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~ Density- The mass of material per ~bj.Ume; measured in kilograms per
cubic metre (kg/m3 ). The densityl~r is an important property in the study
of aerodynamics and varies w~}r~ges
a) Pressure ~
~-
b) Temperature
c) Humidity.
Such changes hav~'ru1icant effect on aircraft performance.
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Density varies ~atic presSure, temperature and humidity.
eases if static pressure decreases.
(ii) ~~decreases if temperature increases.
(~ensity decreases if humidity increases.

~-The amount of water vapour in air will also effect density. The more water vapour
in the air lower the density of the air {The reason increasing humidity decreases air
density is that the density of water vapour is about 5/8 that of dry air)
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Static Pressure (Ps} -ACTS IN ALL DIRECTION ~ 1013-.:z..s ltf21 / 1~-'7 f>.C"'/ J.?.'i2N
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hWhen air is stationary it exerts pressure equally in all directioni}. For example, a
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mass of stationary air in a container exerts a certain amount of static pressure on
the surrounding walls
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~ The unit for static pressure is N/m2, the symbol is lower case 'p '.
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§J Static pressure is the result of the weight of the atmosphere pressing d1
,the air beneatlij
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c:: b) Static pressure will exert the same force per square metre on qlk~ces of an
aeroplane. The lower the altitude the greater the force per squa~wietre.
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c -j' Dynamic Pressure (Pd} (acts downstream}
( -, This occurs&hen moving air is brought to rest on th
The unit for dynamic pressure is N/m2 and the S'f~~ is lower case 'q' or upper
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case 'Q'. ~"'- \. '
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a) Because air has mass, air in motio~st possess kinetic energy, and will exert
\ a force per square metre on a~Ject in its path.
b) ~ynamic pressure is pr~~al to the density of the air and the square of
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the speed of the ai'Lf~~g over the aircratV
this v is speei}
Instrument Error
Position Error .Jfi~

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EAS
TAS
Compressibility
Density
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Groundspeed ~
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V1 Take Off Decision Speed/Action Initiation Speed
( V2 Take Off Safety Speed
(c VA Design Maneuvering Speed
Vfe Maximum Flap-extended Speed (Top Of White Arc)
VIe Maximum Landing-gear Extended Speed
( Vlo Maximum Landing-gear Operating Speed
Vlof Lift-off Speed
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VMca Minimum Control Speed With Critical Engine Out,
( VMcg Minimum Control Speed With Critical Engine Out
VMo Maximum Operating Speed
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MMo Maximum Operating Mach Number
( Vne Never-exceed Speed
Vno Maximum Cruise Speed (Top Of Green Arc)
Vr Rotation Speed
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Vref Reference Speed For Final Approach, Normally
Vs Stall Speed
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Vso Stall Speed In Landing Configuration
Vsse Minimum Safe Single-engine Speed ,,
l Vx Best Angle-of-climb Speed ~
( Vxse Best Single-engine Angle-of-climb~V
Vy Best Rate-of-climb Speed .
Vyse Best Single-engine Rate-:'~~peed
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Remember Vfe and VIe and t~~ imum speeds at which airplane can be flown
' ded respectively
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1. UNIVERSAL LAW
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To ~strate the effect this basic 'Principle of Continuity
~~uation of continuity applies only to streamlined or steady flow. It states
X t~aC if a fluid flows through a pipe its mass flow remains constant, since mass can
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''heither be created nor destroyed. If air flows through a pipe of varying cross-
sectional area (venturi tube), the mass of air entering
the pipe in a given time equals the mass of air leaving the pipe in the same time.
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2. PRINCIPLE Ofs~f{NTINUITY
(_ (ihe mass airflow at any point in the pipe; i~he product of the density (p), the cross-
sectional area (A), and the velocity (V) and is CONSTANT.
[Mass Airflow= p A vJ
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•••• m • ••• :
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:Airflow · - · ·-· ·
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3. BERNOllf:bVS THEOREM
{§tates that total pressure energy o.fl#Jt4s~stem stay's con stan(/
This statement can be expresse4.9ressure +Kinetic energy Constant or:
;f [Pf~~ p V 2 = constan§
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meticener'
l _ts the principle of Conservation of Energy. It states that
when a fluid fl~ steady rate through a pipe, its total energy remains
constant, s!R_ce ;ti;;gy can neither be created nor destroyed. At any point in a pipe,
the total i~gl is a combination of:
Paten~ ,., Eneli due to hei ht or osition
Pr~s~y;;- · nergy Energy due to pressure
I!IDJlrt '£ Energy Energy due to movement
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'X [Ps +Pdy =Constan!]
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r SUMMARY
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(J:. At normal AOA pressure below the wing is less than ambient)
( [2. Majority of the lift comes from the upper surface] { ,.
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[3. When streamlines converge Ps(static pressure)"' and~¥ fJ
@. Boundary layer is the layer where velocity change~m \e'ro to maximum
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(99%)] "'~
5. At high AoA pressure below the wing is m~'\wl.mbient
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"AEROFOIL"
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~ {2t body so shaped as to produce aerp(.IJiikpflic reaction norma! to the
direction of its motion through th~ithout excessive drag]
~ Woundary Layer- The thin layer oJYtif adjacent to a surface, in which the
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viscous forces ore domin~
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~ Two Types-: Laminar ~rbulent
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f.,.
·Laminar Flow
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c· ~~· ~- Turbulent airflow has more thickness and cause more skin friction drag than
(" '(>'- laminar flowJ
V C2. Turbulent airflow has more energy and no directioril
~ Principle benefit of turbulent airflow is delay separatioQJ
SAHIL KHURANA
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~~hen streamlines are shown close together it illustrates increased velocity}and

( . vice versa.
(_ Diverging streamlines illustrate a decelerating airflow and resultant increasing
pressure and converging streamlines illustrate an accelerating airflow, with
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resultant decreasing pressure.
The Chord line (t. straight line joining the leading and trailing edge~ of a
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""""""-~~--'-~---~-.~-..~' .... -.J.

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(b~ of Attack (a or alpha) (can also be referred to as Aerodynamic Incidence)
~fle angle between the chord line and the Relative Air Flow]
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~ngle of Incidence: The angle between the chord line and the horizontal datum or
longitudinal axis of the aircraft. (This angle is fixed for the wing, but may be variable
for the tail planet~
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(§xtending the trailing edge flaps increases AOIJ
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{§xtending the leading edge flaps decreases AO~
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( ltotal Reaction: The resultant of all the aerodynamic forces acting on the aerofoil'
section perpendicular to chord line,.)
!:entre of Pressure (CP): The point on the chord line, through which Lift is
considered to act]
(Lift: The aerodynamic force which acts at 90° ,to the Relative Air Flo~VF I t9ht Pcdn}
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: (,_brag: The aerodynamic force which acts parallel to and in the sam~rection as the ,.
Relative Air Flow (or opposite to the aircraft flight pathfi
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"!l\MIC FORCES IS KNOWN AS TOTAL REACTION

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Relative Air Jlow~lative Wind or Free Stream Flow): Relative Air Flow has three
qualities.
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(l} ~lff{ON- air parallel to, and in the opposite direction to the flight path of the
·· ·, in fact the path of the CG; the direction in which the aircraft is pointing is
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I, vant.
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(2} CONDITION- air close to, but unaffected by the presence of the aircraft; its
pressure, temperature and velocity are not affected by the passage of the aircraft
through it.
(3} MAGNITUDE- The magnitude of the Relative Air Flow is theTAS.

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If air flow does not possess all three of these qualities, it is referred to as EFFECTIVE
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AIRFLOW {true airflow )
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3 special AOA
( (!. -4° : zero lift AOA for asymmetric aerofoiJ]

@.. + 4° : Most efficient AOA (L/D max)J
@. + 16 °: The stalling angle, lift starts to decrease and C.P. nuniA&::i
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·rransition
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(transition Point - re laminar flow first time changes toi
turbulent~
int- Point where turbulent airflow detaches from the
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Geometric Dihedral (lateral dihedral}- The angle between the horizontal datum of
( an aeroplane and the plane of a wing or horizontal stabiliser semi -span.
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A~le
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As air flows towa. r{S)Q__,~rofoil it will be turned towards the lower pressure at the
upper surface; 1!1s ~lrmed UPWASH. After passing over the aerofoil the airflow
returns to its or~l position and state; this is termed DOWNWASH.
2-DFL
Twof}j~,-rlSional flow has Upwash.at the leading edge, flow across the chord, and
~~ash at the trailing edge. There is however a third dimension in which
Spqilwise flow is also considered. It is the three dimensional airflow which explains the true
'rflow over the wing
SAHIL KHURANA
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MOVEMENT OF THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE:
~s the angle of attack increases form o• I (a)
AoA ....
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\ I To 16" the upper ' suction' peak moves

forward so the point at which the lift is,,
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~ffectively concentrated, the CP, will
move forward.t] {bJ
AnA 0°
Dgca - Fwd and then Rearward

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(c)
THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE AoA.<'
Ci:he Centre of Pressure (CP}, and thus,

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I the line of action of the Uft forcei
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I moves forward as~ angle (d)
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of attack increase Just be/ore the'
5_tall1 the Uft force re.aches a maximumii
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value and_ the CP is at its. ma.ft to.c.wardl

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.........-- Just belore the Stall~, Lilt is at~
positio11.,
( 1 its most forward 120sition. At the stal&'
Yf!lails sharp_lr_ and the CP movel_ fh

backwards i~
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Stagnation Point :As the dividi~~mline approaches the aerofoil it slows

down, and momentarily com~ rest just below the leading edge, forming a
stagnation point. ~')... ,
:*- Point o i 'tb)'st ressure and zero velocit
Position :At norm, es of attack, the forward stagnation point is situated
•
e ye, allowing the airflow passing over the upper surface to
·ard.
fixed' point on the chord line ; s • vt- c kh-e/ LrtAJ

Del· '8 ·~: 'The point where all changes in the magnitude of the lift force
~....,. ... vely take place', AND: 'The point about which the pitching moment will
~; ain constant at 'normal' angles of attack' .
' A nose-down pitching moment exists about the AC which is the product of a force
(lift at the CP) and an arm (distance from the CP to the AC)
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An increase in angle of attack will increase the lift force, but also move the CP
(- towards the AC (shortening the lever armL the moment about the AC remains the
same at any angle of attack within the "normal" range.
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SUMMARY
( ~ An increase in the angle of attack will cause:
(a) The Centre of Pressure to move forward. C3 1::-~A-t n YeJJI.ry-~.•
{b) The Transition Point to move forward.·
(c) The Separation Point to move forward.,
(d) The Stagnation Point to move down and aft towards the under su~of the
wing~ ~
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The ~entre of Pressure will reach its farthest forward point at Lu~ow the
c stallmg angle/
Wash-out- Decrease in angle of incidence towards the

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aerofoiL 'J'" ~ ""'"!:,. t.u.e.a1 f-o . ~W\0f-e
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Wing Loading = Aircraft Weight = Gross weight =~

wing area M2
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~ Zero lift AOA"""AL.~
rofoil is 0 Symmetrical airfoil >
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~ Me~~ber line and chord
lirte..ire same ~
~ . -._; c.___:ambered airfoil
'\ ~xample of symmetrical ·
erofoil are Elevator, rudder,fl,'lt"YV~
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THERE IS NO MOVEMENT IN CENTER OF PRESSURE IN A SYMMETRICAL AEROFOIL
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(' LOAD FACTOR= LIFT/Weight
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In flight n =1 I =
Climbing n < 1 and descending n < 1 Dgca dive 0 and turning
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12' = BANK ANGLE
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c 1. Load factor 2 G mea g a/c will feel its weight to be 1600 kg (double)
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therefore lift requi
2. In a turning flig~e is a decrease in the vertical component of lift (Lcose) and
( increase in rizontal component of lift (L sine)
3. To co"l~~ for the loss of vertical component of lift AOA and Power must be
lncre~~
4. I-(9J;ii9ntal component of lift (L sine) is responsible for turning the airplane and is
kn~wfi as centripetal component.
& cu CCJ~/-eJt'l"t fl:>o .,,c 11-r-eJle ,·t- 1--iAe 6peeol ~~ /Yic-r~ecl~
(CCJd ~ t f-o"O W ;I\ n1)r be ot/f.eeJr-to( dS f t t3, irtckpeV\O(pt'll t
0 "- !:. pted 0 ~ D{ epf ¥\d& L{ fC'Yl f3M /! AN67Lf c!)NL 'f.
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c SWEEP ANGLE: the angle between the line of 25% chords and a perpendicular to
r: the root chord.
F.u~lage:
A.n91eot.
t;,.,~epbaek
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2~~~J~~oot :=t=::,_:· ••:.::-~,.,_~.. ......
,-----:: __ .-~.
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+o ~or c r~f¢
Wing Span (b): The distance from tip to tip.
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Average Chord (c): The geometric average.
> The product of the span and the average chor1 wing area (b x c = S).
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Aspect Ratio(AR): The proportion of the average chord {AR = b/c or

(b 2/S).
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span span2
Aspect Ratio=-- = - - -
~·chord wing area
'he aspect ratio of the wing determines the aerodynamic efficiency.
Typical aspect ratios vary from 35 for a high performance sailplane to 3 for a jet
fighter.
The aspect ratio of a modem high speed jet transport is about 12
SAHIL KHURANA
09871866290
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CL- ~ CuYve
CL STALL
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c~Max ,.,................. '" ...................." .........~~ .._........,_,_
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CL.Max, .... ,....:··:····, .... :......................
CJ.Max ...............................,...,...•
·:/~·
;/.~-;~.. •.·.·· ··•.··• .... '.HighLifl(Cambered)
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;...;... Genml Purpose ~~ t .........%.~
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CL~Q ·. ~~gle.(lfAttack
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1. Higher the camber higher the lift, gentle tq

2. With increase in AOA, CL initially increas~lto 16 degrees and then
decreases , \~
3. Higher the camber later the stall,~ei the CL -Alpha curve.
Taper Ra . 'C T/C R}:
Root Chord (Cr}: The chord /eng~~~ wing centreline.
Tip Chord (C t}: The chord lengt~he wing tip
Taper Ratio (C t/C.r}: Th~~ the tip chord to the root chord. The taper ratio
affects the lift distribu_j~~d the structural weight of the wing.
)' A rectangu/~~as a taper ratio of 1.0
)' The point!Jfl~lta wing has a taper ratio of 0.0
,. . . .
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The amount of lift generated by a wing depends on the following:
~ WingShape
~ Angle of Attack
( ~ Air Density (p)
~ Free Stream Air Velocity Squared (V 2 )
( ~ Wing Platform Surface Area (S)
~ What is LIFT? .... Lift is a differential Pressure between lower and upper surface .. ?
~ Lift= Pressure x Area
>- ~ p V2 .CL.S
Lift is defined as the net force generated normal (at 90 °) to the r1
flight path of the aircraft. ""
pressured~;;:, between the

(
( The aerodynamic force of lift results from the

top and bottom surfaces of the wing "~
(
() CASE1
( .
Air gets thinner as altitude increases. True alqf~' of the aircraft increases
through the air to keep the LIFT constant~
( -.
~
CASE 2
IF the lAS is doubled then to m~in · i~~'h~tant lift you need to reduce the value of
CL to X of its initial value by re the AOA.
~
CASE3
FORMULAE CHECK
EX-
INTERPRET. TIOJfNJF THE LIFT CURVE s, uJ

•il:To e a constant lift force, any adjustment in@_ynarhic pressur~must be
anied by a change in angle of attack. (At CL less than CL MAX).
• a constant lift force, each dynamic pressure requires a specific angle of
~. ttack.
! \
't'
)I( . - Minimum dynamic press~fe is determined by the maximum lift coefficient (CL
~"' MAX), which occurs at a specific angle of attack (approximately 16 °)
• The angle of attack for CL MAX is constant. (This is true for a given
configuration)
• If more lift is required due to greater operating weight, a greater dynamic
pressure is required to maintain a given angle of attack.
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( THICKNESSICHOflO RATIO 13~1, ..
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TALKING OF L/D Ratio.....

• Drag is the product of dynamic pressure~ drag cofi:f.t~nt and surface area. Co
(
( is the ratio of drag per unit wing area to dyna ·

• D = Q. CD. S.
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•~:G = J:l/c~ .: ' z:- ·~'\.~

·co L/D ratio which is also• the
minimum drag speed or Max. Glide
range speed or Max. Endurance
Speed.
_@1.-:c::-L-m_a_id.,
Is equal to CL/CD thus independent
of WEIGHT
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:
·.
16o A-ngle of Attack
1. THR,_I74j!DRAG RATIO IS A MEASURE OF AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY.

~- ;
2.~--~"T.L/CD = 20:1 MEANS FOR EVERY ONE MILE DROP IN HEIGHT THE A/C WILL
\_ '? GLIDE 20 MILES ·:rN -r H"l£ fT"t-1!.... .
~~· L/D RATIO DOESN'T DEPEND UPON WEIGHT, DENSITY, HUMIDITY, TEMP,
ALTITUDE, HEADWIND, TAILWIND
4. L/D RATIO ONLY DEPENDS ON SHAPE OF WING AND ANGLE OF ATTACK
I,.·
5. WITH INCREASE IN AOA, CL INCREASES INITIALLY UP TO 16° AND THEN
DECREASES
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6. WITH INCREASES IN AOA, L/D INCREASES UP TO 4°, THEN DECRESES UP TO 16°

( 7. AT ANY OTHER ANGLE OTHER THAN 4°, L/D WILL DECREASE
8. WHEN ACCELERATING FROM CL MAX, L/D INCREASES AND THEN DECREASES
(
• The proportions of CL and CD can be calculated for each angle of attack that
( the L/D ratio increases with angle of attack up to a maximum at about 4°; t
is called the 'optimum' angle of attack. The L/D ratio then decreases with
(
increasing angle of attack until CL MAX is reached.
(
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The design of an aircraft has a great effect on the L/D ratio. Typical values are listed below
( i
~ -~
Aircraft Type L/DMAX
( . High performance sailplane from25to60
Modern jet transport from 12to20

( ·'
Propeller powered trainer from 10to 15
( )
This means a Modern jet aircraft can cover 12 tO 20 mil~of.(every one mile drop ...... .
(
L/D Ratio which is generally attained @ 4 is also ca~ VIMD i.e. Minimum drag speed or Max. glide
range Speed•• And is independent of Weight; Thu~eavy Boeing 747 or a Light Boeing 737 ifflown at
correct angle of attack 4 degrees and speed f~t angle it would glide the same distance as the lighter
( . A/C but the heavier A/C would do it in l~'l;and@ higher speed hr(J Nl'f" {2tDf::l
AFFECTING L/D RA T/0 " ~

LB
FACTORS LID GLIDE ANGLE
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(
Effect of High Lift Devices on L/D ratio :
( The principal effect of the extension of flaps is to increase CLMAX and reduce the angle of attack for any
given lift coefficient. The increase in CL MAX afforded by flap deflection reduces the stall speed in a certain
proportion.
(
Remember: CL max. represents the shape of the aerofoil and flaps changes the aerodynamic shape
( when deployed.
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Air flowing over the top surface of a wing is at a lowerfi~sufethan that beneath. The trailing edge and
the wing tips are where the airflows interact. The p~e differential modifies the directions of flow,
* ind. ucing a span-wise vector towards the root~ \,per surface and generally, towards the tip on the
lower surface, "Conventionally", an aircr~~~wed from the rear. An anti-clockwise vortex will be
induced at the right wing-tip and a clock- se ortex at the left wing-tip.
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· ~ Gross weight- the higher the weight, the stronger the vortices.
l )
~ Wingspan - Higher Wing Span lower wing tip vortices
~ Airspeed - the lower the speed, the stronger the vortices.

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Confiquration~'!ortex strength is greatest with aircraft in a "clean" configuration (for a given

/---,
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·- {a). Ft.APS UP
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MOVEMENT OF WING TIP VORTICES
( • OUTWARD
( ' • UPWARD
• INWARD
c • CLOCKWISE & ANTICLOCKWISE
( • This is the way Air try to escape from bene~~urface i.e. from High Pressure region to Low
Pressure region.
• To avoid these new generation a~
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• When landing and takin4JlJ\ closeness of the wing t.o the ground prevents full development of
the trailing vortices,p1ki,.~hem much weaker. Upwash and Dawn wash are reduced, causing the
(,
* effective angle of4._tft:J&J!)fthe wing to increase. Therefore, when an aircraft is "in ground effect"
lift will generaJ~reased and induced drag (C Di ) will be decreased.
,. Eff~: Consider an aircraft entering ground effect, assuming that a constant CL and lAS is
ircraft descends into ground effect the following changes will take place:
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~ The decrease of induced drag will cause a reduction in deceleration, and any excess speed may lead
to a considerable "float" distance. The reduction in thrust required might also give the aircraft a
tendency to climb above the desired glide path, "balloon", if a reduced throttle setting is not used.
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Leaving Ground Effect: The effects of climbing out of ground effect will generally be the
opposite to those of entering. Consider an aircraft climbing out of ground effect while
('
maintaining a constant CL and lAS. As the aircraft climbs out of ground effect the following
(' changes will take place:
)- HIGH AOA1 MORE UPWASH 1 MORE DOWNWASH ...

)- MORE UPWASH 1 MORE DOWNWASH 1 MORE VORTICES •..
)- MORE VORTICES 1 RELATIVE AIRFLOW LIFTS UP AND BECOMES EFFECTIV
AIRFLOW ...
)- INDUCED AOA INCREASES AND EFFECTIVE AOA DECREASES ...
)- LIFT INCLINES REARWARD •.•
)- INDUCED DRAG INCREASES
IOUT of GROUND EF:FECT I

\.
I•N cROur..o eR=Eci I
. ecrease overall lift production.

~ ..
c, 'b) Increase drag.

(c) Modify the down wash which changes the effective angle of attack of the tail plane.
~· (d) Generate trailing vortices which pose a serious hazard to aircraft that encounter them.
(J'b-~
.
(e) Affect the stall characteristics of the wing
(f) Change the lift distribution.
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DRAG
(
'*'
Drag is the force which resists the forward motion of the aircraft. Drag acts parallel to and in the same .
direction as the relative airflow (in the opposite direction to the flight path) Every part of an aeroplane
exposed to the airflow produces different types of resistance to forward motion which contribute to the
( Total Drag. Total Drag is sub-divided into two main types:
(
{1) PARASITE DRAG- independent of lift generation~ and z LD - z .(?f"oo r ''{ r~ b-r o (J
(2) INDUCED DRAG- the result of lift generation;
Parasite drag is further sub-divided into:

I
a) Skin Friction Drag AT -1 t40f'l
(
-
b) Form (Pressure) Drag1 and
(
c) Interference Drag
(
INDUCED DRAG
(
~
(
~ Wing tip Vortices cause Induced Drag
~ Wingtip vortices modify upwash and d~nwa;li in the vicinity of the wing which produces a
rearward component to the lift:~ aS
(
.._ INDUCED DRAG.
if attack- the stronger the vortices.
WING TIP VORTICE.
~~DECREASES UFT AND INCREASES DRAG(INDUCED DRAG}

'2.. '<
FA RS AFFECTING INDUCED DRAG ::;[_ 0 ex_. L o<. L .F r>< .l... e><.. __!_ o6 ~
~. .f- v 1- fJ, r< -rr<
~~a. ~ The size ofthe lift force -Weight W S fl 5~cl SpV~ r 'fCb.o.d
Induced drag will increase in proportion to the SQUARE of the lift force.
Load Factor= Lift I Weight
The speed of the aircraft- Induced drag varies INVERSELY AS THE SQUARE of the speed.
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);;> The aspect ratio of the wing-

(
The tip vortices of a high aspect ratio wing affect a smaller proportion of the span so the overall change in
( downwash will be less, giving a smaller rearward tilt to the lift force.
*"Induced drag therefore decreases as aspect ratio increases (for a given lift force). The induced drag
coefficient is inversely proportional to the aspect ratio.
(
Conclusion: If speed is doubled in level flight: dynamic pressure will be four times greater, CL must be
A!o.'
decreased to 1/4 of its previous value, CDi will be 1/16 of its previous value and Di will be reduce_d.-t
its previous value.
METHODS OF REDUCING INDUCED DRAG
( Wing End-plates : A flat plate placed at the wing tip will restrict the tip vortices.
b) Tip Tanks: Fuel tanks placed at the wing tips c) Winglets
d) Wing tip shape

(.-
INDUCED DRAG
(
Summary
D Spanwise airflow generates wingtip vortices.
0 Wingtip vortices strengthen do~~
D Strengthened down wash incl~. · g lift rearwards.
D The greater the rearw~(Jiijie•iffation of wing lift the greater the Induced Drag.
PARASITE DRACiJ.~-up of 'Skin Friction'; 'Form' and 'Interference' Drag.
N DRAG: Skin friction causes a continual reduction of boundary layer kinetic energy as flow
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FACTORS AFFECTING PARASITE DRAG
(
EFFECT OF CONFIGURATION: If all other factors are held constant, parasite drag varies significantly
( with frontal area. As an example, lowering the landing gear and flaps might increase the parasite area
by as much as 80%.
(
(
EFFECT OF ALTITUDE: In most phases of flight the aircraft will be flown at a constant lAS, the dynami~ i
pressure and, thus parasit~ drag will not vary. TheTAS would be higher at altitude to provide the s~
( lAS. f 0 -- 1 o v '- L . ~
;2.. ':::> I> f
~
EFFECT OF SPEED: The effect of speed alone on parasite drag is the most important. If all
are held constant, doubling the speed will give four times the dynamic pressure and h
the parasite drag
The Speed at which total drag is a minimum (V md) occurs when the induced an
equal.
( The speed for minimum drag is an importont reference for many ite~op/ane performance,
Range, endurance, climb, glide, manoeuvre, landing and take-off ~monee
(
The least total drag for lift-equal-weight flight, the aeropla
(
(approximately 4°).
DRAG
4 Parasite Drag
/-Dr.og
•!\'ott
.J!,. v .. v psJ Indicated Airspe&d
tV..,·.,. ~•..:~:5 /
COMBINED STUDY:
• TD is minimum at 4 deg AOA, at any other AOA it increases.

• Flying faster than VMD, TD increases because of increase in parasite drag.
• Flying slower than VMD, TD increases because of increase in induced drag.
• TD is minimum when ID = PD =501.
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(
THE EFFECT OF CONFIGURATION ON TOTAL DRAG
(
Increase in parasite area and drag decreases Vmd
(
(
Increased .
DRAG TOTAL DRAG
(
_,,...-"'
Oe.crea~ Vm:t
~a...e9'( iOC:I'I!t~ pal"a!'ite d~
Stabili~~ weight is increased ?

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QUES- What happens to Vmd and Speed
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ens to Vmd and Speed Stability when landing gear is extended ?
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SPEED STABILITY
(a) An aircraft flying at a steady lAS higher than V md with a fixed throttle setting will have speed
stability~
( (b) An aircraft flying at a steady /AS at V md or slower with a fixed throttle setting will usually NOT have
speed stability.
(
(c) /fan aircraft flying at a steady lAS and a fixed throttle setting within the non stable /AS region
encounters a disturbance which slow the aircraft, the aircraft will tend to slow further; /AS will te.
( continue to decrease and Total drag increase.
\,
( )
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(·.
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c Stall is simply a state offlight when Lift reduces with further increase in AoA and drag increases
involving loss of height and loss of control.
(
(
3 REASONS FOR STALL '~
1. A stall is caused by airflow separation. 4
2. Separation can occur when either the b~ary layer has insufficient kinetic energy
3. The adverse pressure gradient be~ loa great.
>Adverse pressure gradient increa~h increase in angle of attack.

~Alternative names for the angl~tack at which stall occurs are the stall angle and the
critical angle of attack. ..<)__.\= '
~ The coefficient of lift at ~li;;sta/1 occurs is CL MAX.
~ A stall can occur at
~ A typical stallin'l
· ·•. _ .~~::.:~-fv}-- {1
\~ ~c~~,;.s 11
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~o< V_s,
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16~~~~~"-rz: {~-rL~-?ij;~rr~t;.15 ...
At 16° most of the air has separated from the upper surface and insufficient lift is produced to balance
the weight of the aircraft.
SAHIL KHURANA
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The first indication of a stall may be :
• A nose down pitch that can be readily arrested (due to CP moving aft)
c • Severe buffeting.
(
Pitch control reaching aft stop and no further and no further increase in pitch
attitude occurs.
(
STALL RECOVERY
(
To recover from a stall or prevent a full stall, the angle of attack must be decreased to red
~
pressure gradient.
(
:> To recover from a stall the angle of attack must be decreased -..
(
l> Maximum power is applied during sttt/1 recovel}i to minimise he!~~
:> On small aircraft, the rudder should be used to prevent wingt.'drllb. t the stall
(
(
' ok::
:> On swept wing aircraft the ailerons should be used to~ ~
:> Recover height lost during stall recovery with mo~~~ck pressure on the elevator control
(
:> 'Small' aircraft use Vso and VS1 to base th_e~peed. V.s,o ~ S f-r{ II sftLO} :"1 L(l)t()ok'd (c)v-l.
. v c c,f--€111 ~~d ;"" CT.f!o>/IIS;P('r,'f.Nrf
:> For 'Large' aircraft a reference stall sp~d, V~, is used. .s t I- ,
{' (' 'V\
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(--:\[C) fYC/(7~,--
(_ AUTO-ROTATION:- (WING DRO~r Vso c::__
•
\_
! ( otation the down going wing will have the higherAOA,
Power idle (for piston engine only)

\. • Full opposite rudder
• Ailerons neutral
• • Control column forward
Reference stall speed (V SR) is a CAS defined by the aircraft manufacturer. V SR may not be less
than a lg stall speed.
1,:
SAHIL KHURANA
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When the speed is reduced at rates not exceeding 1 knot per second, stall warning must be
( provided, in each normal configuration, at a speed, V sw, exceeding the speed at which the stall is
identified by not less than 5 knots or 5% CAS, whichever is the greater.
(
When a device that abruptly pushes the nose down at a selected angle of attack is installed, VSR
(
may not be less than 2 knots or 2%, whichever is greater, above the speed at which the device_. i
(
operates ~
(
l> Artificial stall warning on a small aircraft is usually given by a horn or buzzer /'
_y)
~
~ Artificial stall warning on a large aircraft is usually given by a stick shaker, in
with lights and a noisemaker
A,
~ An artificial stall warning device can be activated by a flapper switch, ~gle of attack
( vane or an angle of attack probe ~
( ;>t ~ Most angle of attack sensors compute the Rate 0/Chang~~/e Of Attack to give
' (
earlier warning in the case of accelerated
. .
rates of stall..aB.orollc...
( STALL WARNING IS GIVEN AS AURAL WARNING AND VISUAL ~NAL'IN COCKPIT

I
\ ''
Movement of Stagnation pressure around the aerofoil~ ~~gl\s of attack increase, is used to operate a
flapper switch forms an circuit linked in to a buzzer in•t~~f~~ol'pit
~
~ ~jff~s w·'fch
'\,~
~Q_ 0tctlf, s k(J rNJ hO"- r~~ (~ b.!! fOvJ IV\ e

~ with a small leading edge radius will stall at a smaller angle of attack and the VCl T"\e
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~"erofoil section with a large thickness-chord ratio will stall at a higher angle of attack and will
~'Yt~H more gently
~ RECTANGULAR WING
~ ot. • ~ A rectangular wing platform usually has ideal stall characteristics, these are:-
~ a) Aileron effectiveness at the stall
~ b) Nose drop at the stall
~ c) Aerodynamic buffet at the stall
~ d) Absence of violent wing drop at the stall
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To give a wing with a tapered platform or a sweepback desired stall characteristics, the
following devices can be included in the design:-
~ a) Washout (decreasing incidence from root to · ·
( ~
m a rectangular wing are very strong while in a tapered wing is not.
"ces the effective angle of attack on the rectangular wing reduces and thus stall
I,.
om pared to root. And vice versa for Tapered wing.
SAHIL KHURANA
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33
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STRAIGHT AND SWEEPBACK WING (DGCA/AIRLINES)
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1 oe t~f.! As,pe( t Pd fto
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Tip stall on a swept wing platform gives a tendenc~he aircraft to pitch-up at the stall. This is due to
· :st. · .Sp:;JVUJ.J, 1. (1) u.J (ro""' ~6 r-
e FC r-c, T~?
.<{""~(e.. f't)'(i 1/'Q Y\ t N 1, cJ ..e vt l~p rv--PYli ~ f-
1 ,' f' ~t,·cu, Lee~ "T ,·p I.J'€.rCh'c ~ ·, L~
Tu'<'1t.t/(J"'1-
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O.UTBOARO. SUCTION
PRESSURES TEND TO
DRAW B()UNOARY LAYER
TOWARDS TIP:
(;P .fYIOVES. FORWARD AND

J A c;gEA)"ES<AN UNSTABLE . .
I NOSE. UP PrTCHI.NC3 MOfviENT
i
l J I
~
~swept back wing has an increased tendency to tip stall due to the span wise flow of boundary layer
from root to tip on the wing top surface. Methods of delaying tip stall on a swept wing platform are:-
a) Wing fences, thin metal fences which generally extend from the leading edge to the trailing edge on the
\, wing top surface
b) Vortilons, also thin metal fences, but smaller and are situated on the underside of the wing leading edge
SAHIL KHURANA
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c) Saw tooth leading edge, generates vortices over wing top surface at high angles of attack
(
d) Engine pylons of pod mounted wing engines also act as vortilons
e) Vortex generators are also used to delay tip stall on a swept wing
(
( ~~......
""".;..
/ $AWTbO'
---,--...;~<-,"'-<. '',,
.,-~.-~.,- ~ . . . ·-· \.*
't·~-·----- "
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Figure 7.15 Vortilon Saw Tooth
--r~~ OJ\ ·~ t-CDLO ~HI ~ 1-v

...
~. ~-c····-.·---"'-. ~
• • . b-t' F L.,-..
\L) '"P ~l-ei II
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-~
·~
. ·.·.·.~L--J.:
~. 0~~.··.0..
r.·.··u
IFreestreamalr . ·.·. :...
L___j~··
Improved aileron control effectivl!rt~s

' at high iu1gles of attack /low speed.
(
ad wing in terms of lift charterstics but still all commercial airliners use it
t chapters and is a very vital knowledge in aerodynamics.
(. "
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STALLPART2
(
FACTORS THAT AFFECT STALL SPEED
(:
);> Stalling has nothing to do with the speed of the aircraft; the critical angle of attack can be
exceeded at any aircraft speed. L "\
);> It is upon this reference stall speed (V SR) that the recommended take-off, manoeuvre"-~
approach and landing speeds are based, to give an adequate margin from the stal
normal operations (1.05 V SR, 1.1 V SR, 1.2 V SR, 1.3 V SR etc).
FACTORS WHICH CAN AFFECT V SR ARE:
i);> CHANGES IN WEIGHT
Increasing Weight increases Stall Reference Speed by square roa
Wl-1'
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(&St l ~] 1'l5 = bLJ·-c Y'\ •
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new Wetght
v!$1g·_new -
.....
old weig,ht
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t~ "S2 ~
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tnat a 20% reduction in weiaht has resulted in an aooroximate 10%
2> lNG THE AIRCRAFT (INCREASING THE LOAD FACTOR
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f 4q~ -.~?~,:~;s...~e; (B. 11-.11)
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SAHIL KHURANA
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Vst = .rt
Vs Y .COS$
r Load factor does no1
( effect stan angte
"-
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where: Vsr iS-the stallspeoo•in a tum
(
0~ CONFIGURATION CHANGES (CHANGES IN CL MAX AND PITCHING MOMEN

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RE·ENERGISED
( T.[, FLt1~
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POINT
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4: CG Movement
UFT J· i+cJ iJ-(}.A ~
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FORWARD MOVEMENT OF CG
TODR 1' w
LDR 1'
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AOC -!.-
ROC -!.-
NOSE DOWN TENDENCY 1' J,
vs 1' J
STALLANGLE -7 ~
FUEL CONSUMPTION 1' ..v

MAX RANGE -!.- ')\
ENDURANCE -!.- 1
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._y
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MAX CEILING -!.- 1'
PERMISSIBLE TOW -!.-
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TAILPLANE DOWNLOAD 1'
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Lr»~ 6 J--a b·,,·tr /f ._t;SEC-7, DWARKA, NEW DELHI
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c- 6. ENGINE THRUST AND PROPELLER SLIPSTREAM- Power on stall speed is less than power
( off stall speed. P(S) ~ f'
c [ v~ --r / SAil L
PROP- the slipstream velocity behind the
( I propeller increases the kinetic energy of the
boundary layer. Therefore~ stall speed
decreases. 0~ Sl::-c!i! /lr/\f:fle ;.VI(<Y('~
(
JET:- vertical component of the jet thrust

adds to the lift. Therefore VSR decreases.
(
Hoc tA &No tf\
( 7. MACH NUMBER l v~ II' [!.>It ~ }
~ As mach no. InS{_~~ 'up wash & down wash decreases 1 due to compressibility
U='
(
Ther,tFor~s vortices less turbulent airflow less energy and early stall.
effect. 1 1
~ As altitud~¥asesl stall speed is initially constant then increases~ due ~o

comp~lrty. ,-lir ~
I
r!'cs) ,;;cv~:h
~~'tcfNTAMINAnON J,. :'>
~· ~ ICE- due to icing weight increases~ stall speed increases by 30%

r ~~ ~ Icing also distorts the camber therefore staH angle decreases.
V ~ FROST:- frost formation on the wing increases Stall speed by 15 %
-r_ (' ' \1\9-\ 1'

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SAHIL KHURANA
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(
~ HEAW RAIN -Very heavy rain also increase, the stall speed due to the increase
r is weight, due to the film of water altering the aerodynamic contours ( slope )
(
>- Indications of an icing-induced stall can be loss of aircraft performance, ro~ i
r oscillations or wing drop and high rate of descent. "-~
(
(
identifying the onset of wing stall~
'1. A I L 6. (<.0 rlS
(
(
IAileron DQ.Wn I
IAileron Up I
,, :.,.·
>- In a level turni upper wing has a higher AOA and the wing will stall
first.
>- In a turr~g ~l~t the upper wing causes more of induced drag (lift) and the
d~w
~~ing has more parasite drag.
>- In , ending turn flight, the inner wing will stall first because, outer wing
cG ditional airflow in a descend, thus more energy and the later stall .
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(
STALLING SPEED
(·
?t··········
(
(
a. Decreased mass
b. Decreased Oap ang1e b. Increased :Hap angle
c~J?~ CGpositiop c. Qeployment of slats
unnle
•.;4
u.
'f..._...;..;..,.;__,.;~..t
~~sweep
.. ··. .
u.uiY .
(
e~·Decreased load J&\~'
( .
f .. 'l\umng f. Aft CG ""'"'u-*"
g. Turbulence penetration
( .h. lee accretion
( rain
( ·.
*I 'Fils CriiiCBI Anflll1
e.. i)lmtgilt wing

f. Low Reyoolds number
g. Highly cambered aerofuU
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(
'W.SUPER STALL (DEEP STALL}
(:
A swept-back wing tends to stall first near the tips. Since the tips are situated well aft of the CG,
( the loss of lift at the tips causes the pitch attitude to increase rapidly and further increase the angle
of attack.
I
r Separated airflow from the stalled wing will immerse a high-set tail plane in low energy turbule
air, Elevator effectiveness is greatly reduced making it impossible for the pilot to decrease the
(
angle of attack. The aeroplane will become stabilized in what is known as the "super-stal"'~
"deep-stall" condition.
"I Clearly, the combination of a swept-back wing and a high mounted tailplane ('~
( factors involved in the "super or deep-stall"~ Of the two:- r ;~ T
Ji. THE SWEPT.;BACK WING IS THE MAJOR CONTRIBUTORY FACTOR.

( SUPER STALL PREVENTION- STICK PUSHER
( An aircraft design which exhibits super-stall characteristics ~'tte-fitted with a device to prevent
it from ever stalling.
A stick pusher is a device attached to the elevator.~~~stem, which physically pushes the
control column forward, reducing the angle of a~efore super-stall can occur. The force of the
~ "- F- ~ D
·'Yp
push is typically about 80 lbs.'
0
~ ~Y 1' saO ~ Scro'>< S
~Tv ____fl_ --- ;A Uc ~w
~ ---- ---~ ---
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(
PURPOSE OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES
( ~ Aircraft are fitted with high lift devices to reduce the take-off and landing
distances.
~ TO allow A/C to make a slower and steeper approach to a runway.
(
TAKE-OFF AND lANDING SPEEDS

(
For both take-off and landing, one of the requirements is for a safe margin above the star·
speed (1.2 VS1 for take-off and 1.3 V so for landing).
The stalling speed is determined by the CLMAX of the wing, and so to obtain the~~
distances, the CL MAX, must be as high as possible. ~
;
FLAPS
A flap is a hi.nged portion of the trailing or leading edge which can b~eclted downwards and so
produce an increase of camber.
( 1. PLAIN FLAP " """ ( {.o;p cJI _s, 'v11fU ( dv\SJru~);z>
The plain flap, has a simple construe~ gives a good increase in CLMAX' although with fairly
high drag. It is used, mainly on low.~K aircraft and where very short take-off and landing is not
required. ~ \- '
2. SPLIT FLAPS
~
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EFF£Cfrifc~ ~.EXTENDED
nOtio ~ .
o The flap forms part of the lower surface of the wing trailing edge-1he upper surface
contour being unaffected when the flap is lowered.
o The split flap gives more increase in lift then the plain flap, the drag however is
higher than for the plain flap due to the increased depth of the wake.
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3. SLOTTED AND MULTIPLE SLOTTED FLAPS
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The purpose ofthe slot is to direct higher pressure air from the lower surface ov ,.. ap and re-
( energise the boundary layer. This delays the separation of the airflow on ther$ urface of the
flap. The slotted flap gives a bigger increase in CLMAX than the plain or soJit nd much less
( drag.
(
4. THE FOWLER FLAP
(
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~he Fowler flap, moves rearwards down, initially giving an increase in wing
area and then an increase in Fowler flap may be slotted.
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Because of the combined"MfeC'ts' of increased area and camber, the Fowler flap gives the greatest
(
red, and also gives the least drag because ofthe slot
LIFT/ DRAG RATIO

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Lowering flap increases both the lift and the drag, but not in the same proportion. Although the
( lift is the larger force, the proportional increase in the drag is greater, and so the maximum
obtainable lift I drag ratio decreases.
(
PITCHING MOMENT
(- Flap movement, up or down, will usually cause a change of pitching moment. This is due to Cen
of Pressure (CP) movement and downwash at the tailplane.
(
( ("""'- --~·.......,;.,.. ~- --- ........... -· ;...........;,, ..........._. ~

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~ LOWERING FLAP~ P aft, creating a nose-down pitching moment.

~ LOWERING FLAMS ease downwash at the tail plane decreasing effective AOA, causing
ment (dominant is CP if anything is not• mentioned.)
( !
( g edge flap will modify the pressure distribution over the whole chord of the
aero the greatest changes will occur in the region of the flap. When flap is lowered, the
Pressure will move rearwards giving a nose down pitching moment
~~ANGEOFDOWNWASH
",.ail plane effective angle of attack is determined by the downwash from the wing. If the flaps are
lowered the downwash will increase and the tailplane angle of attack will decrease, causing a
nose-up pitching moment,
**With Flaps Extension The Effective angle of attack increases and due to which stalling angle is
exceeded before we know it •.. Thus Angle needs to be lowered.
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45
LEADING EDGE HIGH LIFT DEVICES

( There are two forms of leading edge high lift device commonly in use, the leading edge flap and
the leading edge slot or slat.
(
KRUEGER FLAP *ne..o rC 4--~ -root
(
The Krueger flap is pa~ 9f the lower surface of the leading edge~hich can be rotated
( about its forward edge~romote root stall on a swept wing, Krueger flaps are used on the
inboard section because'fhey are less efficient than the variable camber shown opposite.
(
I
LEADING EDGE SLAT
th~~ng
A slat is a small auxiliary aerofoil attached to edge of the wing. When deployed, the
slat forms a slot which allows passage of air fro e high pressure region below the wing to the
low pressure.regio~ above it._AdditionalKi~ nergy is added to the airflow through the slot by
the slatforrmng a convergent duct. ::~•)' •
When slats!!.'" lfFtntiyed the boundary laver is re-energised [~~ . ~n
HIGH LIFT DEVICES

( For some aerofoil~lq'uence of flap operation is critical. Lowering a trailing edge flap
increases bot~he\~nwash and the upwash. For a high speed aerofoil, an increase of up wash
at the le~d·~~ when the angle of attack is already fairly high, could cause the wing. to stall.
The lea ·n ~"'e device must therefore be deployed before the trailing edge flap is lowered.
Whe~ aps are retracted the trailing edge flap must be retracted before the leading edge
d~~s?aised.
~-
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Yr Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to a steady state of flight without any help from
the pilot, after being disturbed by an external force.
( ~~
I An aircraft must have the following qualities:

(
~ Adequate stability to maintain a uniform flight condition.
~ The ability to recover from various disturbing influences.
~ Sufficient stability to minimise theworkload of the pilot
~ Proper response to the controls so that it may achieve its design

adequate manoeuvrability.
( .
Negative
~TAB/LITY (or static stability) exists if an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium

(; ~
POSJnVE
and ha~~ndency to return to equilibrium.
"{tJ!!.}?;rSTATIC STABILITY exists if an aircraft is subject to a disturbance and has neither the
t~ncy to return nor the tendency to continue in the displacement direction.
~·EGATIVE STATIC STABILITY (or static instability) exists if an aircraft has a tendency to continue in
the direction of disturbance.
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POSITI\IE STATIC STABILITY!
(.
T¢ndency tc> -- Re1;urn

(- to Equilibrium
( .
( •·e;quilibttum _.IBOooumered·.
( Po'int Of Displ~"'~"""'
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NEGATIVE STATIC STABILITY
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ALL AXES PASSES THROUGH THE CENTRE OF GRA Vl
The longitudinal axis passes through the CG fro~e to tail. A moment about this axis is a rolling
moment, L, a roll to the right is a positive "(.~ ln~ment.
The normal axis passes "vertically" t~'if..

CG at go• to the longitud ina I axis. A moment a bout
the normal axis is a yawing momerlt-~nd a positive yawing moment would yaw the aircraft to
the right. """" '\.- ,
through the CG, parallel to a line passing through the wing tips. A
moment about the I is is a pitching moment, M, and a positive pitching moment is nose
'
up. "
+-~ · ilvolves motion about Longitudinal axis (rolling),
~s bility involves motion about Normal axis (yawing)
+)..0 ~ongitudinal stability involves motion about Lateral axis (pitching).

~
STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
An aircraft will exhibit static longitudinal stability Lift tends to return towards the trim angle of
attack when displaced by a gust OR a control input.
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If the aircraft is neutrally stable, it tends to remain at any displacement to which it is disturbed.
(
The aircraft which is unstable will continue to pitch in the disturbed direction until the
(. displacement is resisted by opposing control forces.
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f~ If the nose down (negative) tail moment is gr~t~n the nose up (positive) wing
moment, the aircraft will have static long~~ability.
~ The position ofthe CG when changes in ~urn ofthe tail moment and wing moment due
to a disturbance is zero, is known a~neutral point.
);> The further forward the CG, ~ter the nose down angular acceleration about the CG
-the greater the degree of~c longitudinal stability
~ The distance the CG~~rd ofthe neutral point will give a measure ofthe static
Is distance is called the static margin.
~ The great tic margin, the greater the static longitudinal stability.
~ G)imit will be positioned some distance forward of the neutral point. The
etween the aft CG limit and the neutral point gives the required minimum static
~'IV ...y margin.
~ \-rhis is the reason for aircraft to be more stable with forward movement of C.G
~he term CONTROLLABILITY refers to the ability of the aircraft to respond to control surface
displacement and achieve the desired condition offlight. Adequate controllability must be
available to perform take off and landing and accomplish the various manoeuvres in flight
#contradiction exists between STABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY. A high degree of stability gives
reduced controllability.
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( CONCLUSIONS
( -L}> The term controllability refers to the ability ofthe aircraft t~end to control surface
displacement and achieve the desired condition of fligbt"'-
(
~ 2}> A high degree of stability tends to reduce the cont~illl:y of the aircraft.
j}> The stable tendency of an aircraft resists di'\~~t from trim equally, whether by pi lot
effort on the controls (stick force) or gust~
(e~:fr(av-o ""o-~ -c.,., 1'M
;*'4}> If the CG moves forward~tatic lon~n:al stability increases and controllability decreases
(stick force increases). ~\. r
o}> If the CG moves aft, static ~~~~al stability decreases and controllability increases
(stick force decreases)~ )... '
,r6}> ard limit, static longitudinal stability is greatest, controllability is

(
is high.
(}> the aft limit, static longitudinal stability is least, controllability is greatest
'$'6}> ~lff CG limit is set to ensure a minimum degree of static longitudinal stability.
~2:.~e fwd CG limit is set to ensure a minimum degree of controllability under the worst
'? Circumstance.
&
actors Affecting Static Longitudinal Stability
.1}> Downwash
2_}> Longitudinal Dihedral (Actually Incidence )
3 }> Power Effects From the Engine

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4~ e.G Position
S~ Effects of High Lift Devices -

(
DOWNWASH
(
Because ofthe increase in downwash behind the wing, the horizontal tail will experience a smal~e~
change in angle of attack, e.g., if a 10° change in wing angle of attack causes a 4 o increase in ~~
(. downwash at the horizontal tail, the horizontal tail experiences only a 6 o change in angle
attack. In this manner, the downwash at the horizontal tail reduces the contribution to~~
( Conclusion : Longitudinal Dihedral Increases the Stability since the increment in tail"f~s 200 %
to register any change ( ~
POWER EFFECTS FROM THE ENGINE
( Power effects will be most significant when the aeroplane operates~h power and low
airspeeds such as during approach and while taking-off.
(
e.G POSITION
(:
' "
If the CG moves forward, static longitudinal stability~~~ and controllability decreases (stick
force increases). ~""
lfthe CG moves aft, static longitudinal sta~ity ~ases and controllability increases (stick force
decreases).
MANOEUVRE STABILITY
When the pilot pitches the ~~trotates about the CG and the tailplane is subject to a
pitching velocity, in this ext_m)!~downwards. Due to the pitching velocity in manoeuvring flight,
the longitudinal stabiljt~~ aeroplane is slightly greater than in steady flight conditions.
0
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When A/C rolls ..• Lift is no longer opposing weight, andJ!!e~ultant of the lift and weight
forces causes a sideways movement of the aircraft !RJh)(affection of a lower wing
'1t-During Sideslip the relative airflow over the lo~g increases the angle of attack on the
down going wing which increases the lift on thli£,. wing and a Stabilizing moment is produced
putting the aircraft back In orlginol:~
~hi
WING DIHEDRAL ~ .._
1 Awing is said to possess pos· dral if the plane of each wing is angled positively above a
·datum-line parallel to the xis and passing through the wing root
Wing Dihedral
The Higher a?Jie ~/tlti:ack on the lower wing produces a corrective turning moment tending to
to a level flight
edral greater the change in angle ofattack I lift and Stabilising moment
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( Reducing Ailg~ o!Attatk

as Air FlOW$ DDIVll
( ,Around the Fuselage
, ~rHow
oue to Sideslip
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Aircraft With a wing positioned low down on the fusela~1nherently unstable laterally
The Effect of Wing position on Lateral Stability (~'\Jg Aircraft I

A/C with a wing positioned low on the fuselage ~nherently unstable laterally A CG above the
wing tends to be de-stablising laterally ~
High Wing aircraft with the wing PQs~~ above the fuselage are inherently stable laterally
The Effect of Wing Position o !01 Stability (Comparison of High Wing and Low Wing
Aircraft)
(
Note The difference~~Dihedral angle between the high-wing Cessna and the low-wing Piper
aircraft
4. ~ i;!f._f__pZcx~ /<!_ L~ -,- ~
As the aircr~~lips, the lower wing presents more of its span (known as effective span) to the
airflow !JJ~~";pper wing, The effective chord of the lower wing also decreases, whilst that of
the u~~hg increases. The aspect ratio of the lower wing thus becomes greater than that of the
~ • l
ueJ!.!t!.~ifig and it produces greater lift. The increased lift produces a rolling moment and the
alrGi;Jft rolls back to its former equilibrium position.
0
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RELATIVE AIR
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( Thus SWEEPBACK Adds Lateral Stability to the Airplane and 'he reason Why SWEEPBACK
( Wings Does not need Dihedral In fact they use Anhedral
( SWEEPBACK WINGS
Negative Dihedral is known as Anhedral and is aircraft that would otherwise have too high
a value of lateral stability
This A/Cis Given Anhedral Because I Wing and Also Sweepback. Both of these factors
make the airplane too much later.
FACTORS AFFECTING STATI
have a destabilising effect on STATIC LATERAL STABILITY by
causer the inboard section of the wing to become more effective and the C of P to
r to the aircraft's longitudinal axis, reducing the rolling moment.
FLAP. CREASE POWER DESTABILISE AIRPLANE LATERAL STABILITY

(
10N BETWEEN ROLLAND YAW
(
aircraft's lateral stability comes form its wings, because of the higher lift on the lower wing
(
during a side slip which produces a correcting rolling moment. But the differences in lift cause
l differences in drag, and generate yawing moments. Thus, roll and yaw are interconnected.
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Roll and yaw interact. The aircraft has dropped a wing. The aerodynamic forces associated with
( the dihedral are coming to play. The increased lift on the lower wing will generate higher drag ·
"- than the drag produced by the upper wing.
\:
1- In sideslip the lower wing has a higher AOA due to airflow cause it to have more lift
and drag: ,~ k_yc)_q "0(') 1--Q~
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2.1n sidesliP-ale yaw in the same direction of roll.
3ln a banked flight maintaining constant altitude (level flight) the upper
higher AOA due to aileron moving down cause it to have more lift th
11n a banked flight a/c yaws in the opposite direction to the roll. -~~.,...s« 1'/;!e...co", cJ'"
s ~ ~ ratJ \ CJ v ~ ~ ~'1) 1 s, r-e~ b · , ,tj qrre._ -~ ~co "''r'v{! ~ M.
V'-Df
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.;·
Jt-r;:;;,.~Onal static stability of an aircraft is its natural or inbuilt tendency to recover from a
l:iance in yaw, and is mainly provided by the fin. For example, consider a gust of wind that
Ciuses the aircraft to yaw to the left.
This type of stability is also referred to as weather-cock stability.
Meaning- pointing in to the wind••
The Primary Component Which Adds To Directional Stability
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THE FIN
(
OR
(
VERTICAL STABILISER
( DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
( The aircraft possesses positive static directional stability if the turning moment produced is
strong enough to return the aircraft to ·its original position.
The Effectiveness ofthe tail fin depends Upon
i );> The sideslip angle
~);> The size and efficiency of the aerofoil profile used
3 );> The length of the moment from the Centre of gravity·
An Airplane Must have a Positive Directional Stability 1fT ntion factors

' (
);> The sideslip angle
( ~
);> The size and efficiency of the aerofoil pro~
);> The length of the moment from the Cen~ gravity
(
are not able to produce a pos!~~ional stabil~y in an airplane then DORSAL and
VENTRAL FIN are used
b....
DORSAL and VEN~~ins ar~'l:-o overcome directional instability. These are small aerofoil
sections positioned and b§:l~~fuselage, increasing the keel area behind the Centre of gravity
Ventral fins provid1 ·ectional stability on aircraft where the fin may be masked at high angles
of attack.·
irectional stability go hand in hand.
r-G"~~~ ventral fin increases direction stability.

---;T {a1-rro ~' (!_ Gt
~orsal fin increases S.ua._, stability since • lies below.
Ventral fin decreases lateral stability since CG is above.
Dorsal fin increases chord, therefore decreases A.R, making fin less efficient and
stalling angle high.
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SPIRAL DIVERGENCE
( Spiral divergence will exist when static directional stability is very large when compared to the
"dihedral effect". I cd<'rrcu \ ~/-ex b ·r r J-~
(\
The character of spiral divergence is not violent. The aeroplane, when disturbed from the
equilibrium of level flight, begins a slow spiral which gradually increases to a spiral dive. When a
small sideslip is introduced, the strong directional stability tends to restore the nose into the wind
while the relatively weak "dihedral effect" lags in restoring the aeroplane laterally.
DUTCH ROLL
Dutch roll will occur when the "dihedral effect" is large wheh
compared to static directional stability.
Dutch roll is a coupled l~;al and dir~c~~nal oscillation When a

yaw is introduced, the strong "dihedral effect" will roll the
aircraft due to the lift increase on the wing into wind. The
increased. induced drag on the rising wing will yaw the aircraft
in the opposite direction, reversing the coupled oscillations.
(
Aircraft with a tendency to Dutch Roll are fitted with a Ya;( ~
Damper. This automatically displaces the rudder prop~~to
the rate of yaw to damp-out the oscillations. ~ \?
lfthe Yaw Damperfails in flight, it is recommende!t~l:he
ailerons be used by the pilot to damp-out Out~ Because
of the response lag, if the pilot uses the rudde~i'lot induced
oscillation (PIO) will result and the Dutch~ay very quickly
become divergent, leading to loss o~c~~.'
Dutch roll is objectionable, and s ivergence is tolerable if

the rate of divergence is lo
For this reason the "dih ct" should be no more than
that required for sati · ateral stability.
"'
I~ swept back increases, the lateral stability increases, directional stability also
Nmcreases.
Lower wing in the sideslip has more lift and drag, therefore yaw in the direction of
the roll.
SAHIL KHURANA
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( Movement about the lateral axis is pitch.

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Movement about the longitudinal axis is roll.
Movement about the normal axis is yaw.
ELEVATORS f-lub( Up, f:_
The primary effect of elevptiprS{js7to provide pitch control about the lateral axis
)> Pushine: the con'kolt61umn forward causes the elevator to move downward.
erodynamic force acting on the tail plane in an upward
(
directio~mg the aircraft to pitch nose-down.
Pulling~.~
~tfol column rearward has the reverse effect, and causes the aircraft
to pit~-up. The elevators produce no real secondary effect on an aircraft,
a::2~ changes in pitch attitude change the angle of attack and thus airspeed
~ ~u mg the yoke or stick towards you produces a down force on the tail plane and
'""Pitches the aircraft nose up.
Pulling the yoke or stick away from you produces a up force on the tail plane and
pitches the aircraft nose down.
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On some aircraft, the tail plane and elevator are combined into one surface, known
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as a stabilator, or an all-moving tailplane
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Primary flying control system, which in its basic form consists of moveable control
surfaces linked by a series of cables and rods to controls in the cockpit
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THE RUDDER {'Jr9~t_ ( et~ , ~ .__uxa&-r I ett
The primary effect of the rudder is to provide yaw control about the norm
~ Moving the left rudder pedal forward moves the rudder to the
this produces an aerodynamic force on the fin and the aircr
left.
( ~ Moving the right rudder pedal forward reverses th , and the aircraft
yaws to the right.
~ The secondary effect of rudder is roll in the<s~e"'direction as yaw. This occurs

because the outer wing travels faster~~~ inner wing, thereby generating
more lift.
AILERONS ~k
v A-« I '\1 -c.j ~! , P., -11 L w
~ :~to provide roll control about the longitudinal

axis
~ Moving the contra mn to the right deflects the right aileron upward and
the left ailer ward. This locally alters the shape of the wing where the
ailerons %_~lached. In flight, this produces a downward aerodynamic force
on th_trig\~ng and an upward aerodynamic force on the left wing, causing
(·
the~"Mt to roll to the right. Moving the control column to the left causes
erse effect.
C:A~nward movement of the aileron causes an increase in the effective angle

1ft attack and a corresponding increase in lift, whilst an upward movement of
~" the aileron causes a reduction in the effective angle of attack and a decrease in
lift. The difference in lift between the two wings produces the necessary rolling
moment.
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FIRST SECONDARY EFFECT A DvE flsi A1- t E__f«Di'J l:JA UJ
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*In addition to changes in lift1 the deflection of the ailerons also causes variations in
(
drag. Induced drag increases on the downward-deflected aileron~ while the upward-
(
deflected aileron produces more profile drag. At slow airspeeds~ the increase in drag
( is greater on the downward-deflected aileron~ and the aircraft yaws in the oppos~
( direction to the roll. "- .
(
This is the secondary effect of ailerons, and is known as ADVERSE AlLER
( ·,
SECOND SECONDARY EFFECT OF AILERON CJ !!'-.' L"f wtr~ EN ~ 1}) £~?P:7 N ( 17
low""-~- The relative

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As the bank angle increases the aircraft slips towards the

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airflow now has a considerable sideways component. ~e~e'fJ{the distribution
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of the keel (side) surface, more behind the CG then in ~he aircraft will yaw to
the left. The secondary effect of aileron, then is ya -·
ADVERSE AILERON YAW 1° e ~a&, 1-o ~-

( ~
Equalising the d_rag produced by the
F,v12_
ailer--~elfjs
~
to compensate for adverse
aileron yaw. ~methods of achieving t~nclude using Differential or Frise type
ailerons. -.
igned so that the up-going aileron is

angle than the down-going aileron.
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beneath the wing when the aileron is deflected upward. b(J,I ICJntt'~ ~ ·
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3. COMBINED PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES
To reduce the effects of Adverse Yaw Effects Some types of aircraft have t
primary flight control system arranged so that one type of control surf:
(
its function with that of another; e.g. Elevons, Ruddervators and Flf!p~~·
(
Elevons : combine the effects of elevator and aileron. ' '
t~~dge
(
Delta-winged aircraft like the Concorde use Elevens on of the

wings. These perform the functions of both ailerons a~~ors.
Ruddervators : ('V' or butterfly tail), combine the efiect~ of rudder and elevator.
Floperons: To combine the effects of Aile~~ Flaps

4. ROLL SPOILERS 5. R~ER AILERON COUPLING
CONTROL BALANCING/AERODYN4.Nfl~BALANCING {ec t,V', . 11N fD yf'Q{,re_ ~he/!.

~Oo( t:-_s,
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"is the term used to describe the force required to be applied by the
ilot to control the control column in order to overcome, then balance, the hinge
moment of the flying control surface
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I (
HINGE MOMENT (STICK FORCES)

(
When the control surfaces deflect, the product of the aerodynamic force acting
through the centre of pressure of the surface and its distance from the hinge-line
(
produces an opposing moment
'
\
This is known as the hinge moment of the control surface. Its magnitude determi
the amount of effort (stick force) required by the pilot to maintain its positia
force also depends on how the control column is linked to the control su
Aerodynamic Balance is used in A/C that doesn't have hydraulics bu~"&ig
~ge moments I
(
For large and fast aircraft the resulting aerodynamic force can
stick forces which are too high for easy operation of the c~l~ fhe pilot will
require assistance to move the controls in these condi~ and this can be done
either by using (hydraulic) powered flying controls, Oll~ing some form of
( AERODYNAMIC BALANCE. :/''
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE 4
Three ways in which reducing stick force~ be achieved by aerodynamic balancing
these are -: b..
• lns'erting Hinge
places the hinge-line inside the control surface nearer to the centre
his reduces the length of the moment arm and therefore the size of
l .
• The amount of inset is normally limited to 20- 25% of the chord length to
ensure that the centre of pressure does not move in front of the hinge-line at
high deflection angles.
\
SAHIL KHURANA
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(
• If the centre of pressure moves ahead of the hinge line. the resulting hinge
(
moment no longer opposes the movement of the control surface, but instead
assists it This is known as control surface overbalance, and is detected as a
decrease instead of an increase in the progressive stick forces required This is
known as control reversal
(
( Horn Balance Method
The Horn Balance method is used mainly on rudders and elevators, b

used on other control surfaces.
(
hing~)(=orming a
The control surface is designed with an area ahead of the
horn.1s the surface moves, the horn projects into the airflo~d assists the
movement forward of the hinge line counteract the fo~e'hind the hinge line.
'
This reduces the overall hinge moment and stick fq~~tltout effecting control
effectiveness
l~h)nC:e is used on ailerons and elevators. It ·operates in conjunction

~6reduce the stick force. Unlike other methods, it is totally contained
\.,....,.
e control surface
(
C, 'Besides Aerodynamic Balance There is another way of reducing the "STICK

~· FORCES" these are TABS .•• ( More Simplified Way)
(· Tabs are small, hinged surfaces forming part of the primary control surface. In its
basic form, the pilot does not directly control the tab, but its deflection angle
changes automatically whenever the main control surface moves. These tabs
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5~RVO TRE> 66
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The Servo Tab is directly controlled by the pilot through a pivot point and movement
(,-
of the tab supplies the hinge moment necessary to move the main control surface.
(
Movement of the tab provides an aerodynamic force that produces a hinge moment
about the hinge line of the control surface. This causes the control surface to move
(
to a new position of equilibrium in a direction of travel opposite to that of the tab
{i.e. tab down, control surface up).
MASS BALANCE 7 -e t f.,._ Y"vr ,~ ~· /o -rf. c/v r e J- lr A !-H."':~ ·

During flight, the main control surfaces can vibrate, producing a condlf:!?li.known as
· flutter It is caused by the combined effects of changes in the press€J'rstribution
around the control surface with changing angles of attack (aer~mic forces)
To help eliminate flutter in flight, manually operated con~rfaces are generally

mass balanced. Attaching weights forward of the hi~~~ff;~;ngs the centre of
gravity of the control surface Jo>~the hinge-line, th~?'ring the period of vibration
and the liability to flutter. ~~
TRIMMING 4
An aeroplane is trimmed when it wil~ntain its attitude and speed without the
pilot having to apply any load t~~bckpit controls.
The aircraft may need to

(
b) changes of P""~-
itions '1/ lAt. ~e f Wrort

ods of trimming are in use, the main ones are:
THE TRIMMING TAB
3 • VARIABLE INCIDENCE (TRIMMING) TAILPLANE

+• SPRING BIAS
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1TRIMTAB W\-vu\ t)OvJN, "-LU.::.E. UP, f-~CvA'?OR UP, 7fr!) hOvvN
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A TRIM TAB is a small adjustable surface set into the trailing edge of a main control
( __ , surface. · A.,
It's deflection is controlled by a trim wheel or electrical switch in the cockpit, usu~
L'~
7
arranged to operate in an instinctive sense.
To maintain the primary control surface in its required position, the ~¥oved in
the opposite direction to the control surface, until the tab momerro~lfrlces the
control surface hinge moment.
( How does a TRIM TAB Works???

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Movement of the tab slowly applies an increasing o , · e moment at the control
( surface until it balances the stick force. This is ca~ estick force value Zero.
A.~
)._FIXED TABS
i (
Some trim tabs are not adjustable in flig t can be adjusted on the ground, to
correct a permanent out of trim con·~~ They are usually found on ailerons and
rudder. Operation of the trim t~'slightly reduce the force being produced by
the main control surface '*"
(
\
TAIL PLANE
may be used on manually operated and power operated

controls.
tJf'A. t'!ti.if.llane incidence is adjusted by the trim wheel until the tail plane load
e previous elevator balancing load required,
in advantages of a variable incidence (trimming) tail plane are:
~ The drag is less in the trimmed state, as the aerofoil is more streamlined
~ Trimming does not reduce the effective range of pitch control, as the elevator
remains approximately neutral when the aircraft is trimmed.
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68
);;>- It is very powerful and gives an increased ability to trim for larger cg and
(
speed range.
);;>- The disadvantage of a variable incidence (trimming) tail plane is that it is more
complex and heavy than a conventional trim tab system.
SPRING BIAS TRIM
In the SPRING BIAS TRIM SYSTEM, an adjustable spring force is used to de

stick force. No tab is required for this system.
CG ADJUSTMENT
If the flying controls are used for trimming, this results in an in~e of drag due to
c. the deflected surfaces. The out of balance pitching mom~n te reduced by
moving the CG, thus reducing the balancing load requi~')ydtherefore the drag
associated with it. This will give an increase of cru~~e.
c
CG movement is usually achieved by transfe~~~l between tanks at the nose and
tail of the aircraft
DISADVANTAGES of TRIM TABS
There are number of disadvant ~~ociated with the use of in flight, adjustable
trim tabs
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TABS- Quick Reference Guide

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·-···-r-·-···---. ------1
~~pe ofT~~ I
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1 Operated Movement.Relative Stick I Control

Force · Effectivenes I
l
J Pi l byt- to Control Surface
f=== 1
::j::: b ··-··.::t
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I· ~~nee I ;Pontrt;i 11
·· · · ·· · · ·· I Surface Oroop·osite
t' ·· ·· · ·
-- Less
· ··
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Re.duced
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qontro~. l
Suiface '
Sanier
· ·
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···· " ~
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Se.® I 'r~ I Less

;eppo$ite
. . ,. . .9. . .. :;~~~hj--__e~:~ -]_J~

F. . .~;,., J :·
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Trim Control
L_ Trim ONLY
Opposite t
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c WEIGHT
(
~aircraft in flight, and the
Flight Mechanics is the study af the farces actingA
response of the aircraft to those forces. ~ ~
• Lift acts through the centre of pres~and weight acts through the centre of
~
gravity.
• Thrust and Drag act in op~E\-senses, parallel to the direction of flight,

through points which v ~th aircraft attitude and design.
s acting upward must exactly balance the forces acting downward

·..
forces acting forward must exactly balance the forces acting backward,
The sum of all moments must be zero.

$
This condition is known as equilibrium.
SAHIL KHURANA
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1. STRAIGHT HORIZONTAL STEADY FLIGHT

(
(
• In straight and level flight there are four forces acting on the aircraft; LIFT,
WEIGHT, THRUST and DRAG.
( • Weight acts through the aircraft centre of gravity (CG), vertically downwards
towards the centre of the earth. Alternatively, weight can be defined as a
(
parallel to the force of gravity.
(
• Lift acts through the centre of pressure (CP), normal (at 90 °) tot
( "'ll
path. ~
(
• Thrust acts forwards, parallel to the flight path ·and drag
'!/ ff9..5>,fe
~CJckwards,
parallel 'to the flight path. "'
( • For an aircraft to be in steady level flight a condi equilibrium must exist

\
LIFT/WEIGHT AND THRUST/DRAG COUPLES
The CP moves forward with increasing an9~1Jt.pttack and the CG moves with
reduction in fuel. Generally, the CP is fo~ of the CG at low speed, giving a nose
up pitching moment and behind the~ ~igh speed, giving a nose down pitching
moment.
~itt/Weight Couple
( .
• The position of~nd CG are variable and under most conditions of
level flight a-\ltz.}t.toincident.
• The CP ~rward with increasing angle af attack and the CG moves

with/eduction in fuel.
• ~erally, the CP is forward of the CG at low speed, giving a nose up

:<fnching moment and behind the CG at high speed, giving a nose down
~~. pitching moment.
$
, 'hrust/Drag Couple
Thrust acting below drag causes a nose-up pitch moment and thrust acting above
drag causes '!, nose-down pitch moment
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SAHIL KHURANA
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The L/D ratio of most modern aircraft is between 10 and 20 to 1. That is, lift is 10
to 20 times greater than drag.
c
The function of the tailplane is to maintain equilibrium by supply the force
necessary to counter any pitching moments arising from CP and CG movement.
~With the CP behind the CG during normal cruise, the tailplane must supply a downi
. ~~
(
force. ?i ~ .
l(~ :tV-
Ceil
For a download : lift - tail plane force
For an upload : lift+ tailplane force
2. STRAIGHT
.,
I
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steady climb, Lift is less than Weight because Lift only has to
a Rroportion of the weightJhis proportion decreasing as the climb
. We o::, {).-
mcreases.
For a straight steady climb, Thrust required is greater than Drag. This is to
balance the gackward comJ2onent of Weight acting along the flight path.
w::,:n (!}
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3. STRAIGHT STEADY DESCENT- POWER ON
(
, .. ~ In a descent Lift is less than Weight. This is because Lift only has to balance
\,'
the component of Weight perpendicular to the flight path.

(
(~
~ In a descent Thrust is less than Drag. This is because Weight is giving a
forward component in the same direction as thrust.
(
( 4. GLIDE
In a glide without Thrust, the Weight component along the flight path
the propulsive force and balance Drag. In a glide there are only thn
on the aircraft
( Lift, Weight and Drag. 6-ll,'da._ ; s a4 VI e~ ()r'ld)-..7V b ( cz .StJ Iff' C) ~

t;ppo<;,·v-j ~c e_~ i.!o.
ANGLE OF DESCENT IN THE GLIDE ~
./ Glide angle is a function ONLY of th~~tio. The descent (glide) angle will
be least when the L/D ratiq is the ~est. L/D ratio is a maximum at the
optimum angle of attack/and ~'>fso corresponds to the minimum drag
speed(VAGP1 ~
./ At speeds above orM_o~ '1MD the glide angle will be steeper.
-A......~
a glide can be achieved when the aircraft is flown at L/D
I, D X is independent of weight.
C..~~vided the aircraft is flown at its optimum angle of attack, the glide angle
--~ and glide distance will be the same whatever the weight.
~$
D The speed corresponding to the optimum angle of attack, (V MD) will
however change with weight. . /
D V MD increases as weight increases.
D Also V md Decreases as the parasite drag increases

SAHIL KHURANA
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;;trAt a higher weight the aircraft will glide the same distance, but at a higher speed
and consequently have an increased RATE of descent.
(
EFFECT OF WIND
(
( The glide angle will determine the distance that the aircraft can glide for a given
change of height.
(
( In a headwind the ground distance will be decreased and in a tailwind it wi,

increased.,
EFFECT OF CONFIGURATION
The maximum L/D ratio of an aircraft will be obtained in the cle~onfiguration.

( Exten~ion offlaps, sp~ilers, speed brakes ~r lan~ing gear ~;/(reduce L/DMAX
and gtve a steeper glide angle, thus reducmg gltde ran~~
5. TURNING
LS'.
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D For an aircraft to change direction, a force is required to deflect it towards

the centre of the turn. This is called the centripetal force.
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D Banking the aircraft inclines the Lift. It's the horizontal component of Lift ·
which causes the aircraft to turn.
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tan <P -
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turn radius
g
i I *INDEPENDENT OF WEIGHT- Meaning a heavy 7~iilight C-152 will have same

radius of turn if the TAS is same and the ban}(.a~ is same
AND·THE CORRESPONDING RATE OF TU
g tan <P
radians I second
v
's the rate of change of heading or angular velocity of the tum. It may
'sed as degrees per minute, or by a Rate Number.
Ra·te 1 tum is 180 Deg. per minute (3 °per second)

~·Rate 2 tum is 360 Deg. per minute (6 o per second)
Rate of turn is directly proportional to TAS and inversely proportional to the tum
radius.
SAHIL KHURANA
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TAS
(.
Rate of turn -
Radius
(
/
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c THREE IMPORTANT DGCA SENTENCES
a) At a constant TAS, increasing the angle of bank decreases the turn

increases the rate of turn.
b) To maintain a constant rate aj turn, increasing speed r~~

angle. """'
(
c) At a constant bank angle, increasing speed incredS~ turn radius and
(
decreases the rate of Turn.
TAS/10 + 7 o =BANK ANGLE
In a constant rate tur~ 1

the angle of bank ~~
is dependent up~ ~
(.
Two variables dete'rmine the rate of turn and radius ojturn:-
(~)
- A steeper bank reduces turn radius and increases the rate of turn,
but ~~s a higher load factor ..·
bfr,Je air speed (TAS): Reducing speed reduces turn radius and increases the rate of
( . tJrn, without increasing the load factor:
Load factor is directly related to bank angle, so the load factor for a given bank
angle is the same at any speed.
SAHIL KHURANA
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(, Load factor (n) - sec <f>
w cos <I>
~ load factor in the turn is a function ONlY of bank angle.

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Constant bank angle,

constant load factor
(.
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CLIMB ANGLE
fb (__ " /. &rrrr::--!.())Jflf!
THRUST
AND
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lAS
*Climb an~~f~:ds on "excess Thrust" ( T- D) and the Weight. As both

Thrust a~~g vary with /AS, excess Thrust will be greatest at one particular
spee~~Fhf? ts the speed for maximum angle of climb Vx.
riation of Thrust with speed will depend on the type of engine. For a jet
C-..~ne, where Thrust is fairly constant with speed, V x will be near to VMD,
----...ftbut for a propeller engine aircraft Vx will usually be below VMD
~· EFFECT OF WEIGHT, AlTITUDE AND TEMPERATURE.
The Drag of an aircraft at a given lAS is not affected by altitude or

temperature.
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But higher Weight will increase Drag and reduce excess Thrust and
consequently the climb angle.
( )
Thrust available from the engine decreases with increasing altitude and
(
increasing temperature, which also reduces excess Thrust.
Climb angle therefore decreases with increasing Weight, altitude and

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temperature
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The speed of propagation of small pressure waves depends upon the
( temperature of the air ONLY.
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./ The lower the temperature~ the lower the speed of
propagation.
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( . ./ Sound is pressure waves and the speed of any pressure wave thr~He
(
atmosphere~ whether audible or not~ has become known as Jbe~ed of
sound'. \,.'
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./ The speed of sound ot 15 •c is 340 metres per
kt.
( MACH NUMBER
( As the speed of an aircraft increases~ ~'js adecrease in the distance

between the aircraft and the influe~ The advancing pressure waves. The
aircraft begins to catch up the pre~ waves~ so the air has Jess time to move
from the aircraft's path o~fi!:..{J;;Jrsh has o more acute angle.
MACH NUMBER IS A~ E OF COMPRESSIBILITY
,;
.~~R OF CLIMBING AT A CONSTANT /AS
t temperature decreases with increasing altitude~ so the speed

'ill decrease as altitude is increased.
7so known that if altitude is increased at a constant lAS~ the T AS
e;,
* D Therefore~ the Mach number will increase
.
if altitude is increased at a constant
lAS. This is because {TAS) gets bigger and {LSS) gets smaller.
D The International Standard Atmosphere assumes that temperature decreases

from 15°C at sea level to- 56·5°C at 361 090 ft {111 000 m)~ then remains
constant.
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":>t D The speed of sound will therefore decrease with altitude up to the tropopause,
and then remain constant.
-- c D As the climb continues an altitude will be reached at which the flight crew
must stop flying at a constant lAS and fly at a constant Mach number, to
avoid accidentally exceeding MMO. k&~- <'9pP•o~-~ 0-<Uo\o • ""'"""""'~
D This change over point is called CROSSING OVER ALTITUDE.
D The altitude at which this changeover takes place will depend on
VARIATION OF TAS WITH ALTITUDE AT A CONSTAN
It can be seen from the equation that if raft is flown at a constant Mach
number:
•!• As altitude decreases the~ature will rise, local speed of sound will
increase and TAS will in~
c •!• As altitude increa't-~Ve temperature will drop, local speed of sound will
'
ill decrease (up to the tropopause and then remain
constant
When descending
at a constant Mach number
lAS will be increasing
SAHil KHURANA
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When climbing at a constant TAS

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Mach number will be increasing,
up to the tropopause, and
then remain constant
Local Mach number {ML}, the boundary layer flow speed relati,t11
~
(
the aircraft, is subdivided as follows :-
SUBSONIC LESS THAN .75 Mach
TRANSSONIC 0.75 Mach -1.2 Mach
SUPERSONIC 1.2 Mach -1.4 Mach

f-+"tPE-Rs~t>~tC. Lq- 4ac.h ~ 5 Mae:.h
The distance between the A/C ~.h-:e advancing pressure wave decreases with
higher mach. ;_·~
particles are not aware of anything until the
,, right in front of the object collide with them. As a result
~, . .1, air pressure and density increase accordingly.
ning perpendicular to the upstream flow). Whenever supersonic

a!Jil~slowed to subsonic speed without a change in direction, a "NORMAL"
s~ wave will form as a boundary between the supersonic and subsonic region.
TJlis means that some 'compressibility effects' will occur before the aircraft as a
whole reaches Mach 1·0.
CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
SAHIL KHURANA
09871866290
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The Free Stream Mach number at which the local velocity first reaches Mach 1·0
(
(sonic) is called the Critical Mach number (M CRIT).
c Increased thickness/chord and increased angle of attack cause greater accelerations
over the top surface of the wing, so the critical Mach number will decrease with
( increasing thickness/chord ratio or angle of attack.
(
Critical Mach number is

the highest speed at whi
no parts of. the aircraft
.
( are supersonic
1.
2. static pressure increases
At an angle and proceeds along the Surface
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Supersonic Wave Characteristics
(
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'*"''""' TVPEOFWAVE OBLlC:UE Shook w~e NORMAL Shock Wf!Nf!J EXPANStON Wf!Ne
( ==<~;/
(
i. DEFINITION A PLANE OF DISCONTINUITY.

INCLINED MORE THAN 90"
A PL.ANE OF DlSCONTINUrTY.
NORMI'.L TO FLOW DIRECTION.
FROM FLO\N' DIRECTION.
TURNED INTO A PRECEDING

2 FLOW DIRECTION
CHANG~ FLOW
NO C~NGE
---~ J
Ef=FeeT ON VE:LOCrtV DeCA.eASED BUT STILL
( 3 and MACH NUMBER.
BEHIND WA'VE
SUPERSONIC.
.DECREASE ..
4 PR~~~~1:: ~~ SJ~~~rrY.
INCREASE
(
c:._ EFFECT ON ENERGY DECREASE NO CHANGE (NO SHOCK).
~) OF AIRFLOW.
/1
t?
EFFECT ON
TEMPERATURE
I
____________, ______,,:...
INCREASE DECREASE.
·-------...L....v~'---......:.-......:.--...J......----------'--
'IT a shockwave will have formed on the upper surface.

undary layer separation aft of the shock wajle, causing loss
·~to stall also known as SHOCK STALL ••
f,...'f;P[3ftC~
6? l))?'N
·s rearward, DRAG Increases, Giving a nose down pitch moment can
MACH TUCK
~"<e wing root usually has a thicker section than the wing tip so will have a lower
~ ~ '7C1 CRIT and shock induced separation will occur at the root first The CP will move
!b towards the tip, and if the wing is swept, this CP movement will also be rearward.
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84
(
EFFECT OF SHOCK WAVES ON CP MOVEMENT
(-
"1PRearward CP movement with increasing Mach number in the transonic region

I' '
'
produces a nose down pitching moment. This is known as "Mach Tuck'~ "High Speed
(
Tuck" or "Tuck under".
(
As altitude increases~ stall speed is initially constant then increases.
(
An altitude is eventually reached when there is only one speed at which the.
can fly~ since increasing or decreasing speed or banking the aircraft will
stall.
In the case of a 1 g manoeuvre~ this altitude is called the ...
~his altitude, the

(
'Aerodynamic Ceiling'.lf the aircraft were allowed to 'dritt2la

aircraft will stall. "-~
This state of difficulty is also called 'coffin corner
Altitude ./\
r~e .,o tf.'t·•'olvn
. < . . ..((_
- (P ~~;
FL400
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09871866290
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6J LeJ ;.~ 1' /YI $p-eed

(a) MACH 0.75 SHOCK
( !INCREASED DRAG /Me. '.--1¥ , c.p fh-iV~ Afl
-~~~~
SUPERSONIC [ . . SHOCK.SEPARA'TlON
('J FLOW : .. · . =
( DECREASED UFT
(b) MACH O.iBS DRAG D!ECREASIING

(
·sUPERSONIC
FLOW'~
(c:l !MACH 0.95
( \
(
so'/. uktr<d f,·)'\e.
(
,·~It-{ ~ hV de. vvN W jl4. f-

(),l N_oto) d)t- L,(!rucJ,·~ e.c49JL
DETACHED
DoW "WAVE
-· _ _ _ cOJ f If d Bow we1vt ·
~~~~--·---
~MY!~~~~~ !F~rt:il ~f}{]~flij
ost commonly used methods of increasing MCRIT is to sweep the wing
Sweep Angle: The angle between the line of25% chords and a perpendicular to the
root chord
Purpose of Sweep back: To increase MCRIT
SAHIL KHURANA
09871866290
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86
A SWEPT WING INCREASES THE CRITICAL MACH NUMBER
(MCRIT) All other effects from a swept wing are by-products, most of them
c
disadvantages. However, the benefits from a higher MCRIT outweigh the associated
(
disadvantages.
I'~ bi-~A
(~
BY- PRODUCTS OF SWEEPBACK -

( bcoz£9C ~sf(?;( "'~u.J>Je rwUJ m ·.
1. Increased tendency to stall at the tip first- minimised by fitting wing fencli>. ,
vortilons or saw tooth leading edge.
a) Tip stall can lead to pitch - up, a major disadvantage.

\
( ' b) Pitch - up can give the tendency for a swept wing aircraft to ~r Stall.
(
c) Aircraft that show a significant tendency to Pitch - upA~ta/1 MUST be fitted
( with a stall prevention device; a stick Pusher;
(
2. When compared to a straight wing of the sa~Pnrl
aerodynamically efficient.
(i) At a given angle of attack CL is less. c

{ii) CLMAX is less and occurs at ~-s-~ngle of attack.
3. A swept wing makes a smart:e tive contribution to static directional stability.
...,..,
ificant positive contribution to static lateral stability.
5. At speeds in :_xf~~MCRIT a swept wing generates a nose down pitching

moment; a phe~na known as Mach Tuck, High Speed Tuck or Tuck Under. This
must be c~e[pcted by a Mach Trim System which adjusts the aircraft's ,
longit~Mm.~t- tr.e, e_te.-vetrOY, wh:·c.h pilch.~ ch-e- CJt/c ~ nose Uf'
p~~?v~ +uf(d-N.r-( IV~t-ce_OJ<:.e.. 'Y'l s pe.ecL.
'?
&
SAHIL KHURANA
09871866290
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(
(a) CONVENTIONAL .AEROFmL
(
TURBULENT AIRFLOW AND

LAYER
(b) SUPERCRmCAL AERGFOIL
BLUNT.
LEADING
ADcE
( '
(.
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PURPOSE OF PROPELLER (5 me}f( 1-s)
(, The purpose of propeller is to convert the power of the engine into thrust. It does
this by accelerating a large mass of air rearwards, the reaction to which provides
forward thrust.
( INTRODUCTION- BLADE GEOMETRY
A propeller consists of two or more aerodynamically shaped blades atta.

central hub, which is mounted onto a propeller shaft driven by the en
~
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A propeller blade has a root, tip, a leading edge, and a cambere6~-section,
whose chord line passes from the centre of the leading edge r~ to the trailing
edge. The cambered side of the blade is called the 'back'~le the under
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cambered side is termed the 'thrust' face. "'~
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PITCH ANGLE OR BLADE ANGLE
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The propeller blade chord line forms an angle with the plane of rotation of the
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whole propeller, which is called the pitch or blade angle.
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GEOMETRIC PITCH
The theoretical distance that a propeller or propeller blade moves forwards when
the propeller shaft has completed one rotation is called 'geometric pitch'.
EFFECTIVE PITCH
The actual distance that a propeller moves forward, during one revolu~Vy
called the 'effective pitch'. ~
SLIP 0 '\.-,
The difference between 'geometric pitch' and effective pitch' 1~wn as slip.
INTRODUCTION- PROPELLER EFFICIENCY ---""'
The propeller efficiency will usually be in the ran9<01ftf%-90%. Propeller

efficiency can be found by using the formula sh~"tin the screen.
~
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DEFINITIONS · ~
THE HELIX ANGLE:- the angle that the a~ path of the propeller makes to the
plane of rotation. ~
FIXED PITCH PROPELLERS ~

The operating angle of a!J.t¥k~ be the angle between the relative airflow and
the chord line of the PI~'fiifblade. This chord line is set at an angle to the plane
e blade angle or the propeller pitch angle.
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INTRODUQ'/ON- ANGLE OF ATTACK
( This helical path is the resultant of the propeller blade rotational velocity and the
aircraft forward velocity. The angle between the relative airflow and the chord line
of the blade is called the angle of attack.
(
As the blade rotates, at this angle of attack, a thrust force is generated, very
similar to the way in which lift is generated on the wing.
centre of the hub. Thus, the magnitude of the reaction ge, at any point
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along the blade will also increase with this distance• .
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If the blade pitch remained constant along the le!J4!~9f'the propeller blade, the
increase in force developed by the outer part o~"tilade, compared with that
developed at the slower moving blade roo_tA_~~Id tend to blend the blade as
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depicted here. -.. ~

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INTRODUCTION- BLADE TWIST ,
To even out the thrust devel~ng the blade, the angle of attack is
maintained by twisting t~J!¥!1lijle in such a way as to reduce its pitch angle from
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roottotip.
j_FIXED PITCH P R £ 5
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The operati_{g a._n e of attack will be the angle between the relative airflow and
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the cho:r~'l,dl the propeller blade.. This chord line is set to the plane of rotation,
which1~iits the blade or the propeller pitch angle.
~');;:;,se in true air speed will reduce the angle of attack, whereas an increase
~~ ((P.M. will increase it.
' DISADVANTAGES OF A FIXED PITCH PROPELLER
A fixed pitch propeller~ increasing TAS at a constant RPM reduces the blade angle of
attack. This will decrease thrust. The effect of this on propeller efficiency is as
follows:
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a) At some high forward speed the blade will be close to zero lift angle of attack
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and thrust~ and therefore Thrust Power~ will be zero.
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b) There will be only one speed at which a fixed pitch propeller is operating at its
most efficient angle of attack and where the propeller efficiency will be maximum
decreased~ thrust will increase because blade angle of attack is ~

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c) As TAS is ....
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increased. Thrust is very large~ but theTAS is low so propeller efficiency will
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Thus no useful work is being done when the aircraft iS1 for instance 1 he I
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brakes at full power prior to take-off. The efficiency of a fixed pitch
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forward speed
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Prop is MOST EFFICIENT WITH BRAKES ON AND FULL POW1
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(! )· VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLERS
~ Adjustable pitch propellers:• These are pro~~rs which can have their pitch
I adjusted on the ground by mechanical~~ting the blades in the hub. In
flight they act as fixed pitch propell~
~ Two pitch propellers: These a prc:wellers which have a fine and coarse pitch
setting which can be select ..lght. Fine pitch can be selected for take off1
climb and landing and pitch for cruise. They will usually also have a
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ant speed propellers: Modem aircraft have propellers
Jed automatically to vary their pitch (blade angle) so as to
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1~cted RPM. A variable pitch propeller permits high efficiency to
over a wider range of TAS1 giving improved take-off and climb
ance and cruising fuel consumption.
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d.~ •ass of engine torque occurs (the throttle is closed or the engine fails), the
~,qrop will. "fine off in an attempt to maintain the set RPM•
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he drag generated by a windmilling propeller is very high. ;Vl fl, 'N_ p1 k h
1 • CONSTANT PITCH PROPELLER- EFFECT OF BLADE PITCH CHANGES

0
If the throttle is closed, the propeller will fine of/in an attempt to maintain the set
R.P.M.
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FEATHERING
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By turning the blades to their zero lift angle of attackJnopropeller torque is
generated and the propeller will stopJ reducing drag to a minimuinJ This will improve
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·climb performance because the ability to climb is dependent on excess thrust after
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'· balancing aerodynamic drag. ~

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POWER ABSORPTION
A propeller must be able to absorb all the shaft power developed by th

also operate with maximum efficiency throughout the required perfo~arrce
Supersonic tip speed will considerably reduce the efficiency of ~~ller and
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greatly increase the noise it generates. *
c SOLIDITY
( To increase power absorption several characteris

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adjusted. The usual method is to increase th~~v· of the propeller. Propeller
solidity is the ratio of the total frontal are~~ blades to the area of the propeller
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disc.
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1-0 Increasing the chord of e#J9ile. This increases the solidity, but blade
"" ing the propeller less efficient.
blades ; Y\c-reD.l>C2 cSo lr·oL+-j b u.C de_Q_~~ eJCrrri:J I
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POWER ABSORPn 1DITY
An increase in~ can be achieved in various ways: 1} increasing blade chard

;;d FORCES GENERA TED BY A PROPELLER
b) Gyroscopic precession cr oi) J-o G- ·~"" >--/' D·K ·rl1/"' ) ~ •/ A Ic

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d) Asymmetric blade effect "r;,,)
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Because the propeller rotates clockwise, the equal and opposite reaction (torque)
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Torque reaction will be greatest during high power, low airspeed (lAS) flight
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GYROSCOPIC EFFECT
A rotating propeller has the properties of a gyroscope - rigidity in space a.

precession.
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As the aircraft is pitched up or down or yawed left or right, a fore~ ~ed to the
rim of the spinning propeller disc. V
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c PITCH DOWN - forward force on the top, force emerges left yaw.
LEFT YAW- forward force on the right, force emerge: n~wise, pitch up.
RIGHT YAW- forward force on the left, force erne~~ clockwise, pitch down.
( Gyroscopic effect will be cancelled if the prope!J!!'~e contra rotating.
SPIRAL SLIPSTREAM EFFECT
rotates around the aircraft. ~

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As the propeller rotates it produces a ba~rd flow of air, or slipstream, which
Spiral slipstream effect gives t~·~ajt a yawing momen_t to ~he left. ~!A..M+~ L»h~ ~C)me_
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VA/Q')W~ PITCH PROPELLERS 0 {'fs c1::.
They use oil fro. · ngine or reduction gearbox lubrication system as the
hydraulic m he pitch change mechanism is operated by a piston moving
cting propeller has oil applied to either side of the piston to effect the
ent of the propeller to both fine and coarse pitch
e flow of oil to and from the actuating piston is controlled by a propeller governor, also known
as a constant Speed Unit or Propeller control Unit,. The unit normally incorporates a small oil
pump which increases oil pressure to the value required for the system operation
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The CONSTANT SPEED UNIT controls the oil flow to the pitch chana.._~n8ers in three ways
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UNDERSPEED
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If the R.P.M falls below that selected, the control units~
propeller pitch angle until the selected R.P.M is regK'1- r
OVERSPEED- "'~.
If the R.P.M rise above that selected, the ~runit supplies oil to increase (coarsen) the
propeller pitch angle until the sele:~"" )s regained.
Onspeed ~
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FEATHERING A SINGL~ PROPELLER _, fr)

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lever to the feather position, mechanically lifts the landed valve against
~to its highest position, thereby simulating an exaggerated overspeed
·~remain in this position until the feathering control is moved back to its normal
-ACTING PROPELLER-CONSTANT SPEED UNIT
!fothe RPM rises above that selected, the control unit drains off oil to increase (coarsen) the
propeller pitch angle, until the selected RPM is regained
FEATHEIRNG TYPE PROPELLERS- PROPELLER WINDMILLING
SAHIL KHURANA
09871866290
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So, to minimise drag, and also to prevent further possible damage to the engine and
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the a/c, some propellers are provided with a means to turn the blades edge-on to
c .the air flowing over them. This action is called 'feathering' the propeller.
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FEATHERING A SINGLE ACTING PROPELLER- CENTRIFUGAL LATCH (FEATHERING STOP}
(
To prevent this situation occurring on. those engines where a feathered propeller would cau.
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stress on start up, centrifugal pins are incorporated in the pitch change mechanism. The L
pins are kept diset;~,gaged by centrifugal force J(Vhile the engine is running. -r Y've~
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SAFETY FEATURES- AUTO FEATHERING
To reduce the workload on the pilot in the event of engine failure, some prqf/'ell~'t,s are equipped
with an 'auto feather' system. In a turbo-prop engine, with the engine ~\k!ock open and the
power lever set to high power;;(f;;y signal of low torque, from the ~~/que meter system,
will automatically cause the propeller to feather.
( -~
SAFETY FEATURES- AUTO FEATHER
(
A supply of oil pressure, from an electrically operated ~nng pump, is delivered to the
underside of a 'valve lift piston' in the feathering ~~4f;'f1ism. Control over this oil pressure is
provided by an electrically operated solenoid vaft.~ .
D CONSTANT SPEED PROPELWR¥ARE MOST EFFICIENT AT HIGH
1•.
D HELIX ANGLE IS OWN AS ANGLE OF ADVANCE.
2. BENDIN\t;J-IJ RUST) 3. TORQUE (TORSION)BENDING
PuGAL TWISTING FORCE ( MOST CRITICAL AT HIGH RPM)

\·.
WO COMPONENTS-
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NOTE:
CENTRIFUGAL TWISTING MOMENT ALL PARTICLES OF MASS

IS ALWAYS GREATER THAN THE TEND TO LINE UP IN THE
( PLANE OF ROTAl10N DUE
AERODYNAMIC TWISTING MOMENT
TO CENTRIFUGAL ACTION
PITCH-
CHANGE
AXIS
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SAHIL KHURANA
09871866290
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1
INTRODUCTION -ATMOSPHERE
1. When considering air:
vY- Air has mass
· 2- Air is not compressible
(
c3< Air is able to flow or change its shape when subject to even small pressures
( 4- The viscosity of air is very high
~ Moving air has kinetic energy
The correct combination of all true statements is:
a) 1,2,3 and 5
b) 2,3 and 4
c) 1 and 4
(
t.Jlrf,3,and5
2. Why do the lower layers contain the greater proportion of the whole mass of the atfrt_9S{?,Iiere:
a) Because air is very viscous { 1
\.-
c)afBecause air is compressible

( c) Because of greater levels of humidity at low altitude
d) Because air has very little mass
3. With increasing altitude, up to about 40,000 ft, the characteristi

1- Temperature decreases continuously with altitude
i ( 2- Pressure falls steadily to an altitude of about 36,000 ft, whe remains constant
~Density decreases steadily with increasing altitude ~
~Pressure falls steadily with increasing altitude , \ " ' \- '
The combination of true statements is: ~
a..a(3 and 4 ,__
b) 1,2 and 3
c) 2 and 4
d) 1 and 4
4. When considering static pressure:

X- In aviation, static pressure c~asured in hectopascal' s
~The Sl units for static preJl~~/m2
Y-Static pressure is the p~~ the mass of air pressing down on the air beneath
X- Referred to as static,P~S\ye because of the air's stationary or static presence
~The lower the altit~d-e:\te greater the static pressure
The correct statem. .:
a) 2,4 and 5 /
$1,2,3,4a
( c) 1,3 an
d)1a'~ }
l ..
s<f~)J ~onsidering air density:
I - D'Trnsity is measured in millibar's
t- Density increases with increasing altitude
3- If temperature increases the density will increase
~As altitude increases, density will decrease
5- Temperature decreases with increasing altitude, this will cause air density to increase
The combination of correct statements is:
~4only
b) 4 and 5
c) 5 only
d) 2,3 and 5
2
c
('
(
6. Air density is:
va{Mass per unit volume (-
b) Proportional to temperature and inversely proportional to pressure
c) Independent of both temperature and pressure (
d) Dependent only on decreasing pressure with increasing altitude
(
7. When considering the ICAO International Standard Atmosphere and comparing it with the
actual atmosphere, which of the following statements is correct: (
~em perature, pressure and density are constantly changing in any given layer of the actual
atmosphere (
/A requirement exists for a hypothetical'standard' atmosphere
3 -The values given in the International Standard Atmosphere exist at a the same altitud (
actual atmosphere
r h e International Standard Atmosphere was designed for the calibration of pr
instruments and the comparison of aircraft performance calculations
a) 1,2 and 3
b) 2,3 and 4
(
c) 1, 2, 3 and 4
[)ir1,2 and 4 c
8. When considering the ICAO International Standard Atmosp~"'""~ (
statements is correct: ~~
1- The temperature lapse rate is assumed to be unifo~rm ~ .. r 1,000 ft (1.98"C) up to a c
height of 11,000 ft
~ea level temperature is assumed to be 15"C ~_ (
3- Sea level static pressure is assumed to be 1.225 kk1in'3
4- Sea level density is assumed to be 1013.25 ~ r (
a) 1,2,3 and 4 -~ '),- '
b) No statements are correct
c) 1,3 and 4
~only
9. A moving mass of air p l(inetic energy. An obj ect placed in the path of such a moving
mass of air will be subl
a) Dynamic pressure
1Ch of the following: c
b) Static Pressure "\L.........r (
~tatic pressw:e and
d) Dynamic (
(__
10. D~a~~essure is:
~
h a t-'al pressure at a point where a moving airflow is brought completely to rest
aunt by which the pressure rises at a point where a moving airflow is brought
l
etely to rest
l
~;The pressure due to the mass of air pressing down on the air beneath
d) The pressure change caused by heating when a moving airflow is brought completely
to rest
l
11. Dynamic pressure is equal to:
a) Density times speed squared
b) Half the density times the indicated airspeed squared
c) Half the true airspeed times the density squared
~a If the density times the true airspeed squared
3
(
,~
(
12. A tube facing into an airflow will experience a pressure in the tube equal to:
( a) Static pressure
b) Dynamic pressure
( ~tatic pressure plus dynamic pressure
d) The difference between total pressure and static pressure
(
I
,--- 13. A static pressur~ vent must be positioned: . . . . . L{6;,~"::--
a) On a part of the a1rcraft structure where the a1rflow 1s undisturbed, m a surface at nght < ' - - ,
'\:---
( angles to the airflow direction
~On a part of the structure where the airflow is undisturbed, in a surface parallel to the
airflow direction
c) At the stagnation point
d) At the point on the surface where the airflow reaches the highest speed
14. The inputs to an Air Speed Indicator are from:

a) A static source
b) Pitot pressure
( ~A pitot and a static source
d) Pitot, static and density
\
15. The deflection of the pointer of the Air Speed Indicator is R
l ~ynamic pressure
b) Static pressure _
c) The difference between static and dynamic pressure \
d) Static pressure plus dynamic pressure ~
16. Calibration of the Air Speed Indicator is b~~,}on the density:
a) At the altitude at which the aircraft is flyihl\. )r '
LA:1(At sea leveiiCAO International Stand~fnosphere temperature
c)Atsealevel ~
d) At sea leveiiCAO lnternation~n"rd Atmosphere+ 15°C temperature
17. When considering c{t-~ship

t;se between different types of air speed:
1- True Air Speed (TAS) · r . ~ ~~ctly from the Air Speed Indicator
2 -. Equivalent Air Sp$d is lp icated Air Speed corrected for position error
l.Y-1"ndicated Air Spee · smf'lot a speed at all, it's a pressure r'---
/'r
(
L-4/-frue Air Sp~-ad 1iss~th speed of the aircraft through the air 6 '->
Which ofthe4Qb~tatements.are true: f \:"': {_,
~-)-
a) 1 only,. f c/' D
b)2a~3
~a ~
ctf~ '4
Ns. When considering the relationship between different types of air speed:
~Calibrated Air Speed is Indicated Air Speed corrected for position error
·~quivalent Air Speed is Indicated Air Speed corrected for position error and compressibility
~Position error, which causes false Indicated Air Speed readings, is due to variations in the
pressures sensed at the pitot and static ports
L)v-'The Air Speed Indicator is calibrated to read True Air Speed when the ambient density is that
of the ICAO International Standard Atmosphere at sea level
The combination of correct statements is:
a) Non of the statements are correct
(
4
('
b) 1,2 and 4
('
c) 2 and 3
v'(1, 2, 3 and 4 (-,
19. The speed of sound:

a) Is dependent upon the True Air Speed and the Mach number of the aircraft
r
b) Is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature L- S S -:.
L£(is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature of the air
d) Is directly proportional to the True Air Speed of the aircraft
20:)VIach number is: (

vfl"he aircraft True Air Speed divided by the local speed of sound
i.
b) The speed of sound in the ambient conditions in which the aircraft is flying
c) The True Air Speed of the aircraft at which the relative airflow somewhere on the
aircraft first reaches the local speed of sound
d) The Indicated Air Speed divided by the local speed of sound sea level
21. An aircraft's critical Mach number is; ~-~

(a) The speed of the airflow when the aircraft first becomes supersonic
(b) The speed of the aircraft when the airflow somewhere reaches th~ f sound (
(c))he Indicated Airspeed when the aircraft first becomes supers
'!)dJ The aircraft's Mach number when airflow over it first reach (
No lA (~;
I
2
3
D
-
D
9
--+-
c
10 B
11 D
12 c (
13
14
15 A
B
c I (.
16 B
17 c
• I
18 . ro
19 c
20 A
21 lo
( '
""'
5
(
(
SUBSONIC FLOW
)t1. If the cross sectional area of an airflow is· mechanically reduced:
a) The velocity of the airflow remains constant and the kinetic energy increases
b) The velocity of the airflow remains constant and the mass flow increases
c) The mass flow remains constant and the static pressure increases
tJIYfhe mass flow remains constant and the velocity of the airflow increases
(
2. The statement, "Pressure plus Kinetic energy is constant", refers to:
t..M-'Eemoulli's theorem
b) The principle of continuity
( c) Newton's second law of motion
d) The Magnus effect
3. If the velocity of an air mass is increased:

a) The dynamic pressure will decrease and the static pressure will increase
b) The static pressure will remain constant and the kinetic energy will increase ~
(
LJ')'the kinetic energy will increase, the dynamic pressure will increase an~";; ·
c pressure will decrease ·
d) The mass flow will stay constant, the dynamic pressure will decrease..aw e static
( pressure will increase ,
4. When considering a streamlined airflow, which of the folio~ sTatements is correct:

1 - A resultant decrease in static pressure is indicated by streafqlwlhown close together
2 - An increa~e in .velocity. is indicated by stre~lines s~~~l,se'.to~e0er .
3 - Acceleratmg atrflow wtth a resultant decreasmg st:ll!c lllresrure 1s mdtcated by convergmg
streamlines ~
4- Diverging streamlines indicate decelerating at.'rflo" vnth a resultant increasing static pressure
a) 2 and 4 't
b) 1,3and4 ~···
c) 2,3 and 4
Jl11, 2,3and4 ~·
5. If the pressure on one sideai.~face is lower than on the other side:

t.M A force per unit area wilL~si>a,~ing in the direction of the lower pressure
b) No force will be gene~d."tst · r than drag
c) A force will be gen ra ·, ing in the direction of the higher pressure
d) The pressure willi,~ und the sides of the surface, cancelling-out any pressure
differential
(.
g a streamtube, which of the following statements is correct:

of streamtube are manufactured to match the wing span of the aircraft to
whic~~iil be fitted
3C~ fl~w in~o ~e
2- ea · tube is a concept to aid understanding of aerodynamic force generation
e is no or ?ut of the streamtube through "walls", only flow along the tube
4 - Kstreamtube 1s an tmagmary tube made-up of streamhnes
.y 1 only
) 1 and 3
·~,3and4
d) 1,2 and 3
7. At flow speeds less than four tenths the speed of sound, the following will be insignificant:
a) Changes in static pressure due to temperature
b) Changes in density due to static pressure
~hanges in density due to dynamic pressure
(
6
d) Changes in static pressure due to kinetic energy
@In accordance with the principle of continuity:

1 - Air accelerates when the cross-sectional area of a streamline flow is reduced (
2 - When air accelerates the density of air in a streamline flow is increased
(~'
3 - Air decelerates when the cross-sectional area of a streamline flow is increased
4 - Changes in cross-sectional area of a streamline flow will affect the air velocity
Which of the preceding statements are true:
(a) 1,2,3and4
(
(b) 1 and 4
(c) 3 and 4
(
t)dJ0and4
9. In accordance with Bernoulli's theorem:

1 - If a streamline flow of air decelerates, its kinetic energy will decrease and the static pr~
will increase r '" '
2 - If a streamline flow of air accelerates, its kinetic energy will increase and the stati\a,rJsure
will decrease ~
3 - If a streamline flow of air is accelerated, the dynamic pressure will increa8~ and;the static
pressure will increase
4 - If a streamline flow of air is decelerated, its dynamic pressure will
pressure will increase
the combination of correct statements is: (
a) 1,2,3 and 4 ~·
b) 3 only ~ ' c
~2and4 .\·~
d)3and4 ~
10. The statement, "Energy and mass can n~er~eated nor destroyed, only changed from
one
form to another", refers to:
a) Bernoulli's theorem ,
~=u:~rgy ,·~r Lt:J;,v.J

d) Bernoulli's principle of COI}tm~
No A B c D
1 D
2 A
3 c
(
4 D
·.. 5 A
6 c
7 c
8 D
9 c
28 c (
(,
(; 7
( ) TERMINOLOGIES
1. With reference to aerofoil section terminology, which of the following statements is true:
( 1 -The chord line is a line joining the centre of curvature of the leading edge to the centre of the
trailing edge, equidistant from the top and bottom surface of the aerofoil.
() 2 - The angle of incidence is the angle between the chord line and the horizontal datum of the
aircraft.
( ) 3 - The angle between the chord line and the relative airflow is called the aerodynamic incidence
or angle of attack.
(l 4- The thickness/chord ratio is the maximum thickness of the aerofoil as a percentage of the
chord; the location of maximum thickness is measured as a percentage of the chord aft ofthe
( .. leading edge.
a) 1,2,3 and 4
()
b~J;2 and 4
t,GfL,3 and 4
d) 2 and 4
2. The definition oflift is:

( I a) the aerodynamic force which acts perpendicular to the chord line of the aerofor
b) the aerodynamic force that results from the pressure differentials about ~· ero:f@jl
c c) the aerodynamic force which acts perpendicular to the upper surface of.·· · .. ofoil
0l}the aerodynamic force which acts at 90 •to the relative airflow """"
3. An aerofoil section is designed to produce lift resulting from a

( . !.
a) negative air pressure below and a vacuum above the surfac~<"'~
b) vacuum below the surface and greater air pressure above th ace.
t.>)1llgher air pressure below the surface and lower air p~~se:S~ · ove the surface.
d) higher air pressure at the leading edge than at the tr~ eage.
4. On an aerofoil section, the force of lift actsperpe~ar to, and the force of drag acts parallel
tothe: -
~ightpath.
b) longitudinal axis.
c) chord line.
d) aerofoil section upper surface.
5. When the angle of attacl} d\r s)m'inetrical aerofoil is increased, the centre of pressure will:
a) have very limited mo
b) ~ve aft along the
tfo7remain unaffecte
d) move forwarsl to th~eading edge.
ing speed also increase lift?

impact of the relative wind on an aerofoil's lower surface creates a greater
being deflected downward.
_____ eased speed of the air passing over an aerofoil's upper surface decreases the
sta:t,rc:ylessure, thus creating a g{eater pressure differential between the upper and lower
sud':fce.
~YThe increased velocity ofthe relative wind overcomes the increased drag.
d) Increasing speed decreases drag.
7. The point on an aerofoil section through which lift acts is the:

a) midpoint of the chord.
b) centre of gravity.
~ntre of pressure.
d) aerodynamic centre.
(~
8
(
8. The angle between the chord line of the aerofoil section and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
is known as: (
a) the angle of attack.
L.J>ftlie angle of incidence.
c) dihedral.
d) sweep back. c
9. The angle between the chord line of an aerofoil section and the relative wind is known as the c
angle of:
a) incidence. (
b) lift.
~ck. ('
d) sweepback
10. A line drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an aerofoil section and equi.~f'at
all points from the upper and lower contours is called the:
a) chord line.
r '\- 7
(
~
b) camber.
Lef1hean camber line.
d) longitudinal axis.
11. At zero angle of attack, the pressure along the upper surface of (!
rical aerofoil section
would be: A 4- \J fP-1,'1" .!r
a) greater than atmospheric pressure. ~-~:-~--q4&':f-::::::: ·--._ c·
:;s::~------~.
b) equal to atmospheric pressure.
~ess than atmospheric pressure.
. -,.~ -----~--~::::::::~:--
c
d) non existent. .:~6~;_---~~~~·::=:.:~·
directl~ols: p.,-~tV1f'-U 7
J;
12. The angle of attack of an aerofoil section
a) amount of airflow above and below the s cti~
b) angle of incidence ofthe section. (
~stribution of positive and negativ~=-s~e acting on the section.
d) the angle relative to the horizontal T"' (
13. When the angle of attack 9f'1t~ely cambered aerofoil is increased, the centre ofpressure (
will:
a) have very little move
~ve forward alon
c) remain unaffecte (
d) move back along th
(
14. The t~- .( ~~~~ o~ a~ck" is. defined as the angle: . .
a) forme e lo~g1tudmal ~Xls of the aerop_lane ~d the chord lme of the section. (
L.Jibet~ · e sectiOn chord lme and the relative wmd. .
c~eir the aeroplane's climb angle and the horizon.
d]'TO'..,pned by the leading edge of the section and the relative airflow.
(
~3. Which of the following statements is true:
1 -Relative airflow, free stream flow, relative wind and aircraft flightpath are parallel. (,_
2- Aircraft flightpath, relative airflow, relative wind and free stream flow are parallel, but the
aircraft flightpath is opposite in direction. (
3 - The pressure, temperature and relative velocity ofthe free stream flow are unaffected by the
presence of the aircraft. (
4 - The relative wind is produced by the aircraft moving through the air.
5 - The direction of flight is parallel with and opposite to the relative airflow.
a) 5 only
( .
9
b) 3,4 and 5
c) 1 and2
~,3,4and5
'16. Which of the following statements is correct:

1 - Maximum camber is the maXimum distance between the top and bottom surface of an aerofoi1
section.
2 - The thickness/chord ratio is expressed as a percentage of the chord.
( 3 - It is easier for air to flow over a well-row1ded leading edge radius than a sharp leading edge.
4 - Two dimensional airflow assumes a wing with the same aerofoil section along its entire span,
( with no spanwise pressure differential.
5 - Air flowing towards the lower pressure of the upper surface is called upwash.
a) 1,2,3,4 and 5 ·
b) 2,3 and 4
~,4and5
d) 1 and5 {
17. When considering an aerofoil section at a constant angle of attack, which of the f~o~w_g}
statements is true:
~the s.tatic pressure on one side is reduced more than on the other side, a p~esS e
differential will eXist.
b) If dynamic pressure is increased, the pressure differential will decrease."'
c) The pressure differential will increase if the dynamic pressure is dec;
d) Dynamic pressure and pressure differential are not related.
c ' ~
18. Consid~ring an aerofoil section subject to a constant d.~~~nSssure, which of the following
statements ts correct: '\ ""~ .,
a) If the angle of attack is increased from 4 ° to 14° the..P~ure differential will not
change but lift will be greater due to increased dyna~~ressure acting on the lower
surface. j,. '
t_b)-Up to about 16° .increasing the angle of attac~l
A. .
increase the pressure differential
between the top and bottom surfuce ofth~l.
c) Ch~ging the angle of attack does not. ec. e pressure differential, only changes in
dynamtc pressure affect the pressure dt~~ tal.
d) Up to about 16° increasing th~,gle}>f attack decreases the pressure differential
between the top and bottom surfa~f'the aerofoil section.
19. When considering t :rchanging angle of attack on the pitching moment of an aerofoil,
which bf the followin nts is correct:
hack the pitching moment is nose up.
nt about the aerodynamic centre (AC) is constant at 'normal' angles of
mic centre (AC) is located approXimately at the 25% chord point.

nt about the aerodynamic centre (AC) is a product of the distance between the
aer~· anne centre (AC) and the centre of pressure (CP) and the magnitude ofthe lift force.
a)-4,2, and 4
b~y
c) 3~d4
·,3 and 4
20. Ice contamination of the leading portion of the aerofoil has which ofthe following
consequences:
1 -The profile of the leading portion of the surface can be changed, preventing normal
acceleration of the airflow and substantially reducing the magnitude of the lift force.
2- Form (pressure) drag will be increased because of the increased frontal area of the aerofoil
section.
3 -Loss oflift will have a greater effect than all increase in form (pressure) drag.
..::=:-\
10
r
4 _;At 'normal' angles of attack lift can be lost entirely if enough ice accumulates.
~1,2,3and4 (
b) 1,3 and 4
c) 1,2 and 3 (
d) 3 and4
(
(-
No A B c D No A B c D
1 c l1 c
2 D 12 c
3 c 13 B
(
4 A 14 B
( ..
s c 15 KD ~
6 B 16 ~:-- ~
-
(
(
c ~~
7
8 B
17
18
A
!"''
~ ~.
(
'·
r:)
9 c t9{ ~J D
10 c ~ A
()'--------------.::~~
( I
11
,~-
1 ;
AERODYNAMICS
AEROFOIL AND TERMINOLOGIES
(; Q2.1 The relative thickness of an aerofoil is expressed in:

(a) centimetres
( )
(b) metres
( (c) degrees of cross section
Lfd)%chord
Q2.2 The line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil that ·
( ' precisely midway between the upper and lower surfaces is the:
(a) mean aerodynamic chord
( j
(b) average camber line
L-(.cfmean camber line
( (d) chord line
i (
Q2.3 The angle of attack of an aerofoil is the an
(a) longitudinal axis and the chord line
~hard line and the undisturbed airfloW,
(c) longitudinal axis and the horizontal ~
(d) longitudinal axis and the undistur~d Airflow
QZ.4 With respect to increas~~ude, which oft he following statements is

correct? ~~t Airways,2010
(a) At a constant Mach rnz.~et the lAS increases.
(b) At a constant TA~~ach number decreases. ---"' -r 1 "1 ·"'oif
tJ.erAt a constant-~fttyMach number increases. -:JAS - t1S '
(d) At a constant_lAs,lhe TAS decreases.
QZ.5 Th"~ubtended between the longitudinal axis of an aeroplane and
~
d,~e of the wing is the:
~~"b'f incidence -
( aSli\Je-path angle -
(c)){ngle of attack
e
d) climb-path angle
'~
Q2.6 Lateral wing dihedr-al is the angle between the 0.25 chord line and the:
(DGCA)
(a) longitudinal axis
(b) vertical axis
(c) longitudinal horizontal axis
(
12
v{dflateral horizontal axis
('
Q2.71n a constant Mach number climb in a standard atmosphere to FL 350 the
TAS will: (
(a) remain constan~
L..fb} decrease
(c) increase to FL 100, then decrease above FLlOO (-
(d) increase
(~
Q2.8 The angle of attack of a wing is the angle between the (i) ...... and t ( '
(a) (i) longitudinal axis; (ii) free stream direction

(b) (i) chord line; (ii) camber line (
Uer{i) chordline; (ii) free stream direction
('
(d) (i) longitudinal axis; (ii) chordline
(
Q2.9 Angle of attack of a wing is defined as:
(,
(a) the angle between the aeroplane longitudin~~nd the wing chord line
(b) the angle to obtain the maximum lift/dr~~
J.etthe angle between the wing chord line~ tife direction of the relative
airflow ~
(d) the angle between the climb pat~\he horizontal (
Q2.10 The difference between l~d

TAS will:
(
(a) increase with temperature~rease (
(b) increase with increas(~_waensity

(
(c) decrease at high~
L)elj decrease with ~sing altitude (
Q2.1lln a cons~AS climb the Mach number will:. Spice Jet

2011
(a) de-·
(.
Q2.12 The aspect ratio of a wing is the ratio between the (i) ....... and,the (ii) ..... ~
(a) (i) mean chord; (ii) the root chord
tAt5) (i) wing span; (ii) the mean geometric chord.
\'---
(c) (i) wing span; (ii) the root chord
(d) (i) tip chord; (ii) the wing span
(
( 13
( Q2.13 The angle between the airflow and the chord line is the:
I
( (a) glide path

(-b) climb path
(
(c) angle of incidence
( ~ngle of attack
(
Q2.14 Desce_nding at a constant Mach number, the effect on theTAS is that it:
( Jet Airways 2008
(a) decreases as air pressure increases
(b) decreases as altitude decreases
(c) remains constant
(. J.dfincreases
(
c
Q2.15 To predict the effect of compressibility it is
~Mach number - :t ·
'
necessa~to~rmine the:
( (b) EAS L
cI" ~
(c) TAS ( 0
(
(d) lAS 7. "' .
(
Q2.16 The angle of attack of a wing is defi~}the

~
angle between:
(a) the upper surface airflow and the cho"~ine
(b) the undisturbed airflow and the~~ \:amber line
L.(etlhe undisturbed airflow and tn_~tYprd line ·
(d) the upper surface airflow Cijl~ mean camber line
Q2.17 True airspeed is: ~~ - -

(a) higher than the S.~,Q.,ofthe un_distur~ed airstream
(b) equal to lAS ~~~":d by the a1r dens1ty at mean sea level
(c) lower than t~~eed of the undisturbed airflow
· Jd)iower than the lAS at ISA conditions at altitudes below mean sea level
Q2.18~~~ming ISA conditions and all other conditions are constant then if an
a>r:olta{;le flies at the same angle of attack in straight and level flight at two
cf1~j~nt altitudes then theTAS will be:
(a)
0
Tower at the higher altitude.
~
higher at the higher altitude.

(c) the same at both altitudes.
(d) impossible to determine.
Q2.19 The MAC of a given wing planform is the:

~chord of a large rectangular wing
(
14
(b) average chord ofthe actual aeroplane (-·

(c) wing area divided by the wing span
(d) average chord that divides upper surface and lower surface equally. r-1
('
Q2.20 Load factor is: (DGCA)
(a) 1/Bank angle
(b) wing loading
Je}Lift/M ass
(d) Mass/Lift ('
Q2.21 Flying at a constant CAS below mean sea level in ISA condition~
L(..affs less than it would be at mean sea level ( .~ 7
(b) equal to theTAS at mean sea level ( .
(c) is greater than it would be at mean sea level . ~
(d) equal to theTAS at mean sea level but the lAS is high~
Q2.22 Which ofthe following is the correct metho

(
dihedral? It is the angle between:
(a) the 25% chordline and the horizontal ion~~ axis
L(bfthe 25% chordline and the horizontallatf'taMis
(
(c) the wing plane and the horizontal
(d) the 25% chordline and the longit~}axis (
Q2.23 A line joining points that~uidistant from the upper and lower
surfaces of an aerofoil an~i~g-the centres of curvature of the leading and
trailing edge is the:
(a) averag~ camber li
(b) mean aerodyna·
(c) mean chordUA'e ~ I
\)d(mean cambe~
gle of attack is the angle between the: ( '
u"urbed airflow and the chordline

isturbed airflow and the mean camber line
(c)'1'6cal airflow and the chordline
~a) local airflow and the mean camber line
Q2.25 Aspect ratio is defined as:
(a) wingspan divided by the wing tip chord
(b) the wing tip chord divided by the wingspan
b(.e{the wingspan divided by the mean chord
'--
(d) the 25% chord divided by the wingspan
(
( 15
(~ Q2.26 The angle of the attack is defined as the angle subtended between the
chordline of:
()
~wing to the relative free-stream flow
(b) wing to the fuselage datum.
(
(c) tail plane to the wihg chord line
(d) tail plane to the fuselage
(
( Q2.27 The measured thickness of an aerofoil section is usually expressed a

(a) a percentage of the wingspan
(b) related to the camber
L(eJa' percentage of the chord
(d) metres
(
Q2.28 Assuming ISA conditions, which of the following st~nts regarding a

climb is correct? 0 . c__
(a) At a constant TAS the Mach number decreasesA~creased '\'~/

1
(
t-A
~-- "\-
1
'·· altitude. A' 1 /
(b) At a constant Mach number the lAS incre~~h increased altitude. . ,~~ ~ ~
(c) At a constant lAS theTAS decreases wi,~cr~ased altitude. ~r-··
\..{.dtAt a constant lAS the Mach number i~ses with increased altitude.
*Q2.29 For two aeroplanes flying i~ ~dard atmosphere at the same mass
and the same lAS at different a l . s the relationship of their TAS is:
' (a) greater at the lower altitu~ ~ j_ q jl
L.(bt-greater at the higher~,efe f ). V;
(c) they are equal :::0_" L-==I
(d) less at the hig~e~j:tude ~
Q2.30 The ':lea~ ~rodynamic chord of a wing is defined as:
~¥he mean chord of a rectangular wing of the same span
\)afth:!e_
(b) th ~~~ord of a swept-back wing
(c) t~ ~g area divided by the wing span ·
\
(<it'"' wing chord at 66% of the semi-wing span
( .
2.3lln a constant Mach number climb the effect of increased altitude on the
value of TAS is that it is:
\}elfdecreased
(b) increased
(c) unaffected
(d) increased to the tropopause and then decreased
(
16
Self-assessment Exercise 2 (
QA QA QA QA (
2.1 d 2.9 c 2.17 d 2.25 c 22
(
2.2 c 2.10 d 2.18 b 2.26 a 20
2.3 b 2.11 d 2.191 a 2.21 c 20 (
2.4 c 2.12 b 2.20 c 2.28 d 27

2.5 a 2.13 d 2.21 a 2.29 b 27 ~
2.6 d 2.14 d 2.22 b 2.30 a 19 ( J, (
2.7 b 2.15 a 2.23 d "2.31 a2~

2.8 c 2.16 c 2.24 a ~. ~·-y
'~ (
( )
·l
( .
\,_
(
17
(
LIFT
(
1. To maintain altitude, what must be done as Indicated Air Speed (/AS) is
reduced:
a) Decrease angle of attack to reduce the drag.
vbflncrease angle of attack to maintain the correct lift force.
c) Deploy the speed brakes to increase drag.
d) Reduce thrust.
2. If more lift force is required because of greater operating weig!Jt lav.:

must be done to fly at the angle of attack which corresponds·to ~)-- 10 '\
a) Increase the angle of attack. . ~ L:- J ~ v ' c (I.W_s,
b) Nothing, the angle of attack for CLMAXiS constant. ~ " r J
(
c) It is impossible to fly at the angle of attack that corre1~"1t¥to CLMAX.
L-d) Increase the Indicated Air Speed (lAS).
3. Which of the following statements is corre,it:?

(
1- To generate a constant lift force, any ad)li~t~'nt in lAS must be
accompanied by a change in angle of att~
2- For a constant lift force, each lAS requ\~ a specific angle of attack.
3- Minimum lAS is determined by~ll
4- The greater the operating w~lil\,.the higher the minimum lAS.
a) 1,2 and 4 ~~
b) 4 only
c) 2,3 and 4
vd)· 1,2,3 and 4
Jt4. What efl~ does landing at high altitude airports have on ground speed
with co.rftfl.:lb;61e conditions relative to temperature, wind, and aeroplane
wei~~
~gi)er than at low altitude.
b'J11le same as at low altitude.
:~ Lower than at low altitude.
d) Dynamic pressure will be the same at any altitude.
i 1 ~ 5. What flight condition should be-expected when an aircraft leaves ground

effect:
a) A decrease in parasite drag permitting a lower angle of attack.
vb') An increase in induced drag and a requirement for a higher angle of attack.
l.
(
18
(
c) An increase in dynamic stability. (~
d) A decrease in induced drag requiring a smaller angle of attack.

(-:-
6. What will be the ratio between airspeed and lift if the angle of attack and
other factors remain constant and airspeed is doubled. Lift will be: r
a) Two times greater.
~ Four times greater.
(
c) The same.
d) One quarter. (
(
7. What true airspeed and angle of attack should be used to genera~
same amount of lift as altitude is increased: r .~..,-
L--af A higher true airspeed for any given angle of attack. V (
b) The same true airspeed and angle of attack. . ~
c) A lower true airspeed and higher angle of attack. ~ (
d) A constant angle of attack and true air speed. ~~ (
B. How can an aeroplane produce the same lift in ...._ ('
of ground effect: , (
~)A lower angle of attack. ~
(
b) A higher angle of attack. ~
c) The same angle of attack. \- '
d) The same angle of attack, bu~~~AS. (
;ft 9. By changing the angleJ~,a~ of a wing, the pilot can control the
aeroplane's:
a) Lift and airspeed, ~~t 1:1rag.
b) Lift, gross weigh~ arag.
I.
I
~ Lift, airspeetk1ndffiag.
d) Lift and dJag;~not airspeed.
ht conditions of a large jet aeroplane create the most severe

fligli~rd by generating wingtip vortices of the greatest strength:
~);vY, slow, gear and flaps up.
b)~avy, fast, gear and flaps down. \.
~1 Heavy, slow, gear and flaps down. (
d) Weight, gear and flaps make no difference.
1,-.
11. Hazardous vortex turbulence that might be encountered behind large

aircraft is created only when that aircraft is:
a) Using high power settings.
b) Operating at high airspeeds.
(- 19
(
t-C}-Developing lift.
(
d) Operating at high altitude.
( 12. Wingtip vortices created by large aircraft tend to:

I
a) Rise from the surface to traffic pattern altitude.
Lb)Sink below the aircraft generating the turbulence.
( c) Accumulate and remain for a period of time at the point where the takeoff
roll began.
d) Dissipate very slowly when the surface wind is strong.
( 13. How does the wake turbulence vortex circulate around each win
when viewed from the rear:
c
a) Inward} upward} and around the wingtip.
(.
b) Counter clockwise.
( v-et Outward 1 upward1 and around the wingtip.
d) Outward 1 downward and around the wingtip.
( 14. Which statement is true concerning the wa.

( large transport aircraft: "" '
a) Wake turbulence behind a propeller-dri){e~ ~traft is negligible. because jet
engine thrust is a necessary factor in the"V.tion of vortices.
( b) Vortices can be avoided by flying~ f$ef below and behind the flightpath
of the generating aircraft. . "'~;
l-4The vortex characteristics of . e n aircraft may be altered by extending
the flaps or changing the ~e~
d) Vortices can be avoid~~fving downwind of1 and below the flight path of
the generating aircra
15. What effec~ a light crosswind have on the wingtip vortices

generated~ a laFge aeroplane that has just taken off:
a) The di~~Jil~d vortex will tend to remain on the runway longer than the
up win
b) A ~~ind will rapidly dissipate the strength of both vortices.
~~sswind will move both vortices clear of the runway.
a)~~e upwind vortex will tend to remain on the runway longer than the
ownwind vortex.
16. To avoid the wingtip vortices of a departing jet aeroplane during takeoff,
the pilot should:
a) Remain below the flightpath of the jet aeroplane.
t..-b1 Climb above and stay upwind of the jet aeroplane's flightpath.
c) Lift off at a point well past the jet aeroplane's flightpath.
(
20
d) Remain below and downwind of the jet aeroplane's flightpath.
17. What wind condition prolongs the hazards of wake turbulence on a (~

landing runway for the longest period of time:
(,
a) Light quartering headwind.
L--b} Light quartering tailwind.
c) Direct tailwind.
d) Strong, direct crosswind.
(
18. If you take off behind a heavy jet that has just landed, you should P_lr
~~ .
a) Prior to the point where the jet touched down. ~ ( ..
b) At the point where the jet touched down and on the upwind e~fthe
runway. ~
c) Before the point where the jet touched down and on t~wh~ind edge of (
the runway. ~~
(
v<t) Beyond the point where the jet touched down.
( .
19. The adverse effects of ice, snow, or frost on biF~raft performance and
flight characteristics include decreased /if! d~\-
a) Increased thrust. ~
b) A decreased stall speed. ~ ( ~·
vet An increased stall speed. ~~ .
\
d) An aircraft will always stall at~Mame indicated airspeed. '
20. Lift on a wing is mostl('f!!.,'{;ry defined as the:

a) Differential pressure a~~perpendicular to the chord of the wing.
' t--bfforce acting per~~~ar to the relative wind.
c) Reduced press.r,r~S'ulting from a laminar flow over the upper camber of an
aerofoil, which~~erpendicular to the mean camber (
d) Force ac;~g ijarallel with the relative wind and in the opposite direction.
(
21. Wh7&1+Jtatement is true relative to changing angle of attack:
a~ ~ease in angle of attack will increase pressure below the wing, and
~~sedrag.
(
~bJ An increase in angle of attack will decrease pressure below the wing, and
mcrease drag.
GeT An increase in angle of attack will increase drag.
d) An increase in angle of attack will decrease the lift coefficient.
\.
22. The angle of attack of a wing directly controls the:
a) Angle of incidence ofthe wing.
21
·~Distribution of pressures acting on the wing.

( c) Amount of airflow above and be~ ow the wing.
d) Dynamic pressure acting in the airflow.
23. In theory, if the angle of attack and other factors remain constant and the
airspeed is doubled, the lift produced at the higher speed will be:
(.
a) The same as at the lower speed.
( b) Two times greater than at the lower speed.
vet Four times greater than at the lower speed.
d) One quarter as much.
24. An aircraft wing is designed to produce lift resulting from a di

the: '%t
a) Negative air pressure below and a vacuum above the wing's ~ce.
b) Vacuum below the wing's surface and greater air press~b~ve the wing's
surface. ~~
( ~Higher air pressure below the wing's surface and l~ir pressure above
the wing's surface.
d) Higher pressure at the leading edge than a~~lling edge.
25. On a wing, the force of lift acts perp~~plar to, and the force of drag
acts parallel to the:
a) Camber line.
b) Longitudinal axis.
c) Chord line.
L--d1 Flightpath.
26. Which statem~~~e, regarding the opposing forces acting on an L
aeroplane in st~~d~l!rte level flight: · /?
a) Thrust is grea'-F1han drag and weight and lift are equal. l'
~ ....• / '
=L.~.-------c_~~~~--~_1)
L-bj These for~s jlre equal.
c) Thru~t~Mter than drag and lift is greater than weight.
d) Thn1s(!~slightly greater than Lift, but the drag and weight are equal.
~~gher elevation airports the pilot should know that indicated

[;I)
air'r/Jeed:
Will be unchanged, but ground speed will be faster.
b) Will be higher, but ground speed will be unchanged.
c) Should be increased to compensate for the thinner air.
d) Should be higher to obtain a higher landing speed.
28. An aeroplane leaving ground effect will:

22
(,
a) Experience a reduction in ground friction and require a slight power
reduction.
b) Require a lower angle of attack to maintain the same lift coefficient. r
c) Experience a reduction in induced drag and require a smaller angle of attack (~
velfExperience an increase in induced drag and require more thrust.

(
No A B c 0
I. .B
2 D
I! 3 D (
4 .A
(
5 B
6 B
..
7 A (
8 A• • (
9 ell
I I (
10 A
11 c (
12
13
- ·
.B
c
:- I IB I I c ~I' (
~:l~Jck:l
l4
-lS (
-16
-17 2.7
(
-18 -28
ft 1: . . 1 .1°1
\,
23
(
DI?AGASSIGNMENT
1. What is the effect on total drag of an aircraft if the airspeed decreases in

level flight below that speed for maximum L/D?
(
va)Drag increases because of increased induced drag.
b) Drag decreases because of lower induced drag.
c) Drag increases because of increased parasite drag.
d) Drag decreases because of lower parasite drag.
2. By changing the angle of attack of a wing, the pilot can control th

airplane's:
a) lift and airspeed, but not drag.
b) lift, gross weight, and drag.
(
tA) lift, airspeed, and drag.
d) lift and drag, but not airspeed.
3. What is the relationship between induced an1

gross weight is increased? ., \ ~ .
a) Parasite drag increases more than indu~;tg.
v15) Induced drag increases more than par~ drag.·
c) Both parasite and induced drag ar~u\lly increased.
d) Both parasite and induced dr~)equally decreased.
4. In theory, if the airspef!!1!f;;r~irplane is doubled while in level flight,

parasite drag will becorfl,
a) twice as great.
b) half as great.
,t..effour times g
d) one qua
5. As a1r<ftl!t!d decreases in level flight below that speed for maximum

li/l(l/ttrrr ratio, total drag of an aeroplane:
a~J~;ases because of lower parasite drag.
b) increases because of increased parasite drag.
rncreases because of increased induced drag.
d) decreases because of lower induced drag.
6. (Refer to annex 'A') At the airspeed represented by point B, in steady

flight, the airplane will ANNEX 'I>,'
va) have its maximum L/D ratio.

b) have its minimum L/D ratio.
-~
(
24
c) be developing its maximum coefficient of lift.

d) be developing its minimum coefficient of drag
('~
7. Which statement is true relative to changing angle of attack? ('

a) A decrease in angle of attack will increase pressure· below the wing, and
decrease drag. c
b) An increase in angle of attack will decrease pressure below the wing, and ( '
increase drag.
v:fAn increase in angle of attack will increase drag.
d) A decrease in angle of attack will decrease pressure below the wing . .
increase drag. ~
B. On a wing, the force of lift acts perpendicular to, and thefa~~rag acts
parallel to the: ~. ~ ,
(
lYfilightpath. '~
b) longitudinal axis. ~"'- (.•
c) chord line.
( '
d) longitudinal datum ~-.
9. That portion of the aircraft's total dra~")ed by the production of lift is

called: :x:r
LP1fnduced drag, and is greatly affect~ changes in airspeed.
./
(
b) induced drag, and is not affe~M~~changes in airspeed. (

c) parasite drag, and is greatly~~ted by changes in airspeed.
d) parasite drag, which is ~e~eiY proportional to the square of the airspeed
aircraft occurs when parasite drag is:

(
a) a minimum.
b) less than ind~,arag.
c) greater t~n ipd'Uced drag.
~qua.L.t~1krced drag.
(_
l~~fcrajt has a L/D ratio of lS:l at 50 kts in colin air. What would the
L ~ rf~Jrd'tio be with a direct headwind of 25 kts?
aJ ....
0:1
15:1
c) 25: 1
d) 7.5: 1
12. Which is true regarding aerodynamic drag?

~nduced drag is a by-product of lift and is greatly affected by changes in
airspeed.
25
( b) All aerodynamic drag is created entirely by the production of lift.

(
- c) Induced drag is created entirely by air resistance.
d) Parasite drag is a by-product of lift.
c fl) 7 A-s.
( 13. At aci[_Ven True Air Sp~ what effect will increased air density have on
(
the lift and drag of an aircraft? S
1' L " l v L c_ . s
a) Lift will increase but drag will decrease. 2
~ (__
L-bftift and drag will increase. 1 __ , .f'
2
c) Lift and drag will decrease. !) 2 ~ ~ · c P :....~
d) Lift and drag will remain the same.
14. If the Indicated Air Speed of an aircraft is increased from 50

(
parasite drag will be:
!P}four times greater.
( b) six times greater.
( c) two times greater.
d) one quarter as much.
15. If the Indicated Air Speed of an aircraft ·

kts, induced drag will be:
a) two times greater.
L.8)1our times greater.
c) half as much.
d) one quarter as much.
16. The best L/D ratio 9ff!..TI:pifcraft in a given configuration is a value that:
a) varies with lndic~~Speed.
b) varies depen~.i p n the weight being carried.
c) varies with a· -~ 1ty.
~remains }aQnsta t regardless of Indicated Air Speed changes.
17. Th~€1k/(mcy of an aircraft to develop forces which restore it to its

origl~l,condition, when disturbed from a condition of steady flight is known
J?;;
aJ manoeuvrability.
) controllability.
I,.C)..sfa bi Iity.
d) instability.
18. As Indicated Air Speed increases in level flight, the total drag of an
aircraft becomes greater than the total drag produced at the maximum
lift/drag speed because of the:
(
26
(
a) decrease in induced drag only.
b) increase in induced drag.
l4increase in parasite drag.
d) decrease in parasite drag only.
c
19. The resistance, or skin friction, due to the viscosity of the air as it passes (
along the surface of a wing is a type of: (-
a) induced drag.
(
b) form drag.
~parasite drag. s. k,·., t'--n'c<h a-,_ c·
d) interference drag. ~
(
ai~
.
20. Which relationship is correct when comparing drag and

a) Parasite drag varies inversely as the square of the airsp~ ~ r
(
b) Induced drag increases as the square of the airspeed. ~
c) Parasite drag increases as the square of the lift co~t divided by the (
aspect ratio.
l)iftflduced drag varies inversely as the square of~e\·irspeed. c
~ c
21. If the same angle of attack is maint":}~nYground effect as when out of
ground effect, lift will:
a) decrease, and parasite drag will d(\~S'e.
verfncrease, and induced drag ~i,ijAd1Ci;ease.
c) decrease, and parasite dra~lhj,ncrease.
d) increase and induced d~ ~1l'fncrease.
22. Which statem~el'N!j)e regarding aeroplane flight at L/D max?

(
a) Any angle of a t ther than that for L/D max increases parasite drag.
b) Any angle of~)!~ other than that for L/D max increases the lift/drag ratio.
tfrAny angl~f ~k other than that for L/D max increases total drag for a
given ae,~"s lift.
~.
d) Any~~,e of attack other than that for L/D max increases the lift and ( .
r~~eDRAG
23. spect ratio of a wing is defined as the ratio of the:
~1 square of the chord to the wingspan.
b) wingspan to the wing root.
c) area squared to the chord.
~wingspan to the mean chord.
24. A wing with a very high aspect ratio (in comparison with a low aspect
ratio wing) will have:
27
( t)lYpoor control qualities at low airspeeds.

(
b) increased drag at high angles of attack.
c) a low stall speed.
( d) reduced bending moment on its attachment points.
( 25. At a constant velocity in airflow, a high aspect ratio wing will have (in
comparison with a low aspect ratio wing):
(
a) increased drag, especially at a low angle of attack.
( v-bf decreased drag, especially at a high angle of attack.
c) increased drag, especially at a high angle of attack.
d) decreased drag, especially at low angles of attack .
.lfc.
(
26. What happens to total drag when ~eratirJg from CLm@)to-m
speed?
a) Increases.
( b) Increases then decreases.
c) Decreases.
t-At Decreases then increases.
( . '1/.s v.D ----==4
)<\
27. If the Indicated Air Speed of an aircraft i~~"T!flight is increased from 100
kt to 200 kt, what change will occur in (i)iil. ~ CDi (iii) Di ?
(i) (ii) (iii) ~ 4?.
a) 2 1/4 1/16 · 1<J.
b) 0 4 16 ~~ 0' c. )
1
~v i'o, · .<,
c) 4 1/16 1/4 J, J,
u:f)2 1/16 1/4 - ~ 11 ~~
i
..
r·
\
28
I
,--·,
I
(
,~
No c I
~;:o;~
A .B D No .A ···g
l A r:r· 4 (
2 c 18 c
3 B 19' c
4
5
c
c
:20.
21 B
· ·.
.D
h~y
(
6 A 22·
7 c 23
~~~I
A
(
8
24 A
9 A ~ (
2S
:10 D T (
H B: D
! (
12 A
13 B! D c
""'
114 A
I""--~
IS .·a;
16
I'
.
~
~""· (
"
( "
29
(
( -
OUESTIONSSTALL
(
1. An aeroplane will stall at the same:
a) angle of attack and attitude with relation to the horizon
( b) airspeed regardless of the attitude with relation to the horizon
( ~angle of attack regardless of the attitude with relation to the horizon
d) indicated airspeed regardless of altitude, bank angle and load factor
. 2. A typical stalling angle of attack for a wing without sweepback is: ,

a)4° . ~·
( '
~16° ( ,\·'
( I
c) 30°
d) 45°
(
3. If the aircraft weight is increased without chang~/ G position, the
stalling angle of attack will:
~emain the same.
b) decrease. ~
c) increase. ~
d) the position of the CG does not affect ftlef stall speed.
(
4. If the angle of attack is
a) lift and drag will both deere~
incr~ve the stalling angle:
~ft will decrease and q~'tl increase.

c) lift will increase anckdr~ 'tvill
decrease.
(
d) lift and drag wit
5. The angle of al1tick at which an aeroplane stalls:

a) will ~c~¥aller angles of attack flying downwind than when flying
(
. upw.iD~"
b) is~n~ent upon the speed of the airflow over the wing
unction of speed and density altitude
Hremain constant regardless of gross weight
6. An aircraft whose weight is 237402 N stalls at 132 kt. At a weight of

356103 Nit would stall at: -;::5 b 1()_3,-
a) 88 kt ( 5L ~·~
2.::>- 7"1: D~
~162kt
c) 108 kt
d) 172 kt
(
30
7. For an aircraft with a1g stalling speed of60 kt lAS, the stalling speed in a
steady 60a tum would be:
a)43kt 0a~~
b) 60 kt ('
L-Gf'84 kt
d) 120 kt
(
B. For an aircraft in a steady tum the stalling speed would be:
(
a) the same as in level flight
b) at a lower speed than in level flight
c) at a higher speed than in level flight, and a lower angle of attack. ~
(
tArat a higher speed than in level flight and at the same angle of a-eJ~ '
c
9. Formation of ice on the wing leading edge will: ~~ ( '
a) not affect the stalling speed.
IJle
b) cause the aircraft to stall at a higher speed and a gle of attack.
¢cause the aircraft to stall at a higher speed and Sl(to~ angle of attack.
(
(
d) cause the aircraft to stall at a lower speed.
C·
10. Dividing lift by weight gives:
a) wing loading
b) lift/drag ratio (
c) aspect ratio ~'

vJ)ioad factor ~
(
11. The stallingspeed4oN{~roplane is most affected by: ( .

a) changes in air de
tPrvariations in~t
c) variations in ·. c
d) changes kl oitc attitude
(
ay be delayed to a higher angle of attack by:

a) in~ng the adverse pressure gradient
~f'rjreasing the surface roughness of the wing top surface
r, .•
cJ gistortion of the leading edge by ice build-up

increasing the kinetic energy of the boundary layer
13. A stall inducer strip will:

~a use the wing to stall first at the root
b) cause the wing to stall at the tip first
c) delay wing root stall
d) re-energise the boundary layer at the wing root
(
( 31
14. On a highly tapered wing without wing twist the stall will commence:
a) Simultaneously across the whole span.
b) at the centre of the span.
( c) at the root.
JiYat the tip.
(
( 15. Sweepback on a wing will:

a) reduce induced drag at low speed.
vb}increase the tendency to tip stall.
c) reduce the tendency to tip stall.
d) cause the stall to occur at a lower angle of attack.
(
16. The purpos. e of a boundary layer fence on a swept w~
a) tore-energise the boundary layer and prevent separat~ -
~to control spanwise flow and delay tip stall. . ~
c) to generate a vortex over the upper surface of tjlf ~g.
d) to maintain a laminar boundary layer.
~
17. A wing with washout would have: .,_ ~
a) the tip chord less than the root chord.
LbJthe tip incidence less than the roo~iCience.
c) the tip incidence greater tha~~ot incidence.
d) the tip camber less than th~o~ camber.
(
(. 18. On an un tapered winlt4:9ithout twist the downwash:

l)ffncreases from ro
b) increases from ~oot.
1
c) is constant a~~he span.
d) is greate~centre span, less at root and tip.
19. A ~constant thickness which is not swept back:

a) w~l at the tip first due to the increase in spanwise flow. ·
~~Old drop a wing at the stall due to the lack of any particular stall inducing
th"'a ra cte ristics.
:, will pitch nose down approaching the stall due to the forward movement of
the centre of pressure.
d) will stall evenly across the span.
~
20. Slots increase the stalling angle of attack by:

a) Increasing leading edge camber.
~elaying separation.
32
c) Reducing the effective angle of attack.

d) Reducing span-wise flow.
21. A rectangular wing, when compared to other wing planforms, has a (--
tendency to stall first at the:
t.-afwing root providing adequate stall warning
b) wingtip providing inadequate stall warning ('.
c) wingtip providing adequate stall warning
d) leading edge, where the wing root joins the fuselage (!
c··
22. Vortex generators are used:
a) to reduce induced drag
~o reduce boundary layer separation
c) to induce a root stall
(
d) to counteract the effect of the wing-tip vortices.
(-
23. A stick shaker is:

a) an overspeed warning device that operates a\J:iJg~ach numbers.
b) an artificial stability device.
1..2(a device to vibrate the control column ~e'a stall warning.
d) a device to prevent a stall by giving a~ down.
24. A stall warning device must,~~

a) at the stalling speed.
b) at a speed just below t
a,-efat a speed about 5% t · (.
d) at a speed about
25. Just before~// the wing leading edge stagnation point is positioned: ( !
a) above th~sta~I\Jarning vane

~belo~:t (~I warning vane
c) on t · · · , e stall warning vane
d) o~ f the leading edge because of the extremely high angle of attack
2~ wing mounted stall warning detector vane would be situated:

~1 on the upper surface at about mid chord.
b) on the lower surface at about mid chord .
.'VC')at the leading edge on the lower surface.
d) at the leading edge on the upper surface.
27. The input data to a stall warning device (e.g. stick shaker) system is:
a) angle of attack only.
33
tP(angle of attack, and in some systems rate of change of angle of attack.

c) airspeed only.
d) airspeed and sometimes rate of change of airspeed.
( 28. A stick pusher is:

(
t.4 a device to prevent an aircraft from stalling.
b) a type of trim system.
(
c) a device to assist the pilot to move the controls at high speed.
d) a device which automatically compensates for pitch changes at high spe
29./n a developed spin:

~the angle of attack of both wings will be positive
b) the angle of attack of both wings will be negative ~
c) the angle of attack of one wing will be positive and the ot\ler ~irl be negative
d) the down going wing will be stalled and the up going ~'Will not be stalled
30. To recover from a spin, the elevators should bs

"~~
(
a) moved up to increase the angle of attack
f.)Jfmoved down to reduce the angle of attac
c) set to neutral
d) allowed to float ~·
31. High speed buffet (shock st~~~sed by:

a) ~~t:::undary layer separating ~ ont of a shockwave at high angle~~~i-c
(. ,~the boundary layer se · g immediately behind the shock wa~ ---

c) the shock wave st!tK'~g e tail of the aircraft
(
d) the shock wave &~g the fuselage
32./n a 30opanklevel tum, the stall speed will be increased by:

~%
b) 30%
c) 1.
~%
'3. Heavy rain can increase the stall speed of an aircraft for which of the
, . following reasons?
a) Water increases the viscosity of air
'b) Heavy rain can block the pitot tube, giving false airspeed indications
~he extra weight and distortion of the aerodynamic surfaces by the film of
water
d) The impact of heavy rain will slow the aircraft
(
34
r.
.-,
(
34. If the tailplane is supplying a download and stalls due to contamination

/--- '.
by ice:
a) the wing will stall and the aircraft will pitch-up due to the weight of the ice r=·-
C>i
behind the aircraft CG
c:::::::::== ~ b) the increased weight on the tailplane due to the ice formation will pitch the
I
</ )(aircraft nose up, which will stall the wing (

c) because it was supplying a download the aircraft will pitch nose up
(
vdfthe aircraft will pitch nose down
(
35. Indications of an icing-induced stall can be:
1. An artificial stall warning device
2. Airspeed close to the normal stall speed
3. Violent roll oscillations (
4. Airframe buffet
5. Violent wing drop (
6. Extremely high rate of descent while in a 'norm (
(
a) 1,2,4and5 \
b) 1,3 and 5
c) 1,4 and 6
~,4,5and 6
36. If a light single engine pro~ircraft is stalled, power-on, in a climbing

tum to the left, which of the ~~1'11wing is the preferred recovery action?
~elevator stick forwar~~ns stick neutral, rudder to prevent wing drop.
b) elevator stick neu~0?der neutral, ailerons to prevent wing drop, power
to idle. · ( .
d, ailerons and rudder to prevent wing drop. c

tral, rudder neutral, ailerons stick neutral, power to idle.
shaker activates on a swept wing jet transport aircraft

1c~,ely after take-off while turning, which of the following statements
ins the preferred course of action?
)(v-:-: _ecrease the angle of attack
'111..'\bj Increase thrust
c) Monitor the instruments to ensure it is not a spurious warning
d) Decrease the bank angle
( 35
(
ANSWERS
(
I No iAI.B3CIDI I!NoiAIBiCliD
,··
(
20 :I
'
I ;C B
( 'I
2 B ::' 21 A .. ,j
~ i
( ) A 11" I 22 B li
( I 4 B 23 'c
5 I I I D 24 c
6 R IB I 25 B
(
7 ! c 26
'
8 ! D II I 27
( )
' 9 'C
( r--
10 I ID
(
ll B
12 D
13 A I
1;41; c
~}
D 33
i
~
ms B I 34 ~
-<~ ~
D
~
16 B i :35 D
17 B .A Yd t>-
I
,36 A
18 A
A
1~"\ )yl
/'~~it. d
37 A
l9
( ~
$
(
36
c
SELF ASSESSMENT- HIGH LIFT DEVICES (
(
1. With the flaps lowered, the stalling speed will:
a) increase. r
vetdecrease. (
c) increase, but occur at a higher angle of attack.
d) remain the same. (
(
2. When flaps are lowered the stalling angle of attack of the wing:
(
a) remains the same, but C L max increases.
b) increases and C L max increases.
~decreases, but C L max increases.
(
d) decreases, but C L max remains the same.
(
3. With full flap, the maximum Lift/drag ratio:
(
a) increases and the stalling angle increases
U3f'decreases and the stalling speed decreases (
c) remains the same and the stalling angle rema
d) remains the same and the stalling angl~~es
c!
(
4. When a leading edge slot is opened, ~tailing speed will: (

a) Increase 't
b) decrease ~'
vefremain the same but will o~~ higher angle of attack. (
d) remain the same but v~t.H~ceur at a lower angle of attack.
-(~
5. The purpose of ~~iniJ

edge droop is: ("
'<.
a) to give a mo~f~~ered section for high speed flight.
b) to increase th~llg area for take-off and landing. c
~o incre~'-wjng camber, and delay separation ofthe airflow when trailing
edge f!t~~"lowered.
(
d) t~~);se the lift during the landing run.
· ~ering flaps sometimes produces a pitch moment change due to: (

~~ decrease of the angle of incidence.
movement of the centre of pressure.
c) movement of the centre of gravity.
d) increased angle of attack of the tail plane.
7. Which type offlap would give the greatest change in pitching moment?
( 37
(
a) Split
( b) Plain
tP(Fowler
-- (
d) Plain slotted
(
(
8. A split flap is:
a) a flap divided into sections which open to form slots through the flap.
r b) a flap manufactured in several sections to allow for wing flexing.
c) a flap which can move up or down from the neutral position.
vet(a flap where the upper surface contour of the wing trailing edge is fi
only the lower surface contour is altered when the flaps are lowered
( I
9. If the flaps are lowered in flight, with the airspeed kept co a(&Ao
maintain level flight the angle of attack:
( )
£-a{must be reduced.
b) must be increased.
c) must be kept constant but power must be incre
(
d) must be kept constant and power required wi.Ll<b
10. If flaps are lowered during the take-o~~~

a) the lift would not change until the airc'tst~is airborne.
vbrthe lift would increase when the f~a\e lowered.
c) the lift would decrease. ~ \,. r
d) the acceleration would incr~~
fr~e spanwise flow on the upper surface of the

wing:
a) does not chan;~~
b) increase towa~fle tip.
(" J:flncrease~ow~.aras the root.
d) incre~~Mpeed but has no change of direction.
\
1~ IK]:r4t/nding is to be made without flaps the landing speed must be:

~dbced.
~ncreased.
"-
)the same as for a landing with flaps.
d) the same as for a landing with flaps but with a steeper approach.
13. Lowering the flaps during a landing approach:

v--atincreases the angle of descent without increasing the airspeed
b) decreases the angle of descent without increasing power
_c) eliminates floating
\
' I
)
. )
)
~·
......
.)
v E'l
. ) a .e-J
~ ll f
e 61
v ··6
a s:
·::. L
e Sll
;:..· s
:a: P'
!@' e
;> i:
1ili l
a: 0
8E
39
ASSESSMENTOlJESilONS
.... -STABILITY
(, 1. An aeroplane which is inherently stable will:

a) require less effort to Control.
b) be difficult to stall.
( c) not spin.
~ave a built-in tendency to return to its original state following the removal of any
(.
disturbing force.
2. After a disturbance in pitch an aircraft oscillates in pitch with increasing amplitu

a) statically and dynamically unstable.
vb)Statically stable but dynamically unstable.
c) statically unstable but dynamically stable.
(, d) statically and dynamically stable.
3. Longitudinal stability is given by:

a) the fin.
c b) the wing dihedral.
(' 1.P}tlle horizontal tailplane.
d) the ailerons.
~
4. An aircraft is Constructed with dihedral to pro~

t-a")'lateral stability about the longitudinal axis. ~
b) longitudinal stability about the lat~ral a ·s. }.. .·
c) lateral stability about the normal axis ·
d) directional stability about the nor · .
5. Lateral stability is reduced _tY*[n~ing:

~Anhedral.
b) Dihedral.
c) Sweepback. ~
d) Fuselage and fi ft -.~ ~
ft ·orward of the CG: ~
a) chang~n~~l)roduce a wing pitching moment which acts to reduce the change of lift.
t_,9}chan i. ift produce a wing pitching moment which acts to increase the change oflift.
c) ch~EY n lift give no change in wing pitching moment.
dCwl:;t~ the aircraft sideslips the CG causes the nose to tum into the sideslip thus applying
a ~loring moment.
I
• The longitudinal static stability of an aircraft: 0 .,
1- ,.: .. ~
_....,
/:''
vrfis reduced by the effects of wing downwash. I)' QP~,,,_,.)I.,.,/> ' > 1 ! · / j
b) is increased by the effects of wing downwash.

c) is not affected by wing downwash.
d) is reduced for nose up displacements, but increased for nose down displacements by the
effects of wing downwash.
40
('
8. To ensure some degree of longitudinal stability in flight, the position of the CG: ('
a) must always Coincide with the AC.
Mmust be forward of the Neutral Point.
c) must be aft ofthe Neutral Point.
(~
d) must not be forward of the aft CG limit.
( >
9. When the CG is close to the forward limit:
a) very small forces are required on the Control Column to produce pitch. {~ c__rf (-"
b) longitudinal stability is reduced.
L-e]"very high stick forces are required to pitch because the aircraft is very stable.
d) stick forces are the same as for an aft CG.
10. The static margin is equal to the distance between: ('

a) the CG and the AC.
b) the AC and the neutral point.
4the CG and the neutral point.
d) the CG and the CG datum point. c
(-
\
'''
11. If a disturbing force causes the aircraft to roll: -
va1 wing dihedral will cause a rolling moment which reduc~ <'
b) the fin will cause a rolling moment which reduces the~llp.
(~\
c) dihedral will cause a yawing moment which re~u\e\.th'(sldeslip. \_/
d) dihedral will cause a nose up pitching momen~ ~
12. With flaps lowered, lateral stability: ~

a) will be increased because of the effectivberease of dihedral.
b) will be increased because of incre
veJ"will be reduced because the cen~~ft of each semi-span is closer to the wing root.
(
d) will not be affected. .-. ~ '
tJtling moment by causing an increase in lift:

a) on the up going wi~~~e aircraft rolls.
b) on the down go~·. ~~hen the aircraft rolls.
vG{Cn the lower w · e aircraft is side slipping. ·
d) on the low~ wi(lg he never the aircraft is in a banked attitude.
14. A higJJ~gConfiguration with no dihedral, Compared to a low wing Configuration

with ~IJedral, will provide:
a~~er longitudinal stability.
b same degree of longitudinal stability as any other Configuration because dihedral
)(.gives longitudinal stability.
''t) less lateral stability than a low wing Configuration.
'greater lateral stability due to the airflow pattern around the fuselage when the aircraft
is side slipping increasing the effective angle of attack of the lower wing.
15. At a Constant /AS, what affect will increasing altitude have on damping in roll: \
a) remains the same.

\,
b) increases because theTAS increases.
c) decreases because the ailerons are less effective.
I
41
--drdecreases because the density decreases.

(
16. Sweepback of the wings will:
a) not affect lateral stability.
b) decrease lateral stability.
c) increases lateral stability at high speeds only.
Ji(increases lateral stability at all speeds.
(
( 17. At low forward speed:

a) increased downwash from the wing will cause the elevators to be more responsive.
(
b) due to the increased angle of attack of the wing the air will flow faster over the wi
giving improved aileron Control.
vefa large sideslip angle Could cause the fin to stall.
\ d) a swept back wing will give an increased degree of longitudinal stability.
1
(
18. Following a lateral disturbance, an aircraft with Dutch roll instabi/ity~lk
a) go into a spiral dive. ~ ';-
\..bfdevelop simultaneous oscillations in roll and yaw. ~~
c) develop oscillations in pitch.
d) develop an unchecked roll.
c
19. To Correct dutch roll on an aircraft with no auto. ,
\jl'(use roll inputs , '\ .
b) use yaw inputs ~
c) move the CG '\,. ,
d) reduce speed below M Mo ~
20.Ayawdamper:
a) increases rudder effectiveness.
......_~
b) must be disengaged befor~•"
ffiugments stability.
d) increases the rate o
21. A wing which~G/ined downwards from root to tip is said to have:

a) wash out.
b) taper.
c) swee.~"
~'an
2~e' lateral axis of an aircraft is a line which:

a) passes through the wing tips.
) passes through the centre of pressure, at right angles to the direction of the airflow.
c) passes through the quarter chord point of the wing root, at right angles to the
longitudinal axis.
lSi(passes through the centre of gravity, parallel to a line through the wing tips.
23. Loading an aircraft so that the CG exceeds the aft limits Could result in:
'- \.aHoss of longitudinal stability, and the nose to pitch up at slow speeds
b) excessive upward force on the tail, and the nose to pitch down
42
c) excessive load factor in turns (-
d) high stick forces
24 The tendency of an aircraft to suffer from dutch roll instability can be reduced:
a) by sweeping the wings ('
vbJby giving the wings anhedral
c) by reducing the size of the fin
d) by longitudinal dihedral (~
25. What determines the longitudinal static stability of an aeroplane?

a) The relationship of thrust and lift to weight and drag
b) The effectiveness of the horizontal stabilizer, rudder, and rudder trim tab
~
GP)fhe location of the CG with respect to the AC
d) the size of the pitching moment which can be generated bythe elevator G\- ' (
(
u~~~~ ~
a) the angle between the main plane and the longitudinal axis ~. \- , C:
b) the angle measured between the main plane and the normal~'\.-
c) the angle between the quarter chord line and the horizont~~
u:Jtthe upward and outward inclination of the main planes td"t~orizontal datum (
27. Stability around the normal axis: ,

L.a]ls increased ifthe keel surface behind the CG i.s.in\re
b) is given by the lateral dihedral ... ~ (
c) depends on the longitudinal dihedral (

d) is greater if the wing has no sweepback
28. The Centre of Gravity of an air~lf,

a) the C of G will be within limits f~~~~ding
tY}ihe C of G for landing mu~~ecked, allowing for fuel Consumed
c) the C of G will not chan~ d.,.lri the flight
d) the flight crew can ~~1\ne CG during flight to keep it within acceptable limits for
landing
29. The aile~o

s arelfeployed and returned to neutral when the aircraft has attained a
small angl · • If the aircraft then returns to a wings-level attitude without further
Contro~..i/b;v~1. . ent it is: l
a) ne~~~Table
~i
b ta · a y and dynamically stable
ally stable, dynamically neutral
~ )'7itically
1
stable r•..
•
30. The property which tends to decreases rate of displacement about any axis, but only
while displacement is taking place, is known as:
a) stability
b) Controllability
L.C{aerodynamic damping
d) manoeuvrability
c
43
(
( 31. 1/ an aircraft is loaded such that the stick force required to change the speed is zero
carthe CG is on the neutral point
b) the CG is behind the neutral point
( c) the CG is on the manoeuvre point
d) the CG is on the forward CG limit
(
( No IA I B I C I D 11111 No I A I B I C I D I
Til I I lnllliGI I lei I

(
H-I I I I 184!1--t-A
B c -t--B-+---t!
( '
4 II A I I I II II 20
5 A 21
6 B 22
(
7 A 23
(
8 B 24~
9 c ~~~~ c
10 c ~ D
11 A
II I
12 28 B
13 29 B
~~~~
14 D 30 c
Jl~~" D 31 A
~y D k/:UZVVV
(:
44
('',
ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS- CONTROLS

/'"•
1. An elevon is: I
a) an all moving tail plane that has no elevator

b) the correct name for a V- tail
c) a surface that extends into the airflow from the upper surface of the wing to
reduce the lift (-
\9.}-a combined aileron and elevator fitted to an aircraft that does not have
conventional horizontal stabiliser (tail plane)
(
2. When rolling at a steady rate the:
(
a) up going wing experiences an increase in effective angle of att
b) rate of roll depends only on aileron deflection ~ (
~own going wing experiences an increase in effective ang~ O'l\aftack
d) effective angle of attack of the up going and down goin_~gs are equal
c
(
3. The control surface which gives longitudinal CO.HJ.IUitdJ) (
a) the rudder.
b) the ailerons.
A the elevators. ~....~ c
d) the flaps.
~ c
4. Ailerons give: ~~ c
a) lateral control about the la~s. /
b) longitudinal control ab~ t~ lateral axis. '·

~lateral control about t~gitudinal axis.
d) directional contr~~ the normal axis. (
.~
5. Aileronreve6~buld be most likely to occur:

a) with a ri · w:ng at high speed.
vhf with i ewing at high speed.
c) witn 1 "d wing at low
d~~ lexible wing at low speed.

~4 I the ailerons are deflected to 100, compared to so, this will cause: ~.'
~ a) an increased angle of bank.

J>fan increased rate of roll.
c) no change to either bank angle or roll rate. l_
d) a reduction in the adverse yawing moment.
7. Yawing is a rotation around:

( '
45
a) the normal axis obtained by elevator.

( b) the lateral axis obtained by rudder.
c) the longitudinal axis obtained by ailerons.
vd} the normal axis obtained by rudder.
(- 8. If the control column is moved forward and to the left:

a) the left aileron moves up, right aileron moves down, elevator moves up.
b) the left aileron moves down, right aileron moves up, elevator moves down
\..-<?'(the left aileron moves up, right aileron moves down, elevator down.
d) the left aileron moves down, right aileron moves up, elevator moves
( 9. The secondary effect of yawing to port is to:

a) roll to starboard
( '
b) pitch nose up
(
c) roll first to starboard and then to port
( uiJ roll to port
@oue to the AC of the fin being. above the l~n · 'tul/inal axis, if the rudder is
( ' moved to the right, the force acting on the!(~ give:
a) a yawing moment to the left but no rom~· ment.
b) a rolling moment to the left. ....
LA a rolling moment to the right.
( d) a yawing moment to the righ~I;O'rolling moment.
11. What should be the fee~~fu/1 and free' check of the controls:
a) a gradual stiffening 9«controls.
b) rebound on reachJQ~ stops.
\£)a solid stop. V
d) controls sho+)-be moved to the stops.
12. The 1111~ of control locks on a flying control system is:

any free movement in the control system to be detected.
~o~nt structural damage to the controls in gusty conditions when the
a~~h is on the ground.
cj to keep the control surface rigid to permit ground handling.
) as a security measure.
13. An irreversible control:

\}i'(may be moved by operating the cockpit control but not by the aerodynamic
loads acting on the control surface.
b) has less movement in one direction than the other.
""
46
(
c) may be moved either by the cockpit control or by a load on the control (

,-
surface.
(~--
d) is when the control locks are engaged.
14. Ailerons may be rigged slightly down (drooped): C::a-,~~

a) to increase the feel in the control circuit
_ _)
--_ __- -·-- ~ : .,
(~'
b) to correct for adverse aileron yaw (~
tW]fo allow for up-float in flight to bring the aileron into the streamlined
(
position
d) to give a higher CL max for take-off (
'"
(
15. The tailplane shown has inverted camber. To cause the aircrq/f't~
nose up the control column must be: ~V (
a) the control column must be pushed forward ~ \- '
\Pfthe control column must be pulled backwards '~
C·
c) the control wheel must be rotated ~""'- (""!
d) the incidence of the tail plane must be decrease~e

(
camber will make it effective in the reverse sen~~
c
16. If an aileron is moved downward: (
a) the stalling angle ofthat wing is increa~
\b(the stalling angle of that wing is d~\ed (
c) the stalling angle is not affec~\-the stalling speed is decreased (
17. When rudder is used !if!_~ coordinated tum to the left:

a) the left pedal is mm~eE!.[~ard, and the rudder moves right (
b) the right pedal is_ ttl~ forward and the rudder moves left
(
~e left pedal is ~u forward and the rudder moves left
18. The hig~ speed of the upper wing in a steady banked tum causes it to
have~~~~an the lower wing. This may be compensated for by:
a) use·6· rudder control
~p mg the ailerons slightly in the opposite sense once the correct angle \,
~ has been reached
~J increasing the nose up pitch by using the elevators ("
~ \ __
19. The purpose of a differential aileron control is to:

a) give a yawing moment which opposes the turn
$reduce the yawing moment which opposes the turn
c) give a pitching moment to prevent the nose from dropping in the turn
(
d) improve the rate of roll
(. 47
\ 20. When displacing the ailerons from the neutral position:

a) the up going aileron causes an increase in induced drag.
(
L,bft:he down going aileron causes an increase in induced drag.
( c) both cause an increase in induced drag.
d) induced drag remains the same, the up going aileron causes a smaller
(
increase in profile drag than the down going aileron.
(
c' 21. The purpose of aerodynamic balance on a flying control is:

a) to get the aircraft into balance.
b) to prevent flutter of the flying control.
c. c) to reduce the control load to zero.
( I
\.Ji]fo make the control easier to move.
c~ 22. A horn balance on a control surface is:

c
cables are attached.
(
u,Ja projection of the outer edge of the control
( I
line.
c) a rod projecting forward from the contr~rffice with a weight on the end.
d) a projection of the leading edge oft. h~trol surface below the wing
undersurface. -. ).. ,
rodynamical/y by:
a) making the up aileron ough a larger angle than the down aileron.
b) attaching a weight to ntrol surface forward of the hinge.
~having the contra set back behind the control surface leading edge.
d) having springs· ontrol circuit to assist movement.
a) a sud~~~ease in stick force

Jlfa sutl~reduction then reversal of stick force
c) a ~:d~en loss of effectiveness of the controls
~radual increase in stick force with increasing lAS
~5. A control surface is mass balanced by:
0
a) fitting a balance tab.

vb1 attaching a weight acting forward of the hinge line.
c) attaching a weight acting on the hinge line.
d) attaching a weight acting behind the hinge line.
48
('
26. If the control wheel is turned to the right, a balance tab on the port
aileron should:
~move up relative to the aileron (
b) move down relative to the aileron r·

c) not move unless the aileron trim wheel is turned.
(
d) move to the neutral position
(~
27. The purpose of an anti-balance tab is to:

('
a) trim the aircraft
b) reduce the load required to move the controls at all speeds (
c) reduce the load required to move the controls at high speeds only
(
u:J1give more feel to the controls
28. When the control column is pushed forward o
elevator:
bolan~~'i?;ithe ' c·•·
c
\.J)will move up relative to the control surface. ~ (:
b) will move down relative to the control surface. (

c) will only move if the trim wheel is operated. ~·
d) moves to the neutral position. ~'\. )- ' c
(
29. The purpose of a spring tab is: ~ .
a) to maintain a constant tension in ~rtm tab system. (
b) to increase the feel in the co~~rp~¥sfem. (

~o reduce the pilot's effort ~~d to move the controls against high air
(
~}
7
loads.
d) to compensate for t~~ure changes in cable tension. (.
30. The purpos~NT'im tab is:

a) to assist the · ~irinitiating movement ofthe controls.
I)Jtto zero tt:¥: lofl on the pilots controls in the flight attitude required.
c) to pr£o~"'¥1 to the controls at high speed./
d) to i~a'se the effectiveness of the controls.
~~-trim after failure of the right engine on a twin-engine aircraft:

~~ ;~~der trim tab will move right and the rudder .left. (.
\'D) the trim tab will move left and the rudder right.
c) the trim tab will move left and the rudder remain neutral.
~..
d) the trim tab will move right and the rudder remain neutral.
C,
32. To trim an aircraft which tends to fly nose heavy with hands off, the top
of the elevator trim wheel should be:
(
49
( a) moved forward to raise the nose and this would cause the elevator trim tab
(
to move down, and the elevator to move up.
$moved backwards to raise the nose, and this would cause the elevator trim
tab to move down, and the elevator to move up.
( c) moved backwards to raise the nose, and this would cause the elevator trim
tab to move up, and the elevator to move up.
(
d) be moved backwards to raise the nose, and this would cause the elevator
( trim tab to move up and cause the nose to rise.
33. To achieve the same degree of longitudinal trim, the trim drag fro
(
variable incidence trimming tailplane would be:
( a) greater than that from an elevator.
b) the same as that from an elevator.
( '
~ess than that from an elevator.
( '
( 34. Following re-trimming for straight and level flig

i
I
movement:
·! ( \P')ilose up pitch authority will be reduced
b) nose down pitch authority will be reduce~~
c) longitudinal stability will be reduced ~
d) tailplane down load will be reduced ~
35. An aircraft has a tendency t~~t wing law with hands off. It is
trimmed with a tab on the leftEllfVon. The trim tab will:
'i a) move up, causing the l~airVo'n to move up and right aileron to move
down.
left aileron to move up, right aileron remains
the left aileron to move up, and right aileron to move
.-sing the left wing to move down, ailerons remain neutral.
! \ 3ey, ~ifcraft takes of/with the elevator control locks still in position. It is
Jb~d'to be nose heavy:
ackward movement of the trim wheel would increase nose heaviness.
') it would not be possible to move the trim wheel.
c) backward movement of the trim wheel would reduce nose heaviness.
d) operating the trim wheel would have no effect.
37. On a servo tab operated elevator, if the pilot's control column is pushed
.forward in flight:
i (
. , a) the servo tab will move down causing the elevator to move up.
-· ·--;-,.L :·: ~(.
t' ,.,,
.
r ,.'
{
(
CoV\bu \ (Drtc.~ Cl J·r-o

r ( VJO
' I. f (.e r
J• ;
~6~
veJ! relY· 1'/ r., ,.. ;?.0 . h (:1 droctt/ I' c /!c,, 1u 'Y'( . '\
I
50
(~
b) the elevator will move down causing the servo tab to move up.
c) the elevator will move up causing the servo tab to move down.
LJiYthe servo tab will move up causing the elevator to move down.
38. If a cockpit control check is made on an aircraft with servo operated ('
controls, and it is found that the cockpit controls move fully and freely in all
(
directions:
a) the control surfaces and servo tabs are free. r
b) the control surfaces are free but there could be locks on the servo tabs.
c) there could be locks on the control surfaces and on the servo tabs.
vd} the servo tabs are free but there could be locks on the control surfac_ (
39. In a serva operated aileron contra/ system, turning the cockprJitTo,

"
wheel to the right in flight will cause the servo tab on the left ~eJ: c
vrto move up and the left aileron to move down ~ '\,. '
b) to move down and the left aileron to move down '~
c) to move down and the left aileron to move up " (
d) to move up and the right aileron to move down

("' (
40. Spoilers on the upper surface of the win~'tt;e used on landing: (:

a) to give a nose down pitching moment ~ Y
Ja-)io reduce the lift and so put more weilbt,on the wheels, making the brakes
more effective ~1- (
c) to cause drag and increase th~Jfk..~m the flaps c

d) to reduce the touchdown s~
(
41. Wing mounted spo}let:sW1aces may be used as:

a) air brakes
b) lift dumpers
c) lateral contra~·
vet) all of the-abo
42. Spdiljrs{when used for roll control will:

a) re~?c'e the boundary layer ·
~~lne turbulence at the wing root
~~~increase the camber at the wing root
'\};11 decrease lift on the upper wing surface when deployed asymmetrically \,
43. On an aircraft fitted with roll control spoilers, a roll to port is achieved by: ~-
a) deflecting the port spoiler up and starboard down \.

b) deflecting the starboard spoiler down
~
~~eflecting the port spoiler up
51
(
d) deflecting the port spoiler down

('
44. In a fully power operated flying control system control feel is provided by:
( a) the friction in the control cable system.
( tb]an artificial feel unit (Q- Feel)
c) the aerodynamic loads on the control surface.
(
d) the mass balance weights
(
I No I A I B I C I D 1011 No I A I B I C I D II
( 1 D 23 c
c
~
2 24 B
3 c 25 B
c~
( .
4 c 26 A = ~ 1'-
5 B 27 h ';D
6 B 28 A
~" 1'-" ltw
~J c
(
7 D 29
Cr 8 c 3()\.A ~\. B
9 D ~ A
I j 10 B ~
1)-32 B
( \ 11 ~ D..~ 33 c
12 ~
~"· 34 A
'.
I
13
l4,l
~""
-
~ rt
I~
~
c
35
36 A
c
~~ ~.
I
B 37 D
~7 B 38 D
I )
17 c 39 A
18 B 40 B
I, .I 19 B 41 . D
(\-.
20 B 42 D
21 D 43 c
22 B 44 B
-L--
52
('
ASSESSMENTQ_UESTJONS- FLIGHTMEOIANICS r··

('
1. In straight and level powered flight the following principal forces act on an
aircraft:
r-
a) thrust, lift, weight. c-
vb'fthrust, lift, drag, weight. (~
c) thrust, lift, drag.

d) lift, drag, weight. r·
(
2. For an aircraft in level flight, if the wing CP is aft of the CG and ther~ ·~
thrust/drag couple, the tailplane load must be: { ~
a) upward '
( .
lPttfownward
c) zero
d) forward (
'·
-~
3. When considering the forces acting upon an a~ane in straight-and- c
level flight at constant airspeed, which state!ll.e"t$:Ns correct? c,
~weight acts vertically toward the centre.,.o~t~~arth
b) lift acts perpendicular to the chord lin~must be greater than weight
(
c) thrust acts forward parallel to the relat1Ye wind and is greater than drag (
d) lift acts in the opposite dire~~~ aircraft weight
4. The horizontal stabilizer usb/:1~ provides a download in level flight (
because: ~.<)_; (
a) the main plane~ift i al~~s positive
(
v-bfthe lift/weight _. st/drag couples combine to give a nose down pitch
c) the lift produ~4d~ reater than required at high speed ( .
d) this configuratf;rigives less interference
a light general aviation aircraft tends to nose down during

pow~7!Juction is that the:
adl.b.ryst line acts horizontally and above the force of drag
~e'ntre of gravity is located forward of the centre of pressure
~? centre of pressure is located forward of the centre of gravity
d) force of drag acts horizontally and above the thrust line
6. To give the best obstacle clearance on take off, take off should be made
with:
a) flaps partially extended and at best rate of climb speed (Vy).
b) flaps partially extended and at best angle of climb speed (Vx).
( )
(· 53
(~
'· ' c) flaps retracted and at best rate of climb speed (Vy).
( uft11aps retracted and at best angle of climb speed (Vx).
( I
7. The angle of climb is proportional to:
(', a) the amount by which the lift exceeds the weight.
(' \
vbfthe amount by which the thrust exceeds the drag.
c) the amount by which the thrust exceeds the weight.
( d) the angle of attack of the wing.
(
8. In a climb at a steady speed, the thrust is:

(
a) equal to the aerodynamic drag.
vhf greater than the aerodynamic drag.
( I
c) less than the aerodynamic drag.
d) equal to the weight component along the flight path.
I\_ ')
( I 9. A constant rate of climb in an aeroplane is determ ·

a) wind speed
(.
b) the aircraft weight
ve(excess engine power
d) excess airspeed
10. Assume that after take-off a tur~nfade to a downwind heading. In

regard to the ground, the aeropL~'Y,t/1 climb at:
a) a greater rate into the win~ownwind
b) a steeper angle downw~ t~an into the wind
c) the same angle upw!n'~wnwind
vd}a steeper angle ~~wind than downwind
11. What effectJt:t~s"high density altitude have on aircraft performance?

( a) It increa~ t~~off performance
b) It incr~~Vngine performance
S}1t re-6~ climb performance
l
( .
( .
'
1~i!Jring a steady climb the lift force is:
~less than the weight.
) exactly equal to the weight.
( c) equal to the weight plus the drag.
d) greater than the weight.
13. In a steady climb the wing lift is:

a) equal to the weight
(
54
(
b) greater than the weight
ve}equal to the weight component perpendicular to the flight path
c
d) equal to the vertical component of weight (
(
14. During a glide the following forces act on an aircraft:
a) lift, weight, thrust. (
vbt lift, drag, weight. (

c) drag, thrust, weight.
(
d) lift and weight only.
(
15. For a glider having a maximum LID ratio of20 : 1, the flattest glid;
that could be achieved in still air would be: r .
a) 1ft in lOft ~V c
t_9H: ft in 20ft "\. \- ,
c) 1ft in 40ft c
d) 1ft in 200ft (
(
16. To cover the greatest distance when glidin
a) near to the stalling speed. , (
b) as high as possible within VNE limits. ~ (
c) about 30% faster than Vmd. ~
vdfthe one that gives the highest LID~io. (
17. 1/ the weight of an aircra~~eased the maximum gliding range:

(
(
a) decreases. ~ ~..,.
b) increases.
c) remains the same te of descent is unchanged.
(
Jf}remains the sa t rate of descent increases.
18. Wheni~ing into a headwind, the ground distance covered will be:
(
· ~'still air.
\.)itlesst:f,
b) the~ · as in still air but the glide angle will be steeper. (
c~hb · e as in still air but the glide angle will be flatter.
~'\iter than in still air.
l.
•
9. During a 'power-on' glide the forces acting on an aircraft are:
a) lift, drag and weight.
b) lift, thrust and weight.
vC)'Iift, drag, thrust and weight.
d) lift and weight only.
55
20. If airbrakes are extended during a glide, and speed maintained, the rate
( of descent will:
varrn-crease and glide angle will be steeper.
(.
b) increase, but glide angle will remain the same.
c) decrease.
d) remain the same.
21. An aircraft has a LID ratio of 16: 1 at 50 kt in calm air. What would the
approximate GLIDE RA T/0 be with a direct headwind of25 kt?
a) 32:1
j;}} 16:1
c) 8:1
d) 4:1
( . 22. During a turn the lift force may be resolved into tw~t:f!"ee..s,
thes.e are.:
( a) a force opposite to thrust and a force equal and o~~ to weig~co&- L
b) centripetal force and a force equal and opposit~r~ • Lf/
utcentripetal force and a force equal and oppos~~ght. ~- ·- LAr--
l d) centrifugal force and a force equal and ~if fhrust.
23. In a turn at a constant lAS, compareb.straight and level flight at the

same lAS: ~ \.- ,
a) the same power is required b~s~ the lAS is the same.
vbt more power is required be~"the drag is greater.
c) more power is required_xc~S'e some thrust is required to give the
centripetal force.
d) less power is re~cause the lift required is less.
24./n a turn a~n TAS and bank angle:

~only one~d~s of turn is possible.
b) the i~n be varied by varying the pitch.
c) the . 1 , can be varied by varying the yaw.
~~~ erent radii are possible, one to the right and one to the left.
1,
)(2ft. As bank angle is increased in a turn at a constant lAS, the load factor will:
'~)increase in direct proportion to bank angle.
increase at an increasing rate.
c) decrease.
d) remain the same.
26. Skidding outward in a turn is caused by:

56
('
a) insufficient rate of yaw.

b) too much bank.
c) too much nose up pitch .
. Jifinsufficient bank (
I
27. For a turn at a constant lAS if the radius of turn is decreased the load
factor will: (
~ncrease.
(
b) decrease but bank angle will increase.
c) decrease but bank angle will decrease.
d) remain the same. ~
28. An aircraft has a stalling speed in level flight of 10 kt lAS. I~

balanced turn the stalling speed would be: -\. ~ '
(
a) 76 kt.
b) 84 kt. (
ve}-99 kt.
( .'
d) 140 kt ..
f
' \
29. An increase in airspeed while maintai~ aconstant load factor during a

level, coordinated turn would result in: ~
a) an increase in centrifugal force ~ '), ,
b) the same radius of turn ~ \., (
\
c) a decrease in the radius of~~
vd) an increase in the radiu~f~rn
4.__:\. T .
I ~~ase the rate of turn and decrease the radius at the

sometime?
a) shallow the ~"td increase airspeed
b) steepen tiQ.eqi/rk and increase airspeed
J:}steep((l"\Q.")IS'ank and decrease airspeed
3~ l!'e,lfy{Jircraft with a gross weight of 2,000 kg were subjected to a total ( )

lbid)clf 6,000 kg in flight, the load factor would be:
~ ~J~G'S
'~) 2 G'S (
c) 6 G'S
(.
\]J(3 G's
32. Why must the angle of attack be increased during a turn to maintain
altitude?
( 57
(
a) Compensate for increase in induced drag.
r b) Increase the horizontal component of lift equal to the vertical component.
~ompensate for loss of vertical component of lift.
d) To stop the nose from dropping below the horizon and the airspeed
increasing.
33. Two aircraft of different weight are in a steady turn at the same bank
angle:
a) the heavier aircraft would have a higher" g" load
b) the lighter aircraft would have a higher "g" load
J:}they would both have the same" g" load . ~··
34. Foro multi-engine aircraft, V MCG is defined os the minimu~rol speed

on the ground with one engine inoperative. The aircraft-~ i'JiOble to:
(
a) abandon the take off.
b) continue the take off or abandon it. "
~ontinue the take off using primary controls only(',
d) continue the take off using primary controls ~~e wheel steering.
35. What criteria determines which eng~neJ:..~ "critical" engine of a twin-

engine aeroplane?
a) the one with the centre of thrust ~;tb.e1st from the centerline of the fuselage
vb)'fhe one with the centre of thr~l\>Sest to the centerline oft he fuselage
c) the one designated by the ~ll .acturer which develops most usable thrust
d) the failure of which cau~~s ffe'Jeast yawing moment
36. Following failur~~ critical engine, what performance should the pilot
of a light, twin-eqd;~ ...eroplane be able to maintain at V MCA?
a) Heading, alti,~nd ability to climb 50ft/min
\.-b)Heading~IY: ·
c) Headi~"nlV'altitude
0
(
58 ...
(
, No A a .c D r
1
.. " A • A~
a . .. r:-
. ·B
.2 c
3 .· A, :-II:A
-
:Is (
4 B
~:-t--f!
(
s .B
6 D -
27 ___ ~A
J fD
(
(
7 a 28
""""'
8 B (
29
9 c -30 (
to· :D
-J. (
n' ;
c (
12: A
(
n c c ( ;
~r:: 1JBJ j J
J4 B
(
15 B.
16
-~~
I)
11 D
l8 A
-~ ::::;-
~ ( '
AI..
1~ ~~~ ~-
' 20 A 1-\: ~ (
\
.·
21, ILi ~
---
( \
(,
( .
"(
(
59
(
HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
l. Identify which of the following is the correct formula for Mach number:
a) M=TAS/IAS f1.Ne)· :_~ ; _ {A'S-; r-t tv'c)¥~;,~
vbfTAS = LSS * MACH .1.-r c,_.::>
c) LSS = 38.94 *TEMPERATURE IN KELVIN
d) IAS/LSS = MACH
2. What is the result of a shock-induced separation of airflow occurring

symmetrically near the wing root of a swept wing aircraft?
~a severe nose-down pitching moment or tuck under
11 11
I b) a high-speed stall and sudden pitch up

'
c) severe porpoising
d) pitch-up
(
3. Mach number is:

a) the ratio of the aircraft's TAS to the speed of so~~sea level.
J:>rthe ratio of the aircraft's TAS to the speed of ~~at the same atmospheric
I. (
conditions. "t T
c) the ratio of the aircraft's lAS to the sp:_~ ~und at the same atmospheric
conditions.
( d) the speed of sound.
4. For an aircraft climbing at acO'nstant lAS the Mach number will:

1
lPYincrease.
\ b) decrease.
c) remain constant.
d) initially show
transonic speed' for an aircraft means:

,, ~the airflow is completely subsonic.
~AK
b) spe=~~~~~·ere the airflow is completely supersonic.
~~·where the airflow is partly subsonic and partly supersonic.
ur~eeds between M 0.4 and M 1.0
~-
• At M 0·8 a wing has supersonic flow between 20 % chord and 60 % chord.

There will be a shockwave: br0 z._ ~ v f"t:' t..o"' r
r l t~ w
a)at20%chordonly. c.Jc»>l\ s'.rbrk wo'VL alt:.
b) at 20% chord and 60% chord. f · ·
tfl]"at 60% chord only.
d) forward of 20% chord.
~-
(
60 ~-
(
7. As air flows through a shockwave:
a) static pressure increases1 density decreases 1 temperature increases. r
J>[Static pressure increases~ density increases~ temperature increases. r·
c) static pressure decreases~ density increases~ temperature decreases.
('
d) static pressure decreases~ density decreases~ temperature decreases.
B. For a wing section of given thickness, the critical Mach number:

L4will decrease if angle of attack is increased. ( I
b) will increase if angle of attack is increased. (
c) will not change with changes of angle of attack.

d) is only influenced by changes in temperature.
9. At speeds just above the critical Mach number, the lift

a) will start to increase.
-~'S?;it: ' ( .
('
(
vb') will start to decrease. "
c) will remain constant. ('
d) is directly proportional to the Mach numb~~
( '
10. As air flows through a shockwave: ~
a) its speed increases. ~
Lb}1ts speed decreases. ~)., , ( ;
c) its speed remains the same. ~ \- ' - ( I
d) it changes direction to flo~i'iijiel with the Mach cone.
11. If an aeroplane accelfi!~ above the Critical Mach number, the first high
Mach number cha~a~¥Jj}ic it will usually experience is:
a) a nose up pitc ~~~ock Stall".
b) a violent an~~.~tjamed oscillation in pitch (porpoising).
c) Dutch rql~~~ spiral instability.
vi}a' nos,~pitching moment (Mach 1 or high speed tuck).
1~ ~speed buffet is caused by:

~~ shock waves striking the tail.
~b) the high speed airflow striking the leading edge of the wing. (
'"t) wing flutter caused by the interaction of the bottom and top surface shock
waves.
vdJ the airflow being detached by the shock wave and the turbulent flow
striking the tail.
13. The "area rule" applied to high speed aircraft requires:

___ . J j_Jc_ {oos~O ~-cf'J;:::
--I\.
~--: -=- ~~~~- - -~· - -----'VI-~~- --------~-:..-----==:~---::::· so
-~------------
--------~
I D (5)
-
~r-~ ----- ---- (C)..-/I_b(J(·
-
61
(
r.· a)that the cross sectional area shall be as small as possible.

(
vb)l:hat the variation of cross sectional area along the length of the aircraft
follows a smooth pattern.
c) that the maximum cross sectional area of the fuselage should occur at the
wing root.
d) that the fuselage and the wing area be of a ratio of 3 : 1.
( 14. An all-moving tailplane is used in preference to elevators on high speed

aircraft:
a) because the effect of the elevator is reversed above the critical Mac
number. ~
b) because shock wave formation on the elevator causes excessiv~ti~~ forces.
~ecause shock wave formation ahead of the elevator causes~~Jtion and
loss of elevator effectiveness. "- .
d) because it would be physically impossible for a pilot t~~ol the aircraft in
pitch with a conventional tailplane and elevator config~on.
c
(
15. Mach Trim is a device which:
( .
a) moves the centre of gravity to maintain s
transonic region.
j)yautomatically compensates for pitch c~ges while flying in the transonic
speed region. ~
c) prevents the aircraft from exc~rlig fts critical Mach number.
d) switches out the trim contr~ revent damage in the transonic region.
( 16. What is the moveme~'H{ffhe centre of pressure when the wingtips ofa
sweptwing aeroplafJ(_"ars)shock-stalled first?
n:fd~
a) outward a..
b) inward and ·
c) outward ,and a ·
Lf1(fnwar
17. ~~rjlow behind a normal shock wave will:

~J)"ays be subsonic and in the same direction as the original airflow.
)(b) always be supersonic and in the same direction as the original airflow.
\ ~) may be subsonic or supersonic.
d) always be subsonic and will be deflected from the direction of the original
airflow.
18. As airflow passes through a normal shock wave, which of the following
changes in static pressure (i}, density (ii}, and Mach number (iii} will occur:
( .
62
(i) (ii) (iii)

(~.
a) decrease increase < 1.0

b) Increase decrease < 1.0 c
c) Increase decrease > 1.0 or< 1.0
~ncrease increase < 1.0
19. An aerofoil travelling at supersonic speed will:

~~afhave its centre of pressure at SO% chord.
b) have its centre of pressure at 2S% chord. (
c) give a larger proportion of lift from the lower surface than from th~"LLliJ:t::
(
surface, and have its centre of pressure at SO %chord. {
d) give approximately equal lift from the upper and lower surfa~~d have ( .
its aerodynamic centre at 50% chord. ~ '} '

c
20. A bow wave is: 1 ' (
a) a shock wave which forms on the nose of the a~al!1 (

b) the shape formed when the shock waves on t~)per and lower wing
(
'~
7
surface meet at the trailing edge.
tpY8 shock wave that forms immediately a~ 6¥an aircraft which is travelling (
faster than the speed of sound. ~
d) the shape of a shock wave when ~~~vertically. c
(
21. When an aircraft is flyingfJ.._-i;;;ersonic speed, where will the area of
influence of any pressurepiftilf,bvance due to the presence of the aircraft be
located? "\...~ /~
vat'Within the Mach Jil~ ( /.
b) In front of th;e~one. ~ ,_/
c) In front ofth· · wave. l.
d) In front 9{th~ ach Cone only when the speed exceeds M 1.0
22. Th~~perature of the airflow as it passes through an expansion wave: c

. ~~~res.
l->7~~eases.
1\. ~J is inversely proportional to the square root of the Mch number.
''tf) remains the same.
23. The influence of weight (wing loading) on the formation of shockwaves is:
a) a higher wing loading will increase M cRJT \-+ Pd 'tj fr I C 0 ~ 1' frO fi
W1}1ow wing loading will give a higher M cRJT \"' M i. M -~.
c) wing loading does not influence M CRIT ' 'Y L"
(
63
d) wing loading and M CRtrare directly proportional

(
24. What influence does an oblique shock wave have on the streamline
pattern (i), variation of pressure (ii), temperature (iii) density (iv), velocity (v)?
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)
vaT parallel to surface, increase, increase, increase, decrease
b) normal to wave, decrease, decrease, decrease, Increase
( c) parallel to wave, decrease, decrease, decrease, Increase
d) parallel to chord, increase, decrease, increase, decrease
25. Wave drag is caused by: ~,

a) shock waves interfering with the smooth airflow into the engine1ht,c\l<es.
b) flying faster than M MO. ~\..)
( )
\J:)ihe conversion of mechanical energy into thermal ener.-~ ~<!'shock wave,
CI d) flying faster than V MO
(
(
26. What is the effect of a shock wave on controi~Qfficiency?
a) Increase in efficiency, due to increased veloci~
( ) b) Increase in efficiency, due to the extra lev~et.caused by the shock wave.
c) Decrease in efficiency, due to the bow~· "~'
~ss of efficiency, due to control defle~ no longer modifying the total
( I
flow over the wing.
27. At what speed does an obJiil._~ock wave move over the earth surface?
LafAircraft ground speed ~';:: 7
b) TheTAS ofthe aircr~ft~~'the wind speed
c) TheTAS ofthe airO{._a"Vss the wind speed
d) TheTAS relati~"\~e speed of sound at sea level
l \
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179
)
( 65
c QUESTIONS- PROPELLERS
(
1. The blade angle of a propeller is the angle between:
a) The root chord and the tip chord of the propeller.
(' b) The chord and the airflow relative to the propeller.
c) The chord of the propeller and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
( ~.,-d]The propeller chord and the plane of rotation of the propeller.
(
2. The blade angle:
a) Is constant along the propeller blade.
~)Decreases from root to tip.
c) Increases from root to tip.
d) Varies with changes in engine rpm.
( 3. The Geometric Pitch of a propeller is:

ca]the distance it would move forward in one revolution at the blad~e
c b) The angle the propeller chord makes to the plane of rotation.
( c) The distance the propeller actually moves forward in one rev~n.
d) The angle the propeller chord makes to the relative airfl
(
4. A right hand propeller: "'- ~
vaYRotates in a clockwise direction when viewed f~oft,l il\etear.
b) Is a propeller fitted to the right hand engine. ~
c) Rotates in an anti-clockwise direction when v~ed from the rear.
d) Is a propeller mounted in front of the e~
5. The angle of attack of a fixed pitch"3';,a~ller:

a) Depends on forward speed only
t.b'(Depends on forward spee gine rotational speed.
c) Depends on engine rot io peed only.
d) Is constant for a fixe,d~t repeller.
6. During the tak~na fixed pitch propeller is:

Vl)"At too coa~ an, afl'lgle for maximum efficiency.
b) At too fi~¥gle for maximum efficiency.
c) At th%_~~m angle for efficiency.
d) At~~t1mum angle initially but becomes too coarse as speed increases.
t,'~}n ~ircraft with a fixed pitch propeller, an increase in rev/min during the take offrun
at f~fl throttle is due to:
·,1 An increase in propeller blade slip. ~
b) The engine overspeeding. (?ft"
~more efficient propeller blade angle of attack.
d) The propeller angle of attack increasing. 7 ~
8. An aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller goes into a climb with reduced lAS and increased
rev/min. The propeller:
a) Angle of attack will decrease.
66
(
b) Pitch will decrease.

~ngle of attack will increase.
c
d) Angle of attack will remain the same. (
9. For an aircraft with a fixed pitch propeller, propeller efficiency will be: (
a) Low at low speed, high at high speed. (~
b) High at low speed, low at high speed.

c) Constant at all speeds.
vBJLow at both low and high speed, and highest at cruising speed.
10. The blade angle of a fixed pitch propeller would be set to give the optimum angle·
a) During take off.
vb[ During the cruise. (
c) At the maximum level flight speed.
d) For landing. (
11. Propeller torque results from the forces on the propeller: c

a) Caused by the ai_rflow, giving a. ":'oment around the propeller(l~~udin~l ax~s. .
b) Caused by centnfugal effect, g1vmg a moment around the ~~rs' long1tudmal ax1s.
c
~a used by the airflow, giving a moment around the airc~'~gitudinal axis.
d) Caused by centr~ugal effect, giving a D?-oment arou~'"rcraft's longitudinal axis.
fo~~st:
(
12. The thrust force of a propeller producing
va(Tends to bend the propeller tips forward. ~
b) Tends to bend the propeller tips backward. \, '
c) Tends to bend the propeller in its ~~tion.
d) Causes a tension load in the prope , )., ,
13. A propeller which is wind~n~

a) Rotates the engine in th~o~:vairection and gives some thrust.
b) Rotates the enginei1'ner and gives drag.
c) R tates the engine · e se and gives some thrust.
~tates the engir$ in normal direction and gives drag.
14. For an a~~ft Y"it'h a right hand propeller the effect of slipstream rotation acting on the
~
fin will caus
~w1:,··
b) Ro'
ct!:..~o"the right.
d~e up pitch.
~;.To counteract the effect of slipstream rotation on a single engine aircraft:

a) The fin may be reduced in size.
b) A "T" tail may be employed.
AThe fin may be off-set.
d) The wings may have washout.
16. The gyroscopic effect of a right hand propeller will give:

( 67
( a) A yawing moment to the left whenever the engine is running.

b) A yawing moment to the left when the aircraft rolls to the right.
(
c) A nose-up pitch when the aircraft yaws to the right.
1)21fA yaw to the right when the aircraft pitches nose up.
( 17. The alpha range of a variable pitch propeller is between:

t?fi=eather and flight fine pitch stop.
(
b) Feather and ground fine pitch stop.
( c) Flight fine pitch stop and reverse stop.
d) Ground fine pitch and reverse stop.
(
18. When the CSU is running "on speed":

~-1he governor weight centrifugal force balances the CSU spring force.
b) The CSU spring force balances the oil pressure.
c) The governor weight centrifugal force balances the oil pressure.
(J d) The supply of oil to the CSU is shut off.
(
19. If engine power is increased with the propeller lever in the c
c increase, then:
(
a) The governor weights move out, blade angle decreases~m 1tecrease, weights remain
out. ~~
( i b) The governor weights move in, blade angle in~ce ~'. r~m decrease, weights move out.
t.C}--The governor weights move out, blade angle i , re~s~~ rpm decrease, weights move in.
d) The governor weights move out, blade angle~ ses, rpm decrease, weights move in,
blade angle decreases again.
20. The purpose of the Centrifugal feat~~tch on a single acting propeller is to prevent:
a) CTM turning the propeller to fin~~·
b) The propeller from acciden~ f~.rmering at high rpm.
l. t.>}l'he propeller from feath~~Rrshut down.
d) The propeller from ov~Fipe~drng ifthe flight fine pitch stop fails to reset.
21. A hydraulic ac~ufnul~ may be fitted to a single acting propeller to provide pressure
for:
( a) Normal co~a'} speed operation of the propeller.
b) OperatJt,.~~e propeller in the event of failure of the CSU pump.
c) Feath~~)d unfettering the propeller.
[Jilt'Un~lmg the propeller.
2~t is required to increase the rpm of a variable pitch propeller without moving the
p.9wer lever,
he propeller lever must be moved:
a) Forward, the governor weights move inwards, blade angle increases.
b) Backward, the governor weights move outwards, blade angle decreases.
vCYForwards, the governor weights move inwards, blade angle decreases.
d) Forwards, the governor weights move outwards, blade angle decreases.
23. The CSU incorporates an oil pump. Its purpose is:
a) To provide pressure to feather the propeller.
I,
68
(
b) To provide pressure to unfeather the propeller.
~o increase the engine oil pressure to a' higher pressure to operate the propeller pitch
change mechanism. (-
d) To ensure adequate lubrication of the CSU.
(
24. A propeller blade is twisted along its length:
a) To compensate for the Centrifugal Twisting Moment. c
\.Jaffe maintain a constant angle of attack from root to tip ofthe blade.
c) To increase the thrust given by the tip.
d) To maintain constant thrust from root to tip. (
25. Propeller torque is:

a) The tendency of the propeller to twist around its longitudinal axis. ~
b) The helical path ofthe propeller through the air. {" .).. '
'-G)'The turning moment produced by the propeller about the axis of the crank\iaa,k
d) The thrust produced by the propeller.
c
(
26. The greatest stress on a rotating propeller occurs:
(
a) At the tip.
b) At about 75% ofthe length. ( ;
c) At the mid point.
\SJ}At the root. c
27. The Beta range of a propeller is from:
a) The feather stops to the Flight Fine Pitch stop.
b) The feather stops to the Ground F;r:.~p.
c) The feather stops to the reverse pi p)r..
uft-The Flight Fine Pitch stop to the~ pitch stop.
28. An 'Auto - Feathering' sy~~enses:

a) Low rpm. L
b) Decreasing rpm. /
'
c) High torque.
ufY'Low torque.
Ito the pitch of a variable pitch propeller in order to maintain constant

rpmwh
(i) IA~••
lreased and (ii) Power is increased?
c_ 'ti)' (ii)
an-q.Cl-eases decreases
bJ decreases increases
'11ncreases increases
d) decreases decreases
30. Propellers may havel-,an 'avoid' range of rpm:

va(To avoid.reson~~&«~e~which could lead to fatigue damage to the propeller.
b) To avoid excessive propeller noise.
c) Because the engine does not run efficiently in that rpm range.
( 69
(~
d) To avoid the possibility of detonation occurring in the engine.
c
(
( No A B c 0 No A B CID
/
(
1 X 16 IX
(
2 X
(
3 X
( -4
c,
'
X J_l '' 191 I JX
5 X
(;
X
c, ,__6
7 I I IX
(
( )
.8
·.~.. I J, J-~ ~ ~i X l . X
. I, .
X
( '
na 271 I I lx
( 13 ' 28 IX
29 X
X 30 X
( I
(.
( !
\,
70
(
PROPELLERS (
1. As a result of gyroscopic precession, it can be said that:
a) any pitching around the longitudinal axis results in a yawing moment ('•
~y yawing around the normal axis results in a pitching moment
c) any pitching around the lateral axis results in a rolling moment (
d) any rolling around the longitudinal axis results in a pitching moment
(
~propeller rotating clockwise as seen from the rear, creates a spiralling slipstream that tends
to rotate the aeroplane to the: ( .
a) right around the normal axis, and to the left around the longitudinal axis
b) right around the normal axis, and to the right around the longitudinal axis
c) left around the normal axis, and to the left around the longitudinal axis
d) left around the normal axis, and to the right around the longitudinal axis
3. The reason for variations in geometric pitch (twisting) along a propeller blade i (
a) prevents the portion of the blade near the hub from stalling during cruising flight.
Lb115ermits a relatively constant angle of attack along its length when in cruising fl' (
c) permits a relatively constant angle of incidence along its length when in cruisin
d) minimises the gyroscopic effect. ~. (
4. The Geometric Pitch of a propeller is: f '~ (

M(the distance it would move forward in one revolution if there w
b) the angle the propeller shaft makes to the plane of rotation. (
c) the distance the propeller actually moves forward in one re~
d) the angle the propeller chord makes to the relative airfl~'},. " (.
'
5. Propeller 'slip' is: ~

a) the air stream in the wake of the propeller. ~
1)1fue amount by which the distance covered~· ne r$roiution falls short of the geometric
pitch. ~
c) the increase in rpm which occurs duri - ff.
d) the change of blade angle from roo~•
(
6. The distance a propeller act
a) twisting.
~ective pitch.
c) geometric pitch. (
d) blade pitch.
f a prOpeller is defined as the angle between the:

(
lil chord line.
and line of thrust.
~ ch~rd·itu:f~d plane of rotation.
d) ~'tand propeller torque.
8~eller efficiency is the:

a) actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution.
ratio of thrust horsepower to shaft horsepower.
c) ratio of geometric pitch to effective pitch.
d) ratio ofTAS to rpm.
9. A fixed-pitch propeller is designed for best efficiency only at a given combination of:
~irspeed and RPM. .
b) airspeed and altitude.
c) altitude and RPM.
d) torque and blade angle.
(~:
( 71
(
10. Which statement is true regarding propeller efficiency? Propeller efficiency is the:
a) difference between the geometric pitch of the propeller and its effective pitch.
b) actual distance a propeller advances in one revolution.
c ¢atio of thrust horsepower to shaft horsepower.
d) ratio between the rpm and number of blade elements.
(
11. Which statement best describes the operating pLinciple of a constant-speed propeller?
( a) As throttle setting is changed by the pilot, the prop governor causes pitch angle of the
propeller blades to remain unchanged.
(
b) The propeller control regulates the engine RPM and in tum the propeller RPM.
( c) A high blade angle, or increased pitch, reduces the propeller drag and allows more
engine power for takeoffs.
(
vet) As the propeller control setting is changed by the pilot, the RPM of the engines remains
constant as the pitch angle of the propeller changes. . ~,
(
12. When does asymmetric blade effect cause the aeroplane to yaw to the left? '
c i,aJ'When at high angles of attack. ~
b) When at high airspeeds. ~ \. '
c c) When at low angles of attack.
d) In the cruise at low altitude. £"-
(
13. The left turning tendency of an aeroplane caused by asy~met&blade effect is the result of
the:
a) gyroscopic forces applied to the rotating propeller bladesac~oo in advance of the
( I
point the force was applied. '"');su
b) clockwise rotation of the engine and the propeller~ t e aeroplane counterclockwise.
D£)propeller blade descending on the right, producin~ thrust than the ascending blade
! ( on the left. '-' '
d) the rotation of the slipstream striking the tail~e left.
14. With regard to gyroscopic precessio~'YJien a force is applied at a point on the rim of a
spinning ~
di~, the resultant force acts in w~lection and at what point?
( taJ In the same direction as the~~Jf,.;:orce, 90 .ahead in the plane of rotation.
b) In the opposite direct~·
on e pplied force, 90 .ahead in the plane of rotation.
C' c) In the opposite direct· n applied force, at the point of the applied force.
d) In the same directi~f.~i applied force, 90 .ahead ofthe plane of rotation when the
propeller rotates cl~~e;- 90 .retarded when the propeller rotates counter-clockwise.
15. The angJ(o~ck of a fixed pitch propeller:

( a) depend~~¥ard speed only.
'-b}(lepentl n orward speed and engine rotational speed.
c) de~~il engine rotational speed only.
d~o~slhnt for a fixed pitch propeller.
)( 16. ~unter-rotating propellers are:

~~j propellers which rotate counter clockwise.
, b)yropellers which are geared to rotate in the opposite direction to the engine.
"-if two propellers driven by separate engines, rotating in opposite directions.
d) two propellers driven by the same engine, rotating in opposite directions.
17. If engine rpm is to remain constant on an engine fitted with a variable pitch propeller, an
increase in engine power requires:
a) a decrease in blade angle.
b) a constant angle of attack to be maintained to stop the engine from overspeeding.
1,_
( /
72
( -;
vo{an increase in blade angle.
d) the prop control lever to be advanced. (
()
No AlB .C Dl
(
] B
- c
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2 D
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3 B
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5 B
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~ Two Types-: Laminar ~rbulent

~~hen streamlines are shown close together it illustrates increased velocity}and

""""""-~~--'-~---~-.~-..~' .... -.J.

"!l\MIC FORCES IS KNOWN AS TOTAL REACTION

(3} MAGNITUDE- The magnitude of the Relative Air Flow is theTAS.

( (!. -4° : zero lift AOA for asymmetric aerofoiJ]

int- Point where turbulent airflow detaches from the

~s the angle of attack increases form o• I (a)

\ I To 16" the upper ' suction' peak moves

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THE CENTRE OF PRESSURE AoA.<'

Ci:he Centre of Pressure (CP}, and thus,

value and_ the CP is at its. ma.ft to.c.wardl

Yf!lails sharp_lr_ and the CP movel_ fh

Stagnation Point :As the dividi~~mline approaches the aerofoil it slows

fixed' point on the chord line ; s • vt- c kh-e/ LrtAJ

Wash-out- Decrease in angle of incidence towards the

Wing Loading = Aircraft Weight = Gross weight =~

(' LOAD FACTOR= LIFT/Weight

Wing Span (b): The distance from tip to tip.

Aspect Ratio(AR): The proportion of the average chord {AR = b/c or

The aspect ratio of a modem high speed jet transport is about 12

1. Higher the camber higher the lift, gentle tq

pressured~;;:, between the

( The aerodynamic force of lift results from the

INTERPRET. TIOJfNJF THE LIFT CURVE s, uJ

TALKING OF L/D Ratio.....

( is the ratio of drag per unit wing area to dyna ·

•~:G = J:l/c~ .: ' z:- ·~'\.~

1. THR,_I74j!DRAG RATIO IS A MEASURE OF AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY.

6. WITH INCREASES IN AOA, L/D INCREASES UP TO 4°, THEN DECRESES UP TO 16°

Modern jet transport from 12to20

AFFECTING L/D RA T/0 " ~

( WAKETURBULENCE ;irJDtJ([D D(2fl6_ \JOI2T7C£0.

~ Airspeed - the lower the speed, the stronger the vortices.

Confiquration~'!ortex strength is greatest with aircraft in a "clean" configuration (for a given

(b) .. FLAPS DOWN

~ Jr.aJ 1r- r-v-.e_ ~ ,8 f/lJ (!) t w ,·"\9 ~pat"~

)- HIGH AOA1 MORE UPWASH 1 MORE DOWNWASH ...

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. ecrease overall lift production.

c, 'b) Increase drag.

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(2) INDUCED DRAG- the result of lift generation;

Parasite drag is further sub-divided into:

~ Wing tip Vortices cause Induced Drag