & DIRECTION:
Conventional Current is the direction of current from Positive to Negative Terminal
In a circuit electrons flow from Negative to Positive Terminal
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 43 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.6 OHM’S LAW AND RESISTANCE
OHM’S LAW AND RESISTANCE:
All conductors show some opposition to electric current.
This opposition to current is called resistance.
A good conductor has low resistance.
A poor conductor, or insulator, has high resistance.
The two main ways of increasing the current in an electrical circuit are by increasing the
voltage or by decreasing the resistance.
RESISTANCE :
Resistance is the opposition that an R the resistance in a circuit, measured
electrical devise has to the flow of in ohms().
electrical current
A resistance slows down the flow of
electrical charge – it opposes the flow
All devices have some resistance. A of electrical charge
resistor is a device that has a particular
resistance
Note:
OHM’S LAW Definition:
The current flowing through a resistor at a constant temperature is directly proportional to
the voltage across the resistor.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 44 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 45 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 46 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Dimension Resistance Current
1 Long High Low
2 Short Low High
3 Thick Low High
4 Thin High Low
VARIABLE RESISTOR :
Variable resistor is also known as rheostat. It is used to control voltage and current
POTENTIAL DIVIDER
A potential divider is any circuit arrangement that is designed to reduce the voltage by a certain
fraction. In Potential Divider problems just mean problems where you have to choose resistor values
to give certain parts of the circuit specific voltages.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 47 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
In Circuit 1 In Circuit 2
Voltage is proportional to length of the wire More the length (AC), more the voltage
Less the Length of the wire (AC), Less the More the resistance of the wire
voltage Therefore, the bulb glows dim. Since, less
So, resistance is also less voltage flows through the bulb
Therefore, the bulb glows bright. Since,
more voltage flows through the bulb
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 48 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
MEASURING RESISTANCE:
1. VOLTMETER AMMETER METHOD: [Used to measure low resistance]
2. SUBSTITUTION METHOD: [Used to measure high resistance]
RESISTANCE AND HEAT:
Resistance of a conductor changes as temperature changes. In the case of metal, resistance increases
with temperature. In the case of semi-conductors, resistance decreases as temperature rises.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 49 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Note :
Carbon is not classified as a semi-conductor. But its resistance decreases, when
temperature rises.
Thermistors are made from semi-conductor materials. Its resistance decreases as
temperature rises above the room temperature.
They are used in electronic circuits, which are switched on by temperature change.
EXTRA INFORMATION:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 50 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 51 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.7 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 52 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
SERIES PARALLEL
If one component breaks down, the whole Other components will function even if one
circuit will burn out. Components depend on component breaks down, each has its own
each other. independent circuit.
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is The equivalent resistance of the circuit is
always greater than the value of resistance in always less than the smallest value of the
the circuit. resistance in the circuit.
Brightness of bulbs less, because P = VI Brightness of the bulb is more
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 53 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 54 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Rt – Total resistance
It – Total Current
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 55 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 56 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 57 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 58 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.8 E.M.F. AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:
Definition:
The potential difference across a component is the work done per unit of charge in driving charge
around the component.
Electromotive Force:
e.m.f. of a cell is the work done per unit of charge by the cell in driving charge round the
complete circuit.
The Potential Difference across the terminal of a cell when it is not supplying a current is
called e.m.f of the cell.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE:
- refers to e.m.f.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 59 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
VT(Terminal Voltage) = the actual potential difference across the terminals of the supply when a
current is being supplied.
e.m.f. = Potential Difference across the terminals + Lost Voltage
Internal Resistance =
CELLS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
CELLS
Cells generate electricity and also derives chemical reactions. One or more electrochemical
cells are batteries.
There are two simplest ways for cell connectivity are as follows:
1. Series Connection
2. Parallel Connection
Cells in Parallel Connection:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 60 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Cells in Series Connection:
The combined e.m.f. in this case is 6 Volt.
This is calculated by adding up the individual e.m.fs
The combined e.m.f. in this case is only 2 Volt. Because the charge
flowing around the circuit can pass through one cell, not all the
three.
This arrangement has an advantage that each cell has to supply only one third of the current
in the main circuit.
The cell will last longer
The cells are capable of supplying a higher current than a single cell.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 61 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Note:
The internal resistances are in parallel, so the combined internal resistance is less than the
e.m.f of the single cell.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 62 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Questions
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 63 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.9 POWER IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
POWER:
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE:
Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge through a circuit. It is expressed in
amperes.
1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb per second
Voltage or electrical potential is the potential energy per unit of electric charge
It is also the amount of energy used up in the element per unit charge that passes through.
It is measured in volts
1 volt = 1 Joule per Coulomb
Power is the rate of doing work
ELECTRICAL POWER:
It is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred to a circuit.
Power =
Unit of power is WATT
1 Watt = 1 Joule / Second
I kW = 1000 W
POWER DISSIPATION:
When electrons pass through the circuit, they collide with the atoms in the components and
lose energy.
This energy is converted to heat, light or mechanical movement.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 64 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Definition:
It is the process by which an electronic or electrical device produces heat (energy loss or
waste) as an undesirable derivative of its primary action.
The fact remains that all resistors that are part of a circuit and has a voltage drop across it
will dissipate electrical power.
HEATING ELEMENT
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 65 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
FILAMENT LIGHT BULBS:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 66 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
The heating element in a light bulb is a fine wire or filament of tungsten which becomes white hot
when a suitable current pass through it. Tungsten is used because it has a high melting point [34000C]
and kept white hot without melting.
The filament quickly burnup in air. But the bulb is filled with Organ (or) nitrogen which does not react
a hot metal. It is in the form of coil to reduce the cooling effect of the convection currents.
The resistance of the filament lamb increases with potential difference
When potential difference increase, the current increases
This means more electrons collied with the metal ions in the filament each second
This causes the metal ions to vibrate more or they get hotter.
This increases the resistance of the wire or it is harder for electrons through it.
POWER LOSSES IN CABLES:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 67 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
In all calculations, resistance of the connecting
wire in a circuit is taken as Zero. In practice,
some circuits contain wires in the form of long
cables and the effect of resistance can’t be
ignored.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 68 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Note:
Power dissipated in a battery is calculated using the formula P = VI
Power dissipated in a resistor is calculated using
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 69 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.10 ELECTRICAL ENERGY - CALCULATIONS & COSTS
CALCULATING ENERGY:
Energy Transfer:
Thermal energy lost from a heating element is gained by the surrounding material. [Assuming
that, no heat is lost to the surrounding] Two possible effects of this gain in thermal energy
are:
An increase in temperature
A change of state – water changing into steam for example.
For increase in temperature, Thermal Energy is given by
c = 4200 J / Kg K
For a change of state, Thermal Energy is given by
Specific laten heat of vaporization of water L = 2,260,000 J/Kg
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 70 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 71 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Three steps to follow in` calculating electricity cost
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 72 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
ELECTRIC BOARD METER
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 73 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
6.11 MAINS ELECTRICITY
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 74 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Difference between AC & DC
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 75 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 76 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Fuse
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 77 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 78 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 79 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 80 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
CIRCUIT BREAKER:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 81 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 82 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 83 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 84 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
TWO-WAY SWITCHES:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 85 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 86 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 87 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Note:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 88 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 89 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
8.3 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
RESISTORS:
SYMBOL FOR RESISTORS
Note:
In a resistor current flow in both directions
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 90 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
VARIABLE RESISTOR (RHEOSTAT)
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 91 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
If the slider in the above diagram is moved upwards, the resistance of the
lower part will increase and so the potential difference across it will also
increase.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 92 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
At A, - > R l, R is less, Current is high
At B, - > R increases, Current decreases
At C, - > R is maximum, Current is minimum
At A, - > V = 20 Volt
At B, - > V = 10 Volt
At C, - > V is approximately Zero
THERMISTORS
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 93 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Note:
Thermistor is a type of resistor, which changes its resistance when it is heated up
As a thermistor get hotter its resistance decreases
As it gets colder its resistance increases
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 94 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
LDRs [Light Dependent Resistors]
The resistance of an LDR is depending on the intensity of light falling on it
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 95 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 96 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
Example:
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 97 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
STREET LAMP
During night, light intensity decreases, resistance increases and voltage increases
So the magnetic rely is closed and the bulb glows.
During day time, light intensity increases resistance decreases and voltage decreases
So the rely switch opens and the bulb goes off
DOOR SYSTEM
It uses a thermistor (heat sensor)
Temperature is inversely proportional to resistance
Temperature increases, resistance decreases and voltage decreases
o The switch will open and the bell will not ring, and vice versa
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 98 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
8.4 DIODES AND RECTIFICATION
DIODES :
DIODE CONVERTS AC TO DC
Made of semi-conducting material called silicon; low resistance in forward direction
of diode so only allows current to flow in one direction.
Needs 0.6V to start
Resistors are in series with diodes to protect them
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Semi-conductors contain delocalized electrons which allow current to flow
It has two junctions
HOLES : Absence of electrons – P-TYPE
EXCESS OF ELECTRONS: More electrons than holes – N-TYPE
Depletion zone / layer – between two junctions and has no electrons or holes. So, no
current can flow through it. (acts like an insulator)
REVERSE BIAS:
If the positive terminal of supply voltage is connected to N-TYPE (Junction with excess
electrons) then the depletion layer widens as free charge (electrons) are attracted to opposite
charge so move outwards. The same happens for the P-Type with the negative terminal of
supply voltage.
FORWARD BIAS:
If the positive terminal of supply voltage is connected to P-Type (junction with holes) then the
depletion layer narrows and disappears. This is because like charges repel move towards the
depletion layer. When it disappears current can flow through the diode.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 99 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
A diode is a component which only allows a current when the potential difference is
in the direction of the arrow
If a power source is connected back to front, then there will be no current
In order to have a current, the diode must point around the circuit from positive to negative
If a diode is connected to an A.C. (alternating current) power supply, it will only allow a
current half of the time. [This is called rectification]
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 100 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
RECTIFICATION:
Rectification is the conversion of an alternating current (AC) to a direct current (DC). This is
done by using a device that allows only a one-way current, like a diode.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
The process of removing one-half the input signal to establish to dc level is called
half-wave rectification.
In Half Wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current during positive half cycle of
input ac signal only.
Negative half cycle is suppressed.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 101 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION
A full-wave rectifier convers the whole of the input waveform to one of constant polarity
(positive or negative) at its output. Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient.
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Circuit has two diodes D1, D2 and a centre tap transformer.
During positive half cycle Diode D1 conducts and during negative half cycle Diode D2
conducts.
It can be seen that current through load RL is in the same direction for both cycle.
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 102 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 103 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
FULL – WAVE RECTIFICATION
Full-wave rectification requires a bridge rectifier circuit
o This consists of four diodes connected across an input alternating voltage
supply
The output voltage Vout is taken across a load resistor
During the positive cycles of the input voltage, one terminal if the voltage supply is
positive and the other negative
o Two diodes opposite each other that are in forward bias will conduct
o The other two in reverse bias will not conduct
o A current will flow in the load resistor with the positive terminal at the top of
the resistor
During the negative cycles of the input voltage, the positive and negative terminals
of the input alternating voltage supply will swap
o The two diodes that were forward bias will now be in reverse bias and not
conduct
o The other two in reverse bias will now be in forward bias and will conduct
o The current in the load resistor will still flow in the same direction as before
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 104 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
Al Majd International School
IGCSE Physics - Grade : 9 105 Prepared by : Mrs.P.ADALIN
