FERMENTATION
What is Fermentation?
● The word "fermentation" is derived
from the Latin word,
meaning "to boil," since the bubbling
and foaming of early fermenting
beverages.
● Fermentation is the
transformation of organic substances
into simpler compounds by the
action of enzymes, which
produced by microorganisms such as
molds, yeasts, or bacteria.
● A metabolic process that releases
energy from organic molecules
(often, but not always, sugars) in the
absence of oxygen (anaerobic)
● The desirable bacteria thrive in this
oxygen-free environment digesting
sugars, starches, and carbohydrates
and releasing alcohols,
dioxide, and organic acids (which are
what preserve the food).
● Fermentation is the transformation of
food by various microorganisms
(bacteria, molds, and yeasts and
fungi) and the enzymes
produce. It is essential for the
production of a wide range of foods
and beverages, each with a distinct
and varied flavor profile.
History of Fermentation
● Evidence of a fermented alcoholic
beverage made from fruit, honey,
and rice found in Neolithic China
dates back to 7000-6600 BCE.
● Wine-making dates to around 6000
BCE in Georgia, in the Caucasus
region of Eurasia.
● Strong evidence that people were
fermenting beverages in Babylon
fervere, around 3000 BCE.
● Milk of camels, goats, sheep, and
cattle was naturally fermented as far
back as 10,000 BCE.
chemical ● Due to naturally existing microflora
present in the milk, dairy
fermentation was discovered.
are ● The subtropical climate likely
played a large role in its occurrence,
as thermophilic lactic acid
fermentation favors the heat of this
climate.
● Temperatures around 110°F during
the day made ideal conditions for
fermentation to occur.
● It has been suggested that the first
yogurts were produced in goat bags
carbon draped over the backs of camels in
the heat of North Africa, where
temperatures around 110°F during
the day made ideal conditions for
fermentation to occur.
● It wasn’t until the mid 1800s, a
they French chemist named Louis Pasteur
connected yeast to the process of
fermentation, making him the first
zymologist.
● Pasteur originally defined
fermentation as, “respiration without
air,” and he understood by his
observations that fermentation never
occurred in the absence of
simultaneous cellular propagation
and organization.
● 1910 that fermented foods were first
considered as beneficial to health. A
Russian bacteriologist, Elie
Metchnikoff, noted that Bulgarians
 had an average lifespan of 87 years,  An important way of making ATP
which was exceptional for the early without oxygen is called
1900s. fermentation.
● Metchnikoff identified a greater  It involves glycolysis
consumption of fermented milks than  Many bacteria and yeasts carry out
in other cultures. fermentation.
● Bulgarian bacillus in fermented milk  People use these organisms to make
● He inspired a surge in the yogurt, bread, wine, and biofuels.
consumption of fermented milks by  Human muscle cells also use
attributing many benefits of good fermentation. This occurs when
health and longevity to this strain of muscle cells cannot get oxygen fast
bacteria. enough to meet their energy needs
● Bulgarian bacillus, later through aerobic respiration.
named Lactobacillus bulgaricus,
Principles of Fermentation
was shown to be unable to survive in
 Fermented foods can be considered
the human digestive system by Leo
either alcoholic or lactic acid. These
F. Rettger of Yale in 1921.
groups are determined by the product
● This discovery caused a fall-off of
of fermentation, ethanol (alcohol) for
the fermented food phenomena.
the alcoholic and organic acids (often
Rettger continued to investigate
lactic acid) for the lactic acid.
different strains of Lactobacillus
● Concluding in 1935 that certain  Fermentation requires 2 primary

strains of Lactobacillus components: a sugar supply &

acidophillus not only could survive bacterial culture.

the environment of the human gut  Alcoholic fermentations use forms of

yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae;

Fermentation Brettanomyces bruxellensis) and

 Most living things use oxygen to acetic bacteria to convert alcohol into

make ATP from glucose. However, acetic acid to make vinegar

many living things can also make  Lactic acid fermentation normally

ATP without oxygen. This is true of relies on lactic acid bacteria.

some plants and fungi and also of  The environment used to house the

many bacteria. fermenting food must be of a suitable

 These organisms use aerobic temperature, moisture and pH for the

respiration when oxygen is present, bacteria to successfully survive.

but when oxygen is in short supply,  Colder temperatures will slow down

they use anaerobic respiration the fermentation, while warmer

instead. Certain bacteria can only use temperatures can lead to spoilage or

anaerobic respiration. In fact, they inferior flavor.

may not be able to survive at all in  Mold needs the environment to be

the presence of oxygen. relatively moist to grow properly, but
not actually wet. The mold can give
 off enough heat during its growth  This type of fermentation is
phase that it can cook itself to death. carried out by yeasts and
 The environment also normally lacks some bacteria.
oxygen, though special cases of  It is used to make bread,
aerobic fermentation do exist. wine, and biofuels.
 type of anaerobic
Types of Fermentation
fermentation that includes
1. Lactic acid fermentation / Lacto-
glycolysis followed by the
fermentation
conversion of pyruvic acid to
 Pyruvic acid from glycolysis
ethanol and carbon dioxide
changes to lactic acid.
and the formation of NAD+
 In the process, NAD+ forms
 Example: Beer, Wine, Spirits,
from NADH. NAD+, in turn,
Champagne, Vinegar
lets glycolysis continue.
 This results in additional
molecules of ATP.
 Ex. Yogurt & muscle cells
 type of anaerobic
fermentation that includes
Purpose of Fermentation
glycolysis followed by the
 To enrich the diet through the
conversion of pyruvic acid to
development of a diversity of
lactic acid and the formation
flavors, aromas, and textures
of NAD+
in food substrates.
 Example: Dairy, Vegetable
 To receive substantial
and starch-based fermented
amounts of food through
foods, Yogurt, Kimchi, Miso
lactic acid, alcohol, acetic
acid, and alkaline
fermentation;
 To enrich food substrates
with protein, essential amino
acids, and vitamins;
 To eliminate antinutrients.
and
 To reduce cooking time and
the associated use of fuel.
Common Fermented Products
2. Alcoholic Fermentation
1. Bread
 Pyruvic acid changes to
 Oldest prepared food
alcohol and carbon dioxide
 Yeast bacteria is added that
 NAD+ also forms from
produces CO2 that leavens bread.
NADH, allowing glycolysis
to continue making ATP.
  Can be spoiled by the Bacillus
species that produces ropiness.
2. Idly
● A type of savory rice cake
originating from India.
● The batter is made by steaming a
batter of fermented black lentils
and rice.
● This a product of natural lactic
acid fermentation.
3. Sauerkraut
● Finely cut cabbage that is
fermented by various lactic acid
bacteria.
● Made by a process of pickling
also called lactic acid
fermentation. Similar to how
kimchi is made.
4. Kimchi
 A traditional side dish made
from salted and fermented
vegetables made from
cabbage and Korean radishes.
 Fermented by wild cultures
present on vegetable forming
organic acids giving the kimchi
a pH of 4.2.
5. Natto
 Japanese food made from soy
beans fermented with Bacillus
subtilis var. natto
 Smaller beans are preferred to
ensure that the bacteria able to
reach the center of the bean.
6. Salami
 Another name for “fermented
sausage”
 A type of cured sausage
consisting of fermented air-dried
meat. Typically pork
 The meat is cured with salt and
stored in 20-40 degrees C for a
few months
 Undergoes lactic acid
fermentation
Requirements in Obtaining Successful
Fermented Products
● Carry out procedures on time
● Attention to detail
● Hygiene and food safety must be
practiced.
Advantages of Fermentation
● It restores proper bacteria balance in
the intestine.
● It improves heart health
● It improves the immune system
● Liver protection
● Increases flavor of foods
Disadvantages of Fermentation
● It increases the development of
gastric cancer
napa ● It is vulnerable to contamination
Problems encountered in Fermentation
● The fermentation temperature too hot
or too cold
● Adding too much sugar
● Improper yeast starting method
● Sealing the fermenter after adding
sulfites
● Using an airlock during the primary
fermentation
● lack of nutrients
● Fermentation already done
● Yeast reached its limits
● Using distilled water
FERMENTATION: QUIZ
1. Bacterial culture & sugar supply –
primary requirements for successful
fermentation.
 2. Lactic Acid, Alcohol, Vinegar – by- 5. Natto, Yogurt, Miso, Kimchi – 4
products of fermentation. food products that are from lactic
3. Saccharomyces Cerevisiae & acid fermentation.
Bruxellensis – microorganisms 6. Wine, Vinegar, Beer, Spirits – 4
responsible for alcoholic food products that are from alcoholic
fermentation. fermentation.
4. Acetobacter aceti – bacteria
responsible for vinegar production.

PICKLING
What is Pickling? ● There was a setback in the
 Is the process of preserving or development of pickled vegetables
extending the lifespan of food by during the 17th and 18th centuries.
either anaerobic fermentation in ● Pickled vegetables were a dietary
brine or immersion in vinegar. staple for Jews living in the Ukraine,
Poland, Lithuania and Russia.
Etymology of Pickling ● When a heavy influx of eastern
 The word “pickle” comes from a European Jews arrived in New York
Dutch word ‘pekel’ or northern City during the late 1800s and early
German ‘pókel’ meaning “salt” or 1900s, immigrants introduced kosher
“brine,” two components that are dill pickles to America.
essential in the pickling process. ● Pickling became a profitable
business within the Jewish
History of Pickling community.
 Pickling began 4000 years ago using
Principles of Pickling
cucumbers native to India. It is called
● Anaerobic fermentation
“achar ” in northern India. This was
● Fermenting medium should be at a
used as a way to preserve food for
pH below 4.6
out-of-season use & for long
● Fruits/leaves containing organic
journey, especially by sea.
acids are pickled without using
● Ancient Egyptians and Greeks both
vinegar in the medium of edible
have written about the use of pickles
vegetable oils
for their nutritive value and healing
● Antimicrobial herb/spice additives
power.
are used to improve flavour and shelf
● The first travelers to America kept
life of the pickle
pickles in large supply because they
● When both salt concentration and
were nutritious and did not spoil
temperature are low, Leuconostoc
during the long journeys.
mesenteroides dominates, producing
● Pickles were taken to the new world
a mix of acids, alcohol, and aroma
by Christopher Columbus during his
compounds.
voyages of discovery.
Key Ingredients
 ● Salt – lactic acid, a preservative.
● Vinegar – Acts as a preservative due
to the acidity of vinegar.
● Sugar – Sweetens taste; counteracts
vinegar.
● Spices/herbs – Adds flavor.
● Water – Makes liquid portion of
brine.
● Alum – Fermented pickle; does not
General Methods of Preparing Pickles
improve firmness of quick-process
pickle
Types of Pickles
1. Brined Dill Pickles
 Undergo a curing process in
brine (salt and water solution)
overnight or held for several
weeks
 Acid is either added (vinegar) or
created by fermentation (lactic
acid)
2. Fresh Pack or Quick-Process
Pickles
 Sometimes brined for a few
hours
 Covered with boiling hot vinegar,
spices and seasonings (adding an
acid)
3. Relishes
● Chopped fruits and vegetables
● Cooked in a spicy vinegar
solution
4. Fruit Pickles
● Whole or sliced fruits
● Simmered in a spicy, sweet-sour
syrup made with vinegar or
lemon juice
Quick Pickle vs. Canned Pickle
● Quick pickle—as simple as boiling
water, vinegar, sugar, salt, and spices
together, then covering your produce
with that liquid and waiting a few
hours. The difference between a
quick pickle and a canned pickle is
that the quick pickle process is
basically the same as marinating.
● Canned pickles, on the other hand,
use a stronger brine and a water-bath
canning process to extend their shelf
life.
1. Pickling by Salt
Fruits and vegetables like raw
mangoes, lemon , green chilies are
preserved by using this method.
Procedure of preparing pickle is as
follows:
1. Wash fruits or vegetable and
peel if desired.
2. Cut the fruits or vegetables
into pieces.
3. Fill the pieces into jar.
4. Sprinkle salt at the rate of 15-
20 g per kilogram of fruit.
5. Keep in the sun for about 4-5
days. Shake the contents in
between.
6. Add spices as desired.
7. Mix well.
8. Label the jar and store at
room temperature.
2. Pickling by Use of Vinegar
Mango, garlic, onion, cauliflower,
green chilies, etc. are pickled by used
of vinegar. Care is taken that the
final concentration of vinegar in
finished pickle is not less than 2 % in
terms of acetic acid. Procedure as
follows:
1. Select mature fruit or
vegetable.
2. Wash well with water.
 3. Remove cores, seeds or other ● Ginger
inedible portions. ● Grapes
4. Cut into pieces. ● green beans
5. Blanch in water. ● mushrooms
6. Dry in shade for 2-3 hrs. ● onions
7. Repeat same procedure as ● Parsnips
pickling by salt. ● peaches
● Peppers
3. Pickling with Oil
● Radishes
A layer of oil the top of pickle
● Squash
prevents the entry of atmospheric
● tomatoes
oxygen into the pickles and inhibits
● Turnips
the growth of aerobic
● Watermelon
microorganisms. A mixture of spices
and oil is prepared and vegetable How to Pickle Vegetables
pieces are added. This mixture is 1. Prepare your vegetables
filled into the jar and oil is poured on ● Pickling works best with
the top of it to cover up the mixture. fresh vegetables. Choose the
Raw mangoes, cauliflower, amla, vegetables you’d like to use
turmeric, bitter gourd, garlic etc. are and wash thoroughly. Chop
pickled using this method. into whatever shapes you’d
1. Select mature and fresh like them
fruit or vegetable. 2. Season
2. Wash fruit or vegetable, ● Place them in a bowl and toss
wipe off and cut into them with enough salt so that
pieces. each individual disc has a
3. Remove inedible portions light covering. Leave for a
like seeds, cores, kernels minimum of one hour.
3. Choose your Pickling Mixture
Selection and Preparation
● Pick from a whole range of
Fruits and Vegetables that can be pickled:
sugars, herbs and spices that
● Cucumbers
suit your tastes. Many people
● Asparagus
choose garlic, chilli and black
● Beets
peppercorns to add to their
● bell peppers
pickles, as these add a nice
● Blueberries
heat to the tangy, pickled
● Cauliflower
flavor.
● Carrots
4. Bring to the Boil
● Cherries
● Put your ingredients into a
● Ramps
saucepan and bring to the
● Rhubarb
boil. Immediately remove
● Strawberries
● Fennel
 from the heat and allow to
cool to room temperature.
5. Place into a jar
● Drain off the excess liquid
that has accumulated in the
bottom of the vegetable bowl.
Pack the vegetables into a
Kilner jar and cover with the
room-temperature vinegar
solution.
6. Leave to Pickle
● Seal the jar and leave enough
time for your ingredients to
pickle (each recipe is
different, don’t forget to
check). This can be anything
from overnight to six weeks.
How to Obtain a Successful Product
● Produce must be fresh when pickled.
Avoid using waxed
supermarket produce.
● Select the most uniform,
unspoiled produce.
● Scrub food well to remove dirt. Be
sure to remove and discard ¼-inch
slice from the blossom end of fresh
cucumbers. Remnants of blossoms
may contain an enzyme that causes
excessive softening of pickles.
● Use canning or pickling salt (not
iodized table salt!). Pickling salt has
no additives. Iodized salt makes the
brine cloudy and may change the
color and texture of the vegetables as
well as possibly leave sediment at
the bottom of the jars.
● Use white distilled or cider vinegar
with 5 percent acidity. Use white
vinegar when light color is desirable.
● Use an herb or spice in your brine.
● For crisper pickles, put the
vegetables (whole or sliced) into a
wide bowl and spread a layer of
pickling salt on top. The salt helps to
pull the moisture out of the
vegetables and makes them crisper.
● Measure or weigh carefully, because
the proportion of fresh food to other
ingredients will affect flavor.
● Use new jar lids for a tight seal. To
avoid rust, screw bands should be
removed from processed jars that are
stored. They can be easily removed
after the jars have cooled and sealed,
and then reused.
● Sterilize your empty jars. Do not use
recycled commercial jars or old-style
home-canning jars. They can break
in the canning process.
● Always wipe the rim of the jar clean
for a good seal after filling and just
before putting the lid on.
● Process jars in a boiling-water canner
for the correct amount of time (a
canner is a large standard-size lidded
kettle with a jar rack, designed for
heat-processing 7 quart jars or 8 to 9
pint jars in boiling water).
● To allow pickles to mellow, wait at
least 3 weeks before consuming.
Keep in mind that pickles can be
done earlier.
Pickling Measurement
Pickling Salt 1 pound fruit / veggies =
1 1/3 cup pickling salt
Granulated 1 pound fruit / veggies =
Sugar 2 cups gran. Sugar
Brown Sugar 2 ¼ - 2 ¾ cups, firmly
packed brown sugar
Dried Herbs 1 tablespoon
fruit/veggies = ½
 teaspoon crushed dried herbs

Problems encountered in Pickling

Problem Cause Prevention
Soft or slippery pickles A brine is too weak Maintain salt concentration
(if spoilage is evident, specified in recipe.
do not eat)

Vinegar is too weak. Use vinegar of 5 percent acidity.

Cucumbers stored at too Store cucumbers between 70 and

high a temperature 75 ºF. This is the optimum
during curing/brining. temperature for growth of the
organisms necessary for
fermentation.

Insufficient amount of Keep cucumbers immersed in the

brine. brine.

Pickles not processed Process in a boiling-water canner

properly (to destroy for the specified time indicated for
microorganisms). the product. As in all canning, a
seal is necessary on the jar to
prevent other microorganisms from
entering.

Moldy garlic or spices. Always use fresh spices.

Blossom ends not Always remove blossom ends.

removed.

Strong, bitter taste Spices cooked too long Follow directions for amount of
in vinegar, or too many spices to use and the boiling time.
spices used.

Vinegar too strong. Use vinegar of the proper strength

(5-percent acidity).

Dry weather. No prevention. Bitter taste is

usually in the peeling.

Using salt substitutes. Potassium chloride ingredient in

these is naturally bitter.

Hollow Pickles Cucumbers too large for Use smaller cucumbers for brining.
brining.

Improper curing. Keep brine proper strength and the

product well-covered. Cure until
fermentation is complete.

Long lapse of time Pickling process should be started

 between gathering and within 24 hours after gathering.
brining.

Faulty growth of None. During washing, hollow

cucumber. cucumbers usually float. Remove
and use for relish.

Shriveled Pickles Placing cucumbers in Follow a reliable recipe. Use

too-strong brine, too amounts of salt and sugar called for
heavy syrup or too in recipe, and vinegar that is 5-
strong vinegar. percent acidity.

Long lapse of time Brine within 24 hours after

between gathering and gathering.
brining.

Over-cooking or over- Follow a reliable recipe exactly.

processing.

Dry weather. No prevention.

Scum on brine surfaces Wild yeasts, molds and Remove scum as often as needed.
while curing bacteria that feed on the
cucumbers acid, thus reducing the
concentration if allowed
to accumulate.

Dark or discolored Minerals in hard water. Use soft water.

pickles (if brass, copper
or zinc utensils were
used do not use the
pickles)

Ground spices used. Use whole spices.

Spices left in pickles. Place spices loosely in cheesecloth

bag so they can be removed before
canning.

Brass, iron, copper or Use unchipped enamelware, glass,

zinc utensils used. stainless steel or stoneware
utensils.

Iodized salt used. Use canning or pickling salt.

HIGH SUGAR PRESERVATION

History of High Sugar Preservation sugar was well known to the earliest
● 19th Century – People learned to cultures.
preserve fruit caramelized in sugar, ● Ancient Greece – Fruits kept in
and salted veggies and nuts. honey were commonplace. In ancient
Preservation with the use of honey or Greece quince was mixed with
 honey, dried somewhat and packed sugar addition; and by evaporation
tightly into jars. down to 0.848 aw.
● Ancient Rome - Romans used quince  Jellies are gelatinous, clear, and
and honey to preserve the texture of made from fruit juice and sugar,
food. The Romans improved on the texture is firm, and it holds its
method by cooking the quince and shape .
honey producing a solid texture.  Maximum saccharose concentration
● Trading with India and the Orient – that can be achieved in the liquid
Trading brought sugar cane to the phase of the product is 67.89%;
world. The same fervor of trading however higher total sugar quantities
with India and the Orient that (up to 70-72%) found in products are
brought pickled foods to Europe explained by an increased reducing
brought sugar cane. sugar solubility resulting from
● Northern Climate – Where there is saccharose inversion
no sunlight to dry fruits adequately,  Sugar attracts all available water and
preserves were made heating fruit water is transferred from the
with sugar. microorganisms into the
concentrated sugar syrup. The
Sugaring
microflora is dehydrated and cannot
 A food preservation method similar
multiply further.
to pickling.
 It is applied to the manufacture of
 It is the process of desiccating a food
jams, jellies, preserves, marmalades,
by first dehydrating it, then packing
and fruit butters.
it with pure sugar.
 It is essentially the combining of
 This sugar can be crystalline in the
fruit (or fruit pulp, purée, juice, or
form of table or raw sugar, or it can
concentrates) and sugar and the
be a high sugar density liquid such as
subsequent cooking of them to
honey, syrup or molasses.
produce a tasty product of
Principles sufficiently high sugar content with
 Sugar in high concentrations acts as satisfactory keeping qualities.
a preservative due to osmosis.  It is the removal of water by cooking
 Jam and fruit preserves are made to increase the sugar content.
from fresh, frozen, concentrated, or Because few fruits contain a
previously canned fruit that is sufficiently high sugar content to
cooked with sugar (and added pectin, ensure the preservation of their
if required), until enough water has flavor.
evaporated and it gels.  Sugaring also reduces water activity.
 The total soluble solids (TSS) should  Reduction of water activity in foods
be > 65%. prevents the growth of vegetative
 Water activity values in the liquid microbial cells, germination of
phase, which can be lowered by
 spores, and toxin production by
molds and bacteria.
 A decrease in water
activity increases the lag phase of
microorganisms and decreases the
growth rate.
Fruit Preserves
Fruit preserves are preparations of fruits,
vegetables and sugar, often stored in glass
jam jars and Mason jars.
Products using High Sugar Preservation
1. Jams
 Fruit preserves are preparations of
fruits, vegetables and sugar, often
stored in glass jam jars and Mason
jars.
 Fresh or pre-cooked fruit is boiled
with a solution of cane or beet
sugar until sufficient water has
been evaporated to give a mixture
which will set to a gel on cooling
and which contains 32-34% water.
 Gel formation is dependent on the
presence in the fruit of the
carbohydrate pectin, which at a
pH of 3.2 - 3.4 and in the presence
of a high concentration of sugar,
has the property of forming a
viscous semi-solid.
 During jam boiling, all
microorganisms are destroyed
within the product, and if it is
filled hot into clean receptacles
which are subsequently sealed,
and then inverted so that the hot
jam contacts the lid surface,
spoilage by microorganisms will
not take place during storage.
 The high moisture content of jam
(equivalent to an equilibrium
relative humidity of about 82%)
makes it susceptible to mold
damage once the receptacle has
been opened and exposed from
some time to the air.
2. Marmalades
 Marmalade is a fruit preserve
made from the juice and peel of
citrus fruits boiled with sugar and
water.
 This sugar preserve is defined as
"semisolid or gel-like product
prepared from fruit ingredients
together with one or more
sweetening ingredients and may
contains suitable food acids and
food pectins.
 The ingredients are concentrated
by cooking to such a point that the
TSS - Total Soluble Solids - of the
finished marmalade is not below
65%.
 Marmalade is preserves made
with citrus—using the whole fruit,
along with the rind.
3. Jellies
 Jelly is made with the juice of the
fruit; jam uses the meat of the
fruit as well. Some
vegetable jellies are also
produced.
 Jelly is a clear fruit spread made
from cooked fruit juice and sugar,
and possibly pectin, which helps it
gel and thicken. After the initial
cooking, jelly is strained through a
muslin stockinette or “jelly bag”
to remove any solids.
 Pectin is essential to the formation
of jelly because it acts as a gelling
 agent, meaning when the pectin Produces a Produces a Produces a
chains combine, they create a thick, clear and thick, jam-
fruity moderately like spread
network that results in a gel.
spread thick spread with chunks
 The strength and effectiveness of of tangy
the side chains and the bonds they flavor
Keeps up Can use Can use with
form depend on the pH of the
to 1 year with scones, toasts, sauces,
pectin, the optimal pH is between toasts, ducks, baked
2.8 and 3.2. sauces, and goods, and
gravies ice cream
Difference between Jams, Jellies, and
Marmalades Can use Avoid using
with with tarts;
 All of them are made by heating fruit
scones, melts too
with sugar, which causes the fruit to toasts, and quickly
lose liquid and the natural pectin tarts

releases to cause jams and jellies to

firm up. General Procedure for the Preparation of

 The difference between each Jams, Jellies, and Marmalade

depends on how much fruit is left in 1. Boil the pulp or the juice (with water

the final product and the finished when necessary)

consistency. 2. Add the pectin to the batch while

stirring very vigorously
 Jam is made from whole or cut up
* Pectin which has previously been mixed
pieces of fruit with sugar.
with 5 times its weight in sugar taken from
 Jelly is made from only the fruit
the recipe)
juice and sugar.
1. Boil for about 2 minutes to assure a
 Marmalade is preserves made with
complete dissolution
citrus—using the whole fruit, along
2. Add the sugar while keeping the
with the rind.
batch boiling
Jam Jelly Marmalade
Uses Cooked and Similar 3. Boil down quickly to desired Brix
whole or strained process to 4. Add the acid (usually citric acid) and
cut fruits whole fruit making jam remove the froth

Cooked to Uses the Uses whole 5. Fill hot into the (previously cleaned)
a pulp juice of the or cut bitter jars and close
with sugar fruit with Seville 6. Invert the jars for three minutes to
sugar oranges
pasteurize the cover

Problems encountered in Preserved Fruit Products

 QUIZ 7.1: HIGH SUGAR PRESERVATION
1. What were the properties of sugar that were highlighted in the video?
It was highlighted that the sugar binds water molecules from the food which delays the
growth of microorganisms and lengthens the shelf life of the food item. This involves the semi-
permeable barrier that allow some substances such as nutrients to move in and out with a higher
concentration of sugar outside the cell. Consequently, the solution becomes hypertonic which
removes water from the cell, making the microbes delay its growth.

2. What specific property allows sugar to preserve food?

The specific property, humectant, allows the sugar to maintain the water content in food,
which helps in delaying the growth of microorganisms.

3. How does sugar preserve food?

The sugar acts as a binding agent that vacuums the water present in the food item. With
the food decreasing its water content, the microbes are not able to withstand the environment
which increases the shelf life of a food product.

4. What are the possible applications of sugar (sugaring) in food preservation?

In sugaring, this method can be applied in making fruit preserves such as jams, jellies,
and marmalades.
QUIZ 7.2: HIGH SUGAR PRESERVATION
Causes Problems
The syrup is too heavy Shriveled
Poor quality fruit used Not the characteristic flavor
Overcooking Too stiff
Jelly or jam allowed to stand before it was poured into jars to Cloudiness
 too slowly
Imperfect sealing Mold formation
Storing too long or too high of a temperature Darker color
Excess acid making pectin unstable Weeping
Incorrect proportions of sugar and juice Too soft
Air trapped in the hot jelly Bubbles
Undissolved sugar sticking to the sides of the saucepot Formation of crystals
Not following the recommended directions Sticky or gummy
Yeast or mold growth Fermentation
Improper storage Loss of color
Cooking too large of quantity at one time Darker than normal color
Too much sugar Too tough

 Pectin is still a polysaccharide, not yet a sugar but becoming.

 In food manufactures, they use pectin powder to “cheat” or add more consistency to the jam.
 68% or more sugar concentration
 Brix - talking about sugar content of an aqueous solution
 If sugar content is too high, it becomes a solid, not jam.
 Invert the product to vacuum or seal, to avoid molds.
 Weeping is caused by unstabling pectin.
 Syneresis - is high moisture that starts to extract liquid from the gel.
 Stable low or medium temperature to avoid overcooking sugar.

Thermal Processing: Canning
 Canning is a method of preservation
of food in which the food is
processed and hermetically sealed in
containers (of metal, glass, thermo
stable plastic, or a multi-layered
flexible pouch) through agency of
heat.
 Canning provides a shelf
typically ranging from one to five
years, although under
circumstances it can be much longer.
 Heating is the principle factor to
destroy the microorganisms and the
permanent sealing is to prevent re-
infection.
History of Canning
 1775 Napoleon ordered a 12,000
franc prize for anyone who could
CANNING
figure out how to preserve food from
one harvest to the next.
 1809 Nicolas Appert a candy maker
unveiled his technique for preserving
foods. Heating glass bottles and
sealed with a cork.
 Within a year, Peter Durand patented
the tin canister.
life  Canning, the process of preserving
food by heating and sealing in
specific containers for storage.
Principles of Canning
1. Kill and deactivate microorganisms
with the application of heat.
 Microorganisms live and
multiply quickly on the
surfaces of fresh food and on
the inside of bruised, insect-
damaged, and diseased food.
  Moisture, oxygen and o The high acidity of the foods
enzymes are present kills bacteria, allowing for the
throughout fresh food tissues, water bath method.
that influences for the growth o Types of fruits and vegetables
of microorganism and spoil ideal for water bath
the foods. preserving, include:
 Proper canning practices  Fruits and fruit juices -
minimize the effects of these Tomatoes with added
microorganisms. acid Jams and jellies -
 However, the main objective Pickles and relishes
of canning is to preserve the Salsas - Chutneys
food by the application of Vinegars - Condiments
heat so that it can be safely 2. Pressure Canning
eaten at a later time.  Pressure canning heats
 Safety of the consumer is the contents to 240° F,
primary concern when food is eliminating the risk of food
canned. borne bacteria.
 Preservation of low-acid
Types of Food to be Canned
foods like many vegetables,
1. Low Acid Foods (pH range of 5.0 to
meats, poultry and seafood
6.8): This large group is commonly
use of pressure canning helps
referred to as the low acid group
to keep foods fresh and safe
such as most vegetables, meats,
to eat.
poultry, seafood, dairy.
 Mixture of high-acid foods
2. Acid Foods (pH values between 4.5
and low-acid foods can be
and 3.7): Fruits such as pear,
preserved for longer period
oranges, apricots and tomatoes fall in
with pressure canning
this class.
method.
3. High Acid Foods (pH values range
from 3.7 down to 2.3): Foods such Advantages in Canning
as pickled products and fermented ● Canning alters food chemically by
foods. Also Jams and jellies are in changing the moisture, pH, or
this classification. salinity levels to protect against
microbes, bacteria, mold, and yeast.
Canning Methods
It also limits food enzyme activity.
1. Water Bath Canning
● Can keep canned foods on shelves
 Water bath canning is a shorter,
from 1-2 years or longer
lower-temperature canning
● Can be economical when using home
process that is ideal for high-acid
grown or locally grown produce.
foods.
● Canning your own food is an
excellent way to reduce your
environmental impact.

Disadvantages in Canning
 Glass jars can break.
 Seals can be broken
spoilage.
 Canning is time consuming. Most
canning is done in the heat of
summer and can increase
conditioning costs.
 Canned food doesn’t taste as good as
fresh food does. It also requires a
significant investment of time and
equipment.
General Process Flow Chart of Canning
1. Selection
 For canning, fruits
vegetables should be absolutely
fresh.
 The fruit should be ripe, but firm
and evenly matured.
 Raw materials should be free
from all unsightly blemishes,
insect damage
malformation.
 Over-ripe fruit is generally
infected with microorganisms
and would yield a lack of poor
quality.
 The vegetables should be tender
and reasonably free from soil,
dirt etc.
2. Sorting and Grading
 after the preliminary sorting, the
fruits and vegetables are graded.
 The grading is done with respect
to size, color etc.
3. Washing
 The graded fruits and vegetables
are washed with water in different
ways such as soaking or agitation
in water, washing with cold or hot
water sprays, etc.
 Vegetables may preferably be
causing
soaked in a dilute solution of
potassium permanganate to
disinfect them.
air
4. Peeling
 peeler is a tool consisting of a
slotted metal blade attached
to a handle that is used to
remove the outer skin or peel
of certain vegetables.
5. Blanching
 Treatment of fruits and
and vegetables with boiling water
or steam for short periods,
followed by cooling prior to
canning is called ‘Blanching’.
 Blanching is done with the
objective of inactivating the
enzymes, thus preventing the
and possibility of discoloration.
 Loosening the skin of the
fruit or vegetable. Eliminate
the no. of microorganisms.
 Improving the flavor by
reducing the astringency in
some foods.
6. Can Filling
7. Syruping and Brining
 The cans are filled with hot
sugar syrup for fruits (35-
40% concentration) and hot
brine for vegetables (1-2%
concentration).
 The syrup or brine should be
added to the can at a
temperature of 79 °C to 82
°C.
  The filled can is closed on the  After exhausting, the cans are
double seaming machine, the sealed by special closing
headspace left inside ranges machines known as double
from 0.32 cm to 0.47 cm. seamers.
 Objective of this step is to  There are hand operated as
improve the taste of the well as semi-automatic and
canned product and to fill up fully automatic seamers.
the interspace between fruits 11. Processing / Sterilization
and vegetables.  Processing consists of heat
8. Lidding or Clinching treatment which is sufficient
 Cans after being filled, are to eliminate the growth of
covered loosely with lid and spoilage causing
passed through the exhaust microorganisms.
box.  All fruits can be satisfactorily
 Lidding is now replaced by processed at 100°C and
Clinching in which the lid is vegetables at 116-120°C.
partially seamed to the can by  The total time required to
a single first roller action of sterilize canned food is
double seamer. largely depends on:
9. Exhausting o Size of can.
 By exhausting, risk of o Processing
corrosion of tin plate and pin temperature.
holing during the storage and o Rate of heat
discoloration of the product is penetration at the
reduced as the oxidation center of the can. pH
process is prevented. of the food.
 Cans are passed through a o The type and number
water at 82-87°C or a moving of organisms present.
conveyor belt through a 12. Washing and Cooling
steam box.  After the cans are closed,
 The time varies from 5-25 they pass through a detergent
min on the nature of the spray washer to remove
substance. grease and other material.
 During exhausting, expelling  The washing should consist
of all the gases takes place of hot water (66°C) then by
which prevents spoilage of suitable pre-rinse, detergent
the canned product by spray wash followed by a
ceasing the chemical fresh warm water rinse
reactions and also the bulging (66°C).
of can.  To avoid thermophilic
10. Sealing spoilage or can rust,
 immediately after processing,  Capable of being
the cans are cooling in water hermetically sealed to prevent
to a temperature of 36°C to entry of microorganisms.
42°C.  Impermeable to liquids and
 If the cans are cooled much gases, including water vapor.
below 36°C, they may not  Maintain the state of
dry thoroughly and rusting biological stability (i.e.,
well result. commercial sterility) that was
 If the cans are cased at induced by the thermal
temperatures much over process alone or in
42°C, thermophilic spoilage combination with other
may occur. chemical and physical
13. Labeling and Storage processes.
 After the completion of the  Physically protect the
canning process, the cans are contents against damage
labeled, packaged and stored during transportation, storage
at a clean and dry place. and distribution.
 Storage temperatures of
2. The Materials
sterile canned meat products
 Tin, steel, plastic and glass
should not be above 21.1°C,
containers with metal
because higher temperatures
closures.
markedly accelerate
 Although the wide variety of
deterioration during storage,
containers for canned foods,
thus limiting shelf life.
the metal ones are preferred
Thermal Processing Temperatures because:
The cans must be processed (heat treated) o It has a high
immediately after closing (hermetic sealed) conductivity of heat.
at suitable time and temperature Food to be o It cannot easily be
canned is threatened on the one hand by broken
bacterial spoilage (if under processed) and o Being opaque, so any
on the other by danger of lower the nutritive possible bad effects of
quality by overheating. light on food stuffs
● Vegetative bacteria are killed at are avoided.
80C/30min. o Be able to withstand
● Spore formers at a the stresses imposed
temp.110C/30min. during thermal
● For destroying the spores processing and
121C/3min. cooling.
Containers for Canning o Be able to withstand
1. The Container the subsequent
handling, which
 includes o Non-gas
transportation, storage producing
and distribution. aerobes or
facultative
Spoilage of Canned Product
anaerobes with
1. According to the condition and
opt. temp. 55 C.
content of the can.
 Leak can be detected by:
 Swell: bulging of both can
o Bubbles when
ends by +ve internal pressure
squeezed under
due to gas generated by
water.
microbial or chemical
o Disappearance of
activity. Either hard or soft
swell. vacuum
(concavity) when
 Flipper: a can with normal
heated to 38 C
appearance but one end flips
followed by slow
out when the can is struck
cooling.
against a solid object but
snaps back to the normal  Flat souring : high acid

under light pressure. formation without gas

production.
 Springer: a can bulged from
o Sour odour, bitter
one end which if forced back
into normal position, the taste, container

opposite end bulges. not swollen.

 Leakage: perforated can o Caused by

thermophilic
 Overfilled can: has convex
bacteria:
ends due to overfilling and
1. Bacillus coagulans.
not regarded as spoiled.
2. Bacillus
2. According to the cause
stearothermophilus
a. Microbial
3. Bacillus circulans.
 May result from
o These bacteria
insufficient processing or
attack CHO
leakage.
producing acid
 3 types of spore forming
without gas.
bacteria:
o Common in
o Gas producing
tropical and
anaerobes and
subtropical
aerobes with
countries
optimum growth
o Affected cans
temp. 37 C.
should be
o Gas producing
condemned.
anaerobes with
b. Chemical
opt. temp. 55 C.
 Hydrogen swell: sulphide and may lead to
Formation of hydrogen pitting. - Sulfiding can be
gas in can due to internal prevented by sulphur
corrosion or scratch. resistant lacquer.
 Occur mainly in acidic c. Rust and damage
foods (canned fruits).  Rust: reddish brown
 Rarely in canned meat ferric oxide seen
but seen in canned under label.
sardines. o Slight rust
 Not related to pass for rapid
fermentation or bacterial consumption.
spoilage. o Severe rust
 Can show varying degree condemned
of bulging and rejected.
o when opened  Damage
odorless burnable o Slight damage
gas. pass for rapid
o Quite harmless consumption.
but o Severe
undifferentiated damage
from swell of rejected
spoiled can So, it QUIZ: CANNING
is rejected. 1. Canning – invented by a guy named
 Sulfiding (Sulphur Nicolas Appert at the end of the 1700s.
stinker spoilage): 2. Peter Durand – replaced the breakable
Discolouration of inside glass bottles with cylindrical tinplate
of can with pink to dark canisters.
purple. 3. Low Acid Foods, Acid Foods, High
 Occur due to reaction of Acid Foods – types of foods to be
sulphur-containing canned.
proteins (liver, kidney, 4. Water Bath Canning – a method
tongue) with liberated involving jars of food are heated by
H2S (Hydrogen sulfide) being completely covered with boiling
from bacterial spoilage water (212 F at sea level).
(Clostridium nigrificans) 5. Sulfiding – the most unwanted kind of
(sulphur stinker) with the chemical spoilage of canned food.
odor of rotten egg. 6. Microbial, Chemical, Rust / Damage –
 It may be accompanied three main causes of spoilage in canned
with blackening when food can be classified.
H2S react with steel base
of tin forming iron
7. Pressure Canning – the only safe
method of canning low-acid foods
(those with a pH of more than 4.6).
FREEZING AND REFRIGERATION
FREEZING
 Freezing or solidification, is a phase
where a liquid turns into a solid when its
temperature is lowered below its freezing
point.
 Freezing point of a liquid is the
temperature at which the liquid is in
equilibrium with solid.
 Freezing consist of reduction
temperature generally – 18 °C.
 Thus prevention of microorganism is
achieved.
History of Freezing
 Prehistoric humans stored meat in ice
caves, food-freezing industry is more
recent in origin than the canning
industry. The freezing process was
used commercially for the first time in
1842, but large-scale food preservation
by freezing began in the late 19th
century with the advent of mechanical
refrigeration.
Clarence Birdseye
 Invented the quick freezing method in
1924
 In Canada, Birdseye discovered that
the fish he has caught froze and ate
months later learned that it tasted
almost the same
 From this experience, he theorized that
food must be frozen very quickly in
order for it to retain its taste and
texture.
 Before quick-freezing came along,
foods were frozen at a fairly slow rate.
8. False – many canned foods contained
low levels of sodium.
 This caused large ice crystals to form,
which ruptured the cell membranes of
the food.
 If it is defrosted, the ice crystals
melted and water leak out, taking with
it the food’s flavor and texture.
 Birdseye developed two methods for
quick freezing foods
in o In the first technique, the
package was held between two
metal belts that were chilled to
-40°F to -45°F using a calcium
chloride solution.
o The second technique, the
packaged food was held under
pressure between two hollow
metal plates that were chilled
to -25°F by the evaporation of
ammonia.
 A two-inch-thick package of meat
could be frozen to 0F in about 90
minutes, while fruits and vegetables
took about 30 minutes.
 He founded Birdseye Frozen Foods,
and their selection of frozen foods
ranged from: frozen peas, spinach and
cherries, to fish and several kinds of
meat.
Requirements of Food Refrigeration
1. Know the recommended
refrigerator temperature
 To avoid your food reaching
a temperature it’s important
to measure the temperature of
your refrigerator often.
  Keeping your refrigerator at  Bottom Shelf: 165°F (74°C)
41 F (5 C) or below ensures o Foods with the
an environment that will highest cooking
minimize the growth of temperatures, it
pathogens. includes all poultry
(turkey, duck,
2. Arrange by proper food storage
chicken, or fowl);
order
stuffing that contains
 Shelves should be ordered
foods that require
from lowest cooking
temperature control;
temperature to highest, going
dishes with previously
down.
cooked foods, such as
 Top Shelf: Ready-to-Eat
casseroles.
o It should be reserved
for ready-to-eat 3. Know when to throw food away
foods.  Although refrigerators slow
o Foods that will be the growth of pathogens, it
served without being should be remembered
cooked first. that they do not stop the
 Second Shelf: 135°F (57°C) spoiling process.
o Foods that will be  Up to 2 Days: Ground beef,
hot-held that are not turkey, veal, pork, lamb; stew

included in other meats; variety meats; whole

categories. chicken or turkey; giblets;

 Third Shelf: 145°F (63°C) raw or poultry sausage; fresh

o Foods that should be fish and shellfish.

cooked to 145°F  Up to 4 days: Cooked egg

include whole dishes; soups and stews;

seafood; whole cuts of cooked casseroles; gravy,

beef, pork, veal, lamb; broth, patties, and nuggets;

roasts; and eggs that store-cooked dinners and

will be served entrees; fully-cooked ham

immediately. slices.

 Fourth Shelf: 155°F (68°C)  Up to 5 days: Canned ham

o It is important that (labeled “Keep

Refrigerated”); egg, chicken,
meat that has been
tuna, ham, and macaroni
ground, injected, or
salads; opened luncheon
tenderized be kept on
meats; fully-cooked ham,
a lower shelf. This
half.
category also includes
eggs that will be hot  Up to 7 days: Bacon; smoked

held. sausage links or patties; fully-

 cooked ham, whole; corned
beef in pouch (with pickling
juices)
 Up to 2 weeks: Unopened hot
dog and luncheon
packages.
 Up to 3 weeks: Opened
summer sausage packages;
hard sausage (such
pepperoni)
4 Methods of Freezing
1. Freezing in air
2. Indirect contact freezing
3. Immersion freezing
4. Cryogenic freezing
Freezing in Air
 Packaged or unpackaged non fluid
foods can be frozen in air at
temperatures ranging from -18 to -
40. Three types of Freezing in air:
1. Still sharp freezing
o It is placing products in a
very cold room,
maintained at temperatures
in the range of -15 C to -
29 C.
o Sharp freezers are cold
storage rooms especially
constructed to operate at
maintain low temperature.
o Freezing time is generally
3-72 hours or
depending on
conditions and the size of
product.
2. Blast freezing
o Products are placed on
trays, either loose or in
packages, and the trays are
placed on freezing coils in
a low temperature room
with cold air blowing over
the product.
o In this freezing method
meat fan is used for air
circulation.
o The temperature of the air
is usually between –28°
as and –46° and air velocity
is 15 m/s.
3. Fluidized bed freezing
o Solid food particles
ranging in size from peas
to strawberries can be
fluidized by forming a bed
of particles 1-5 in.
o Deep on a mesh belt (or
mesh tray) and then
forcing air upward through
the bed at a rate sufficient
to partially lift or suspend
the particles in a manner
somewhat reminiscent of a
boiling liquid.
Indirect Contact Freezing
 Indirect contact freezing or plate
freezers, where packaged foods or
liquids are brought into contact with
metal surfaces (plate, cylinders)
cooled by circulating refrigerant.
 The product is indirectly exposed to
the freezing medium while in contact
more
with the belt or plate, which is in
the
contact with the freezing medium.
 Two Types of Indirect contact
freezing:
1. Plate Freezing
o The packaged product are
sandwiched between metal
plates.
o The refrigerant is allowed to  These have provisions
expand within the plates to for automatically
provide temperatures of -28 F loading shelves from
(-33 C) or below. the package line.
o The plates are brought closer  As a shelf is loaded , it
together mechanically, so that is moved into pressure
full contact is made with the contact with the
packaged product. preceding shelf and
o This method can be used for into an insulated zone
meat, fish, and dairy and where freezing
other products. proceeds.
o Three types of plate freezing:  At the rear of freezing

a) Single plate freezing zone, frozen packages

b) Double plate freezing are discharged one

c) Pressure plate freezing shelf at a time and the

 This consist of empty shelves return

number of metal to the loading

shelves or plates position.

through which  It provide for

refrigerant is continuous operation

circulated. are automatically

 The food usually as loaded from a

flat packages is placed conveyer, frozen

between shelves and under pressure and

there is provision after automatically

loading for applying discharged for casing

pressure to squeeze with elimination of

the shelves into more manual labor. This is

intimate contact with done automatically

the top and bottom. and continually.

 Depending on 2. Slush Freezing

refrigerant o Floating scraper blades

temperature, package affixed to the rapidly

size, degree of contact revolving center shaft are

and the type of food, forced outward against the

freezing time is 1-2 heat transfer surface and

for commercial automatically remove the

packages 4-5 cm product film which would

thick. otherwise accumulate.

d) Automatic Pressure
Plate Freezing
 o Ammonia is ordinarily used
as a refrigerant in
equipment.
Immersion Freezing
 Liquid immersion freezing
accomplished when a food product,
either packaged or unpackaged,
 Is a frozen by immersion in or by
spraying with a freezant that remains
liquid throughout the process.
 Aqueous solutions used as freezants:
A. Propylene glycol, B. Glycerol, C.
Sodium chloride, D. Mixtures of salt
and sugar.
 Cooling media should be non –toxic.
 If sugar solution contain
sucrose it can decrease temperature
up to -21°C. 23% NaCl solution
decrease temperature up to -21°C.
Glycerol is mixed with water to
make a solution 67% glycerol
solution can decreases temperature
up to -47 °C.
 This is used commercially for canned
citrus juice concentrate (cans of juice
are passed continuously through a
chamber containing liquid freezant);
for poultry especially during the
initial stages of freezing ( to impart a
uniform, white color to the surface);
and an occasionally for fish and
shrimp.
Cryogenic Freezing
 Food is exposed to an atmosphere
below -60° c through direct contact
with liquefied gases such as nitrogen
or carbon dioxide.
 Due to liquid extremely
temperature (-196° c) and (- 79° c)
freezing is instant. Liquid nitrogen is
most commonly used because of
this very low boiling point (-196° c).
 Two main types of cryogenic
freezers:
1. Using immersion or dipping of
is
product into the medium.
2. Type medium is sprayed on the
product. In both type the product
is continuously transported on a
belt to the other end of the
freezer.
 Usually those cryogenic freezers
using dipping method or consuming
more medium but give better
freezing results. While spraying
method ensure lower medium usage
62%
therefore lower cost.
Types of Freezing Equipment
1. Air blast freezers
2. Plate freezers
3. Immersion freezers
Air Blast Freezers
 It uses air as the medium of heat
transfer.
 Vigorous circulation of cold air over
the product.
 Uses blowers or fans to circulate
cold air (-30) at high speed ( 10-
15m/s) over the food.
 There are number of designs and
arrangements for air blast freezers:
1. Tunnel Freezer: are equipped
with refrigeration coils and fans
which circulate the air over the
product in a controlled way.
o Guide devices, properly
locating the trays of food
low o Convective heat transfer
coefficient =
30-50w/m2k.
 o Used for the products like  The product is pressed between
spinach, broccoli, meat, hollow metal plates, either
beef. horizontally or vertically, with a
2. Belt Freezer: are provided with a refrigerant circulating inside the
single belt (single- belt freezers,) plates.
or with belts positioned above  Food products can be frozen by
each other which may run in the placing them in contact with a metal
same or in opposite directions. surface cooled either by cold brine or
o A poor heat transfer vaporizing refrigerants, such as
mechanism and the Direct refrigerant ammonia.
contact freezer  This high thermal efficiency is
mechanical problems reflected in short freezing times.
were solved in modern 1. Horizontal Plate Freezer
belt freezers by providing o Usually this type has 15–20
a vertical airflow to force plates.
air through the product o The product is placed on
layer. metal trays, which are
o Convective heat transfer pushed in between the plates
coefficient = 30-60 w/m2 manually.
k 2. Vertical Plate Freezer
o Individual quick freezing o It consists of a number of
can be achieved by belt vertical freezing plates
freezer. forming partitions in a
3. Fluidized Bed Freezer container with an open top.
o Food particles on a mesh o The product is simply fed
conveyor or a vibrating from the top.
platform. o Usually this operation is
o Velocity of air is adjusted mechanized.
to lift the product off the
Immersion Freezer
belt.
 When a food product, either
o Excellent heat transfer
packaged or unpackaged, is frozen
between air and product.
by immersion in or by spraying with
Convective heat transfer
a freezant that remains liquid
coefficient = 30-60
throughout the process.
w/m2k
 Aqueous solutions of the following
o Product remains
substances have been used as
separated during freezing.
freezants:
o Individual quick freezing
o Propylene Glycol
is attained.
o Glycerol
Plate Freezers o Sodium Chloride
 o Mixtures of Salt and Sugar.  Add ascorbic acid to fruit to
control enzymes
Selection and Preparation of Foods for
o Enzymes in frozen
Freezing
fruit are controlled by
● Selection of Food
using chemical
○ Consider Size
compounds which
○ Shape
interfere with
○ Efficiency
deteriorative chemical
○ Defrosting features
reactions.
○ Available floor area
o Ascorbic acid may be
○ Amount of freezer space needed
used in its pure form
○ Preparation
or in commercial
○ Sanitary conditions
mixtures with sugars.
○ Follow recommended procedures
 Limit air during freezing
Changes during Freezing
o This problem can be
1. Chemical
controlled by using a
 Enzymes cause loss of color,
wrapping material
flavor changes and nutrient
which does not permit
loss.
air to pass into the
o Fresh produce contains
product.
chemical compounds
o Also, remove as much
called enzymes which
air as possible from
cause the loss of color,
the freezer bag or
loss of nutrients, flavor
container to reduce
changes, and color
the amount of air in
changes in frozen fruits
contact with the
and vegetables.
product.
 Blanch vegetables to
2. Textural Changes
inactivate enzymes
o Enzymes in vegetables
 Fruits and vegetables that
are much softer when frozen
are inactivated by the
and thawed.
blanching process.
 When the water freezes, it
o Blanching is the
expands and the ice crystals
exposure of the
cause the cell walls to
vegetables to boiling
rupture. Consequently, the
water or steam for a
texture of the produce, when
brief period of time.
thawed, will be much softer
o The vegetable must
than it was when raw.
then be rapidly cooled
3. Rate of Freezing
in ice water to prevent
it from cooking.
  Control texture change by
freezing as quickly as
possible.
 In rapid freezing, a large
number of small ice crystals
are formed.
 These small ice crystals
produce less cell wall rupture
than slow freezing which
produces only a few large ice
crystals.
 This is why some home
freezer manuals recommend
that the temperature of the
freezer be set at the coldest
setting several hours before
foods will be placed in the
freezer.
4. Changes caused by Fluctuating
Temperature
 Store frozen fruits and
vegetables at zero degrees F
or lower
 To maintain top quality,
frozen fruits and vegetables
should be stored at zero F or
lower.
 A freezer thermometer can
help you determine the actual
temperature of your freezer.
If your freezer has number
temperature settings, such as
from 1 to 9, check the manual
to see what settings are
recommended for different
uses.
Thawing
1. Refrigerator Thawing
 Food will take longer to thaw
in a refrigerator set at 35 °F
than one set at 40 °F.
 After thawing in the
refrigerator, items such as
ground meat, stew meat,
poultry, seafood, should remain
safe and good quality for an
additional day or two before
cooking; red meat cuts (such as
beef, pork or lamb roasts,
chops and steaks) 3 to 5 days.
 Food thawed in the refrigerator
can be refrozen without
cooking, although there may be
some loss of quality.
2. Cold Water Thawing
 The food must be in a leak-
proof package or plastic bag.
 If the bag leaks, bacteria from
the air or surrounding
environment could be
introduced into the food. Also,
the meat tissue may absorb
water, resulting in a watery
product.
 The bag should be submerged
in cold tap water, changing the
water every 30 minutes so it
continues to thaw.
 Small packages of meat,
poultry or seafood — about a
pound — may thaw in an hour
or less.
 A 3-to 4-pound package may
take 2 to 3 hours. For whole
turkeys, estimate about 30
minutes per pound.
 If thawed completely, the food
must be cooked immediately.
3. Microwave Thawing
 When thawing food in a
microwave, plan to cook it
immediately after thawing
 because some areas of the food underground to keep them frozen until
may become warm and begin summer.
to cook during the thawing
Definition
process (bringing the food to
Refrigeration is a method in which work is
"Danger Zone" temperatures).
done to remove heat from one location to
 After thawing in the
another. Refrigerators are machines,
microwave, always cook
household appliances, which are used for
immediately after, whether
such a purpose and are generally used to
microwave cooking, by
keep food fresh longer. They are relatively
conventional oven, or grilling.
modern invention but people tried to keep
 Foods thawed in the
food fresh by keeping it at lower
microwave should be cooked
temperatures for thousands of years.
before refreezing.
Science
 Also, never thaw foods in a
Mechanical refrigerators have four basic
garage, basement, car,
elements:
dishwasher or plastic garbage
1. The Evaporator: is responsible for
bag; out on the kitchen counter,
cooling the air going to the space by
outdoors or on the porch.
boiling (evaporating) the refrigerant
These methods can leave your
flowing through it.
foods unsafe to eat.
2. The Compressor: is widely
4. Cooking without Thawing
considered the engine of the
 When there is not enough
refrigeration cycle. In the process of
time to thaw frozen foods, or
being compressed the cool, gaseous
you're simply in a hurry, just
refrigerant is turned to a very hot and
remember: it is safe to cook
high-pressure vapor.
foods from the frozen state.
3. The Condenser: Its job is to cool the
 The cooking will take
refrigerant so that it turns from a gas
approximately 50% longer
into a liquid or condenses.
than the recommended time
4. Refrigerant flow control (expansion
for fully thawed or fresh meat
valve) / The Expansion Device: is
and poultry.
responsible for quickly driving the
REFRIGERATION pressure of the refrigerant down so it
History can boil (evaporate) more easily in
Chinese harvested ice from rivers and lakes the evaporator. A refrigerant
as early as 1.000 BC. Ice harvesting was for circulates among the four elements
centuries the only method of food changing from liquid to gas and back
refrigeration. In 18th century England, to liquid.
servants collected ice in the winter and were
Food Preservation
putting it into icehouses. Icehouses were
 Refrigeration slows bacterial growth.
places where the sheets of ice were packed
Bacteria exists everywhere in nature.
in salt, wrapped in flannel, and stored
 They are in the soil, air, water, and the  Food that has been left too long on
foods we eat. the counter may be dangerous to eat.
 When they have nutrients (food),  Food that has been stored too long in
moisture, and favorable temperatures, the refrigerator or freezer may be of
they grow rapidly, lessened quality, but most likely
 A refrigerator set at 40 °F or below would not make anyone sick.
will protect most foods. (However, some bacteria such as
Listeria monocytogenes thrive at
Food Safety
cold temperatures, and if present,
 Spoilage bacteria can grow at low
will multiply in the refrigerator over
temperatures, such as in the
time and could cause illness.)
refrigerator. Eventually they cause
food to develop off or bad tastes and
smells.
Parts of a Refrigerator

Types of Refrigerator

RADIATION PRESERVATION
Food Radiation ● The process of food irradiation is
● Food irradiation is the process of often called cold pasteurisation
exposing food to controlled levels of because it kills harmful bacteria
ionising radiation to kill harmful without heat.
bacteria pests or parasites or to ● At doses applied IR does not and
preserve its freshness cannot make foods radioactive
  1957 - First commercial use to kill
Ionizing Radiation and Nonionizing
insects and insect eggs in spices in
Radiation
Germany
 Radiation that has the ability to
 1963 - Approved to eliminate insect
produce ions electrically charged
infestation for wheat and wheat flour
particles examples, alpha particle
 1964 - Approved to prevent
beta particle high energy electron
sprouting in potatoes
gamma ray (most common) and x-
ray.  1700s - NASA uses irradiated food
for astronauts
 Does not have sufficient energy to
create ions instead tends to excite  1983 - Approved for herbs spices

molecules without removing and seasonings

electrons examples, visible light  1985 - Approved to control

television waves radio waves and trichinella spiralis in pork

microwaves.  1986 - Approved to control insects

and maturation of fruits and
vegetables
 1990 - Approved by FDA to control
bacteria in poultry -approved
by ;USDA in 1992
 1997 - Approved by FDA to control
How does Food Irradiation Work? microorganisms for red meats
 Food is exposed to a carefully approved by USDA in 2000.
measured amount of intense ionizing  2000 - Approved for shell eggs
radiation  2002 - Petition pending for
 When food is irradiated, the radiation irradiation of seafood sprouts and
energy breaks the bonds in the DNA ready-to-eat foods.
molecules of microorganism. Thus,
the organism dies or becomes unable
to reproduce. The International Food Irradiation
 The effectiveness of the process Symbol – The Radura
depends on the organism’s  Treated with radiation
sensitivity to irradiation  Treated by irradiation

History of Irradiation Why we Irradiate Food

 1895- First paper published with the 1. Prevention of foodborne illness
idea of irradiating food a. effectively eliminates
 1920 Discovery that irradiation could microbes;
be used to preserve food b. Salmonella and E. Coli
 Early 1950s - Atoms for peace 2. Preservation
studies performed a. Destroy/ inactivate organisms
that cause spoilage and
decomposition.
 3. Control of insects produce images of internal
a. Destroys insects e.g imported structures.
fruits.
4. Delay of sprouting and ripening
a. Lengthen the longevity of
products e.g: potatoes.
5. Sterilization
a. Useful for patients in the
Dose and Dose Rates
hospital especially with
● Ionizing energy processes create
impaired immunity.
enough of an absorbed dose to
Sources of Radiation destroy microbes.
● Unit of absorbed dose in food is kGy
(kilograys).
● Dose can be divided into three
categories:
○ Radicidation
■ The dose of ionizing
radiation applied to
1. Gamma Rays
the food is sufficient
 It is emitted from radioactive
to reduce the number
forms of the element Cobalt
of viable specific non-
(CO60) or the element
spore-forming
Cesium (CS137). Gamma
pathogenic bacteria to
radiation is used routinely to
such a level that none
sterilize medical, dental and
are detectable when
household products and is
the treated food is
also use for the treatment of
examined by any
cancer
recognized method.
2. Electron Beam ○ Radurization
 It is similar to x-rays and is a ■ Is a process of food
stream of high-energy irradiation in which
electrons propelled from an certain packaged and
electron accelerator into food. non-packaged foods
(such as potatoes and
3. X-rays
spices) are treated
 Produced by reflecting high
with mild ionizing
energy stream of electrons of
radiation dose, usually
a target substance ( usually
less than 10 kGray,
one of the heavy metals) into
but sufficient to
food.
eliminate or to
 It is also widely used in
significantly reduce
medicine and industry to
 the number of ○ Commercially sterilize foods,
pathogens and to destroying all
extend the shelf life. microorganisms of pulbic
○ Radappertization health concern (1.e, special
■ Irradiation which diets for people with
applies a dose of weakened immune systems
ionizing radiation Types of Radiatio Effects of
sufficient to reduce Food n on Treatment
Dose in
the number and
kGy
activity of viable Meat, 20 to 71 Sterilization.
microorganisms to Poultry, Treated products
Fish, can e stored at
such an extent that
Shellfish, room
very few, if any, are some temperature
detectable in the vegetables, without
baked spoilage.
treated food by any
goods, Treated products
recognized method prepared are safe for
(viruses being foods hospital patients
excepted). who require
microbiologicall
Doses of Irradiation
y sterile diets
● Low doses < 1kGy ( Radicidation)
○ Controls insects, grains, and Spices and Up to a Reduces number
other maximu of
fruits
seasonings m of 30 microorganism
○ Inhibit sprouting in tubers and insects.
○ Delay the ripening of some Replaces.
Chemicals used
fruit/vegetables
for this purpose
○ Reduce the problems of
parasites in products of Meat, 0.1 to 10 Delays spoilage
animal origin (Trichinella Poultry, by reducing the
Fish number of
Spiralis found in pork) microorganisms
● Medium dose (1-10 kGy) in the fresh,
Radurization refrigerated
product. Kills
○ Controls Salmonella,
some types of
shigella, Campylobacter, food poisoning
Yersinia, Listeria asnd E. coli bacteria and
renders harmless
in meat poultry and fish.
disease causing
○ Delays mold growth on parasites
strawberries and other fruits
● High dose (>Than 10kGy) Strawberrie 1 to 5 Extends shelf
s and some life by delaying
Radapperization other fruits mold growth
○ Kill microorganisms and
insects in spices Grain, fruit, 0.1 to 2 Kills insects or
vegetables, prevents them
 and other from a. Ionizing radiation kills
foods reproducing. microbes by damaging
subject to Could partially
biomolecules of their cells.
insect replace post-
infestation harvest b. Incoming photon hit electrons
fumigants used in the atoms of microbes or
for this purpose
food molecules.

Bananas, 1.0 Delays ripening c. During the collision, photon’s

Avocados, maximu energy is transferred to the
Mangoes, m
electron changing the
Papayas,
Guavas, photon’s direction.
and other d. Electron free to collide with
non-citrus. neighboring electron.
fruits
e. This cause chemical bonds
Potatoes, 0.15 to Inhibits breakage interrupts normal
onions 0.30 sprouting cell metabolism and division.
garlic,
ginger Effects of Irradiation on Food Quality
● The food molecules are made of
Grain, Various Desirable
water, lipids, proteins, carbohydrates
dehydrated doses changes
vegetables, ( reduced and vitamins.
other foods rehydration ● Radiation energy generates a
times)
degradative reaction when it interacts
with food → radiolysis.
Effects of Irradiation on Microorganisms ● Products of radiolysis is known as
1. Indirect radiolytic products.
a. Due to formation of the free ● Irradiation cause changes to food
radicals during radiolysis of molecules particularly at high doses.
water molecules. ● Sterilization levels causes nutrient
b. Free radicals are highly loss and desirables effects.
reactive - form stable Water:
products. ● Radiolysis of water molecules
c. Combine with one another or produce hydroxyl radicals.
oxygen molecules – oxidizing ● Highly reactive species that can
agents. cause characteristics associated with
d. Can damage bacterial cell food spoilage e.g: off-flavor and off-
components. odors.
e. Unstable free radicals react ● To minimize this effects:
with bacterial cell membranes ○ Apply lowest effective
to change or damage their irradiation dose
structure- bacterial death. ○ Irradiate at lower temperature
2. Direct ○ Choose appropriate
packaging in terms of
 moisture and oxygen barrier Vitamins:
properties. ● Have varying degrees on sensitivity
Lipids: ● Some shows sensitivity at higher
● Absence of oxygen leads to cleavage dose, e.g: Vitamin A, C, E and B1
of interatomic bonds ● Sensitivity is apparent in food
● Producing compounds e.g. CO2, packaged under air.
alkanes, alkenes and aldehydes
Regulation of Irradiated Foods
● Presence of oxygen, lipids are highly
● Considered as a food additive by the
vulnerable to oxidation by free
FDA
radicals, a process that yields
● For approval for any irradiated food,
peroxide, carbonyl compounds and
FDA requires the foods labeled with
alcohols
statement:
● Rancidity – high unsaturated fatty
○ Treated by ionizing
acid
energy/treated by irradiation
● To minimize effects:
○ International symbol of
○ Vacuum packaged and low
irradiation, Radura
temperature used during
○ Labeling requirement apply
irradiation
only to foods sold in stores
○ Adding lipid-soluble
○ No labeling requirement if
antioxidants and use lowest
minor ingredients in other
irradiation dose
foods and restaurant foods.
Proteins:
● Foods have been approved for
● Proteins are not significantly
irradiation
degraded at low doses of irradiation.
● FDA has approved a variety of foods
● Does not inactivate enzymes
for irradiation in USA including:
involved in food deterioration.
○ Beef and pork.
● Most enzymes survives higher doses
○ Poultry
● Biological value of protein remain
○ Mollusk shellfish
high
○ Shell eggs
● Availability of essential amino acids
○ Fresh fruits and vegetables.
is not compromised.
○ Lettuce and spinach
○ Spices and seasonings.
○ Seeds for sprouting
Carbohydrates
● Large CHO molecules Advantages of Irradiation
(polysaccharides) are broken down ● Minimizes food losses
by irradiation. ● Improve Public Health
● Depolymerization reduces gelling ● Increase International trade
and functional properties such as ● An alternative to Fumigation of food
starches and gums ● Increase energy saving
● Protection by other food constituents ● Pathogen reduction
● Effect on simple sugar is negligible. ● Shelf life extension
 ● Sterilization
Disadvantages of Irradiation
● It can only be used on a very limited
range of foods
● Expensive technology
● Vitamin E levels can e reduced by
25% after irradiation and Vitamin C
by 5-10%
● It is ineffective against virus
Packing of Irradiated Foods
● Once the food is already irradiated, it
can be prone to re-contamination
unless appropriately packed.
● Functions of packaging includes:
o Prevention of moisture uptake or
loss
o Protection from mechanical
damage
o Keeping the food clean
o Since packaging materials are
also exposed to radiation during
treatment, these materials must
also pass the requirements such
as resistance to radiation with
respect to its functional
properties, it should not transmit
toxic substances into the food
nor impart any off odor to the
food item.
If food has been irradiated or contains
irradiated ingredients or compounds. It must
be labelled with a statement that the food,
ingredients, or components have been
“treated with ionizing radiation”
QUIZ: IRRADIATION (REPORT)
1. Willhelm Röntgen – started to conduct
experiments using vacuum tubes. He
also discovered after trial and error he
took a photo of his wife’s hand and
skeletal structures with the new rays
called, “X-Rays.”
2. Irradiation – used to extend the shelf
life of foods by reducing or eliminating
microorganisms and insects. Moreover,
it does not make foods radioactive,
compromise nutritional quality, or
noticeably change the taste, texture, or
appearance of food.
3. Electronic Beam – requires a short
treatment time, but it requires a high
dose rate to avoid wastes to irradiated
food products.
4. Radiation Shield – concrete walls
prevent gamma rays from escaping into
the environment.
5. Control Console – treatment is
controlled by the speed of the conveyor
belt. Amount of energy needed varies
by the density of the load.
6. Cobalt – an industrial irradiator used for
food products consists; inside the rooms
and concrete walls which contain
_____. This is also the most common
source of ionizing energy.
7. X-ray – a kind of facility where the e-
beam accelerator targets electrons on a
metal plate. Some energy is absorbed
and the rest is converted to x-rays.
8. Radura – the important symbol shown
on the packaging or irradiated food; this
means “treated with radiation” or
“treated by irradiation” on the food
label.
9. True – irradiation causes minimal
changes to the chemical composition of
the food, however, it can alter the
nutrient content of some foods because
it reduces the level of some of the B-
group vitamins.
10. True – the energy used in food
irradiation is not great enough to cause
food to become radioactive. During
irradiation, energy passes through food
much like a ray of light passes through a
window.
FOOD ADDITIVES
What are Food Additives?
● Any substance a food producer
intentionally adds to a food for a
specific purpose.
● Producers use around 3,000 additives
to preserve and improve foods.
● Additives may be:
○ Natural – found naturally,
such as extracts from beetroot
juice (E162), used as a
colouring agent, common
salt, used as a preservative
○ Man Made versions
synthetic identical copies of
substances found naturally,
such as benzoic acid (E210),
used as a preservative.
○ Artificial – produced
synthetically and not found
naturally, such as Sulphur
dioxide(E-220), Sorbic
acid(E-200).
11. False - fruits and vegetables cannot be
irradiated or undergone the process of
irradiation because it could greatly
change and alter the nutrients present.
12. True – the Electronic Beam Linear
Accelerator machine generates and
accelerates electrons to energies of 5,
7.5 or 10 MeV with beam power of up
to 10kW.
13. False – food irradiation is a heat
treatment that achieves its effects
without raising the food’s temperature.
It leaves the food closer to its original
state.
● According to WHO (1965), ‘Food
Protection Committee of the
National Academy of Sciences
(1959) ‘It is a substance or mixture
of substances, other than the basic
food stuff, which is present in food
as a result of any aspect of
production, processing, storage or
packaging.’
● Additives are not considered
nutritional even if they have some
nutritive value.
– ○ Means any substance not
normally consumed as food
by itself and not normally
used as a typical ingredient of
the food.’
● The term does not include
contaminants or substances added to
food for maintaining or improving
nutritional qualities.
The Codex Alimentarius
The Codex Alimentarius is a collection of ● Essential to prevent rancidity of oils
internationally adopted food standards and and for maintaining the shelf life of
related texts presented in a uniform manner. high-moisture containing foods.
These food standards and related texts aim at ● Food additives must not be used to
protecting consumers' health and ensuring disguise faulty processing and
fair practices in the food trade. handling techniques to cheat
customers. Need for additive
The GRAS List
● Generally recognized as safe E-Numbers
(GRAS) is a United States Food and  “E-numbers” tell us what the
Drug Administration (FDA) additive is for.
designation that a chemical or E-Number Use
substance added to food is E 100-199 Food Colors
considered safe by experts, and so is E 200-299 Preservatives
exempted from the usual Federal E 300- 399 Antioxidants
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act E 400- 499 Emulsifiers and
(FFDCA) food additive tolerance Stabilizers
requirements. E 500 - 599 Anticaking Agents
● The substance must be shown to be E 600- 699 Flavorings and
"generally recognized" as safe under Flavor Enhancers
the conditions of its intended use.
The Use of Additives
○ For new proposals, the
1. Improving Storage Properties
proponent of the exemption
 These help in preservation of
has the burden of providing
food by increasing its storage
rigorous scientific evidence
life, e.g. Preservative like
that use of the substance in an
sodium benzoate in squashes.
edible consumer product is
"generally recognized" as  Prevent the growth of

safe. microorganisms which could

cause food spoilage and lead to
The NEED for use of Food Additives
food poisoning.
● Unavoidable in the complex and
 Extend the shelf-life of products,
integrated society in which we live
so that they can be distributed
as the area of food production are
and sold to the consumer with a
separated from areas of consumption.
longer shelf- life.
● In present degree of urbanization, it's
 Salting and sugaring are two of
impossible to maintain distribution
the oldest methods of preserving
network without adding
food. For example Meats are
preservatives.
often treated with nitrite and
● Great demand for convenience/ready
nitrate (E249 to E252) during
to eat foods and heat and serve
the curing process.
products.
Food Acids:
 ● Food acids are added to make flavors
"sharper", and also act as
preservatives and antioxidants.
Common food acids include vinegar,
citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid,
fumaric acid, and lactic acid.
● Acids, bases and buffers control the
acidity or alkalinity of food, for
safety and stability of flavour. Acids,
bases and buffers
Antioxidants:
● Prevent oxidative rancidity in foods
high on fats and oils.
● Another important reason is that
certain vitamins and various amino
acids can easily be destroyed by
exposure to air, and antioxidants
serve to protect them .
Fat Soluble Water Soluble
BHA Ascorbic Acid
BHT Citric Acid
Catechin Phosphoric
Acid
Quercetin
2, 6 – dimethoxyphenol
Ethoxyquin
Propyl Gallate
2. Increase Healthfulness
 Increasing additives is also
included in boosting a food’s
nutritional profile.
o Fortification = is adding
nutrients that are not
normally found in a food
(ex. Milk is fortified with
vitamin D)
o Restoration = nutrients that
are lost in processing are
returned to the food with the
process called restoration
(reestablishes the product’s
original nutritive value ex.
Vitamin C is put back into
canned oranges)
o Enrichment = adding
nutrients lost in processing
(contain more nutrients than
existed in the food before
processing (ex. Vitamins are
increased)
o Nitrification = process that
adds nutrients to a food with
a low nutrient/calorie ratio
so the food can replace a
nutritionally balanced meal
(nutrition bars and shakes
are examples)
3. Make Food more Appealing
Color
 Almost all soft drinks, cheeses,
ice cream, jams, and jellies owe
at least part of their coloring to
additives.
 Some colors are made from food
(caramelizing sugars) However,
nearly ½ the common colorings
are created in the laboratories
Each of the synthetic colorings
are identified with a number
(example yellow #1)
Natural Additives:
● Some artificial colours have almost
disappeared from foods as
companies realised that many
consumers prefer food products to
contain natural colours.
● At present there is not the variety of
natural additives required to perform
all the functions of additives
necessary.
● Man Made additives may prove more
efficient at preserving, and some
 natural colours fade in some sucrose, diabetics use this sugar).
products. Sorbitol absorbs more slowly from
Flavor the intestinal tract than sucrose does,
● About 2000 natural and synthetic so the blood sugar level may not
flavors are available. ● Nonnative sugars are also called
● In the US five times as many artificial sweeteners. (They have no
products are grape- flavored as are calories but still taste sweet.
flavored by the concord grape. ● Following sweeteners are currently
● Sometimes using a natural flavor approved by FDA:
would make a food too costly to ● Sucralose – made from sugar
produce. Flavor enhancers are but is 600 times sweeter.
substance that gives no flavor but (produces no calories).
bring out the flavor in the food ● Saccharin – made from
● Flavor enhancers bring out the petroleum products, saccharin
flavour in foods without imparting a is 300 times as sweet as
flavour of their own, e.g. sucrose. If used in great
monosodium glutamate (E612) is amount, it leaves a bitter
added to processed foods. For taste.
example some soups, sauces and ● Aspartame – 200 times
sausages. sweeter than sugar, supplies
● Natural flavor substances such as no calories and leaves no
Spices and their extracts, herbs, aftertaste. Cannot be used in
roots, essence and essential oils have baked goods or cooked
been used. products, it losses it’s
● Flavors of the substance are not sweeteners , which is why
uniform as they vary with season and many diet sodas have a use-
area of production. by date.
● Natural are now replaced by ● Acesulfame – 200 times
synthetic flavour materials. It sweeter than sugar. Use in
includes esters, aldehydes,ketones, candies, baked goods, frozen
alcohols and ethers, smoke flavors of desserts, and beverages.
glutamates Flavoring agent 4. Improve Processing and
Sweetener: Preparation
● Of all of the flavor enhancers, Stabilizer:
sweeteners are the most common ● Stabilizer, substance that keeps a
Sweeteners are basically either compound, mixture, or solution from
nutritive or non nutritive changing its form or chemical nature.
● Nutritive sweeteners metabolize to ● Example without stabilizer, the fat in
produce calories peanut butter separates from the
● Examples are sugar (sucrose), brown protein, creating an oil pool over a
sugar, maple syrup, molasses, and stiff paste. Ice cream is creamy, in
honey. Sorbitol (taste ½ as sweet as part because thickeners prevent
 crystals from forming as it freezes
and stabilizes.
● Many stabilizers are natural and
starch-based. Some are made from
pectin, casein, sodium caseinate, and
gelatin.
Anti-caking Agent
● Anticaking agents are placed in
powdered or granulated foods to
prevent them from caking or
sticking.
● Some anticaking agents include
sodium bicarbonate, sodium
ferrocyanide, and potassium
ferrocyanide.
○ Sodium bicarbonate- It's a
white solid that is crystalline,
but often appears as a fine
powder. It has a slightly salty
taste, and can be found
dissolved in many mineral
springs. Many people know it
as baking soda. ‘Anti-caking
agents ensure free movement
or flow of particles, e.g. in
dried milk or table salt. ’
Antifoaming Agents
● Antifoaming agents reduce or
prevent foaming in foods.
● These agents are included in many
foods, such as Diet Pepsi, Diet Coke,
and Sprite.
● Antifoaming agents are added to
cooking oils to prevent excessive
frothing during deep frying.
● There are many types of defoamers
including oil based, water based,
silicone based, and EO/PO based.
Emulsifiers, Stabilizers, Gelling Agents:
● Emulsifiers- help mix ingredients
together that would normally
separate, e.g. Lecithins (E322).
● Stabilisers- prevent ingredients from
separating again, e.g. locust bean
gum (E410). Two e.g.s of stabilizers
are agar and pectin.
● Gelling agents- are used to change
the consistency of a food, e.g. pectin
(E440).
Thickeners and Glazing Agents:
● Thickeners - are substances which,
when added a mixture, increases its
viscosity with out substantially
modifying its other properties. Its
help give food body, e.g. can be
found in most sauces.
● Glazing agents - provide a protective
coating or sheen on the surface of
foods, e.g. confectionary (for
appearance and shelf-life).
Thickeners and glazing agents
Concerns with Food Additives
 Concern about food additives. Some
people believe that some additives
cause “more trouble than they’re
worth.”
 One concern is not enough is known
about the long-term effects:
  Example is nitrites which react with
amines (preservative in meat) is
suspected of causing cancer Nitrites
prevent botulism, which the FDA
believe will out way the risks of
using them, however the FDA
required them to be used in lower
quantities.
Food Additive Safety
1. Only the additives which present no
appreciable health risk to consumers
at the use level proposed by the
JECFA shall be endorsed and
included in the standard.
2. ADI, its probable daily intake from
all food sources for special group
consumers (diabetic, medical diet,
sick individual on formulated liquid
diet) will be taken into account.
3. The quantity of an additive should be
at or below the maximum use level
and is at lowest level necessary to
achieve the intended technical effect.
FOOD PACKAGING
● It can be considered as
combination of art, science and
technology that is used in the
transportation and selling of foods.
● The primary role of food packaging
is to protect food products from the
outside environment and from
damage by abrasion, to contain the
food, and to provide consumers with
information about ingredients and
nutrition (Dallyn and Shorten, 1998).
4. It should be of food grade quality
and is prepared and handled in same
way as a food ingredient.
5. Carry over of a food additive from a
raw material to other ingredient is
unacceptable for foods such as infant
formula, follow-up formula and
formula for special medical
purposes, complementary foods for
infants and young children.
6. Buy foods from reputable sources.
7. Read the label of prepackaged food
carefully in particular the ingredient
list for food additives added (if any)
which you could accept.
8. People with allergic condition, such
as asthma patients, may experience
hypersensitive reaction due to some
food additives like sulphur dioxide
and should be careful in selecting
food. Advice from medical
professionals may be sought when
necessary in Hazards of
preservatives. Advice to the public of
food additives.
a ● The main requirement of food
packaging is to maintain the safety,
wholesomeness and quality of food.
Packaging
● Packaging can be defined as a
method to protect and contain foods
with the aim of minimizing the
environmental impact of our
consumption.
● The Packaging Institute International
(PII) defines packaging as the
enclosure of products, items or
packages in a wrapped pouch, bag,
 box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or printing on bottle liners or
other container form to perform one composite cans such as
or more of the following functions: graphics or text that
containment, protection, irreversibly changes upon
preservation, communication, utility opening and special printing
and performance. If the device or that cannot be easily
container performs one or more of duplicated (Marsh and
these functions, it is considered a Bugusu, 2007).
package. 7. Packaging as a Marketing Tool
 Packaging is an important
Functions
tool for advertisement.
Packaging materials have the basic functions
Packaging protects the
of providing
interests of consumers. The
1. Protection: One of the main
information on the packaging
objectives of the packaging of food
includes quantity, price,
is to protect it against spoilage or
additives, ingredients,
deterioration due to physical damage,
inventory levels, lot number,
chemical changes or biological
size and weight is very
damage.
important for merchandising.
2. Communication: Any special
8. Socioeconomic Factors in Food
instructions or information.
Packaging
3. Convenience: Ease of access,
 Packaging technology must
handling, and disposal; product
balance food protection with
visibility; resealability.
other social and environment
4. Containment: Hold the contents and
issues, including energy and
keep them secure until they are used.
material costs, heightened
5. Traceability: Ability to track any
social and environmental
food through all stages of
consciousness, and strict
production, processing and
regulations on pollutants and
distribution.
disposal of municipal solid
6. Tamper indication
waste.
 Food tampering is the
Packaging Types
intentional contamination of a
● Primary packaging is the main
food product, with intent to
package that holds the food product
cause harm to the consumer
that is seen at the point of sale.
or to a private company
● Secondary packaging combines the
(Canadian Food Inspection
primary packages into one container
Agency, 2010). There are
(ex: cardboard box with a number of
several measures to detect
identical products inside).
tampering, including
● Tertiary packaging combines all of
banding, special membranes,
the secondary packages into one
breakaway closures, special
 pallet or container to allow easier
shipping, warehousing and
transportation.

6. Certifications

The Label
 Food labels carry useful information
to help you make good choices about
food.
 They also tell you what's in a
7. Product's Story
packaged food (i.e., the ingredients).
This allows consumers to compare
different foods and make the choices
that are right for them. The FDA and
USDA regulate any health claims
that companies make on their food
labels.
8. Nutritional Information
Essential Parts of a Food Label
1. Brand Name

9. Ingredients’ List

2. Product Name

Mandatory Labelling Requirements in

3. Packaging Size
the Philippines
From the Packaging R&D Center of the
Philippines COPYRIGHT 2002 PRDCP

4. UPC code/Barcode Labelling the Law

Labelling Law Republic Act 3720 (Food,
Drug and Cosmetic Act): Prescribes rules
and regulations for the packaging and
labeling of foods distributed in the
5. Company Name, City, State and Philippines Bureau of Food and Drug
ZIP Code (BFAD)interprets regulations and details of
RA 3720 Provides lists of substances
permitted for use in food and food
packaging materials.
Labelling
Means provision of adequate information
and accurate identification of the pre-
packaged foods on the package. Means by
which product communicates with the
consumers, traders, regulatory agency It
must be correct, not misleading, accurate
and legible
Parts of a Label
1. Principal Display Panel (PDP)
 Principal Display Panel (PDP)
Alternate Principal Display
Panel Portion of the package
label that is most likely to be
seen by the consumer.
Sometimes, a food package may
also have an alternate principal
display panel, which refers to the
other surface of the package that
is also suitable for display as
PDP.
 Required information: Product
Identity Name and Net
Content Declaration
Determination of the Area of PDP
 For rectangular package, it is the
height times the width
 Example:
o Height = 8 in.Width= 6 in.
o Area of PDP = 8 X 6= 48 sq.
in.
 Determination of the area of PDP
For cylindrical or nearly cylindrical
container, it is 40% of the value of
the height of the container times the
circumference
 Example:
o H=2in.Circumference = 10
in.10” X 2” = 20
o 20” X 40% = 8”
o Area of PDP = 8 sq.in.
o Width of the area of PDP =
area of PDP/height or 40% of
circumference = 10 X 40% =
4 in.
 For other shaped container, it is 40%
of the total surface area excluding
tops, bottoms, flanges of cans, and
shoulders and necks of bottles and
jars.
 However, if the container has an
obvious PDP, e.g. the top of a
triangular correct angular package,
the area shall consist of the entire top
surface.
2. Information Panel
 It is the label panel immediately
to the right of the PDP, as seen
by the consumer facing the
product with the following
exceptions:
o If this panel too small to
accommodate the necessary
information or is not usable
(e.g.folded flaps), then the
information panel is the next
label panel immediately to
the right of this part of the
label.
o If the package has one or
more alternate PDP,the
information panel is
immediately contiguous and
to the right of any PDP.
o If the top of the container is
the PDP and the package
has no alternate PDP, the
 information panel is any o 355mL NET
panel adjacent to the PDP CONTENTS
o 24 pieces
o 2.95kg NET
CONTENTS
2. Ingredients
 Are defined in Article to mean
“any substance,Are defined in

● Required information: All other Article to mean “any

mandatory information which substance,including additives,

include the name and address of used in the manufacture or

the manufacturer, packer, or including additives, used in the

distributor; the ingredient list manufacture or preparation of a

and the country of origin. foodstuff and still present in

● The nutrition facts (when the preparation of a foodstuff

present) may appear on the and still present in the finished

information panel Ingredients: product. ”finished product. ”

○ Nutrition Information  Listing of all the ingredients or

○ Manufactured by: components of Listing of all
PRODUCT of the the ingredients or components
PHILIPPINES of the product in descending
order of predominance the
Mandatory Labelling Requirements
product in descending order of
1. Product Identity or Name
predominance by weight by
 The name should distinguish
weight.
the product from other
 Example: Snails in Coconut
products of the same type
Milk
 A sufficient precise description
o Ingredients: Snail,
of the food and of its nature
coconut milk, salt,
 Product name should not be
garlic, spices
misleading
o Benzoic acid
 The name prescribed by law
(preservative)
 Net Content Declaration
o Sodium slfateslfate
 Expression of the weight,
(antioxidant)
measure or numerical count or
o FD & C Blue No. 1
a combination of numerical
3. Name and Address of
count and weight of the
Manufacturer, Packer or
product inside the package.
Distributor
 Examples:
 Examples:
o 227g NET CONTENTS
  Manufactured by: _____,  This technique has been used for
Distributed by: _____, many years for products such as
Packed by: _____ cured meats and cheese.
4. Country of Origin 3. Modified Atmosphere Packaging
5. Lot Identification Code  Is a procedure which involves
 Lot identification replacing air inside a package
code/production code shall be with a predetermined mixture of
embossed or otherwise gases prior to sealing it. The
permanently marked on gases involved in modified
immediate individual atmosphere packaging, as
packages or containers. applied commercially today, are
6. Open-Date Marking for specific carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
food oxygen.
 Means legibly indicating a i. Carbon dioxide reacts with
date on food labels/packages water in the product to
for the purpose of informing form carbonic acid which
the consumer about the lowers the pH of the food.
expected quality of product at It also inhibits the growth
a given period of time of certain
provided that it has been microorganisms,mainly
properly stored. moulds and some aerobic
 Examples: Consume before bacteria.
and Best before ii. Nitrogen has no direct
● For bakery products, milk and milk effect on microorganisms
products, vitamin C enriched liquid or foods, other than to
fruit drinks, replace oxygen, which can
inhibit the oxidation of
Packaging Methods
fats.
1. Aseptic Method
iii. Oxygen is included in
 Process in which a food product,
MAP packages of red meat
such as ultra high temperature
to maintain the red colour,
(UHT) milk and its package is
which is due to the
sterilized separately and then
oxygenation of the
combined and sealed under
myoglobin pigments.
sterilized atmosphere. It
4. Novel Packaging Methods
increases the shelf-life.
a. Biodegradable
2. Vacuum Packaging
 According to the ASTM,
 It is a procedure in which air is
2003 guidelines, a
drawn out of the package prior
“biodegradable plastic” is
to sealing but no other gases are
defined as a degradable
introduced.
plastic in which the
 degradation results from the polymer architecture
action of naturally occurring (Sinclair, 1996 ; Siracusa et
microorganisms such as al., 2008).
bacteria, fungi and algae.  According to the ASTM,2003
 These requirements include guidelines, a “biodegradable
barrier properties (to water plastic” is defined as a
vapor, gases, light and degradable plastic in which
aromas), optical properties the degradation results from
(transparency), strength, the action of naturally
welding and molding occurring microorganisms
properties, printing such as bacteria, fungi and
properties, migration algae.
resistance, chemical and  These requirements include
temperature resistance, the barrier properties (to water
ability to satisfy disposal vapor, gases, light and
requirements, antistatic aromas), optical properties
properties, and the ability to (transparency), strength,
retain sensory properties. welding and molding
 These renewable resources properties, printing
consist of proteins (whey properties, migration
protein, soy protein, collagen, resistance, chemical and
gelatin, wheat protein etc.), temperature resistance, the
polysaccharides (starch, ability to satisfy disposal
alginates, pectin, requirements, antistatic
carrageenans and properties, and the ability to
chitosan/chitin) and lipids retain sensory properties.
(fats, waxes and oils) b. Active Packaging
(Comstock et al., 2004).  Active packaging is an
 Polymers such as innovative concept that can
polylactide(PLA) have gained be defined as a mode of
growing attention in the last packaging in which the
decade as food packaging package, the product and the
materials because they can environment interact to
easily be obtained from prolong shelf-life or enhance
renewable resources, their safety or sensory properties,
production consumes while maintaining the quality
quantities of carbon dioxide, of the product (Suppakul et
they can be recycled and al., 2003 ).
composted, and their physical  It allows the active
and mechanical properties preservation of foods,
can be tailored through the according to their needs, by
 modification of the supplied by the food to
environment inside the produce a reactive hydrated
package by removing metallic reducing agent that
undesired gases or by scavenges oxygen within the
regulating the composition of food package and
the gas in the package irreversibly converts it to a
headspace. stable oxide.
 Active systems can be  The iron powder is
classified according to their separated from the food by
functionality as scavengers, keeping it in a small, highly
regulators and emitters, and oxygen permeable sachet
their action can be specific that is labelled “Do not eat”.
for several substances (O2 ,  The main advantage of
CO2 , ethylene etc.). The using such oxygen
internal atmosphere may be scavengers is that they are
regulated by substances that capable of reducing oxygen
absorb (scavenge) or release levels to less than 0.01%.
(emit) gases or vapors.  Nonmetallic scavengers
Oxygen Scavengers include those that use
 Oxygen can have organic reducing agents
considerable detrimental such as ascorbic acid,
effects on foods. Oxygen ascorbate salts or catechol.
scavengers can therefore  There are many commercial
help maintain food product sachet and label devices that
quality by decreasing food can be used to either
metabolism, reducing scavenge or emit carbon
oxidative rancidity, dioxide. The use of carbon
inhibiting undesirable dioxide scavengers is
oxidation of labile pigments particularly applicable for
and vitamins, controlling fresh roasted or ground
enzymatic discoloration and coffees that produce
inhibiting the growth of significant volumes of
aerobic microorganisms. carbon dioxide. Fresh
 The most common oxygen roasted or ground coffees
scavengers take the form of cannot be left unpackaged
small sachets containing since they absorb moisture
various iron-based powders and oxygen and lose
containing an assortment of desirable volatile aromas
catalysts. and flavors.
 These chemical systems  Ethylene Scavengers
often react with water Ethylene (C2H4) is a plant
 hormone that accelerates the food components (Pagella et
respiration rate and al., 2002 ).
subsequent senescence of  A variety of polysaccharides
horticultural products such (starch and hydrocolloids),
as fruit, vegetables and proteins (whey proteins,
flowers. Many of the soybean proteins and fish
effects of ethylene are proteins) and lipids have been
necessary, e.g. induction of used, either individually or in
flowering in pineapples and mixtures, to produce edible
colour development in citrus films.
fruits, bananas and  Natural polymers have been
tomatoes, but in most studied extensively for the
horticultural situations it is development of edible
desirable to remove ethylene packaging.
or to suppress its effects.  Edible films and coatings
 Effective systems utilise have some advantages such as
potassium permanganate edibility, biocompatibility,
(KMnO4) immobilised on barrier properties, absence of
an inert mineral substrate toxicity, the fact that they are
such as alumina or silica non-polluting, and low cost
gel. KMnO4 oxidises (Han, 2000).
ethylene to acetate and  Moreover, biofilms and
ethanol and in the process coatings, by themselves or
changes colour from purple acting as carriers of food
to brown and hence additives (i.e., antioxidants
indicates its remaining and antimicrobials), have
ethylene-scavenging been considered particularly
capacity. KMnO4-based for food preservation because
ethylene scavengers are of their ability to extend the
available in sachets to be shelf - life (Franssen and
placed inside produce Krochta, 2003).
packages or inside blankets d. Intelligent or Smart Packaging
or tubes that can be placed  Intelligent, or smart
in produce storage packaging is basically
warehouses. designed to monitor and
c. Edible Packaging communicate information
 Edible packaging is defined about food quality (Kerry et
as a thin layer of edible al., 2006).
material formed on a food as  It is essentially an integrating
a coating or placed method that deals with
(preformed) on or between mechanical, chemical,
 electrical and/or food packaging in the form of
electronically driven barrier and mechanical
functions that enhance the properties, detection of
usability or effectiveness of pathogens, and smart and
the food product in a proven active packaging with food
way (Mahalik and Nambiar, safety and quality benefits
2010). (Brody et al ., 2008 ).
 Some common examples of  Nanotechnology enables
intelligent packaging are designers to alter the structure
Time– Temperature of packaging materials on the
Indicators (TTIs), ripeness molecular scale, in order to
indicators, biosensors and give the material the desired
radio frequency identification properties.
(RFID).  With different nanostructures,
 In addition, self-heating and plastics can be given various
self-cooling containers with gas and water vapor
electronic displays indicating permeabilities to fit the
use-by dates and information requirements of various
regarding the nutritional foods.
qualities and origin of the  By adding nanoparticles, one
product in numerous can achieve packages with
languages are available in more resistance to light and
smart packaging (Mahalik fire, better mechanical and
and Nambiar, 2010). thermal performance, and less
 These smart devices may be gas absorption.
incorporated into packaging  These properties can
materials or attached to the significantly increase the
inside or outside of a shelf - life and sensory
package. The FDA characteristics of food
recognizes TTIs for fish products and facilitate
products, so their importance transportation and usage.
may increase in the seafood  The addition of nanosensors
industry. to food packages could be
e. Nano packaging used to detect chemicals,
 Nanoscale innovation could pathogens and toxins in
potentially introduce many foods.
amazing improvements to

MODERN TRENDS IN FOOD PRESERVATION

Introduction  Food preservation has been defined
"as the science which deals with the
 process of prevention of decay or
Emerging Technologies
spoilage of food allowing it to be
1. High pressure processing
stored in a fit condition for future
2. Pulsed electric field processing
use".
3. Ohmic heating process
 It has also been described as the state
4. Encapsulation technology
in which any food may be retained
over a period of time without being High Pressure Processing

contaminated by pathogenic  Food is subjected to very high

organisms or chemicals and losing pressures (up to 120,000 pounds per

optimum qualities of color, texture, square inch) to kill bacteria present in

flavor and nutritive value. the food.

 Used to enhance desired food
Importance of Food Preservation attributes in some foods.
● Demand and supply not equal.  High pressure to solid or liquid foods
● Surplus production of a food to improve their safety and in some
product, whereas in some other place cases, organoleptic properties and
there is inadequate supply. quality.
● Perishable foods meet high spoilage.
Principle of HPP
● Important to improve and expand
● Lechatlier principle –Any
facilities for storage and preservation
phenomenon accompanied by a
of food demand and supply
decrease in volume is enhanced by
pressure. Accordingly pressure shifts
Advantages
to that of lowest volume.
● Increasing the shelf-life of foods.
● Isostatic principle –Food products
● Perishable foods -preserved for a
are accompanied by uniform
long time.
pressure from every direction and
● Seasonal food -throughout the year.
then returned to their original shape
● Variety to the diet.
when the pressure is released .
● Reducing preparation time &energy-
Partial processing Functioning of HPP

● Stabilizing prices of food. ● Prepacked in vacuum packs or

● Decreasing wastage of food. flexible packaging materials (plastic

● Improving the nutrition of the bottles)

population. Preserved foods help ● Selected packaging must be able to

people to bring a variety in the diet, withstand the high pressures used,

thereby decreasing nutritional without losing seal integrity.

inadequacies. ● The foods are placed into a specially

designed pressure chamber which is
Common Preservation Techniques
sealed and completely filled with
● Physical methods
potable water.
● Chemical methods
● Biological methods
 ● A pump connected to the pressure ● Organoleptic preservation- HPP can
chamber pressurizes the water, i.e. be used to tenderize and improve the
hydrostatic pressure. texture of meat products.
● Pressure acts instantaneously and is ● Shucking of shellfish – HPP can be
equally distributed, there is no used for shucking shellfish and other
obvious crushing effect on the seafood.
packaged food. ● Product reformulation – the use of
● Pressure is applied for a set time HPP for enhancing the
period typically from a few seconds characteristics of reformulated
up to 20 minutes. products, e.g. low salt meats
● On completion of the time period,
HPP Products:
the chamber depressurizes and the
food product can be removed.
● Processing operations HPP is carried
out between 400 to 600 Mega Pascal
(MPa), at room temperature.
● Due to the effect of pressure, the
temperature of the product in the
pressure chamber can rise by 3-6°C
● For every 100 MPa increase in Pulsed Electric Field Processing
pressure, depending on the ● Pulsed electric field is one of the
composition of the product. emerging techniques to preserve the
foods, especially the liquid ones such
Effect of HPP on Microorganisms
as milk, yoghurt, juices, soups, rice
● Inactivate certain enzymes.
pudding, and liquid eggs, but not
● Reduce numbers of most vegetative
suitable for solid foods.
bacteria.
● It has the potential to produce the
● Spores of both bacteria and molds
foods with excellent sensory and
are largely inactivation by HPP.
nutritional quality besides extends
● The effectiveness of HPP treatments
shelf life and ensures safety.
will be dependent on the pressure
● Pulsed electric field uses short
applied, the holding time,
electric pulses to preserve the foods.
temperature, the type of food matrix
● Short pulses of electricity for
and the target organism.
microbial inactivation & causes
Applications of HPP minimal detrimental effect on food
● Spoilage control – by reducing the quality attributes.
foods microbial load. ● PEF technology aims to offer
● Pathogen control – by elimination or consumers high- quality foods.
reduction to safe levels pathogens of ● For quality attributes considered
concern such as Listeria superior to traditional thermal
monocytogenes etc. processing methods because it avoids
 or greatly reduces detrimental
changes in the sensory and physical
properties of foods.
● High intensity pulsed electric field
(PEF) processing involves
application of pulses of high voltage
(typically 20 - 80 kV/cm) to foods
placed between 2 electrodes.
● High voltage Pulsed Electric Field
(PEF) treatment of food is a good
alternative to heat pasteurization
which preserves the natural quality
of the foods and is energy efficient.
 Food is capable of transferring
electricity because of the presence of
several ions.
 When an electrical field is applied,
the electrical current flows into the
liquid food and is transferred to each
point in the liquid because of the
charged molecules present.
Microbial Cell Inactivation

Process of PEF

Effect of Pulsed Electric Field

 The first is electroporation in which
the cell is exposed to high voltage
Principle of PEF
electric field pulses that temporarily
 The processing time is calculated by
destabilizes the lipid bilayer and
multiplying the number of pulses
proteins of the cell membranes; and
times with effective pulse duration.
the second is electric breakdown.
 The process is based on pulsed
 In both cases, the phenomenon starts
electrical currents delivered to a
by electroporation by which the cell
product placed between a set of
wall is perforated and cytoplasmic
electrodes
contents leak out causing cell death.
 The distance between electrodes is
termed as the treatment gap of the
PEF chamber.
 The applied high voltage results in
an electric field that causes microbial
inactivation.
 After the treatment, the food is
packaged aseptically and stored
under refrigeration. Application of Pulsed Electric Field
 ● The consumer demand has increased
for minimally processed foods that
have a more natural color and flavor.
● Enhance extraction of sugars(beet
sugar) and cellular contents from
plant cells.
● Preservation of semi solid and liquid
foods.
● Pulsed electric field is used to
pasteurize variety of liquid and
semisolid foods such
yoghurt, apple juice, grape juice,
orange juice, sugar cane juice, soups,
brine solutions, liquid eggs.
PEF Processed Products
Ohmic Heating Process
● Ohmic heating is also known as joule
heating, direct electric
electro heating and
conductive heating.
● It is a process in which alternating
electric current is passed through
food material to heat them.
● Electric current is passed through
food, resulting in a temperature rise
in the product due to the conversion
of the electric energy into heat.
● Electrical energy is dissipated into
heat ,which results in rapid and
uniform heating with
thermal degradation.
Principle of OHP
● Based on the passage of alternating
electrical current through a body
such as a liquid particulate food
system which serves as an electrical
resistance in which heat is generated.
● Foods contain water and ionic salts
capable of conducting electricity ,but
also have a resistance which
generates heat when an electric
current is passed through.
● This resistance produces the heat
energy.
● Inactivate the microorganisms by
as milk, heat and additional electrophoretic
effect.
Working Principle of OHP
● Electrode: Plantinized titanium
electrode is used.
● Temperature : 40-140 oc is used for
less than 90 seconds followed by
cooling for 15 minutes .
● Pressure : upto 4 bar is used.
● Voltage :5000v
heating,
electro
Factors affecting Ohmic Heating
● Electrical conductivity of food and
food mixture which in turn depends
on food components (e.g) ionic
components (salt) ,acid and moisture
mobility increases electrical
conductivity ,while fats and lipids
and alcohol decreases it.
● Fluid viscosity :Higher viscosity
fluids shower faster ohmic heating
minimal
than lower viscosity liquids.
● Density and specific heat of the food
product.
● Liquid +solid mixture ,the property
difference of the two components
also affects the ohmic heating.
Applications of OHP bases, artificial sweeteners,
● Used for heating liquid foods colorants, preservatives, leavening
containing large particulate such as agents, antioxidants.
soups, stews and fruit slices in syrups
Encapsulation
and sauces and heat sensitive liquids.
● Encapsulation is the inclusion of one
● Used for protein rich
thing within another thing so that the
substances ,which tend to denature
included thing is not apparent.
and coagulated when thermally
● Two types are available. Reservoir
processed.(e.g) liquid egg can be
type Matrix type
ohmically heated in a fraction of a
second without coagulating it.
● Juices can be treated to inactivate
enzymes without affecting the
flavor .

OHP Processed Products

Two Types of OHP
● Reservoir type:
○ It has the shell around the
active ingredient.
○ This type is also called
capsule or single core or
mono core.
● Matrix type:
○ The active agent is much
more dispersed over the
carrier material.
○ It can be in the form of
Encapsulation Technology
relatively small droplets or
● Incorporation of food ingredients,
homogenously distributed
enzymes, cells or other materials in
over the encapsulate.
small capsules.
● Protected from moisture, heat or
other extreme conditions- enhancing
their stability and maintaining
viability.. Reasons for Encapsulation
● Various techniques are employed to ● Provide barriers between sensitive
form the capsules, including spray bioactive materials and to the
drying, spray chilling or spray environment.
cooling, extrusion coating, fluidized ● Stabilize food ingredients or increase
bed coating, inclusion complexation. their bioavailability.
● A wide variety of foods is ● Provide improved stability in final
encapsulated--flavoring agents, acids products and during processing.
 ● Less evaporation of volatile ● Lipids-fatty acids & fatty
materials. alcohols,waxes,glycerides and
● Prevent oxidation of food materials. phospholipids.
● Immobilize cell or enzymes in food
processing.
● Improve delivery of bioactive
materials such as antioxidants,
vitamins, phyotstreols and minerals Advantages of Encapsulation Technology

Materials used for Encapsulation ● Increased nutritional and health

Technology benefits.

● Starch and their derivatives-amylose, ● Wide range of specific products for

amylopectin,dextrin,maltodextrin,pol consumers to choose from

ydextrose, sugar syrups. ● Sensory properties remain unaltered.

● Plant extracts-pectin,gum ● Shelf life may be increased

arabic,souble soybean Other Technologies

polysaccharides. ● Pulsed light food preservation

● Marine extracts-carragenes and ● Preservation by Radiation

alginate. ● Preservation using Modified

● Proteins-milk,whey proteins and Atmospheres

casein,gelatin &gluten. ● Ultra sound technology

FOOD PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Product Development ● Do you create ideas that address the
 Developing new food products for needs of the consumer?
commercial or high street markets is ● Do you understand the business-
a time consuming and complex related implications of those ideas?
process.
Development Cycle
 Even after successful introduction of
 Ideas
a new product, recipe or dish, the
 Development
quality needs to be frequently
 Testing
improved to ensure continued
 Improvement
success in an extremely competitive
 Market
market.
Reasons for Designing a New Product
Approaches
● To enter a professional cookery
● What makes your approach unique in
competition
the commercial world of food
● To balance or enhance a new
development?
restaurant menu
● Do you emphasis the commercial
● To create a new convenience product
value of ideas?
● For a new airline, ferry or train menu
 ● Can you think of any other ideas???  One of the most important
factors in making innovative
Research and Idea Generation
concepts successful in the
● Idea generation is a critical process
market place is to understand
in new product development that
consumer reactions early in the
needs to be planned and creatively
development process.
managed.
 You should use a relevant
● Idea generation can often be a
consumer service that will help
neglected component of new product
you to obtain insights on your
development efforts.
concept.
● Large companies invest heavily in
 Questionnaires need to be
research and development yet the
designed not only as to provide a
emphasis seems to be placed more
strong quantitative analytical
on research rather than the creative
basis, but also to include
process of generating ideas.
qualitative research that helps
● Successful idea generation is part of
you look beyond data.
the pursuit for an undiscovered idea
2. Quantitative Analyst
or new dish to enhance your menu.
 This is a person who works
The Key to Idea Generation
using numerical data to give
● Capture a vision of your specific
information based on
market from different angles.
questionnaires
● Create a positive environment to
 e.g. how many people
collaborate, create ideas and problem
questioned liked strawberry ice
solve directly with customers and
cream
potential customers.
3. Qualitative Research
● See the problem from many different
 This is a method of
perspectives e.g customers, chefs
investigation, traditionally found
food and beverage workers and the
in market research .
complainers
 Qualitative researchers aim
● Think big without any constraints.
understand human behaviour in
● Use data from as many sources as
depth and reasons that govern
possible.
such behaviour.
● Work in teams to successfully
 e.g why a customer might like a
brainstorm.
certain aroma
Analyzing your Product Sensory Evaluation
1. Consumer Insight ● This is a scientific discipline that
applies the principles of
experimental design and statistical
analysis to the five human senses
● (sight, smell, taste, touch and
hearing)
 ● The discipline requires panels of
assessors, on whom the products are
tested and the responses recorded.
● By applying statistical techniques to
results, it is possible to draw
conclusions about the tested concept
or product.
● Most large consumer
companies have
departments dedicated to sensory
analysis.
Market Trends
● The food product and restaurant
market is affected by changing social
and economic patterns.
● Many people have a greater income
today compared to 20 years ago.
● People lead busier
meaning they might
shopping in supermarkets rather than
in traditional shops and buy more
ready meals or eat out instead of
cooking for themselves.
Lifestyle Changes
● In order to take account of these
lifestyle changes food developers
and chefs need to constantly rethink
the type of food and dishes required
for supermarkets and
menus.
● Customers expect to find a wide
range of foods which includes
overseas dishes and food ingredients.
Reasons
● We travel more frequently and so are
exposed to many new types of food.
● We live in a multicultural
community made up of a number of
different races and religions- many
with their own traditional cuisines.
● There are many cookery programmes
on television that encourage people
to try new food ideas.
Why we Eat what we Eat?
● Special dietary requirements
goods
● Religion
specialised
● Political
● Healthier eating
● Organic
● Fair trade
Producing your Product
1. The Development Stage
 Producing the concept is the
next stage in food production
development.
lives now,
 All data and analysis that has
do more
been collated should now be
used to develop the dish or
concept.
 It is here that you will prepare,
cook and present your product.
 In order to achieve this stage you
will need to provide accurate
food orders containing the types
of ingredient that you will be
using.
restaurant  You will need to continually
adjust and adapt the concept
until you feel it is ready to
present to the consumer to
evaluate, refer to the
development cycle.
2. Quality Assurance and
Implementing your Concept
  Quality assurance is promise
from the manufacturer to the
customer that their food meets a
clear, consistent set of standards.
 There should be quality control
checks at all key stages in the
production of your concept and
the results of the checks are
written down.
 This is called a quality assurance
system.
3. Quality Control Checks
 Weight checks to ensure the
product is the prescribed weight.
 Visual checks to make sure that
presentation is accurate
 Temperature checks to make
sure the product is being kept at
an appropriate temperature
 PH checks to make sure the food
has the correct acidity/alkalinity.
 Microbiological checks
 Chemical checks
 Ingredient checks
 Final check – the sampling of
the final product to check its
flavor, texture and aroma. This
is sometimes undertaken during
a kitchen service.
Food Safety Some of these QC Checks are
to with Food Safety
Food manufactures use a system called
HACCP to help identify what could go
wrong in the production process, and to
establish checks that will prevent or reduce
the risk of biological, physical or chemical
hazards.
4. Quality Management System
 (QMS) is a specialised way of
documenting a quality assurance
(QA) system to make sure it has
been implemented properly.
 Companies that use a QMS to
maintain high QA standards
receive a certificate that is
recognised within the industry,
called ISO
The QMS covers:
● The quality of raw materials used.
● The details of the recipe used to
make the product.
● The processes and techniques used to
make the product.
● How the raw materials are stored
● How the finished product is stored.
● Details of the procedures for risk
assessment
Development of a Prototype
 A prototype is a trial product and
extensive experiments are carried out
on prototypes to ensure they can
stand production. The prototype
recipe is converted into commercial
batch size.
 Packaging must withstand the rigors
of processing but be able to fit on the
production line as well as provide
protection for the product.
 Careful screening takes place which
includes: sensory evaluations, market
tests, packaging tests and storage
tests.
Testing the Prototype
● The new food product needs to be
tested to see if it satisfies the
approved standards
● Packaging tests are also conducted to
determine the exact shelf-life,
package strength, whether it can
 handle distribution and other product is ready for
characteristics. commercialization.
● Consumer testing must also be done
and if everything is fine then the