Exam questions in Civil Defense 2022

1. What is emergency? Conflict and non-conflict

emergencies. #
Emergency (Emergency Situation) - is the situation which has arisen on certain
territory as a result of military operations, accidents, natural and other disasters, which
may result or resulted in human victims , the damage to human health or the
environment, significant material losses and violations of people's living conditions.

Emergency situations are characterized by species, distribution scale, level of the

severity of the damage and other factors.
Emergency situations are divided into:
- Conflict
- Non-conflict

Conflict emergencies include:

- Military conflicts
- Extremist political struggle
- Social upheavals
- National and religious upheavals
- Terrorism;
- Rampant criminality

Non- Conflict emergencies include:

- Natural emergencies
- Man-triggered emergencies
- Ecological emergencies
- Socio-political emergencies

2. Types of emergencies according to the scale of spread

and level of consequences. ##

According to the scale of distribution and severity of aftermath, emergencies are

subdivided into: local, facility, local, regional, national and global.

-Private - do not go beyond the workplace, area, apartment;

- Object – are confined to the territory of the industrial facility, housing building or
structure;
- Local - emergency area is within the populated parts of the city, district or region;
- Regional – include several industrial and agricultural areas and its surroundings;
- National - emergency area covers a vast territory of the city but doesn’t go
beyond its borders;
- Global – is not limited to the territory of single country, but include territory of
neighboring states.

Emergencies are divided into the following groups:

1) Emergencies of the 1st category (severe): pass almost unnoticed, and some of
them, for example, short-term torrential flooding in the streets of major cities, may
even be perceived by many as a fun episode.
2) Emergencies of the 2nd category (especially severe for the majority of
population): - a nuisance that causes discomfort, irritation, etc.
3) Emergencies of the 3rd category (catastrophic) They can significantly change
the socio-political situation, cause outbreaks of emigration
4) Emergencies of the 4th category (irreplaceable) remains as an event that
breaks the lives of survivors( immigrants).

3. Characteristics of natural emergencies. #

-Dangerous meteorological phenomena: storm (9-11 points), Hurricanes (12-15

points), tornadoes, hails, heavy rain, heavy snow-pad, ice, frost, blizzard, heat,
drought, frost;
- Dangerous geophysical phenomena (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions);
- Dangerous hydrological events (water level increasing (floods), water level
decreasing)

- The spread of infectious diseases among farm animals;

- The spread of infectious diseases among people;
- The defeat of crops, the mass distribution of plant pests;
- Natural fires (forest, underground, steppe fires, peat fires);
- Dangerous sea hydrological events (tropical cyclones,
tsunamis, strong emotion (5 points or more), strong level fluctuation of
the sea)

4. Characteristics of ecological and technogenic

emergencies. #

Characteristics of ecological emergencies:

- Emergencies, related to changes in the earth's surface (soil, subsoil, landscape);

- Emergencies, related to changes in the composition and properties of the atmosphere (sharp
changes in zones, lack of oxygen, ozone depletion, etc.);
 - Emergencies, related to changes in the state of the hydrosphere (water environment – drying
and contamination of water sources, sharp reduction of water supplies;
- Emergencies, related to changes in the biosphere (the mass extinction of some species of
animals and plants).

Characteristics of man-triggered emergencies:

- Transport accidents;
- Fires (explosions);
- The sudden collapse of buildings and structures;
- Accidents with the release of highly toxic substances;
- Accidents with the release of radioactive substances;
- Accidents with the release of biologically hazardous substances;
- Accidents in communal life support systems (water, sewer,
gas, heating units and power systems);
- Hydrodynamic accidents (dam breaks).

5. Characteristics of social-political emergencies. #

Socio-political emergencies are divided into 2 groups:

1) socio-cultural
2) socio-political

Socio-cultural emergencies are characterized by the following features :

- religious ;
- territorial;
- kinship;
- age;
- occupational
- private property

Socio-political emergencies are characterized by the following features :

- international conflicts;
- drug trade;
- Organized crime;
- "Shadow economy";
- state crisis;
- Information and other features.

6. Characteristics of the center of nuclear destruction. ##

 The center of nuclear destruction is an area within which the impact of the
damaging factors of nuclear explosions leads to massive destruction of people and
animals, destruction or damage of buildings and structures, as well as contamination of
the terrain.
The center of nuclear destruction is characterized by: the number of victims, the
size of lesion areas, areas of infection with different levels of radiation, zones of fire,
flooding, destruction and damage of residential buildings and other structures.
Dimensions depend on the power and the kind of explosion, the meteorological
conditions, the nature of the terrain and relief.

The nuclear destruction center is categorized into four types:

1) Complete Destruction: Pressure over 50 kPa results in total devastation, with
buildings, shelters, and underground networks destroyed. Intense light pulses cause
material melting, severe burns, and ionizing radiation exposure of 500 R or more.
2) Severe Destruction: Pressure from 50 to 30 kPa damages 10% of the area,
severely impacting buildings and causing blockages. Shelters and underground
networks remain mostly intact.
3) Medium Destruction: Excessive pressure of 30 to 20 kPa affects 18% of the
epicenter. Fires occur, wooden buildings suffer extensive damage, and roofs collapse.
Basements remain safe for shelter.
4) The area of weak destruction is formed by the overpressure ( R) from 20 to
10 kPa. It covers about 60% of the area of epicenter. It is characterized by the following
factors: 1) broken window and door openings and light walls are destroyed 2) the roof
is partially destroyed 3) cracks in the walls of the upper floors of apartment buildings are
possible.

7. Effects of the nuclear explosion. ##

Nuclear explosions can be produced in the air, on the ground (on water surface),
underground (under water).

Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion are:

Shockwave - 50%
Light radiation - 35%
Ionizing radiation - 4%
Radioactive contamination of land - 10%
Electromagnetic pulse - 1%
 The shock wave is an area of rapid compression of air, extending in all directions
from the center of the explosion at a supersonic speed.
Light emission is the set of visible light and ultraviolet and infrared rays, close to it
according to the spectrum.
Ionizing radiation is an alpha (α) -, beta (δ) - and gamma (γ) radiation and neutron
flux emitted into the environment from a nuclear explosion.
Radioactive contamination of the terrain is the result of radioactive fallout (PB)
from the cloud of a nuclear explosion.
An electromagnetic impulse (EMI) causes the emergence of electric and magnetic
fields resulting from influence of gamma radiation on the atoms of the objects of
environment.

8. Shock wave of the nuclear explosion. #

The shock wave is an area of rapid compression of air, extending in all directions
from the center of the explosion at a supersonic speed.
Source of a shock wave is high pressure in the center of the blast.
The main parameters determining the damaging effect of shock waves are pressure
and velocity pressure of air.
With increasing the distance from the blast epicenter wave velocity decreases
rapidly, and the shock wave weakens. At large distances the shock wave passes to an
ordinary acoustic wave and its propagation velocity approaches the speed of sound in
the environment, ie to 340 m / s. Air shock wave during the average nuclear explosion
runs approximately 1000 meters for 1.4 s, 2000 m - for 4, 3000 m - 7 s, 5000 m - for 12
seconds.
The destructive effect of the shock wave is determined by the excess pressure.
Excessive pressure in the shock front is the difference between the maximum pressure
in the shock front and the normal atmospheric pressure before this front. Unit of
excessive pressure - Pa, kPa, or kg/cm2.

The shock wave can affect directly on the people due to the excess pressure,
dynamic pressure, and indirectly – due to secondary projectiles (destroyed buildings
and constructions, flying debris)

9. The effects of shock wave on people and animals. ##

The impact of a 1 Mt shock wave on vulnerable individuals results in various injuries:

1. **Very Severe Injuries ( P > 100 kPa):**
- Ruptures of internal organs
- Fractures
- Internal bleeding
- Concussion
- Long-term faints, potentially leading to death.

2. **Severe Injuries (60 to 100 kPa):**

- Severe shell-shock
- Fainting
- Fractures
- Bleeding from nose and ears
- Possible internal injuries and bleeding.

3. **Average Injuries (40 to 60 kPa):**

- Limb dislocation
- Brain contusion
- Hearing damage
- Bleeding from nose and ears.

4. **Minor Injuries (20 to 40 kPa):**

- Violations of body functions (ringing in ears, dizziness, headache, short-term faints,
etc.).

Outside shelters, an excessive pressure of 10 kPa is considered safe. Timely sheltering

before the shock wave arrival, considering the spread time, can reduce the probability of
impact. Guaranteed protection is achieved in shelters, fallout shelters, underground
spaces, or natural cover. Lesions depend on explosion characteristics, distance,
weather, and individual's location and position.

10. Light emission and its sources. #

 Light emission is the set of visible light and ultraviolet and infrared rays, close to it
according to the spectrum. The source of light emission is the glowing region of
explosion, consisting of a high-temperature nuclear weapon materials, air and soil (in
ground explosions). The temperature of the glowing region during some time is
comparable with the surface temperature of the sun (maximum 8000-10000 and
minimum - 1800 ° C). Dimensions of the glowing region and the temperature vary
rapidly over time. The duration of the light emission depends on the capacity and type of
explosion and can last up to tens of seconds. During air explosion of a nuclear weapon
with the power of 20kt, the light emission lasts 3 seconds.
The destructive effect of light radiation is characterized by a light pulse. The light
pulse is the ratio of the amount of light energy to the area of the illuminated surface
which is perpendicular to the propagation of light rays.
Unit of the light pulse - J/m2 or kal/m2. The light pulse is dependent on the capacity
and type of explosion, distances from the center of the explosion and the attenuation of
light emission in the atmosphere.

Light radiation affects people, causing burns to exposed skin and eye lesions (initial
impact). Burns in humans may also occur as a result of flame fires arising from the
optical radiation (secondary exposure). Ocular damage, caused by light emission may
result in temporary blindness, eye fundus, cornea and eyelid burns.

11. The effects of lights emission on people and animals. ##

The impact of light radiation on humans and animals results in burns on exposed body
areas, categorized by severity:

1. **First-degree burn (up to 200 kJ/m):**

- Soreness, redness, and swelling.
- No significant risk, quickly cured without consequences.

2. **Second-degree burn (200-400 kJ/m):**

- Blisters with whitish liquid.
- Large skin areas may lead to temporary inability to work, requiring special treatment.

3. **Third-degree burn (400-600 kJ/m):**

- Necrosis of the skin with partial damage to the growth layer.

4. **Fourth-degree burn (600 kJ/m and more):**

- Necrosis of the skin and deeper tissue layers (subcutaneous tissue, muscles,
tendons, bones).

Third and fourth-degree burns covering large body parts can be fatal. Clothing and fur
provide protection, making burns more common on exposed body parts.
The degree of light radiation burns depends on clothing nature, color, density, and
thickness. Light-colored loose clothing, especially made of wool, offers better protection.
Dark or transparent, synthetic clothes increase susceptibility. Temporary blindness from
a bright flash of light can occur, lasting 2-5 minutes during the day and up to 30 minutes
or more at night.

Protection from light radiation involves using opaque barriers like pits, ditches, hills, or
structures to create shadows, effectively reducing or avoiding burns.

12. Ionizing radiation and protection against it. ###

Ionizing radiation is an alpha (α) -, beta (δ) - and gamma (γ) radiation and neutron
flux emitted into the environment from a nuclear explosion. The effect of ionizing
radiation does not exceed 10-15 seconds since the explosion.
Ionizing radiation, invisible and imperceptible, penetrates all known materials, causing
damage by ionizing molecules in living cells. Gamma rays and neutrons disrupt cell
function, leading to cell death at high doses and resulting in radiation sickness. Severity
depends on absorbed energy, measured in grays (Gy) or rads (1 Gy = 100 rad).

Radiation dose varies with explosion type, power, and distance from the epicenter.
Human impact depends on both dose and exposure duration. Up to 50 p simultaneous
exposure or 100 r for 10 days or a year is considered safe. Exposure beyond 100 r
causes radiation sickness.

Materials like lead, concrete, and soil attenuate gamma rays. Attenuation depends on
material properties and thickness, denoted by the half-attenuation layer. Examples
include lead (1.8 cm), concrete (10 cm), soil (14 cm), wood (30 cm), water (23 cm),
snow (50 cm), and air (15000 cm).

13. The effects of ionizing radiation on people. Radiation

sickness. ###
Irradiation lasting over four days is termed multiple radiation. Single irradiation of the
human body results in four degrees of radiation sickness:

1. **First Degree (up to 100-200R):**

- Latent period: 2-3 weeks.
- Symptoms: Malaise, weakness, head heaviness, chest tightness, increased
sweating, intermittent fever.
 - Curable.

2. **Second Degree (200-400R):**

- Latent period: 1 week.
- Symptoms: Nervous system disorder, headaches, dizziness, vomiting, fever.
- May lead to death.

3. **Third Degree (400-600R):**

- Latent period: A few hours.
- Symptoms: Severe condition, intense headaches, vomiting, diarrhea, faints, bleeding
in mucous membranes and skin, mucous membrane necrosis.
- Without treatment, 20-70% cases result in death, usually from infection or bleeding.

4. **Fourth Degree (over 600R - most severe):**

- Without treatment, death typically occurs within two weeks.

14. Radioactive contamination of the land. ##

Radioactive contamination of the terrain results from radioactive fallout (PB) following a
nuclear explosion. This contamination occurs as radioactive particles are captured from
the ground by updrafts and carried away with the rising cloud, spreading over vast
distances and affecting air, ground, water, crops, etc.

Key characteristics of radioactive contamination:

1. **Duration of Infection:**
- Lasts for days, weeks, or months.

2. **Scale of Distribution:**
- Covers tens to hundreds of kilometers.

3. **Difficulty of Detection:**
- No external signs (color, smell, taste), requiring dosimetry devices for identification.

The extent and degree of contamination depend on explosion capacity, surface nature,
meteorological conditions, and time elapsed. The radioactive trace's shape is influenced
by wind direction and speed, often forming an elongated ellipse on flat terrain.

Characteristics of radioactive contamination:

- **Level of Radiation:**
- Measured in X-hours (r/h).
- Contaminated areas have radiation levels, with 0.5 r/h considered contaminated and
50 r/h considered dangerously contaminated.

- **Decay Over Time:**

 - Radioactive particles self-destruct, reducing radiation levels.
- A sevenfold increase in time results in a tenfold decrease in radiation levels.

Protective measures and adherence to established conduct rules are crucial on

contaminated areas. Asylums and fallout shelters offer reliable protection against
contamination.

15. Electromagnetic pulse. #

An electromagnetic impulse (EMI) causes the emergence of electric and

magnetic fields resulting from influence of gamma radiation on the atoms of the objects
of environment. The degree of damage caused by an electromagnetic impulse
depends on the power of electromagnetic radiation and the kind of explosion. An
electromagnetic impulse does not directly affects people. The influence of
electromagnetic radiation can cause burning of the sensitive electronic and electrical
components with large antennas. An electromagnetic impulse has the greatest impact
on the equipment without the apparatus of special protection.

16. Zones of radioactive contamination of the area. ###

Four zones of radioactive contamination are defined based on radiation doses and
levels:

1. **Zone A - Moderate Contamination (40-400 R):**

- Ro at outer boundary: 8 R/h (1 hour post-explosion), R10: 0.5 R/h (10 hours post-
explosion).
- Vulnerable people risk exceeding permissible radiation limits during the first night,
with a 50% chance of radiation sickness.
- Work continues in Zone A without interruption.

2. **Zone B - Heavy Contamination (400-1200 R):**

- Ro at outer boundary: 80 R/h (1 hour post-explosion), R10: 5 R/h (10 hours post-
explosion).
- Risk remains for vulnerable people for 3 days, resulting in 100% losses. Work stops
for 1 day, and the population seeks refuge in shelters.

3. **Zone C - Dangerous Contamination (1200-4000 R):**

- Ro at outer boundary: 240 R/h (1 hour post-explosion), R10: 15 R/h (10 hours post-
explosion).
- People may experience crushing defeat even during short stays.
- Work at facilities ceases for 1 to 3-4 days. Workers hide in fallout shelters until the
"End of radioactive contamination" signal allows them to come out.
4. **Zone D - Extremely Dangerous Contamination (4000 R and more):**
- Ro at outer boundary: 800 R/h (1 hour post-explosion), R10: 50 R/h (10 hours post-
explosion).
- Work stops for 4 or more nights. People hide in fallout shelters, and evacuation may
be necessary even within shelters. Individuals can only emerge after the "End of
radioactive contamination" signal.

17. What is chemical weapon and its characteristic features.

##

Chemical weapons are warfare agents and the means by which they are used. The
basis of the harmful effect of chemical weapons are poisonous substances.
Toxic substances (TS) are chemical compounds that can defeat unprotected
manpower or reduce its combat effectiveness.
A person may be injured by inhaling contaminated air, by direct contact with toxic
substances on skin, ingestion of contaminated food or water and as a result of contact
with contaminated soil, people and objects.

Characteristic features of chemical weapons:

- ability to affect all living beings without destroying tangibles;
-ability to infect large areas and preserve its lethality;
- rapidity of contamination and severity of infection;
-the production of chemical weapons is cheaper than others’.

18. The damaging effects of toxic substances. ## (I guess 18

and 19 are same questions)

19. Main characteristics of toxic substances. ##

The destructive effect of toxic substances is characterized by the concentration,

density, resistance and toxicity.
Concentration refers to the amount of toxic substances, contained in a unit volume of
contaminated air. Toxic substance concentration is usually expressed in terms of weight
– milligrams o TS per 1 liter or grams per 1 sq.m of air.
The density refers to the quantity of the liquid toxic substances, locatedon the
surface of the soil or object, and is expressed in grams per 1 sq.m.
Resistance - the ability of toxic substances to maintain its contaminating properties
within a certain time.
 Depending upon the period, during which toxic substances can keep their lethality
after the application, they are conditionally divided into: persistent and non-persistent.
Persistent toxic substances retain their lethality from several hours to several days
or even weeks. They evaporate very slowly and change little under the influence of air
or moisture. Persistent toxic substances include sarin, zoman, yperite, etc.
Non- persistent toxic substances retain lethality in the open area for a few minutes,
and in places of stagnation (forests, ravines, engineering constructions) - from a few
tens of minutes or more. Non-persistent toxic substances include phosgene, hydrogen
cyanide, cyanogen chloride, etc.

Toxicity is the ability of toxic substances to cause lesions when ingested in certain
doses.
By toxic classification, all toxic substances, according to characteristic features of
influence on human body, are divided into five groups:
- neuroparalitical
- Blister
- Blood gases
- asphyxiant
- irritant

20. Neuroparalitical toxic substances. ####

Neuroparalitical toxic substances include sarin, soman and v-gases. Not only
vapours, but sarin liquids as well, have severe toxic effects on the body. When
absorbed through the skin, sarin poisons the whole organism. Under the influence of
sarin, there appears miosis (narrowing of the pupils of the eyes), difficulty in breathing
due to narrowing of the bronchial tubes, there is an excessive salvation, excessive
sweating, vomiting, dizziness, faints, seizures, severe convulsions, paralysis and, as a
consequence, severe poisoning and death.
Zoman is a colorless and almost odorless liquid. Zoman is very close to sarin due
to some similar properties. Zoman resistance is slightly higher than that of sarin’s, it
affects human body approximately 10 times stronger than sarin.
V-gases are little volatile liquids with a high boiling point, so their resistance is much
greater than the resistance of sarin.
First Aid: the affected need to wear respirators, to be brought out of the poisoned
atmosphere. It is necessary to administer medications (antidotes) into the body by the
injection of the syringe tube or make them take an atropine pill. In any case, the victims
need to be transported immediately to the nearest medical center. If sarin liquid is on
clothing and exposed skin, the affected area should be immediately treated with
aqueous ammonia or liquid from an individual anti-gas package.

21. Blood gases toxic substances. ####

Blood gases toxic substances include prussic acid and cyanogen chloride.
 Prussic acid is colorless liquid with a distinctive odor reminiscent of bitter
almonds in small concentrations, the smell is hard to distinguish. Prussic acid is volatile
and is only valid in the vapor state.
The characteristic features of the lesion by prussic acid are: a metallic taste in the
mouth, throat irritation, dizziness, weakness and nausea. Then comes the painful
shortness of breath, slow heartbeat, the poisoned faints, sudden convulsions occur.
Convulsions do not last long, then comes complete muscle relaxation with a loss of
sensitivity, a drop in temperature, respiratory depression, after which the poisoned stops
breathing. Cardiac function after cessation of breathing continues for the following 3-7
minutes.
Cyanogen chloride – is a volatile, colorless liquid that has a pungent odor,
irritates mucous membranes and causes tearing. As prussic acid, it also has blood
gases impact. Inhalation of cyanogen chloride at a concentration of 0, 005mg / L results
in irritation of the eyes and respiratory tract.

First Aid: if a person is intoxicated by prussic acid or cyanogen chloride vapors, he

or she should wear a respirator, and if there is a vial of antidote (amyl nitrite), crush it
and put under the front part of the respirator. In severe cases of poisoning artificial
respiration must be applied, the victim must be made warm and sent to the medical
center.

22. Blister toxic substances. ####

Blister toxic substances include: yperite, lewisite, and nitrogen yperite.

Yperite - is a dark brown oily liquid with a characteristic odor reminiscent of garlic or
mustard. Yperite slowly evaporates from the affected areas, its resistance on the ground
is in summer - from 7 to 14 days, in winter - a month or more. Yperite has a
multifaceted effect on the body: in a liquid and vapor state, it affects the skin and eyes,
in the form of vapor - the airways and lungs, in case of eating it with food and water
affects the digestive organs. The impact of yperite is not immediate, it begins after a
while, this period is called the latent period of the impact. When dropped on the skin
drops of yperite are quickly absorbed into it without causing pain. After 4 - 8 hours there
appear redness and itching on the skin. By the end of the first and beginning of the
second day small bubbles are formed, but then they merge into a single large bubble,
filled with amber-yellow liquid, which eventually becomes cloudy. The emergence of
bubbles is accompanied by malaise and fever. After 2-3 days the bubbles burst,
exposing under an ulcer which does not heal for a long time. If the ulcer becomes
infected, there is a festering, and healing time increases to 5-6 months.
Lewisite. Due to the character of impact, lewisite is similar to yperite, but it has its
own features. The main feature among them is that lewisite has no latent period of
impact. After contact with skin lewisite almost immediately causes a strong burning
sensation. There appear redness and swelling, blistering stage ends at the end of the
second day, after which the bubbles burst, forming ulcers. Lewisite, as well as yperite,
being absorbed into the blood, causes systemic poisoning of organism.
 First aid. If a drop of lewisite got on skin or clothing, immediately decontaminate
the affected area with individual anti-gas package or a solution of chlorine bleach. Eyes
affected by vapor or droplets of lewisite, must be washed with a 2% solution of baking
soda. Mouth and nose must be rinsed with 2% solution of soda or a mild solution of
bleach (0, 1 - 0, 2%).

23. Asphyxiant toxic substances. ####

Asphyxiant toxic substances include phosgene and dimethylamide lysergic

acid .

Phosgene – is a colorless, highly volatile liquid with a smell of rotten hay or rotten
apples. It impacts the body in the vapor state. Phosgene has a latent period of impact-
4 – 6 hours. It affects mainly the respiratory system, destroying the walls of the
pulmonary vesicles (alveoli) and capillaries. The walls of the alveoli and the capillaries
become permeable to liquid blood, resulting in edema of the lungs, the oxygen supply of
organism is broken. In case of inhaling the phosgene person feels an unpleasant sweet
taste in mouth, then there appear cough, dizziness, and fatigue. If a person goes out of
the contaminated air, he feels good, this period is called the period of imaginary
improvement. However, after 4-6 hours the affected person feels a sharp deterioration:
cyanotic coloring of the lips, cheeks and nose develops rapidly, general weakness,
headache, hurried breathing, pronounced shortness of breath, painful cough are
observed.
First aid: it is necessary to put on the affected a respirator, remove him or her from
the contaminated air and quickly deliver to the medical center. Artificial respiration must
be applied.

Dimethylamide lysergic acid is a poisonous substance with psychochemical

impact. In case of contact with the human body in 3 minutes there appear mild nausea
and dilated pupils, and then - hearing and vision hallucinations which continue for
several hours.

24. Irritant toxic substances. ####

Irritant toxic substances include adamsite and chloroacetophenone.

Adamsite is a yellowish-green crystals. It affects the upper respiratory tract, causing a

sharp irritation (coughing, sneezing, increased nasal discharge, burning or pain in the
chest). Irritation appears after a short latency period. After the cessation of breathing the
poisoned air, the whole period of contamination lasts for 1-2 hours.
First Aid: wear a respirator on the affected and move him from contaminated air, take
from individual anti-gas package the tube with a smoke preventing mixture , crush it
and put under the front part of the respirator, or make him sniff it.
Chloroacetophenone - is a colorless, yellow or brownish crystals with odor reminiscent
of bird- cherry flowers. In martial concentrations chloroacetophenone is lachrymatory. In
high concentrations or in case of prolonged exposure of low concentrations it results in
the upper respiratory tract irritation, and even affects the skin (redness, itching,
burning). When you exit the contaminated air, all the phenomena of irritation rapidly
disappear.
First Aid: Remove the victim from the contaminated area, if necessary, rinse the eyes
and mouth with a 2% solution of soda or clean water. You must not rub your eyes.

25. Psychogenic toxic substances. ####

Psychogenic toxic substances include psychochemicals and psychomimetic

toxic substances. These toxic substances disrupt normal mental activities of people.
BZ is the most usually used among them. BZ – is crystalline material that can be
applied as aerosols (fumes). It is believed that the psychogenic toxic substances are the
ones that incapacitate human brain. In case of defeat by BZ loss of orientation in time
and space, the restlessness, the distortion of perception of the environment (a distortion
of shapes and colors of the surrounding objects), auditory and tactile hallucinations,
incoherent, slurred speech are observed. There also appear delusions of persecution,
which causes the aggression of the victims, they are even attempting to escape from
imaginary pursuers, feel changes in their body or its parts. They have dilated pupils, dry
skin and mucous membranes.

Immediately after leaving the contaminated area victims may fall into a drowsy state.
Having suffered a psychosis, they usually have complete amnesia, they cannot move
remember or talk about their experiences.

An epicenter of chemical contamination is the territory within which the impact of

chemical weapons results in massive loss of people, animals and plants.

26. Potent toxic substances. Chlorine, ammonia. ####

Highly toxic substances include: chlorine, ammonia, nitric acid, fluorine compounds.
In small and medium concentrations
Chlorine causes a burning sensation and pain in the eyes, feeling of tightness and
pain in the chest, sore throat, watery eyes, there appear dry and painful cough,
spasms of the larynx. At high concentrations chlorine quickly causes pulmonary
edema, which runs about the same as in case of asphyxiant toxic substances. A
person who is in the atmosphere with very high concentrations of chlorine vapor, suffers
from faints and quickly dies of respiratory failure, which appears as the result of lungs
burnt by chlorine vapor.
First aid: the person affected by chlorine gas must wear respirator and quickly
taken out of the area of the lesion. People, who work in such areas, must wear
respirators.
 Ammonia – is a colorless gas with sharp irritative effect. It is used in the
refrigeration industry as a refrigerant, as an avid absorber of heat during evaporation, as
well as for nitrogen fertilizers. Ammonia causes severe irritation of the respiratory tract,
and at high concentrations the arousal of the central nervous system. When exposed at
low concentrations, ammonia entails light phenomena of rhinitis, pharyngitis, tracheitis,
bronchitis, which lasts 3-5 days. In case of influence of high concentrations of ammonia
severe cough, pain and tightness in the chest are observed, there is a diffuse muco-
purulent bronchitis. In severe lesions spasm of the glottis, pneumonia and pulmonary
edema can occur.
First aid in acute poisoning with ammonia is the rapid removal of the infected from
contaminated atmosphere, the release of hindering clothing and supply of oxygen. If
eyes are affected, copious irrigation with water is recommended. People must work in
the area in respirators and use protective skin means.

27. Potent toxic substances. Nitric acid, fluorine and its

compounds. ####
Nitric acid. Getting on the skin, nitric acid coagulates tissue proteins and causes
dehydration of tissues, thereby forming a dense dry scab dyed in a greenish yellow
color. The lesion usually covers the papillary layer of the skin and sometimes extends
to a greater depth. The affected area quickly sphacelates. Effects of nitric acid in the
eye causes necrosis of the cornea resulting in blindness.

In case of mild lesions by means of inhalation changes are observed mainly in the
upper respiratory tract. In addition, the state of stupor, dizziness, weakness, fatigue are
also observed. Duration of such lesions is 3-5 days.
First aid is a quick and thorough partial sanitation, putting on the respirator and rapid
removal of the victim from the contaminated area.

Fluorine and its compounds are quite toxic substances. Lesions caused by fluorine
and its compounds are very similar to lesions caused by nitric acid. However, burns
caused by fluorine and its compounds, thereof may occur not only in contact with the
liquid product, but upon exposure of its vapor and fluorine compounds on the skin. In
this case skin burns, caused by fluorine, are usually deeper.
Inhalation of vapors of fluorine leads to the development of toxic pulmonary
edema with even more than in lesions of nitric acid, cauterizing effect and more severe
course of the lesion
28. Characteristic features of the epicenter of biological
lesion. ####
The center of bacteriological lesion is an area within which as a result of application
of biological weapons, there appear mass destruction of people, farm animals, plants,
and contamination of residential buildings, contamination of the air, water and soil
environment by bacterial means.
It is also necessary to take into account the facts of sabotage and uncontrollable
entry into the territory of the Azerbaijan Republic of foods of various assets, equipment,
etc., which can lead to the formation of the zones of bacteriological contamination with
varying degrees of danger to human life, animals and plants, etc.
The basis of biological weapons are biological means, which include pathogens -
bacteria and the toxins, viruses, rickettsiae, fungi that they produce.

Characteristics of usage of bacteriological weapons

In areas of the usage of bacteriological weapons the following cases are observed:
1) a drop of liquid or powdered substances on soil, vegetation, and miscellaneous
items, the formation of a light smoke (fog) 2) the emergence of a passing airplane strip,
which gradually settles and dissipates 3) the accumulation of insects and rodents, the
most dangerous peddlers of bacterial agents, unusual for this area and this time of year
4) the emergence of large-scale diseases in humans and animals, as well as the mass
loss of agricultural land.
Area of Bacteriological (Biological) infection is a district area (water area) or a region
of airspace contaminated by biological pathogens, hazardous to the public.

Lesion zone is characterized by the following factors:

1) The types of bacterial agents used for infection 2) size 3) the location in relation to
the objects of national economy 4) the formation time 5) the degree of danger and its
change with time.
The center of Bacteriological (Biological) lesion is an area in which the impact of
biological weapons result in mass destruction of people, animals and crops. It can be
formed in the infected area, and as a result of the spread of infectious diseases at the
border zone of contamination.

The center of Bacteriological (Biological) lesion is characterized by: 1) the type of the
applied bacterial agents 2) the number of affected people, animals, plants 3) the
duration of the conservation of damaging properties of the pathogens.
29. Quarantine and observation.. ###

To prevent the spread of infectious diseases, localization and liquidation of areas

and centers of Bacteriological (Biological) destruction, quarantine and observation are
established on the basis of order of the chief of Civil Defense of the city, county, etc.

Quarantine is a set of antiepidemic measures aiming to isolate and eliminate

infectious diseases within a designated area. It is imposed for highly dangerous
pathogens, with security measures at external borders and internal commandant's
offices. No exit or removal of animals/property is allowed. Access is restricted to
specialized civil defense and medical units. Production activities within the quarantine
zone follow strict anti-epidemic protocols. Educational institutions, markets, and other
facilities cease operations. If the bacteriological agent poses no significant threat,
quarantine may be replaced by observation

Observation is the organization of different isolation-restrictive and preventive

measures aimed at preventing the spread of infectious diseases. Observation is
introduced in areas which are in direct contact with the boundary of the quarantine
zone. Regime activities in the area of observation, as opposed to the quarantine,
include: 1) the maximum limit of entry and exit, as well as the removal of the property
from the source without the prior permission of decontamination and epidemiologists,
(epidemiological examination) 2) strengthening of medical monitoring of food and water
3) limited movement on the contaminated area 4) communication between people.
In areas of quarantine and observation from the beginning of their spreading
conducted decontamination measures, such as disinfection, disinsection and dertation
(destruction of insects and rodents).

30. Frightening properties of biological weapons. Ways and

means of disease transmission. ##

Fighting properties of bacteriological (biological) weapons are determined by a

number of features of their influence on humans and animals. They are the following:

1) the ability to cause massive infectious disease in humans and animals when ingested
in very small quantities, 2) the ability of many infectious diseases to be rapidly
transmitted from sick to the healthy people 3) the long duration of impact (for example,
the spore form of anthrax germs retain lesion properties a few years ) 4) the presence of
a hidden (incubation) period (time from infection to the appearance of symptoms the
disease) 5) the ability of contaminated air to penetrate into various unsealed shelter,
accommodation and contaminate vulnerable people, as well as cause the contamination
of kitchens, warehouses, and other spaces 6) the difficulty and length of the detection
of pathogens and toxins in the environment, requiring special methods of laboratory
studies (diagnosis).
 There are different ways and methods of transmission of infection:

1) through the respiratory system, 2) the consumption of contaminated food, fodder and
water, 3) in contact with contaminated objects 4) when dealing with sick people and
animals 5) in case of with insect bites and ticks that transmit the disease.

31. First medical aid in case of sudden cardiac arrest and

respiratory arrest. ###

**First Aid for Sudden Cardiac Arrest and Respiratory Arrest:**

In cases of sudden cardiac arrest and respiratory arrest, immediate intervention is

crucial to prevent clinical death.

**Artificial Respiration:**
1. Lay the victim on their back and ensure open airways by tilting the head back.
2. If specialized apparatus is unavailable, use "mouth-to-mouth" resuscitation.
3. Clear the victim's mouth, pinch the nose, form a seal with your lips, and blow air into
their mouth.
4. Blow a sufficient amount of air to cause chest motion, aiming for 16-18 breaths per
minute.
5. Perform artificial respiration rhythmically until natural breathing is restored.
6. In cases of lower jaw wounds, air can be blown through the victim's nose with the
mouth closed.
7. Cease artificial respiration if there are obvious signs of death.

**Chest Compressions:**
1. In sudden cardiac arrest, characterized by the absence of heart rate and dilated
pupils, proceed to chest compressions.
2. Place the victim on a firm surface, kneel beside them, and interlock your hands on
the lowest part of the sternum.
3. Administer energetic rhythmic bursts of 50-60 compressions per minute, allowing the
chest to fully stretch after each thrust.
4. Shift the front chest wall to a depth of 3-4 cm.
5. Combine chest compressions with artificial respiration. Enlist two or three helpers for
continuous support.
6. Alternately perform 4-5 chest compressions (expiration) followed by one lung air
injection (inhalation).

**Electric Shock Cases:**

1. Release the victim from the electric current by turning off the circuit breaker and
removing plugs or wires.
2. Use rubber gloves to touch the victim if they are still in contact with electricity.
3. Remove wires using a dry wooden stick.
4. After freeing the victim, initiate artificial respiration and chest massage.
5. Once cardiac activity and respiration are restored, attend to wounds and burns,
applying sterile dressings.
6. Keep the victim warm after restoration.

32. First medical aid in case of crash syndrome and closed

fractures. ###

In areas of nuclear destruction , in case of major disasters and earthquakes, people

can be in the rubble. With prolonged compression of the soft tissues of the individual
parts of the body, a very severe defeat, called crush syndrome or traumatic limb
toxicities, can develop in the lower or upper limbs. It is due to absorption of toxic
substances, that are products of decomposition of soft-tissue crushing, into the blood, .
In cases of traumatic toxicities, the injured may experience pain, nausea, headache,
and thirst, with visible scratches and dents on the affected body part, mimicking the
shape of crushing items. The skin appears pale, sometimes bluish, and is cold to the
touch. Swelling of the damaged limb occurs 30-40 minutes after release from rubble.

First medical aid involves:

1. Imposing a sterile bandage on wounds and abrasions.
2. For cold, cyanotic limbs with severe damage, a tourniquet is applied above the
compression area to halt the absorption of toxic substances. Care is taken not to
excessively disrupt blood flow.
3. For warm and less damaged limbs, a tight bandage is applied.
4. After tourniquet or bandage application, an injection of an analgesic agent is
administered from a syringe-tube, or in its absence, 50 grams of vodka.
5. Damaged limbs, even without fractures, are immobilized using tires or available
means.

In the initial moments of first aid, the injured should receive hot tea, coffee, and ample
fluids with baking soda (2-4 g per intake, 20-40 g per day). Baking soda aids in restoring
the acid-base balance, and increased fluid intake helps eliminate toxic substances
through urine.
In case of bruises superficially located tissues and internal organs can be damaged.
Signs of injury of superficially located soft tissues are pain , swelling, bruising . When
providing first medical aid a pressure bandage must be applied, as well as cold. Severe
bruising of chest or stomach may be accompanied by damage of the internal organs :
lungs, liver , spleen , kidney , pain and sometimes internal bleeding . It is necessary to
apply a chill and deliver the injured person urgently to a medical facility .
A sprain occurs in case of unsuccessful jump, fall, lifting of weights. There appear pain,
swelling and the limited movement in the injured area. When providing first medical aid
you should produce tight bandaging, apple cold to the damaged area, provide peace of
the affected limb.

Twists occur when joint surfaces displace, disrupting the joint capsule and potentially
tearing ligaments. Symptoms include joint pain, impaired movement, altered joint shape,
limb shortening, and forceful positioning. Dislocations can also affect mandibular and
intervertebral joints, with vertebral displacement risking spinal cord compression and
lower limb dysfunction.

First aid for dislocations involves not attempting reduction, as it is the duty of a doctor.
Immobilization is key, especially in large joints like the hip, knee, shoulder, and
intervertebral joints, accompanied by the administration of an analgesic agent..

First medical aid in case of fractures

Addressing fractures requires prioritizing life-saving measures, such as stopping

arterial bleeding, preventing traumatic shock, applying sterile dressings, and
immobilizing the fracture site using gentle techniques like splints. The goal is to achieve
stillness at the fracture site, reducing pain and preventing shock. The severity and
location of the fracture, along with associated injuries, determine the specific methods
and order of first aid interventions.

33. First medical aid in case of bleeding. ###

Depending on the type of bleeding (arterial, venous, capillary) and available equipment
there are two types of stopping bleeding: temporary or final

Temporary stopping of bleeding in case of the most dangerous external arterial bleeding
is carried out by the appliance of tourniquet or twist, fixing the limb in a position of
maximum flexion, pressing of the artery in the area higher than the injury. The carotid
artery is pressed below the injury. Finger pressing is the most affordable and fast way to
temporarily stop arterial bleeding. Arteries are pressed in places where they are near or
above the bone.

The application of a tourniquet (twist) is a primary method to temporarily halt bleeding

from major arterial limb vessels. It should be placed above the injury, tightly enough to
stop bleeding but without skin pinching. Correct positioning is confirmed by the absence
of a pulse in the distal vessel. Time of application is noted, and the limb, if possible,
should be kept warm. Limit usage to 1.5-2 hours to avoid limb immobilization; if used for
2 hours, periodically release pressure. If no tourniquet is available, twisting or maximum
bending of the limb can be used. Alternately, a rope twist, handkerchief, or fabric strips
may also stop bleeding. A folded trouser belt can serve as a tourniquet.

Temporary stop of the external venous and capillary bleeding is carried out by
applying a compression sterile bandage on the wound ( it must be covered with a
bandage or sterile towels in 3 - 4 layers , topped with hygroscopic wool and tightly
secured with a bandage ) and giving the injured part of the body elevated position,
relative to the body. In some cases, a temporary stopping of the venous and capillary
bleeding can become final . The final stop of arterial bleeding , and in some cases,
venous bleeding is carried out in the surgical treatment of wounds..
In case of internal bleeding, you must put an ice pack on the intended area of
bleeding, and the injured must be immediately taken to the hospital.

34. First medical aid in case of burns. ###

**Burns Overview:**
Burns can occur due to high temperatures, often in areas of nuclear destruction,
potentially combined with injuries and radiation damage. Thermal burns result from light
emission, fire, boiling water, and hot steam. Chemical burns arise from strong acids and
alkalis, causing local damage and systemic poisoning. Severe burns can result from
incendiary substances like napalm, causing deep tissue damage. Radiation burns occur
with contact or prolonged exposure to radioactive substances. Severity depends on the
depth and extent of tissue damage.

**First Aid for Burns:**

1. **Extinguish Flames:**
- Cover the burning person with a coat or blanket.
- Cut and remove burned clothing, leaving what's stuck to the burn.
- Do not touch the burn surface or open blisters.
- Do not apply oil, ointment, or other substances.
2. **Apply Sterile Dressings:**
- Use sterile bandages or special burn dressings pre-cut to body contours.
- Sterilize, impregnate with a special substance, and secure with ribbons.
- For extensive limb burns, use tires or immobilization means.
3. **Transport to Medical Facility:**
- In extensive burns covering a large body area, wrap the victim in a clean sheet.
- Take measures to prevent shock and transport the victim promptly to a medical
facility.

**Eye Burns:**
- Apply sterile bandages on burnt eyes.
- Ensure rest for the victim.

**Burns from Incendiary Substances (e.g., Napalm):**

- Stop burning by dousing the affected areas with water.
- Avoid attempts to extinguish using hands, as it may spread the fiery mixture.
- After burning stops, apply a special anti-sterile bandage on the burnt area.

35. First medical aid in case of chilblains, sunstrokes,

drowning. ###

**Chilblains:**
Chilblains result from exposure to low temperatures, occurring even above 0°C,
especially during intermittent thaws. Wet, tight shoes, prolonged exposure to cold air,
snow, or cold rain can cause tissue damage, particularly in limbs like feet. Symptoms
include tingling, cold sensation, burning, paleness, bluish skin, and loss of sensation.
Move the victim to warmth, provide warm water immersion, or protect them from the
cold. Replace wet clothes, wipe affected areas with alcohol, and gently rub until redness
if there's no tissue damage.

**Heat Stroke:**
Heat stroke, induced by prolonged exposure to high temperatures, disrupts body
thermoregulation. Symptoms include headache, ringing in the ears, dizziness,
weakness, nausea, vomiting, elevated body temperature, convulsions, dilated pupils,
increased breathing and pulse. Move the victim to a cooler place, remove constricting
clothes, elevate the head, cool the head and heart areas, provide ammonia, and
encourage fluid intake.

**Drowning:**
Drowning occurs when airways fill with liquid, usually water, leading to breathing
cessation and cardiac arrest. Quickly remove the victim from water, undress them to the
waist, clean mouth and nose, place them on their stomach, apply chest pressure to
expel water, then perform artificial respiration and cardiac massage, preferably "mouth-
to-mouth." If breathing isn't restored and the victim remains unresponsive, cease
resuscitation only with clear signs of death. After revival, keep the victim warm, offer hot
tea, and seek medical attention.

36. Collective protection means. #

Depending on the protective properties civil defense structures are divided into:
asylims, fallout shelters (FS) and the simplest shelters.

Shelters are vital structures for emergency accommodation, equipped with main areas,
auxiliary facilities, and sometimes food storage and medical rooms. They have at least
two entries, often opposite each other, and emergency exits in built-in shelters.
Encapsulated to prevent contaminated air, they provide a continuous supply of at least
2 cubic meters of fresh air per person.

Equipped with filter units, shelters have central heating, water supply, sewerage, and
lighting. Urban underground structures can also serve as shelters. Shelter service, led
by a commander and attendants at different posts, ensures proper functioning. Rules for
filling shelters include staying calm, following attendants' directions, and avoiding bulky
items, explosives, flammable substances, and pets.

Shelters protect against light radiation, ionizing radiation, and radioactive substances.
Fallout shelters are primarily in basements, and simple shelters like open and covered
slots can be quickly constructed using industrial or local materials. Construction of open
slots should be completed within 10-12 hours from the threat announcement. Mitigating
the harmful effects of shock waves involves constructing slots in a zigzag manner with a
minimum distance of 10 meters between them.

Shelter service, led by a commander, is organized in units of 7-9 people. The

commandant and staff check the filter unit and oversee telephone and radio points. At
the "air raid" signal, they assume their positions.

Post №1 manages the entry door, allowing people in, and closes it when full or upon the
"Close defenses" signal. Post №2, in two shifts, operates the filtering unit under the
commandant's order. Post №3, also in two shifts, prepares the shelter, turning on lights,
closing shutters, and managing utilities before allowing entry.

37. Shelters and their classification. #

Depending on the protective properties civil defense structures are divided into:
asylims, fallout shelters (FS) and the simplest shelters.
Shelters are facilities that provide the most reliable protection for people to take
refuge in them from the impact of all the destructing factors, including the weapons of
mass destruction (nuclear, chemical and bacterial agents), as well as high temperatures
and harmful gases in the areas of fires, landslides and debris from destroyed buildings
(structures ) in the explosions.
Shelters are classified according to the following criteria:
1. Due to their protective properties shelters are divided into several classes.
2. In terms of capacity, that is the number of people who can live there, shelters are
subdivided into:
small - 180 people.
average - 150-500 people.
large - more than 500 people.
3. In terms of location shelters are subdivided into:
 - Separate
- Built-in
4. In terms of ventilation system equipment:
- Shelters, equipped with ventilation system of the industrial
production
- Shelters, equipped with ventilation system, made from
scrap
materials
5. In terms of the time of the construction of shelters are:
- shelters built in advance
- shelters built quickly

38. Documents of protective constructions. #

In the shelter one should have the following documents:

1. Passport of protective structure.
2. Instructions for use of protective shelter in time of war.
3. Journal of control over protective structure.
4. Plan of protective structure.
5. List of equipment and instruments in the protective structure.
6. The scheme of operation of air supply system.
7. The scheme of operation of power supply system.
8. The scheme of operation of water supply and sanitation.
9. Operating manual diesel - electric station
10. Operating instructions for the property and filter unit.
11. Instructions on the use of personal protective equipment.
12. Civil Defense signals.
13. Phone List.
14. The log parameters of the microclimate in protective structures.
15. Tables defining the terms of use of protective structures and procedures in the
population in the areas of radiation, chemical and biological contamination, protective
regimes.
16. The scheme evacuation of the centers of infection.
17. The log that applied for Medical Assistance.

39. Which actions are to be taken in order to prepare shelters

for the protection? #

- Shelter entrances are cleared and light indicators are put there;
- Shelter rooms shall be exempt from foreign things , materials, and other
property;
- Shelter is installed with benches and ottomans to accommodate people ;
 - All the technical components and equipment are ready to be used ;
- All the protective- hermetic and hermetic doors are checked for the serviceability;
- The emergency exit and protective hermetic lid are checked for the serviceability;
the exit is cleared;
- Filtration systems , heating, water supply , sewerage and electricity are checked
whether they are in a good condition;
- The shelter is tested for its tightness;
- A sanitary point is launched;
- Water storage is checked , water supply system is connected to the common
system,
water tanks are installed ;
- A shelter is provided with telephone and reproducers , and they are connected to
a common network ;
- A shelter is provided with supply of necessary equipment and tools;
- After airing the shelter, entrance and exit doors are closed ;
- The uninterrupted duty is organized;
- The rules of people’s behavior in case of " Air alarm " are clarified;

40. Individual protection means. ##

In the protection of the population against weapons of mass destruction, along with
finding the shelter in protective structures, evacuation and dispersal of the population, a
significant role belongs to the timely and proper use of means of personal and health
protection of the population. The need for these remedies can be explained by the fact
that the population, groups of Civil Defense will have to be within a certain time, or to
carry out rescue work in areas contaminated with radioactive and toxic substances or
biological means in case of application of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons.
Personal protective means are intended to protect against the intrusion of radioactive,
toxic substances and bacterial agents into the organism, skin and clothing.
Personal protective means are subdivided into :
a) Respiratory protective means;
b) Skin protection means;
c) Medical personal protective means.
Respiratory protective means include masks, respirators and simple protective
means, made by people.
Skin protection means. Skin protection means are designed to protect exposed areas
of skin, clothing, footwear and equipment from falling on them drip-liquid toxic
substances, infectious agents, radioactive dust, and partly from the effects of light
radiation. According to the principle of the protective effect, special means are divided
into filter (breathable) and insulating (airtight).
Medical personal protective means. Key components of Medical Personal Protective
Equipment (MPPM) include the individual first aid kit (AI-2), individual anti-gas package
(IPP-8), and individual dressing package. Designed for both prevention and medical
care, these tools play a crucial role in saving lives, preventing or minimizing injuries, and
enhancing the body's resistance to various damaging factors in affected populations.

41. Respiratory protective means. Gasmasks. ###

Respiratory protective means include masks, respirators and simple protective

means, made by people.

Gas masks. Modern gas masks have a fairly high barrier properties and performance
characteristics that protect the respiratory system and eyes from the effects of toxic
substances (vapor, mist, gas, smoke, liquid drip-RH), as well as pathogens and toxins
which are aerosolized.
Gas masks are divided into insulating and filtering. Most widely used are filter masks,
which are in their turn subdivided into combined arms, civilians, and children). The
device is based on the principle of purification of contaminated air into the inner layers
of filtering-absorbing boxes, which are placed in the coal (catalyst) and Particulate
(suppressant) filter.
Respiratory protection of human against the carbon monoxide, which is not hold by
protective layers of filtering-absorbing boxes, is provided by the use of special gopkalit
cartridge that is inserted (screwed) between the front part of the mask and filtering and
absorbing box.
Ustable gas masks include industrial gas masks, especially used in chemical plants.
Boxes of these masks are specialized and may contain various adsorbents or aerosol
filter.
Filtering gas masks are composed of filtering-absorbing box and the front part. The
scope of the mask also includes a gas mask bag and box with anti-fog film or a special
pen that is used to protect the front glass eyeglass sites of the mask from fogging.
**Selection of GP-5 Mask:**
- Measure the head using a closed line passing through the crown, cheeks, and chin.
- Round the result to the nearest 0.5 cm.
- Size ranges:
- Up to 63 cm (61 cm for full-face mask): Zero size.
- 63.5 to 65 cm (61.5 to 64 cm): First size.
- 65.5 to 68 cm (64.5 to 67 cm): Second size.
- 68.5 to 70.5 cm (67.5 or more): Third size.
- 71 cm and more: Fourth size (helmet-mask).

**Selection of Front Part for GP-7 (GP-7B) Mask:**

- Detect horizontal and vertical circumferences of the head.
- Horizontal circumference: Measure along the front brow arch, 2-3 cm above the rim of
the ear, and back through the most prominent point of the head.
- Vertical circumference: Measure through the crown, cheeks, and chin.
- Determine the size of the mask based on the sum of the two measurements:
- 118.5-121 cm: First size.
- 121.5-126.0 cm: Second size.
- 126.5 cm and more: Third size.

42. Respirators and types of simple masks. ##

For respiratory protection against aerosols ( dust ) RVs, BS ,

toxic fumes , except from filtering and isolation masks, respirators are
also used. Industry produces respirators of several types: P- 2, P - 2d , PPG -1 , SAR -
57 , PWB -5 - PRSHB 59.

The P-2 respirator for adults features two breathing valves, a headband, and a nose
clip. Made of polyurethane and thin airtight films with a polymer fiber filter, it's reusable
for 12 hours. The inhalation valve allows fresh air, cleaning the filter, while exhalation
exits through a separate valve with a safety screen.
Respirator R-2 comes in three sizes, indicated on the mask and label. R-2d is for
children, smaller in size, usable for 4 hours. If moisture accumulates, briefly remove,
wipe, and reuse. After use, especially in radioactive conditions, deactivate by removing
dust and wiping the inner surface. Do not turn the half mask inside out. Respirators
don't protect eyes, so wear safety glasses while using.
The simplest respiratory protection means. These means can be used by the
population as respirators. They are intended for protection of a person’s respiratory
system from radioactive dust and in case of existence of bacterial agents in secondary
clouds. They do not protect from toxic substances. They are simple in structure and,
therefore, recommended as a mass protection means manufactured by population.
They include dust-repellent cloth masks PTM-1 and cotton-gauze bandages. Everyone
should have them at home and work place.

The PTM-1 dust-repellent cloth mask consists of a body and a mount, made of 2-4 fabric
layers with inspection holes. Safety glasses are needed if no transparent membrane is present.
The mask attaches to the head with a fabric strip, using elastic bands and ties for a snug fit. The
entire surface of the mask cleans the air during inhalation. Worn in radioactive dust areas, it
should be deactivated by cleaning and washing with hot, soapy water after exiting the
contaminated zone.

A cotton-gauze bandage is made with a 100x50 cm gauze, featuring a central layer of

30x20 cm cotton. The bandage covers the chin, mouth, and nose to the eye sockets,
with tied ends at the back and crown. Gaps are filled with wool. Designed for single use,
alternatives like towels or scarves can be used. Anti-dust goggles protect the eyes. All
respiratory protection should be maintained in good condition and ready for use at all
times.

43. Skin protective means. ###

Skin protection means. In a nuclear, chemical or bacteriological contamination there is
an acute need to protect the whole body. Skin protection means are designed to
protect exposed areas of skin, clothing, footwear and equipment from falling on them
drip-liquid toxic substances, infectious agents, radioactive dust, and partly from the
effects of light radiation. According to their usage, skin protection means are divided into
special and improvised.
According to the principle of the protective effect, special means are divided into
filter (breathable) and insulating (airtight).
Protective clothing of filter material is intended for continuous or intermittent wear. The
basis of this clothes is cotton outfit, treated with a special chemical composition.
According to its hygienic properties, it is suitable for everyday wear.
Filtering skin protection includes FTRA-58, a set of specially cut cotton overalls
impregnated with a solution neutralizing toxic substances. The set also comprises men's
underwear, a cotton balaclava, and two pairs of foot wraps. Sizes range from under 160
cm to over 170 cm. The underwear and foot wraps are untreated to prevent skin
irritation from the impregnating composition.
Isolating skin protection means encompass various options, such as combined-arms
protective kits, light protective suits (A-1), airtight protective overalls, sealed suits for
comprehensive protection, and partially or completely unsealed options for protection
against liquid agents. The kit includes a raincoat, protective gloves, and stockings. The
L-1 light protective suit, made of rubberized fabric, comprises a hooded shirt, pants with
attached stockings, two-toed gloves, and balaclavas.
Available means of protection. Available means of skin protection are usual clothes
and shoes. The population that is not associated with the work of the lesion does not
receive Personnel skin protection means. In order to stay for some time on the infected
area population will have to adapt their clothing and shoes.
Conventional capes and cloaks of vinyl chloride or rubberized fabric , drape coat ,
coarse cloth or leather , quilted jackets and pants , ski and tracksuits can protect
against radioactive dust and bacterial agents , and may also protect against liquid
droplets of toxic substances for 5-10 min , while wet clothes - for 40-50 minutes.

44. Medical protective means. ##

**Medical Personal Protective Means (MPPM) - Sizes Included:**

1. **Individual First Aid Kit (AI-2):**

- *Contents:*
- Plastic orange box.
- Plastic syringe-tube.
- Pencil cases with drugs.
- *Contents and Usage:*
- Pain reliever (1 ml of 2% Promedol solution) for fractures, wounds, extensive
burns.
 - Taren for toxic substance exposure.
- Sulfadimetoksin (antibacterial agent) for gastrointestinal disorders post-irradiation.
- Cystamin (radio-protective agent) for increased resistance to ionizing radiation.
- Tetracycline (anti-bacterial agent) for bacteriological infection, wounds, and burns.
- Potassium iodide (radio-protective agent) for radiation exposure.
- Etaperazin (antiemetic tablet) for nausea after exposure.
- *Sizes:*
- Transparent pencil cases: 5 tablets each.
- Cystamin (Pink pencil boxes): 6 tablets each.
- Potassium iodide: 1 tablet daily for 10 days.
- Etaperazin (Blue pencil case): 5 tablets.

2. **Individual Anti-Gas Package (IPP-8):**

- *Contents:*
- Bottle of degassing solution with screw cap.
- Four cotton-gauze swabs.
- Sealed package.
- *Usage:*
- Partial decontamination of exposed skin and adjacent clothing.
- Moistening swabs and wiping infected areas.
- Burning sensation may occur but passes quickly.
- Caution: Liquid in the bottle is poisonous and dangerous to eyes.
- *Sizes:*
- Bottle with degassing solution.
- Cotton-gauze swabs.

3. **Individual Dressing Package:**

- *Contents:*
- Bandage (10 cm wide, 7 cm long).
- Two cotton-gauze pads.
- *Usage:*
- Bandaging wounds, burns, and certain types of stopping bleeding.
- One pad fixed near the end of the bandage.
- The other bandage can be moved around the swathe.
- *Sizes:*
- Bandage dimensions: 10 cm x 7 cm.

45. Main principles and ways of protection during

emergencies. ##

Protection Principles:

1. Protection is conducted across Azerbaijan on a territorial-production basis, covering

the entire population continuously in both peace and wartime.
2. Safety activities take precedence based on the military-political situation, potential
emergencies, and danger in populated areas.
3. Reliable protection involves a comprehensive approach, employing various methods
in emergency situations.
4. Pre-planned events in peacetime and wartime follow a predetermined action plan.
5. All capable citizens must participate in protection arrangements.

Methods of Protection:

1. Sheltering: Population seeks shelters during threats, using modern means for
protection from destruction and industrial accidents.
2. Evacuation: Non-production population and workers continue activities in safe areas
outside cities.
3. Individual Protection: Use of personal protective equipment by the population.

Additional Measures for Successful Protection:

1. General education for population self-protection.

2. Civil Defense alert signals.
3. Protection of food, plants, and water supply systems from contamination.
4. Radiation, chemical, and bacteriological reconnaissance for control.
5. Establishment of protection regime for workers and facilities.
6. Preventive fire protection and anti-epidemic measures.
7. Rescue and urgent work, sanitization, and disinfection of people, equipment, and
structures.