Knowledge platform – driving technology to the global hydrogen community

Issue 14 | February 2024 | www.hydrogentechworld.com

cover story
The SIAD Group: turning
know-H2ow into performance

In this issue
 eeping the water ultrapure
K  ritical raw materials in
C  H
 igh-energy-density hydrogen
inside electrolyzers: the hydrogen sector carriers for fuel cells
challenges and solutions
 [ editorial ]

Dear readers,
Browsing through a digital magazine can take only seconds, yet producing an
issue of Hydrogen Tech World requires months of preparation and the collective
effort of many. Realising each issue of this publication is one of the most
rewarding and humbling aspects of my role as the magazine’s curator, so a
heartfelt thank you goes to everyone sharing their expertise and insights
with you, our valued readers.

This February issue features two returning contributors addressing

the cost and safety of electrolytic hydrogen production. Henrik
Tækker Madsen investigates the journey of ultrapure feedwater as it
circulates inside the electrolyser and its implications for water treatment. Meanwhile, Thijs
de Groot calls for closer collaboration between electrical engineers, responsible for power
supply systems, and electrochemical engineers, in charge of electrolyser designs, arguing
that such cooperation could significantly lower the levelised cost of hydrogen (LCOH).

First-time contributors in this issue expand the discourse beyond green hydrogen production.
Prantik Saha offers valuable perspectives on mitigating risks in water electrolyser projects.
Bruno Pollet explores the critical role of raw materials in the hydrogen sector, discusses
supply chain risks, and suggests strategies to reduce dependency on these materials.
Stephen B. Harrison examines the use of high-energy-density hydrogen carriers like ammonia
and methanol, focusing on their importance in storage and transportation for advancing a
sustainable hydrogen future.

Given the low volumetric energy density of hydrogen, compression is a key part of the
hydrogen value chain, enabling the transport and storage of meaningful volumes of hydrogen
in gaseous form. Our February cover story shines the spotlight on SIAD, a major player
in Europe’s industrial gas sector for nearly a century. Besides producing and distributing
industrial gases, the Italian-based company specialises in engineering gas processing
equipment. Leveraging over 70 years of its expertise in the design and manufacture
of hydrogen compressors, SIAD’s latest engineering breakthrough is a high-pressure
compressor featuring oil-free technology and delivering industry-leading performance
and reliability. To learn more about this innovation and the company’s core strengths, we
spoke with Sandeep Gadkary, Director of Compressors and Global Service Divisions at SIAD
Macchine Impianti, the engineering arm of the SIAD Group.

Finally, pages 26 and 27 provide a first glimpse into the Hydrogen Tech World Expo &
Conference, to be held on 26 & 27 June 2024 in Essen, Germany, in conjunction with two sister
events, Green Steel World and Carbon Capture World, bringing together three key ‘energy
transition’ themes under one roof. Mark your calendars and stay updated via our website for
the latest on speakers and exhibitors.

Wishing you much reading pleasure,

Matjaž Matošec
Editor-in-Chief

Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024 3

 Industry
Update
Plug Power starts
production of electrolytic
LH2 at its Georgia plant
Plug Power has started
operations at the largest
electrolytic liquid hydrogen
(LH2) production plant in the
U.S., which boasts the largest
PEM electrolyzer deployment
operating in the country.
Located in Woodbine, Georgia,
the plant is designed to
produce 15 tons per day (TPD)
of LH2 – enough to power
approximately 15,000 forklifts
per day. Through eight 5 MW
PEM electrolyzers, water is
separated into hydrogen and
oxygen. The hydrogen gas is
then condensed into liquid
form at -253°C to be delivered
to customers’ hydrogen
fueling stations through
Plug Power’s logistics
network using the company’s
cryogenic trailers.
This new facility will
bolster the company’s supply
of LH2 currently being
delivered to its customers for
material handling operations,
fuel cell electric vehicle
fleets, and stationary power
applications. The addition of
this LH2 production plant to
the company’s electrolyzer,
fuel cell, and cryogenic
equipment manufacturing
4 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
facilities enables the company
to further its vision for
building a vertically integrated
green hydrogen ecosystem, a
one-stop shop for producing,
liquefying, storing, and
transporting hydrogen.
Additionally, on 6
February 2024, Plug Power
announced the restart of its
hydrogen plant in Charleston,
Tennessee, adding about 10
TPD of LH2 supply back to the
U.S. market. The company
has also implemented design
improvements to enhance the
overall efficiency of the plant.
Daimler Truck, Linde
inaugurate first public sub-
cooled LH2 station
On 7 February 2024, Daimler
Truck and Linde Engineering
inaugurated the first public
sub-cooled liquid hydrogen
(sLH2) pilot station in Wörth
am Rhein, Germany. With
energy consumption of only
0.05 kWh/kg, the new station
requires approximately
30 times less energy
compared to conventional
gaseous hydrogen refueling.
Over the past few years,
engineers from both
companies have jointly
developed a new process for
handling sLH2. Compared
to gaseous hydrogen, this
innovative approach allows
for a higher storage density, a
greater range, faster refueling,
lower costs and superior
energy efficiency. Refueling
takes around 10–15 minutes
for a 40-ton heavy-duty truck
carrying 80 kg of LH2 for a
range of 1,000 kilometers and
more. At the same time, the
new sLH2 technology lowers
the required investment for a
hydrogen refueling station by
a factor of two to three, and
operational costs are five to six
times lower.
Compared to regular LH2
refueling technology, the new
process uses an innovative
sLH2 pump to slightly
increase the pressure of the
LH2. With this method, the
hydrogen becomes sub-cooled
LH2. Hydrogen in this state
facilitates a very robust fueling
process that also keeps energy
losses during refueling to a
minimum. Furthermore, no
data transmission between the
refueling station and vehicle
is necessary, which further
reduces the complexity of the
solution.
 [ industry update ]
HNO International announces
inaugural installation of its
hydrogen system
HNO International is set to
develop a hydrogen production
facility in Houston, Texas,
which will mark the inaugural
installation of its Scalable
Hydrogen Energy Platform
(SHEP™), a modular and
scalable hydrogen energy
system designed to produce,
store, and dispense green
hydrogen using a 1.25 MW
electrolyzer.
The completion of the
project, being developed in
collaboration with Element
One Energy and Pneumatic
and Hydraulic Company, is
anticipated in the second
quarter of 2024.
Designed to produce
500 kg of hydrogen per day,
SHEP™ is scalable, enabling
production to exceed 5,000
kg of hydrogen per day with
additional electrolyzers and
other integrated components.
Its modular design and
adaptability ensure it can
meet the evolving demands
of hydrogen production
and usage across a broad
spectrum of applications.
SHEP™ boasts a compact
footprint, requiring less than
3,000 square feet, providing
flexibility for installation in
various locations. Moreover,
SHEP™ offers users the choice
of power sources, enabling the
use of either grid or renewable
6 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
power and presenting a 100%
green, off-grid option.
Ansaldo Green Tech
successfully tests AEM
electrolyzer prototype
Ansaldo Green Tech has
reached an important milestone
in the framework of its
development program for anion
exchange membrane (AEM)
electrolyzers by successfully
concluding tests on short stack
prototypes of full-size geometry,
which will lead to a commercial
stack of 1 MW.
The prototypes, whose
electrochemical cells have an
active area equal to several
thousand square centimeters,
were operated until full power
was achieved, exceeding
expectations in terms of
current density and efficiency.
This result is a part of
the Nemesi project and
was successfully achieved
thanks to the know-how and
experience of the Ansaldo
Energia Group in the fields of
hydrogen and fuel cells.
The program foresees, in
the short term, the completion
of the test facility to continue
the performance verification
phase. This will allow
progression towards the goal
of product industrialization
and commercialization.
In parallel, research and
development activities
continue at the Ansaldo Green
Tech laboratories and the
University of Genoa, aiming to
improve the performance of
electrodes and membranes.
The AEM electrolyzer is
characterized by reduced use
of critical raw materials and
electrolytes, its high flexibility,
which makes it suitable
to follow the cyclicality of
renewable sources, and
the possibility of producing
hydrogen under pressure.
Lhyfe breaks ground on
10 MW green hydrogen
production plant in
Germany
On 1 February 2024, Lhyfe
held a groundbreaking
ceremony for a green hydrogen
production plant in Brake,
Germany. The project is
situated on land in the harbour
area of Niedersachsen Ports
(NPorts), the largest public
seaport operator in Germany.
With an installed electrolysis
capacity of 10 MW, the plant
will produce up to 1,150 tonnes
of green hydrogen per year.
The electricity will be sourced
from wind and photovoltaic
plants in the country, through
corporate PPAs. Potential
offtakers come from industry
and transportation.

Convion and Elcogen
complete field test of solid
oxide electrolyser
Convion and Elcogen have
successfully completed
a 2,000-hour field test
of Convion’s solid oxide
electrolyser, equipped with
Elcogen’s cell technology.
The test validated the high
performance and reliable
operability of the solid oxide
technology, which boasts
superior efficiency compared
to incumbent electrolyser
technologies.
The test campaign
encompassed both steady-
state operation and 1,000
rapid power cycles. The
system demonstrated high
performance with electrical
efficiency exceeding 85%,
which translates to 39 kWh of
electrical energy per kilogram
of green hydrogen produced.
In terms of electrolysis,
this represents a 20–30%
reduction in electricity usage
compared to competing PEM
and alkaline technologies.
The electrolyser uses
Elcogen’s solid oxide cell
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
and stack technology within
Convion’s steam electrolyser
system platform. Leveraging
Convion’s experience in
developing solid oxide fuel
cell systems, this system
was developed in record
time.
The electrolyser was
delivered and commissioned
to a VTT test site in June
2023, where it was tested as
part of a VTT-coordinated
and Business Finland-
funded E-Fuel project. The
electrolyser delivered green
hydrogen for a synthetic fuel
demonstrator, where the
final product was renewable
diesel.
Pall Corporation introduces
SepraLYTE™ liquid/gas
coalescers
Pall Corporation, a provider
of filtration, separation, and
purification solutions, has
introduced SepraLYTE™
liquid/gas coalescers. This
innovative solution is designed
to meet the increasing demand
for efficient separation of
electrolyte aerosols from gas
in green hydrogen production
processes.
Leveraging advanced
separation technology,
SepraLYTE coalescers
effectively separate water
or electrolyte aerosols
(30% potassium hydroxide
solution) from hydrogen,
ensuring the purity of
[ industry update ]
hydrogen produced from
electrolysis processes. The
coalescers are suitable for
a wide range of separation
applications where minimal
pressure drop is crucial for
downstream processes.
SepraLYTE coalescers
feature Pall’s proprietary
melt-blown media
technology, which
achieves excellent liquid
mist separation with low
differential pressure.
The compact design
incorporates coalescer
media that ensures
compatibility with various
chemical applications.
Other key advantages
of SepraLYTE liquid/gas
coalescers include ease of
maintenance, compact size,
and waste reduction.
“Pall’s coalescers enable
our customers to optimize
their plant design, maximize
the lifetime of their critical
equipment and improve
overall efficiency, reliability
and output,” said Greg
Sears, Vice President and
General Manager of Pall’s
Fluid Technologies and Asset
Protection business unit.
7
 [ industry update ]
Chiyoda and Toyota to
jointly develop large-scale
electrolysis system
Chiyoda Corporation and
Toyota Motor Corporation have
signed a basic agreement
to jointly develop a large-
scale electrolysis system
and establish a strategic
partnership. The two companies
aim to develop an electrolysis
system with high hydrogen
production efficiency while
being the world’s smallest in
size.
By combining Toyota’s
expertise in industrial products
with Chiyoda’s in plant
engineering, the partnership
aims to achieve lower costs,
increased production efficiency,
and more stable quality for the
electrolysis systems required
to produce green hydrogen.
To meet a range of
customer needs, such as the
amount of hydrogen used
or limitations on plant floor
area, the development will
use 5 MW-class equipment
as the basic unit. Each unit,
with a floor area of 2.5 m x
6 m, will have a hydrogen
production capacity of
approximately 100 kg/h. These
units will be integrated to
form a standardized package,
allowing the assembly of large-
scale electrolysis systems.
The introduction of an
electrolysis system in Hydrogen
Park at the Toyota Honsha Plant
is scheduled to commence in
8 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
FY2025. Plans are in place to
scale the system up to the 10
MW class.
Vallourec unveils large-
scale vertical hydrogen
storage solution, Delphy
Vallourec has inaugurated
its vertical compressed
gas hydrogen storage
demonstrator in Aulnoye-
Aymeries, northern France.
The compact footprint of this
modular system makes it easy
to integrate into demanding
industrial environments and
delivers a secure large-scale
hydrogen storage solution.
The installation, the first of
its kind in the world, is based
on tubes and connections with
extensively proven sealing
technology and corrosion
resistance. The solution is an
underground system, capable
of storing up to 100 tonnes of
hydrogen gas under maximum
safety conditions. The system
is suitable for green hydrogen
producers, users for industrial
applications, and heavy mobility.
To support the commercial
development of this storage
solution, Vallourec has
launched it under a new brand
name ‘Delphy’.
BASF receives funding
approval for 54 MW
electrolyzer
With the approval of federal and
state funding, German chemical
giant BASF has taken a major
step forward in building a PEM
electrolyzer. In cooperation
with Siemens Energy, the
work on the water electrolysis
plant at the Ludwigshafen site,
known as the Hy4Chem-EI
project, is now entering its next
construction phase.
With an output of 54 MW and
a capacity of up to 8,000 metric
tons of hydrogen per year, the
PEM electrolyzer will be one
of the largest of its kind in
Germany once it is operational.
Powered using electricity from
renewable energy sources, the
system will produce CO2-free
hydrogen, thereby reducing
greenhouse gas emissions
at the site by up to 72,000
metric tons annually. BASF will
primarily use this hydrogen as a
raw material in the manufacture
of products with a reduced
carbon footprint. In addition, the
company will supply hydrogen
for mobility in the Rhine-Neckar
Metropolitan Region to support
the ramp-up of a hydrogen
economy in the area.
BASF and Siemens Energy
plan to begin operating the
water electrolysis plant in
2025. In cooperation with
the State of Rhineland-
Palatinate, the German
Federal Ministry for Economic
Affairs and Climate Protection
is contributing up to €124.3
million to the project – up to
€37.3 million of which will be
financed by the government of
Rhineland-Palatinate.
 [ industry update ]

regulations, and uncertain hydrogen stakeholders, will

Hyperfuel Labs launches
testbed and accelerator
for hydrogen startups
Hyperfuel Labs, a new
venture founded by MIT
and Harvard alumni, has
announced the launch of its
industrial-scale testbed and
first-of-a-kind accelerator
for hydrogen startups in
Houston, Texas. The facility
will provide a unique platform
for validating, scaling, and
commercializing innovative
hydrogen solutions.
Pre-commercial hydrogen
technologies face significant
challenges in reaching the
market, such as high capital
costs, long lead times, complex
demand. These barriers create
a ‘valley of death’ for hydrogen
startups, which often lack the
resources and capabilities to
build and operate their own
demonstration plants.
Hyperfuel Labs aims to
bridge this gap by offering
a shared infrastructure and
ecosystem for hydrogen
startups, end-users,
investors, and supply chain
participants. The Hyperfuel
Labs testbed will provide
access to multi-megawatt
power, water treatment,
gas treatment, distribution
logistics, and offtake. The
Hyperfuel Labs accelerator,
powered by a consortia of
provide mentorship, funding,
and market opportunities. By
leveraging Hyperfuel Labs’
platform, hydrogen startups
could save up to 75% of the
time and 30% of the costs
required to demonstrate their
technology, while reducing the
overall risk and uncertainty of
their projects.
Hyperfuel Labs is currently
accepting applications for
its first cohort of hydrogen
startups, which will start in
Q3 2024. The company is also
looking for partners across
the value chain and sponsors
who share its vision and are
interested to support its
program.

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 Sandeep Gadkary, Director of Compressors and Global Service Divisions at SIAD Macchine Impianti, the engineering arm of the SIAD Group

The SIAD Group: turning know-H2ow into performance

Founded in Bergamo in 1927, SIAD has been a major player in Europe’s industrial gas sector for nearly
a century. Besides producing and distributing industrial gases, the Italian-based company specialises
in engineering gas processing equipment. Leveraging over 70 years of its expertise in the design and
manufacture of hydrogen compressors, SIAD’s latest engineering breakthrough is a high-pressure compressor
featuring oil-free technology and delivering industry-leading performance and reliability. To learn more about
this innovation and the company’s core strengths, we spoke with Sandeep Gadkary, Director of Compressors
and Global Service Divisions at SIAD Macchine Impianti, the engineering arm of the SIAD Group.

By Matjaž Matošec

With a 2022 turnover exceeding €1 billion and a
global workforce of 2,177, the SIAD Group has
established itself as a formidable and respected
industrial force. The company serves over 70,000
customers globally, demonstrating a broad
operational footprint across various sectors,
including petrochemical, chemical, energy,
refinery, food and beverage, and industrial gases.
In the realm of engineering, SIAD specialises in
the design and manufacture of air separation
units for producing industrial gases, small-
scale LNG plants, reciprocating compressors
for processing gases and air, plants for CO2
production, purification and liquefaction, biogas
upgrading systems, and industrial burners,
among other things.

10 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024


SIAD has long been a pioneer in the industrial gas sector, having
created its first hydrogen compressor over 70 years ago, in 1953.
Delving deeper into the SIAD Group’s diverse
portfolio, the company’s involvement in the
hydrogen value chain stands out as a key area
of expertise. SIAD plays an instrumental role in
various critical stages of this chain, including
hydrogen production, storage, and distribution,
as well as advising customers on hydrogen
use and applications. In addition, SIAD also
produces hydrogen-ready combustion systems.
Furthermore, SIAD’s proficiency in hydrogen
compression technology is essential for hydrogen
use and effective storage in cylinders, as well as
its transportation via tube trailers and hydrogen
pipelines, some of which are also operated by
SIAD to ensure efficient delivery to end-users.
SIAD Group’s unique value proposition for
H2 compressors
The company manufactured its first hydrogen
compressor in 1953. Today, hydrogen ranks as
the primary gas handled by SIAD compression
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ cover story ]
"Our involvement in the entire
hydrogen value chain is a major
advantage.”
equipment, a fact underscored by more than
500 of its hydrogen compressors currently
operating worldwide. This extensive experience
not only highlights SIAD’s capability in addressing
the needs of the hydrogen market but also
underscores its important role in shaping the
hydrogen ecosystem.
“Our involvement in the entire hydrogen value
chain is a major advantage, something none of our
competitors offer,” says Mr. Gadkary. “We have the
unique capability of not only producing hydrogen
but also providing compressors that perfectly
align with hydrogen production and the needs of
our customers. Moreover, our experience dates
back to the 1950s, encompassing millions of hours
of operational expertise. This aspect is crucial,
especially for new players in the industry. As the
market grows and new companies emerge, having
a partner well-versed in hydrogen technology and
its value chain becomes invaluable.”
Additionally, our in-house hydrogen production
facilities enable us to conduct extensive testing –
a capability many other players lack, adds
Mr. Gadkary. “These factors collectively define
our unique value proposition and how we aim to
differentiate ourselves in the market.”
Driving innovation to support energy
transition
In its relentless commitment to innovation, SIAD
has recently achieved a significant milestone in
compressor technology with the development of a
new high-pressure, oil-free compressor capable
of reaching up to 550 bar. This innovation builds
upon SIAD’s historical portfolio, enhancing the
company’s ability to meet the evolving needs of
the industry.
11
 [ cover story ]
SIAD’s oil-free piston reciprocating hydrogen compressor, capable of reaching pressures up to 550 bar
“Our latest high-pressure compressor specifically
targets the transportation and mobility markets,
which are two of our key focus areas,” explains
Mr. Gadkary. “In transportation, this innovation
supports the use of higher-pressure cylinders and
tube trailers, capable of storing more product and
thereby more efficiently utilising their capacity.
Until recently, cylinders and tube trailers typically
carried pressures of 200–250 bar. Now, with the
advent of composite materials, they can handle
pressures up to 500 bar, and our new compressor
is designed to achieve this higher pressure
range.”
Furthermore, with this new compressor, SIAD
is making a strategic entry into the hydrogen
refuelling station market, which is also
characterised by high-pressure requirements.
Pushing the envelope
Particularly in applications where high hydrogen
purity is a stringent requirement, such as mobility,
oil-free compressors are essential because any
trace of oil contamination in hydrogen can be
12
detrimental, leading to compromised fuel cell
performance and potentially hazardous situations.
Therefore, ensuring oil-free compression is not
only a technological advancement but also a
critical safety and performance consideration.
“We have been continually pushing the envelope in
our field,” says Mr. Gadkary. “In the past, oil-free
technology was limited to lower pressure ranges,
while lubricated compressors were the norm in
higher pressure ranges. Our expertise in oil-free
technology is well established, but what is new is
how we have extended this know-how to higher
pressures, transitioning from oil-free technologies
operating at pressures of around 100 bar to an
impressive 550 bar.”
As Mr. Gadkary explains, this advancement
stems from improvements in multiple areas of
engineering. A critical aspect of this evolution
has been the adoption of advanced materials,
transitioning from PTFE to high-performance
alternatives such as PEEK and other polymers.
This innovation required a complete rethinking
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

SIAD’s new hydrogen compressor supports the use of higher-
pressure cylinders and tube trailers, capable of storing more
product and thereby more efficiently utilising their capacity.
of materials of construction, sealing systems,
and piston geometries to effectively adapt to the
higher pressures and broaden the company’s
application scope.
Lowest total cost of ownership (TCO)
In its endeavour to provide customers with the
most cost-effective solutions, the SIAD Group
adheres to a comprehensive set of criteria
guiding its innovations. Foremost among these
is compressor efficiency, a critical factor directly
influencing energy costs. This underscores the
paramount importance of energy efficiency in the
company’s designs.
“Our compressors are renowned for their flexible
and uninterrupted operation, characterised by
exceptional energy efficiency,” proudly states
Mr. Gadkary.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ cover story ]
"Our compressors boast an
impressive mean time
between overhauls of
8,000–12,000 hours.”
“Reliability follows closely, recognising the pivotal
role it plays in enabling the maintenance or
reduction of operational costs,” he continues. “We
also diligently adhere to a myriad of regulations,
with a strong emphasis on harmonised standards,
especially vital in high-pressure applications
such as those in the mobility sector, ensuring
that our products consistently align with the most
stringent safety measures.”
“Equally significant is equipment availability,
recognising that a compressor’s worth is truly
realised when it remains operational. To this
end, our compressors boast an impressive
mean time between overhauls of 8,000–12,000
hours, ensuring extended uptime. Moreover,
we place a premium on the maintainability of
our compressors, ensuring that maintenance
procedures are straightforward, without the need
to disassemble a significant portion of the unit.”
To encapsulate these vital considerations,
Mr. Gadkary refers to them as ER²AMP –
Efficiency, Reliability, Regulations, Availability,
Maintainability, and Power Density. Following
these principles enables SIAD to provide
compressors that strike the optimal balance
between capital and operational expenditures.
“Ultimately, this design philosophy leads to
a substantial reduction in the total cost of
ownership for our valued customers,” he says.
Rigorous approach to product
development
In the development process for its high-pressure
compressor, the SIAD Group involved its
customers, industrial partners, and academia,
using a very rigorous approach.
13
 [ cover story ]
With its new high-pressure compressor, the SIAD Group is making
a strategic entry into the hydrogen refuelling station market.
Mr. Gadkary explains: “Our marketing and
business development teams were closely attuned
to the voice of the customer. We adopted the
Six Sigma DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyse,
Design, and Verify) approach, which is invaluable
for implementing new strategies, as it identifies
success factors early and relies on data-driven
analysis.
“We conducted dynamic testing on our shop floor,
followed by an endurance test at our hydrogen
production plant. This testing process ensured the
practicality and viability of the compressor.
“Our design leveraged the latest technologies,
incorporating the concept of digital twins, and
we collaborated with universities and industrial
suppliers throughout the development process.
Initial tests involved helium, and we have now
progressed to testing with hydrogen, leveraging
SIAD’s hydrogen production capabilities. The
result is a fully realised product, rigorously tested
and successfully commercialised in the market.”
Safety: a paramount priority
The SIAD Group places paramount importance
on the safety of its compressors, a commitment
reflected in their impressive track record. With
more than 500 hydrogen compressors currently
operational and over 25 million hours of running
time, the company has garnered extensive
14
experience in ensuring safety. The SIAD Group’s
gas sector has been a long-time active member
of the European Industrial Gas Association (EIGA)
and has more recently joined the Compressed Gas
Association (CGA) and the Asian Industrial Gas
Association (AIGA), adhering to stringent industry
standards.
SIAD’s hydrogen compressors are designed
with an array of robust safety features,
including a total leak-free design and high-quality
materials and components. Additionally,
the company collaborates with premium
suppliers for instruments and safety devices,
guaranteeing the highest standards of quality
and reliability. The compressors are equipped
with full process monitoring systems that
continuously oversee operations to detect
and address any issues promptly. In the event
Hydrogen Rising Star Company of the
Year
SIAD was recently honoured with the ‘Hydrogen
Rising Star Company of the Year’ award at
The Hydrogen Future Awards. This accolade,
presented during the Connecting Green
Hydrogen MENA conference in Dubai, recognizes
SIAD’s expertise in developing innovative
solutions for the compression of green hydrogen.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

SIAD operates several kilometres of pipelines to ensure the
efficient delivery of hydrogen from its production facilities to
end-users.
of anomalies, a fail-safe stop procedure is
implemented to automatically shut down the
system and prevent accidents. Furthermore,
the compressors feature secure automatic
depressurisation to safely reduce system
pressure and avoid hazardous scenarios.
Regular hazard and operability studies (HAZOP)
and risk analysis are conducted to anticipate
and mitigate potential risks, underscoring
SIAD’s commitment to safety in their hydrogen
compression solutions.
Projects, partnerships, and vision
Recent and upcoming green hydrogen projects
incorporating SIAD’s hydrogen compressors
include a 20 MW electrolysis plant at the Ovako
rolling mill in Hofors, Sweden; world’s first high-
temperature electrolyzer system on a multi-
megawatt-scale at Neste’s renewable products
refinery in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, and a
major project in Western Europe (see box ‘Project
in Western Europe’).
In September 2022, SIAD signed a framework
agreement with the electrolyser manufacturer
Nel for the supply of hydrogen compressors. This
agreement complements the company’s existing
collaborations and partnerships with a host of
major global EPC contractors, end users, as well
as electrolyser and fuel cell companies.
While actively expanding its client base, SIAD is
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ cover story ]
simultaneously exploring advancements in its
hydrogen compressor offerings to meet even
higher pressure requirements, through the
adoption of hybrid technologies.
“Our development process is ongoing and
evolving,” explains Mr. Gadkary. “At present, our
piston reciprocating compressors are capable of
reaching up to 550 bar, but we are not stopping
there. We are exploring hybrid technologies
to push these boundaries further. In our
reciprocating compressors, there is a central
stream that remains vacant, and here, we see
potential for integrating diaphragm technology.
By creating a hybrid system, we aim to extend
the pressure capacity from 550 bar to 700 bar or
even higher. This thought process reflects our
continuous commitment to actively respond to the
market’s evolving needs, especially in the mobility
sector where pressures of 700 bar and above are
becoming increasingly relevant.
“However, this is not just about meeting market
demands; it is about supporting the shift towards
cleaner energy and fuel cells,” concludes
Mr. Gadkary.
Project in Western Europe
The SIAD Group has secured a significant
order for oil-free compressors to serve a green
hydrogen production plant in Western Europe.
With an electrolysis capacity of 50 MW, the
plant, powered by renewable electricity, will
produce 6,000 tons of hydrogen annually for
heavy mobility applications (maritime, road,
river, and rail), as well as for the industrial and
electricity generation sectors. By aiding in the
avoidance of 60,000 tons of carbon emissions
annually, the project will play an important
role the energy transition in Western Europe.
For this project, the SIAD Group has been
selected by a major European energy group
to supply seven state-of-the-art hydrogen
compressors. The order includes four medium-
pressure compressors and three high-pressure
compressors.
15
 [ water treatment ]

Keeping the water ultrapure inside

electrolyzers: challenges and solutions
It is well known that the water for electrolysis must be of very high quality. However, treating the
feedwater to the required quality is only half the story. The water quality must also be maintained while
the water circulates inside the electrolyzer. This article explores what happens with the water inside the
electrolyzer and the implications for water treatment.

By Henrik Tækker Madsen, Application Development Manager, Silhorko-Eurowater – A Grundfos Company

First of all, it is important to understand why water
treatment is necessary also after the water enters
an electrolyzer. Lack of or wrong design of water
treatment in the electrolysis loop will lead to:
1. Damage to the electrolyzer stack
2. Unreliable operation with frequent unplanned
stops
3. Higher total cost of water treatment
4. Increased water consumption
It is also important to note that while the
electrolyzer stack accounts for 40–60% of the
total capital cost of an electrolyzer system, water
treatment constitutes only about 1% (see Figure 1),

Fig. 1. Water treatment accounts for approximately 1% of the total capital cost.

16 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024


Fig. 2. There are three types of pollutants present in electrolyzer systems: pollutants from the raw water, pollutants released by the
electrolyzer, and pollutants modified by the electrolyzer.
meaning that the problems can be dealt with in a
cost-effective manner.
But why can’t we just improve the treatment of
the water before it enters the electrolyzer to avoid
treating the water inside of the electrolyzer?
Pollutants in the electrolyzer system originate
not only from the feedwater but are also released
from the electrolyzer itself. To eliminate pollutants
from the water circulating inside the electrolyzer,
a water treatment system must be added to what
is typically referred to as a refinement loop.
To properly design this system, it is necessary to
take into account how the electrolyzer influences
the water quality:
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ water treatment ]
1. Modification of pollutants
Due to constant circulation, pollutants can
be modified by the electrolyzer, giving rise to
a more complex mixture of pollutants in the
water.
2. Concentration of pollutants
The electrolysis process concentrates any
pollutants inside the electrolyzer. This happens
because water is continually turned into
hydrogen and thus removed from the system.
As the degree of water utilization increases,
so does pollutant concentration. For instance,
if 90% of the water is converted to hydrogen,
pollutant concentration will increase by a
factor of 10, and if 99% of the water is utilized,
pollutant concentration will increase by a factor
of 100.
17
 [ water treatment ]

Buffer tank

Raw water

Lye filter Cooler Circulation pump

Refinement loop
©Silhorko-Eurowater A/S

Fig. 3. Refinement loop for an alkaline electrolyzer. In alkaline electrolysis, the entire flow is treated with a lye filter to maintain
water quality.

In practice, this means that the electrolyzer changes the composition of the water inside the
does not operate on ultrapure feedwater. electrolyzer.
Instead, it operates on a polluted process
stream. Figure 2 illustrates how the electrolyzer The formation and types of pollutants
vary, depending on factors such as the
electrolysis process type, electrolyzer
What is ultrapure water?
operating conditions, and the water treatment
Water suitable for electrolysis is commonly
equipment used to maintain water quality.
referred to as ultrapure. Understanding the
This article focuses specifically on alkaline
quality of ultrapure water for electrolyzers
and PEM electrolysis, which are the two most
requires consideration of the specific
prevalent electrolysis processes at the time of
electrolyzer technology. Different types writing.
of electrolyzers are sensitive to specific
compounds in the water, requiring customized Maintaining water purity in alkaline
water specifications for each electrolyzer. electrolysis
Acceptable levels for problematic compounds In alkaline electrolysis, ultrapure make-up
are typically restricted to parts per billion water is mixed with potassium hydroxide
(ppb). (KOH) to a concentration of around 25–30 wt%.
Conductivity serves as a general measure for The KOH provides conductivity as the
the maximum allowable ion concentration. electrolysis process is mediated by the
Alkaline electrolyzers typically permit hydroxide ion.
conductivity levels of 1–5 µS/cm, whereas
PEM has a more stringent limit of up to 0.1 Cathode: 2H2O(l) + 2e¯ → H2(g) + 2OH¯(aq)
µS/cm. Additionally, it is often essential
to establish limits for organics and silica, Anode: 2OH¯(aq) → H2O(l) + O2(g)+ 2e¯
as these are not adequately addressed by
conductivity measurements. Full cell reaction: H2O(l) → H2(g) + O2(g)

18 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024


Electrolyzer stack DI water
circulation pump
Fig. 4. Refinement loop for a PEM electrolyzer. In PEM electrolysis, a small side stream is treated with an ion exchange system to maintain
water quality.
The highly concentrated alkaline electrolyte
solution makes it very difficult to perform
separation on the molecular and ionic level;
however, it helps keep the solution clean.
Due to the high concentration, most ions will
tend to precipitate as either potassium or
hydroxides salts due to salting-out effect.
Looking at calcium (Ca) as an example, only
8 ng of Ca can be dissolved in one liter of
25 wt% KOH before it will precipitate as
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2).
Because of this, the main problem for alkaline
electrolyzers when it comes to maintaining the
water quality is the formation of particles that
can clog the electrolyzer or lead to deposits and
scaling in the system.
To remove the particles, a lye filter is
used, typically integrated directly into
the deionized-water/lye loop to treat the
entire flow. This filter must be capable of
withstanding the corrosive environment, high
temperature, and the potential presence of
molecular hydrogen.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ water treatment ]
Raw water
Buffer water tank Circulation Refinement loop
pump polishing
Resin trap
Cooler Gas separator
Refinement loop
Maintaining water purity in PEM
electrolysis
PEM electrolyzers differ significantly from
alkaline electrolyzers. Unlike their alkaline
counterparts, they do not require the addition
of electrolytes like KOH to the water. In PEM
systems, a proton exchange membrane situated
between the electrodes serves as the electrolyte.
Consequently, ultrapure water is used in its
natural state, without any added electrolytes. This
allows for the treatment of water using ionic and
molecular separation techniques to maintain its
quality.
Did you know?
The practical lower limit for conductivity in
water at 25°C is 0.056 µS/cm. This is the
background conductivity created by water
molecules that constantly split to form
hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions in the
autoprotolysis of water. You can never get
below this value.
Just 1 mg/L of sodium chloride (NaCl) will
lead to a conductivity of 2.2 µS/cm.
19
 [ water treatment ]
During electrolysis in a PEM cell, a very
corrosive environment is created. The process
is based on oxidizing water to protons at the
anode, which are then reduced to hydrogen at
the cathode.
Anode: H2O(l) → 2H +(aq) + O2(g)+ 2e¯
Cathode: 2H +(aq) + 2e¯ → H2(g)
Full cell reaction
H2O(l) → H2(g) + O2(g)
In the process, fluoride ions are released
from the electrolyzer and combined with
hydrogen ions to form hydrofluoric acid. Due
to the corrosive environment, the electrolyzer
system can degrade and release ions harmful
to the electrolyzer stack into the DI-water
loop.
To prevent the accumulation of these
harmful ions and molecules, the water must
be continuously cleaned, which is done by
treating a side stream of the DI-water loop in a
refinement loop.
The most common approach is to treat the
water with a polisher capable of deionizing
the water, followed by a particle filter aimed at
removing resin fines from the polisher. Some
designs also include a UV lamp after the particle
filter to disinfect the water, but this is typically
unnecessary due to the very low risk of biofouling
in electrolyzer systems.
The size of the refinement loop depends on a
number of variables:
• Quality of the make-up water
• Leaching potential of materials used in the
electrolyzer
• Electrolyzer operation conditions
(e.g., temperature and pressure)
• Quality criteria within the DI-water loop
20
The quality criteria within the DI-water loop
specify the maximum allowable steady-state
concentration of pollutants. The lower the
target concentration or conductivity in the
DI-water loop, the larger the refinement loop
must be.
As a general rule of thumb, the refinement loop in
PEM systems should have a flow equal to 1–5% of
the DI-water loop, as illustrated in Figure 5 on the
following page.
Conditions in the refinement loop are both
corrosive and involve elevated temperatures,
meaning that the water treatment system must be
capable of effectively treating the water without
being damaged by it.
Two technologies are typically considered for the
polishing process: mixed bed ion exchange and
electrodeionization (EDI), but currently, only one is
deemed suitable.
Which polisher technology to use in PEM
refinement loop?
Mixed bed and EDI use similar processes that rely
on ion exchange to remove ions down to very low
concentrations.
In a mixed bed, a vessel is filled with a mixture
of anion and cation exchange resin beads. When
the water passes the resin beads, the cation
resin will adsorb any positively charged ions
(e.g., metal ions) and release hydrogen ions.
The anion resin will adsorb negatively charged
ions (e.g., fluoride F ¯) and release hydroxide
ions. The hydrogen and hydroxide ions will
react and form water, leading to a solution
virtually free of ions and only containing water
molecules.
In EDI, ion exchange resin is combined with ion
exchange membranes and electricity, facilitating
continuous ion removal from the water.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

Fig. 5. To maintain water quality inside a PEM electrolyzer, the size of the refinement loop must be 1–5% of the DI-water loop.
Once the resin’s capacity in a mixed bed
is consumed, it must be either chemically
regenerated or replaced. In contrast, EDI systems
can keep operating as the resin is continuously
regenerated by electricity.
Today, the best available technology for PEM
refinement is mixed beds relying on one-time-use
resins. This is because the harsh environment
inside the electrolyzer system requires special
resins and ion-exchange vessels to operate safely.
These special resins and materials are currently
not available for EDI.
At present, regenerating the special resins is too
risky, as this can lead to increased contamination
of the resin, which degrades its capacity to treat
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ water treatment ]
the water to the required quality. However, with
the expansion of green hydrogen plants, resin
regeneration could become feasible, enhancing
both economic and environmental sustainability.
Similarly, the development of dedicated EDI
systems for PEM electrolyzer refinement loops
is likely, offering operational, economic, and
sustainability benefits.
Summary
Maintaining the ultrapure water after it enters
the electrolyzer stack is crucial for safe, stable,
and long-term operation. Figure 6 sums up the
learnings from this article.
Alkaline and PEM electrolyzers encounter
distinct challenges due to their differing
21
 [ water treatment ]
Fig. 6. Challenges and solutions for maintaining water quality inside alkaline and PEM electrolyzers
operational processes, necessitating specific
solutions for each.
In the case of alkaline electrolyzers, a water
treatment system is necessary to eliminate
particles formed in the concentrated lye solution.
This involves using particle filters tailored to the
chemistry of the lye solution. On the other hand,
PEM electrolyzers require the continuous removal
of harmful ions from both the make-up water and
the electrolyzer system itself. The current optimal
solution for PEM involves using mixed bed ion
exchangers with special one-time-use resins.
The various types of pollutants and different
water treatment systems mean that for alkaline
electrolyzers, the entire DI-water stream must
be treated, while for PEM systems, only a
smaller side stream of 1–5% of the flow requires
treatment.
Not paying attention to the specific challenges
outlined in this article for both PEM and alkaline
electrolysis can lead to severe damage to the
22
electrolyzer itself. As Figure 1 shows, failing to
invest in proper water treatment can be costly.
Therefore, it is safe to say that water treatment
done right will not make the business case, but
water treatment done wrong will break it.
About the author
Henrik Tækker Madsen,
PhD, is a water
treatment specialist
working within the
interplay between
water and energy. He
works as Application
Development Manager
at the water treatment company Silhorko-
Eurowater A/S – part of Grundfos, where he
leads the work on establishing industry-leading
knowledge within various water applications,
including electrolysis. Dr. Madsen is a chemical
engineer with more than 10 years of experience
in business development, sales, R&D and
innovation.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
 [ column ]
method is widely used worldwide for producing
clean hydrogen. Currently, three types of
electrolyzers are commercially available:
alkaline, proton-exchange membrane
(PEM), and anion-exchange membrane
(AEM). Additionally, solid oxide electrolyzers
are undergoing pilot demonstrations. All
commercial electrolyzers operate at low
to moderate temperatures (30–80°C) and
can integrate with intermittent renewable
electricity sources with various degrees of
flexibility. The three types of electrolyzers
differ significantly in terms of technology,
underlying scientific principles of operation,
and the materials used. Their costs also vary
substantially. In 2023, the total installed cost
(TIC) for electrolyzers was reported to range
between $1,700 and $2,000, approximately
10% higher than that in 2022 due to inflation. 3
The lower end of this estimate is for alkaline
electrolyzers, and the upper end for PEM.
Data on AEM electrolyzers is limited as they
are newer to the market. The TIC includes
equipment costs for electrolyzers, gas
purifiers, transformers, rectifiers, and
related components, as well as expenses
foe engineering, construction labor, project
development, interconnection agreements,
insurance, etc.
Challenges in electrolyzer project
development
There are several factors hindering the
development of electrolyzer projects and
slowing down investment decisions. The
primary factor is the high capital costs
associated with electrolyzers. However, the
manufacturing price of electrolyzers has been
gradually declining over the years, except
for the last couple of years, due to COVID-19
pandemic-related supply chain issues
and global inflation. Owing to the number
of projects in the pipeline, various policy
incentives, and an increase in manufacturing
24
volume, the TIC for electrolyzers is expected
to drop to the $500–$1,000/kW range by 2030.
More original equipment manufacturers are
entering the market with innovative designs.
I believe that the reduction in electrolyzer
prices is on a good track to contribute
significantly to achieving our net-zero targets
in the coming decades.
Standardization: a path to risk
mitigation
One crucial aspect for de-risking
electrolyzer projects is the standardization
of electrolyzers. Currently, electrolyzers
from different manufacturers vary in
design, shape, size, and integration within
hydrogen production plants. This variation
means project developers cannot guarantee
that stacks from one manufacturer can be
seamlessly replaced by those from another.
If the electrolyzers come from a large,
financially stable company, this issue is
less pronounced. However, the market is
seeing an influx of startups with innovative
electrolyzer designs. Despite the uniqueness
and appeal of their products from a design and
engineering perspective, the financial stability
of these startups is often uncertain, leading
to increased insurance costs. Ensuring that
stacks from smaller manufacturers can be
replaced with those from larger, established
companies in the event of bankruptcy
would significantly reduce project risks and
insurance costs. I believe that professional
hydrogen associations should implement a set
of standards for electrolyzer manufacturers in
the future.
Establishing bankability of electrolyzer
products
An important method for de-risking new
technologies involves thorough assessments
by third-party engineering firms. Startups
entering the market can greatly benefit
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

Low-carbon hydrogen project risk
ent
i pm st
qu co
E d
s ta
from this, as it provides credibility to their
unestablished products. Investors, project
developers, and insurance companies often
seek independent evaluations of design,
performance, manufacturing processes,
quality control procedures, warranties,
product support strategies, and the company’s
structure to determine the bankability of the
product and its manufacturer. At Black &
Veatch, we have been conducting independent
assessments of clean-energy technologies
for over a decade, with many manufacturers
benefiting greatly from these reports.
Assuring safety and compliance
In addition, the manufacturers should also
have proper knowledge about the design
safety rules (e.g., National Fire Protection
Association or NFPA rules in the US) and the
certifications (e.g., UL certifications) for their
products to be considered for projects. From
my experience, many electrolyzer companies
failed in the past in terms of design safety
that comply with the regulations, such as,
NFPA rules which are essential for projects
in the US. An experienced engineering firm
like Black & Veatch can help electrolyzer
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ column ]
manufacturers navigate this complex
landscape efficiently.
Partnering with large engineering
firms
In addition to the safety and compliance
issues, many electrolyzer manufacturers
have struggled to demonstrate effective
and reliable post-installation product support
strategies. A viable approach for smaller
companies is to collaborate with engineering
firms that have the required expertise to
n i on t n e manage post-installation operations and
ig z at uc l it y sig nc
s i d
o bi De l ia
De ar d Pr ka p
maintenance on their behalf. Black & Veatch,
n o m for example, have been involved in more than
n b a c
1 GW electrolyzer projects all over the world,
and are currently establishing partnerships
with electrolyzer manufacturers to provide
post-installation product support services
included in the warranty. For smaller
companies or foreign manufacturers with less
manpower in a certain country can benefit
from these partnerships.
Following these guidelines, electrolyzer
technologies from different manufacturers
can be de-risked for project deployment and
will eventually catalyze the hydrogen economy
and mitigate the effects of climate change.
As electrolyzers are expensive and there are
significant safety risks associated with hydrogen,
electrolyzer manufacturers should use the above-
mentioned strategies to de-risk their products.
Notes and references
*Note: Opinions expressed in this article are
solely my own and do not represent those of
my employer, Black & Veatch.
1
U.S. Department of Energy. (2023, December
19). Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit
(45V) Resources .
2
H ydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company.
(2023). Hydrogen Insights 2023.
3
IEA. (2023). Global Hydrogen Review 2023.
25
 It is time to bring the worlds of electrolyzers
and power supply systems together
In practice, rectifiers and electrolyzers are connected by thick copper or aluminum busbars that
facilitate current transport. However, there is currently a lack of a strong connection between the
electrical engineers designing the power supply system and the electrochemical engineers responsible
for designing the electrolyzer. This should change.

By Thijs de Groot, Associate Professor in Electrochemical Engineering, Technical University of Eindhoven

To accelerate the implementation of large-scale
green hydrogen production, we must reduce
production costs, also known as the levelized cost
of hydrogen (LCOH). To achieve this, it is crucial
to address both CAPEX and OPEX. CAPEX is
particularly significant for electrolyzers that will
operate based on variable renewable electricity
sources, such as solar and wind. The intermittent
availability of these electricity sources results
in limited operating hours for the electrolyzers,
which amplifies the relative impact of CAPEX on
the LCOH.
Cost reduction
Cheaper and more efficient electrolyzers are
being developed by start-ups and scale-ups.
As more green hydrogen production plants are
built, costs will be further reduced by automated
electrolyzer production lines, replacing present-
day manual production. However, the electrolyzer

28 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024


is just one part of the plant and typically accounts
for approximately 13% of the plant’s CAPEX,
as depicted in Figure 1. Even if the electrolyzer
stacks were provided for free, a green hydrogen
production plant would still be expensive!
To further reduce costs, we need to look at other
parts of the plant. One of these components is the
power supply system, which has been estimated
to account for approximately 14% of the overall
costs. It is schematically depicted in Figure 2
and includes transformers that reduce the high
voltages from the grid to the required levels for the
electrolyzers (typically 200–600 V) and rectifiers
that convert alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). Additionally, it includes various other
components such as harmonic filters and coolers.
Fig. 1. Breakdown of the total installed costs for 1 GW green hydrogen plant based on alkaline technology1
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ electrolysis ]
The power supply technology is considered
mature, which, unfortunately, means that its cost
reduction potential is limited compared to that of
electrolyzers. In fact, increasing flexibility and grid
requirements may result in rising costs, as more
advanced filtering and rectification solutions are
required. Consequently, the relative contribution of
the power supply system to the total plant costs is
likely to increase in the future.
Taking a system-level approach
What can we do to keep the costs of the power
supply system under control? Firstly, we should
move away from regarding the power supply
system as a mere ‘slave’ to the electrolyzer, i.e.,
a system that just needs to deliver the desired
DC current and voltage to the electrolyzer. The
29
 [ electrolysis ]
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the power supply system
problem with this approach is that it can lead
to high costs for the rectifier, e.g., when very
high-quality DC current is required. Instead, we
should adopt a systems perspective, focusing on
optimizing the design of the combined rectifier
and electrolyzer. While this approach may result in
the electrolyzer receiving a slightly less perfect DC
current, potentially leading to lower performance,
this trade-off is outweighed by the cost savings
achieved in the power supply system.
To be able to make the right decision at a system
level, we need to understand all the key aspects
of both the electrolyzer and the power supply
system, and especially their interaction. Here we
face a challenge: the electrolyzer is the domain
of electrochemical engineers, whereas the
power supply system is the domain of electrical
engineers. Even though the names of these groups
may be similar, they have very different expertise
and as a result struggle to understand each other.
Personally, I am an electrochemical engineer,
and until a couple of years ago, I barely knew the
difference between a rectifier and transformer,
just assuming that the power supply system would
deliver a perfect DC current to my electrolyzers.
We need to bring the worlds of electrolyzers and
power supply systems together. This means that
30
electrochemical engineers should receive proper
training on power supply systems, and electrical
engineers should also be trained on electrolyzers.
Additionally, we should conduct more extensive
research on the interface between the power
supply system and the electrolyzer. There are few
articles on this interface, and even fewer are co-
authored by a combination of electrochemists and
electrical specialists, which is desired to ensure
high-quality work.
A first step: creating a combined rectifier-
electrolyzer model
A few years ago, I started talking to one of
my colleagues of the electrical engineering
department. Together, we reached the conclusion
that it would be nice if we could combine electrical
and electrochemical models into one. So, that
is what we started doing with the help of two
bright master’s students. The resulting model is
depicted in Figure 3.
The model combines a 6-pulse thyristor rectifier
model and an electrochemical model consisting
of two parts: a steady-state electrolyzer model
that calculates the cell potential based on
the average current, and a dynamic model
that calculates the variation in cell potential
from the variation in input current. The input
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

Fig. 3. Combined rectifier-electrolyzer model2
values required for the electrochemical models
were obtained from laboratory experiments.
Furthermore, the combined electrochemical
model was also experimentally validated in the
laboratory, demonstrating its ability to effectively
model potential responses within the millisecond
range. Although the electrochemical model was
originally developed for a small-scale laboratory
electrolyzer, it can be easily adapted to effectively
describe a large-scale industrial electrolyzer.
Efficiency modeling
We used the model to determine efficiency losses
caused by imperfect rectification, which occur
in both the electrolyzer and the rectifier. In the
electrolyzer, these losses stem from the current
‘ripples’ resulting from imperfect rectification of
the 6-pulse rectifier. In the rectifier, losses occur
due to a filter designed to mitigate these ripples.
Our modeling work revealed that a strong filter
reduces efficiency losses in the electrolyzer but
increases losses in the filter itself (see Figure 4).
This necessitates a trade-off when determining
the filter size. Additionally, the operating profile of
the electrolyzer must be considered in this trade-
off, as efficiency losses depend on the load of the
electrolyzer.
Modern electrolyzer plants will not make use of
6-pulse thyristor rectifiers, but instead will use
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ electrolysis ]
more advanced 12- or 24-pulse or insulated-gate
bipolar transistor (IGBT) rectifiers. Therefore,
the presented results are not directly relevant for
these plants. Optimizing a filter was also not the
objective of this work. Instead, it was to show the
potential of this type of modeling. To really create
value, more advanced rectifier models will need to
be combined with electrolyzer models.
Making the right design choices
Modeling the interface between the electrolyzer
and the power supply system can help in making
the right design choices for the plant, especially
when these models can be effectively coupled
to cost models for both CAPEX and OPEX. This
approach has the potential to assist in selecting
the most suitable rectifier type (IGBT or thyristor-
6%
5% stack loss
Efficiency loss
4% filter loss
3%
2%
1%
0%
No filter Strong No filter Strong
filter filter
100% load 20% load
Fig. 4. Efficiency losses resulting from imperfect rectification with
and without the inclusion of a filter in the rectifier
31
 [ electrolysis ]

based) for grid-based electrolyzers and those There is really a lot of POTENTIAL if we bring the
directly connected to renewable energy sources. worlds of electrolyzers and power supply systems
Furthermore, it can contribute to determining together!
the optimal operating range and profile for the
electrolyzer plant, since the power supply system References
can be one of the flexibility limiting factors. 1
ISPT. (2022). Gigawatt green hydrogen plant: State-
of-the-art design and total installed capital costs.
Predictive maintenance 2
Journal of Power Sources 560 (2023): 232629.
Yet, there is even more potential at the interface
between the power supply system and the About the author
electrolyzer. In particular, more advanced Dr. Thijs de Groot
rectifier systems (e.g., IGBT) can potentially is an Associate
serve as a tool to assess the state-of-health of Professor in the field
an electrolyzer stack. While current state-of- of electrochemical
engineering at
health assessments are mostly limited to stack
Eindhoven University
and cell potential measurements, an advanced
of Technology. Before
rectifier could open the way to measurements
taking on this role, he
that are similar to electrochemical impedance
accumulated 15 years
spectroscopy, a strong electrochemical technique of experience in innovation positions with
that is currently mostly confined to the laboratory companies involved in the chlor-alkali and
scale due to its relatively high costs. Ideally, this water electrolysis industries. In his research,
could enable the prediction of the remaining he focuses on improved cell and stack design
lifespan of an electrolyzer stack before a decline for alkaline and anion-exchange membrane
in performance. Nevertheless, achieving this will electrolysis, but also looks beyond the stack to
still require extensive research. the complete electrochemical plant.

32 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

 P E R KU M P U L A N
P E N G E M B A N GA N
S TA I N L E S S S T E E L

PPSSI INDONESIA
I N D O N E S I A S TA I N L E S S S T E E L
D E V E L O P M E N T A S S O C I AT I O N
 [ materials ]

Critical raw materials in the hydrogen sector

Although the implementation of global renewable electricity generation capacity is increasing
exponentially, with the goal of tripling it by 2030 as established by COP28, the world’s renewable
hydrogen production capacity is lagging behind. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has recently
lowered its five-year forecast for renewable power capacity dedicated to renewable hydrogen
production (2023–2028) to 45 GW. It goes without saying that the hydrogen sector will require a
substantial amount of critical raw materials (CRMs), for instance, for fuel cells, electrolysers, hydrogen
separation, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen transport.

By Bruno G. Pollet, Director of the Hydrogen Research Institute at the Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières

Renewable energy and renewable
hydrogen
Hydrogen represents a potential source of
greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction, and many
countries are investing accordingly in this fast-
growing market. Hydrogen currently accounts
for about 2% of the global energy market,1 with
approximately 50 million tonnes being used
annually. While electrification remains the
2
USD 570 billion in investment were announced as
of October 2023, with a quarter of projects with
known commissioning date having progressed past
the final investment decision (FID), representing
7% of the total announced investments, with 45
MTA of clean hydrogen announced by 2030.6 To
achieve net-zero, an estimated 200 million metric
tons of clean hydrogen is required by 2030.

primary strategy for reducing GHGs, green or
renewable hydrogen (RH2) plays a complementary
role in the sectors of the economy that are difficult
to electrify. Both these approaches are critical for
achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. 3,4,5
Today’s global hydrogen production is estimated at
ca. 94 million metric tons per annum (MTA), and
it may reach 110 MTA and 240 MTA by 2030 and
2050, respectively. About 50% of this is consumed
by industry, with the remainder used in transport
and energy sectors. According to the International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), hydrogen
5
supply needs to expand more than five-fold by
2050, exceeding 500 MTA, to serve a broader
range of uses to decarbonize carbon-intensive
sectors, the so-called ‘no regret sectors’. There
is a very clear trend of increased adoption of RH2
in industrial processes. According to a recent
report by the Hydrogen Council and McKinsey
& Company, over 1,400 hydrogen projects worth
According to the IEA, 45 GW of new renewable
energy capacity for RH2 will be built by the end
of 2028, representing only 7% of what developers
have announced. However, it is worth noting that
510 GW of renewable power capacity was added
globally in 2023, a 50% increase from 2022.
Under current policies and market trends, global
renewable energy capacity is expected to be 2.5–3
times higher by 2030, aligning closely with the
COP28 UAE target of tripling.7 Here, the main
objective is to rapidly transform the ambitions of
world governments into concrete measures so
that the 1.5°C pathway can be met.
Hydrogen production
Hydrogen can be produced through various methods,
including steam methane reforming (SMR), water
electrolysis, biomass gasification, and more. Each
method requires complex equipment and materials.
For instance, SMR requires reformers, heat
exchangers, and catalysts, while water electrolysis

34 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024


relies on water electrolysers (devices that convert
water into molecular hydrogen and oxygen gases),
which include membranes, electrodes, bipolar
plates, and other sub-components.8
For producing RH2 using renewable electricity, water
electrolysers are essential. There are five main
types of electrolysers, either available on the market
(high technology readiness level, TRL) or under
development (low to mid-TRL). These are classified
as low-temperature (LT) and high-temperature (HT)
water electrolysers (WE).1 In LT-WE, alkaline water
electrolysers (AWE) and proton exchange membrane
water electrolysers (PEMWE) dominate the market,
whereas emerging technologies such as anion
exchange membrane water electrolysers (AEMWE)
are being developed and even commercialised (e.g.,
by Enapter, Cipher Neutron, to name but a few).
Currently, there are more AWE systems in operation
at large scale globally than PEMWE systems (e.g.,
proven Stuart technology platform). Furthermore,
there are alkaline technologies to closely watch,
such as Hydrogen Optimized’s RuggedCell™
patented high-power water electrolysers that
deliver low-cost clean hydrogen at scale. For HT-
WE, solid oxide electrolyser cells (SOEC) and proton
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ materials ]
conducting ceramic electrolyser cells (PCCEL) are
being developed and even commercialised. SOEC is
expected to play a significant role by 2050.
According to IRENA,5 the total installed
electrolyser capacity is expected to reach 5,000
GW by 2050, while the IEA predicts a capacity of
3,670 GW.4,9 This represents a significant increase
from the installed capacities of around 0.6–1
GW in 2022 and around 2 GW in 2023. Under
the IEA’s Net-Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario,
electrolyser capacity needs to grow 6,000-fold by
2050.10 Some other reports estimate electrolyser
installations to grow to over 240 GW over the next
six years.11
Hydrogen transport and delivery
The use of hydrogen spans various applications,
including combustion engines, fuel cells, and
chemical processes. Each operating system
requires specialized equipment and materials.
An efficient, reliable, and cost-effective
transport infrastructure is vital for the delivery
of hydrogen from production sites to end-users.
Key components of this infrastructure include
pipelines, compressors, pressure relief stations,
35
 [ materials ]
valves, fittings, and safety mechanisms. These
components often use high-strength steel or
advanced composite materials due to their
mechanical properties, corrosion resistance,
and lifetimes. Hydrogen supply requires robust
and low-cost storage technologies. Various
storage methods, including compressed gas,
liquid hydrogen, liquid organic hydrogen carriers
(LOHC), liquid ammonia (NH3), methanol (CH3OH)
and solid-state storage (e.g., metal hydrides),
require unique equipment and materials. 8
Current bottlenecks
Currently, there are several main barriers to
hydrogen adoption, including: (i) production,
transportation, and distribution costs, along
with infrastructure development; (ii) the need for
policy and regulatory framework development
and harmonization between regions; (iii) a lack of
market structure and off-takers, leading to demand
uncertainty); (iv) insufficient financial support in
the early stage of deployment; (v) access to natural
resources; and (vi) environmental and safety issues.8
Critical and strategic raw materials
The successful establishment of a hydrogen-
based economy relies strongly on a thorough
36
understanding of the equipment and materials
used across the hydrogen value chain, including
production, storage, transport, and use systems.
The hydrogen sector requires CRMs, such as
those used in fuel cells, electrolysers, hydrogen
separation, hydrogen storage, and hydrogen
transport.8
To be clear, the term ‘critical’ does not
mean the physical or chemical properties
of a material or mineral, nor the size of its
reserves; it simply indicates its availability
The equation is simple:
no CRM = no renewables and
no hydrogen revolution!
and economic significance. Commonly, the
criticality of a mineral is determined by the
following parameters: future availability,
the ability to increase production and
supply at a sufficient rate, inflation and cost
increases, and geopolitical and strategic
situations.
In the hydrogen sector, critical raw materials
include platinum (Pt), iridium (Ir), and ruthenium
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
 [ materials ]

Fraction of global mining supply (%)

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

m
um

um
lt

el

iu

iu

nu

riu

iu
ba

iu
ck
in

al

lin

on

tr
id
Co

ha
Ni

Ce
at

nt

Yt
Ir

do

rc

nt
Pl

Ta

Zi
Ga

La
Brazil Canada China Congo Germany
Japan Russia Rwanda South Africa Zimbabwe

(Ru) – known as platinum group metals
(PGMs) – as well as rare earth elements (REEs)
like neodymium (Nd) and dysprosium (Dy).
Additionally, nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), zirconium
(Zr) and manganese (Mn) are essential for
certain types of hydrogen production and storage
technologies. These materials are crucial in
advancing hydrogen technologies but are subject
to supply chain challenges and geopolitical
considerations.8
PEMWE chiefly contains Ir, Pt, and Ti. Currently,
Ir is very expensive (a circa 800% increase since
2000) and scarce. Ir is a minor mining by-product
for PGM, predominantly mined in South Africa
and Zimbabwe (iridium typically accounts for
up to 4% of the overall PGM grade in the ore),
and its supply is not expected to increase above
the current level of around 7–9 tonnes per
annum. Thus, efforts to reduce significantly and
recycle these CRM demands will be necessary
as PEMWE deployment increases. PEM fuel
cells (PEMFC), used in passenger hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles and hydrogen trains, for example,
rely on a combination of electrodes (Membrane
Electrode Assemblies or MEAs containing
platinum), membranes, and balance of plant
components.8,9
In the case of AWE, it is the oldest, most mature,
most robust, and commercially available
technology, also has mineral requirements,
including Ni and Zr. According to IRENA 2020,
AWEs are the most cost-effective, with stack
components and balance of plant accounting
for 45% and 55% of the cost breakdown,
respectively.5
AEMWEs do not rely on expensive and scarce CRMs,
but instead use Ni, Co, iron (Fe), and stainless
steel and operate in less corrosive and pure
environments, meaning simpler balance of plant
and fewer water purification systems. They are
simpler cell designs. Currently, their efficiencies
and durability are not comparable to PEMWE and
AWE, but they are rapidly closing the gap.

Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024 37

 [ materials ]
AEMWE is an electrolyser technology to watch
closely.
Perhaps not mentioned a lot, but SOECs are
another technology to watch, as it offers higher
efficiencies (e.g., 30% higher than LT-WEs)
without needing scarce CRMs. Cost reductions
for SOECs by 2030 are expected to be around
90%, compared to 50% for AWE and 70% for
PEMWE.
Overall, the development and optimization of
electrolyser technologies that minimize CRM
requirements will be critical for the growth
of the hydrogen sector, along with reducing
environmental impacts – such as GHG emissions
and water footprint – from sourcing CRMs
needed for clean hydrogen production and
utilization.
End-of-life recycling
Implementing recycling at the product’s end of
life (EoL) and establishing a closed-loop economy
are potential solutions to address the scarcity
of critical and strategic raw materials. However,
in the short and medium term, this approach
may be less effective due to the long lifespan of
products containing these materials and the need
to maintain an inventory of existing products.
Thus, the energy transition will require the use
of new primary materials, which will necessitate
an increase in mining activities. In the long
term, however, recycled materials are expected
to lessen the dependence on primary supply.
Minerals like Ni and Co could reduce the primary
supply by about 10% by around 2040. While this
may not seem like much, it could significantly
contribute to meeting the rapidly growing
material demand.8
What is the future for hydrogen?
The deployment of carbon-free hydrogen is to be
considered by the end of the decade. However,
this requires overcoming several bottlenecks, and
38
it is crucial to keep our feet on the ground. The
reality is that RH2 is still expensive, and thus its
deployment should be focused on areas where it
offers the greatest potential for decarbonization,
such as heavy transport and heavy industry. RH2
should not be ‘wasted’!
Moreover, the most cost-effective and climate-
friendly pathways for hydrogen production
would depend on the natural resources
of each location. The carbon intensity of
each production chain could be assessed
and considered separately, with tools like
guarantees of origin negotiated in secondary
environmental markets.
Final thoughts
Currently, the greatest risk on the horizon is the
geographic concentration of minerals required
for the clean energy transition, especially in
the refining/transformation (e.g., China). As it
stands, China is the largest producer of most
of the critical raw materials, e.g., REEs. If the
electrolyser industry scales up according to the
IEA and IRENA estimates, there will be a supply
vs. demand mismatch that will be impossible
to satisfy. This sector may face shortages and
price spikes due to competition with other clean
technology sectors such as electric motors,
batteries, photovoltaics, wind turbines, etc. To
mitigate this it is essential to:
1. Decrease material loadings, especially Ir, Pt
and Ti in PEMWE; Zr and Ni in AWE; and Sc (as
well as La and Y) in SOEC.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
 [ materials ]

2. Improve the recyclability and reuse of materials. 3

IEA. (2023). Towards hydrogen definitions based on
3. Develop and commercialize electrolysers their emissions intensity.
based on less critical materials, other types of 4
IEA. (2022). Electrolysers.
technologies, etc. 5
IRENA. (2020). Green hydrogen cost reduction:
Scaling up electrolysers to meet the 1.5°C climate goal.
It is also important to remember that the 6
Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company.
hydrogen industry is only a small part of the (December 2023). Hydrogen Insights 2023: The state
broader ‘green energy transition’. Other clean of the global hydrogen economy, with a deep dive into
energy technologies like solar, wind, and batteries renewable hydrogen cost evolution.
are also expected to see exponential growth 7
IEA. (2023). Renewables 2023 [Revised version
in deployment and will demand their share of January 2024].
CRMs such as Ni, Cu, and REE, thus limiting 8
Eikeng, E., Makshsoos, A., & Pollet, B. G.
the remaining share available for electrolyser (2024). Critical and strategic raw materials for
deployment. To add to this, price spikes are electrolysers, fuel cells, metal hydrides and
expected due to competition and supply-demand hydrogen separation technologies. Submitted
imbalances. to International Journal of Hydrogen Energy in
February 2024.
Understanding these materials is not only 9
Electrochimica Acta 84 (2012): 235–249.
crucial for grasping their current applications 10
IEA. (2022). Global Hydrogen Review 2022.
but also for forecasting future needs and 11
IEA. (2023). Global Energy and Climate Model,
challenges, particularly as we aim for expanded Documentation – 2023.
electrolyser capacity by 2050. Evaluating the 12
Pollet, B. (2023, June 7). The clean energy
supply and demand dynamics of these critical transition is underway with hydrogen and critical
and strategic raw materials, providing a minerals. The Hill Times.
comprehensive view of both the present and
future, is vital. This approach helps uncover Acknowledgements
potential supply risks and better understand Special thanks to Erik Eikeng and Ashkan
strategies and potential bottlenecks for Makshsoos for their data analyses and useful
materials in hydrogen technologies, addressing discussions.
both current and future demands as well as
supply.
About the author
Prof. Dr. Bruno G.
A thorough understanding of equipment, Pollet is Director of the
materials, components, and sub-components Hydrogen Research
across the entire hydrogen value chain is a must Institute at the
Université du Québec à
to advance the implementation of hydrogen
Trois-Rivières (UQTR)
technologies. in Canada. He holds
two Research Chairs
References – the NSERC CRC and
1
Chemical Society Reviews 51.11 (2022): 4583– Innergex – in green and
4762. renewable hydrogen
production, with a
2
Hydrogen Council and McKinsey & Company.
strong focus on the next
(May 2023). Hydrogen Insights 2023: An update on the generation of electrolysers and low-carbon
state of the global hydrogen. hydrogen-generation technologies.

Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024 39

 [ hydrogen carriers ]

High-energy-density hydrogen carriers

for fuel cells
Fuel cells generate power from hydrogen or other chemicals. In an electrified future, green hydrogen
can be produced, stored, and then used to generate electricity on demand. This is a Power-to-X-to-
Power cycle. Key questions surrounding this pathway include: Which ‘X’ should be used to achieve the
best results? Which technologies are best suited for preparing the chemical to feed the fuel cell? And,
which type of fuel cell is optimal for the application?

By Stephen B. Harrison, sbh4 consulting

Green hydrogen can be produced in a sustainable
way, but it has the disadvantage of being difficult
to store and transport. A hydrogen road tanker
using steel tube compressed gas cylinders will
transport less than 0.5% of the total vehicle
weight as usable hydrogen.
Hydrogen is a building block from which many
chemicals can be made. These are referred to as
hydrogen derivatives. The benefit of converting
hydrogen into hydrogen carriers or derivatives,
such as ammonia or methanol, is that these
molecules are readily liquefied. This ensures
they have a high volumetric energy density, which
enables cost-effective storage and transportation.
Energy losses occur when locking hydrogen into
carriers and derivatives. However, these costs can
be saved through the simplification of the overall
hydrogen storage and distribution supply chain.

Hydrogen, hydrogen derivatives and e-fuels

© 2024 sbh4 GmbH

Hydrogen Gas Liquid Hydrogen Liquid Ammonia Liquid Methanol Liquefied Natural Synthetic Aviation
Gas (LNG) Kerosene (SAF)

Ideal universal reaction Compressed H2 Liquefied H2 3H2 + N2 g 2NH3 3H2 + CO2 g CH3OH + H2O 4H2 + CO2g CH4 + 2H2O 10CO2 + 31H2g C10H22 + 20H2O
Hydrogen yield 100 % 100 % 100 % 4 / 6 = 67 % 4 / 8 = 50 % 22 / 62 = 35.5 %
Volumetric energy 2.43 - 6.8 8.52 12.7 15.7 22.2 35
density, LHV (MJ/L)
Gravimetric energy 120 120 18.6 19.9 48.6 42.2
density, LHV (MJ/kg)
Infrastructure readiness Low Low High High High High
for large scale deploy-
ment in mid-term
Transportation and Ambient - 253 °C - 33.3 °C Liquid at ambient - 162 °C Ambient
storage temperature temperature
Transportation and Compressed gas at Liquid at amos- Liquid at amospheric Liquid at amospheric Liquid at amospheric Liquid at amospheric
storage phase and 250 to 700 bar pheric pressure pressure pressure pressure pressure
pressure
Density 0.017 kg/L 0.071 kg/L 0.68 kg/L 0.79 kg/L 0.46 kg/L 0.83 kg/L
Toxicity Non toxic Non toxic TWA 25 ppm TWA 200 ppm TWA 1,000 ppm TWA 30 ppm
Flammability (% in air) 4 - 74 % 14.8 - 33.5 % 6.0 - 36.5 % 4 -15 % 0.7 - 4.8 %

40 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024


E-methanol steam reforming for LT PEM
fuel cells
E-methanol is easy to handle as a pure liquid
or as a mixture with water. It can be stored and
transported in plastic containers. The freezing
point of pure methanol is -97.6°C, so, unlike diesel,
it will not freeze in harsh winters, even in the
coldest climates.
Methanol steam reforming can further boost the
hydrogen supplied by methanol since the steam
introduces hydrogen to the system, which means
the overall volumetric density (kg of H2/m3) is
40–50% higher than what can be achieved by
methanol decomposition.
Element 1 has developed a methanol steam
reforming-based hydrogen generator using
Clariant’s HyProGen® 251 and Element 1’s hydrogen
purification module to supply high-purity hydrogen
for low-temperature (LT) PEM fuel cell applications.
The HyProGen® 251 catalyst is based on a zinc-
alumina formulation, which comfortably operates up
to 500°C. This temperature allows heat integration
with a thin-foil gas separation membrane that can
deliver high-purity hydrogen to the fuel cell.
Distributed methanol steam reforming is common
in remote areas, where houses and flats use
can fuel cells of around 1 kW capacity to power
a battery that supplies electricity to lighting and
domestic appliances. Heat from the fuel cell can
also be used to warm the building, if required.
HyProGen® 251 Methanol reforming catalyst. Image © Clariant
Catalysts
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ hydrogen carriers ]
EFOY Pro 2800 direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). Image © SFC
Energy AG
The upper end of distributed methanol steam
reforming is at around 250 kW per fuel cell module.
With a modular design, the power generation from
several fuel cells can reach multi-MW capacity.
This is attractive for maritime applications, where
ships require significant amounts of power for
auxiliary systems and propulsion.
Direct methanol fuel cells
The German company SFC Energy AG has
commercialised the EFOY direct methanol fuel
cell (DMFC). The EFOY Pro 2800 can deliver up
to 125 W, weighs 7.8 kg, and is approximately
the size of a briefcase. As power is generated by
the fuel cell, methanol is converted into carbon
dioxide, which is vented to the atmosphere. Water
is also produced, and this is condensed to dilute
the methanol as it is fed to the fuel cell.
The feed to the DMFC is pure methanol from
tanks. Up to eight fuel tanks, each holding up to
60 litres of methanol fuel, can be connected to the
fuel cell to ensure maximum operational duration.
As with other fuel cell technologies, over the
lifetime of the stack, its power output reduces
from the maximum 125 kW to the point at which
it requires replacement. After the warranty of
6,000 hours of operation (250 days), the power from
the EFOY Pro 2800 would be 87 W. The fuel cells
41
 [ hydrogen carriers ]

are normally not in operation 24/7 when the unit is

used to back up wind or solar power, so the system
life would be significantly longer than 6,000 hours
due to intermittent operation of the fuel cell.

SFC Energy is one of the few fuel cell producers

worldwide operating profitably. In recent years, its
fuel cell production and sales have grown to up to
10,000 units per year. SFC offers a wide portfolio of
fuel cell modules and systems based on methanol
or hydrogen fuels, with power levels to up to 500 kW.

DMFC as backup power for offshore

windfarms
Getting electricity to remote locations can be
challenging. Diesel generators have been used for
such applications for several decades, but they need
regular fuel deliveries, and their noise and exhaust
emissions are not attractive environmental features.
Furthermore, they cannot operate at extremely cold
temperatures due to diesel fuel freezing.
The combined use of renewable solar and wind
power generation is a clean alternative to a
diesel gen-set for remote power generation.
When a methanol-fed fuel cell is integrated
with these renewable power generation modes,
electricity will continue to flow during calm days
and dark nights.
UK-based firm Leading Edge Power has been
active in the provision of remote power for many
years. They offer bespoke remote power supply
systems which integrate wind and solar with
batteries and fuel cells.
In many locations, cloudy, windless moments
can stretch to durations beyond the storage
capacity of batteries. Additionally, battery life at
low temperatures is reduced. For these harshest
conditions, Leading Edge Power has integrated
an EFOY DMFC into their PowerBox™ to ensure
backup power is available beyond the duration
that a battery alone could offer.
EFOY fuel cell methanol cartridge. Image © SFC Energy AG
In 2023, Leading Edge Power installed two off-grid
systems on offshore wind turbine rigs to provide
power for satellite communications from the wind
farms to the shore. Each unit uses two EFOY Pro
2800 DMFC fuel cells. Since their installation, these
PowerBox™ units have been powering up the DC
equipment at a continuous power load of 150 W.
E-methanol reformate for HT PEM fuel
cells
The German company SIQENS GmbH has
commercialised the Ecoport system that reforms
pure methanol into a hydrogen-rich reformate,
which is fed to a high-temperature PEM (HT PEM)
fuel cell. A single 25-litre container of methanol
can yield around 45 kWh of power through the
Ecoport.
The methanol reformate contains carbon
monoxide (CO), which would poison a low-
temperature PEM (LT PEM) fuel cell. However, the
HT PEM fuel cell used by SIQENS is tolerant of CO.
The Ecoport stack is designed for 3,000 hours
(125 days) of use over 500 cycles.

42 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

 [ hydrogen carriers ]

Storing liquid green or blue methanol onboard

the aircraft as a compact, low-carbon fuel could
be achieved in a similar way to storing aviation
kerosene today. Running that methanol through a
reformer and HT PEM to provide electrical power
for turbo-prop flight may be a winning technology
combination for short-haul aviation in the future.

Ecoport 800. Image © SIQENS Hydrogen from cracked ammonia

Ammonia is a highly effective hydrogen carrier,
Advent Technologies also uses methanol with 17.6% of its molar mass being hydrogen. This
reformate as the feed for their HT PEM fuel cells. is slightly more than methanol, which contains
They are actively targeting aviation applications. 12.5% hydrogen by mass. Cracking ammonia back
HT PEM fuel cells can achieve a higher power to hydrogen and using the hydrogen in a fuel cell
density than LT PEM fuel cells. This means that has been proposed for several applications in
the HT PEM fuel cell can be lighter to achieve heavy-duty mobility.
the same power output. In aviation applications,
weight is often the overriding factor in technology The US company AMOGY Inc. is commercialising
and materials selection. This is especially true for an ammonia cracker system that can feed
vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft such pure hydrogen to a fuel cell to generate power.
as drones and helicopters. The target applications are powerful maritime

Renewable power and energy storage technologies, their capacity and discharge time
1 Year

© 2024 sbh4 GmbH

Hydrogen in LOHC
1 Month
Underground CAES
Ammonia/
Discharge time (variable scale)

Methanol / E-Fuels
LAES UGS
1 Week
Above ground
compressed/
liquid hydrogen Pumped hydro
TES UHS
1 Day
Hydrogen
on MH Flow batteries
Above ground Overnight pressure
CAES change on gas grid
1 Hour

Lead acid batteries

Li-ion batteries
1 Minute

Flywheel
1 Second

Ultra-capacitors

1 KWh 10 KWh 100 KWh 1 MWh 10 MWh 100 MWh 1 GWh 10 GWh 100 GWh 1 TWh 10 TWh 100 TWh 1 PWh

Storage capacity (logarithmic scale)

UHS: Underground Hydrogen Storage CAES: Compressed Air Energy Storage MH: Metal Hydride
UGS: Underground Natural Gas Storage LAES: Liquid Air Energy Storage TES: Thermal Energy Storage
LOHC: Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier
Note: technologies may strech beyond the zones shown, but alternatives may become more cost-effective

Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024 43

 [ hydrogen carriers ]
engines and heavy-duty mobility on land, such as
agricultural machinery and long-range trucks.
H2SITE in Spain has developed an ammonia
cracker which operates at around 90% efficiency.
For distributed applications, the cracker must
be compact and offer a flexible operating profile.
And if the hydrogen from the cracker is to be used
on a low-temperature PEM fuel cell, it must be
extremely pure.
As part of the H2Ocean project, H2SITE
demonstrated the performance of their ammonia
cracker onboard the oil field services vessel
Bertha B, sailing from the Port of Bilbao in
November 2023. A 30 kW PEM fuel cell from Ajusa
in Spain was used to power the ship’s auxiliaries.
The ammonia cracker that H2SITE has
commercialised uses a low-temperature cracking
catalyst contained within palladium membrane
tubes. Once the ammonia is cracked, hydrogen
selectively passes through the membrane.
Many ammonia cracking technologies yield a
mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen, the two atoms
that are contained in the ammonia molecule.
From these crackers, the hydrogen must be
purified to fuel-cell grade to avoid the inert
nitrogen gas suffocating the performance of the
fuel cell, resulting in a loss of power.
When filled with a different catalyst, the H2SITE
cracker can break down methanol into a syngas
HyProGen 850 DCARB ammonia cracking catalyst. Image ©
Clariant Catalysts
44
reformate. This reformate can be fed to a high-
temperature PEM fuel cell or upgraded with water
gas shift reactors and purified to yield hydrogen.
Beyond ammonia or methanol cracking, the
H2SITE’s membrane gas separation technology
can be used to separate hydrogen from other
mixed gas streams. For example, it can extract
pure hydrogen from a natural gas and hydrogen
blend that may be used for pipeline transmission.
Ammonia cracking at import terminals
Large scale ammonia crackers are being planned
for several European ports to convert imported
ammonia into high-pressure hydrogen to be
injected into pipelines for distribution to off
takers. To avoid excessive energy losses in the full
value chain, cracking ammonia must be energy-
efficient. Catalysts reduce the amount of energy
required to convert the ammonia to hydrogen.
For decentralised ammonia cracking, a
ruthenium-based catalyst can be used. Ruthenium
is a highly active catalyst, which means the
cracker can be compact.
Ruthenium-based ammonia cracking catalysts
operate at temperatures between 370 and 550°C
and at pressures ranging from 5 to 8 bar. This
pressure is ideal for supplying hydrogen to fuel
cell applications or for injection into combustion
engines. Clariant offers the HyProGen 850 DCARB
for this application.
The amount of precious metal ruthenium in the
catalyst constitutes only a very small percentage
of the total weight. However, with annual
ruthenium production being less than 35 tonnes,
other catalysts are preferable for larger systems.
Large-scale centralised ammonia cracking can
operate at high temperatures, using sophisticated
materials. And there is a benefit of operating the
reformer at high pressure to avoid the cost and
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024

Hydrogenious benzyltoluol LOHC supplied to the HRS Erlangen. Image © HyPlus
power demand of hydrogen compression into
transmission pipelines. Unlike the selection of a
ruthenium catalyst for use at low pressures, high-
pressure operation favours the use of a nickel-based
catalyst such as Clariant’s HyProGen 821 DCARB.
Liquid organic hydrogen carriers
Liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs) are
gaining momentum as a medium for hydrogen
storage and transportation. An LOHC is generally
an aromatic organic chemical, such as toluene. The
German company Hydrogenious LOHC Technologies
GmbH uses benzyltoluene as the LOHC molecule.
Through a catalytic hydrogenation reaction,
hydrogen reacts with the LOHC. The LOHC loaded
with hydrogen can then be shipped as a liquid.
At the point of use, a catalytic dehydrogenation
reaction is used to release hydrogen gas from the
LOHC. The regenerated LOHC can be repeatedly
hydrogenated and dehydrogenated to transport
further loads of hydrogen. Platinum group
metals are used both to lock the hydrogen into
the LOHC and to liberate hydrogen from it.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ hydrogen carriers ]
Their LOHC has chemical, environmental, and
safety attributes similar to diesel. This means it
can be used in storage and distribution equipment
previously aligned with refined products. The
capital costs transitioning from fossil fuels to
clean hydrogen can be reduced through the
redeployment of existing infrastructure. LOHCs
can thus help avoid the waste associated with
stranded legacy hydrocarbon assets.
About the author
Stephen B. Harrison is the founder
and managing director of sbh4
GmbH in Germany. He focuses on
decarbonisation technologies and
strategies. Hydrogen and Power-
to-X are fundamental pillars of his
consulting practice. With a background including
27 years at BOC Gases, BOC Group, and Linde
Gas, Stephen possesses an intimate knowledge of
hydrogen from commercial, technical, operational,
and safety perspectives. His expertise extends
across the full length of the value chain, from
production, purification, distribution and storage
through to utilisation.
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 [ fuel cells ]

Epsilon Xline – close distance above web

Fuel cell catalyst coating with in-line control

Green hydrogen holds the promise of enabling the transformation of our economy towards greater
sustainability and energy efficiency, and fuel cells are key to these goals. However, the fuel cell industry
still faces some challenges in balancing the benefits of the technology with manufacturing and material
costs. At the same time, profitable mass production of fuel cells requires a continuous process at fast
line speeds and minimal scrap rates.

By Michel Zoontjes, Product Manager, Malvern Panalytical

The challenge: keeping the costs of
membrane coating under control
One of the major cost factors in fuel cell
production is the catalyst coating of polymer
electrolyte membranes. The electro catalysts
used in the process are expensive. Platinum, for
example, already accounts for more than 20%
of the fuel cell material costs. If the variations
in coating quality exceed a tight tolerance
level, the overall production costs can severely
impact the competitivity of the product as well
as the economic feasibility of the technology.
Excessive coating wastes valuable material,
while insufficient coating renders the catalyst
ineffective.
Fuel cell manufacturers need solutions to help
them produce as fast as possible at constant quality
and minimized variations. Frequent sampling of
the coating quality for laboratory analysis causes
disruptions and will not solve the potential problem
at its root, i.e., right in the process.
Moreover, leading customers in the field found that
thickness control is insufficient to ensure the elemental
quality of the active catalyst from batch to batch.

46 Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024


The solution: in-line process control with
Epsilon Xline
In a collaborative approach with customers,
Malvern Panalytical developed Epsilon Xline, an
advanced energy dispersive x-ray fluorescence
(EDXRF) technology with in-line functionality,
engineered to address these needs. This
non-destructive solution provides real-time
monitoring of the membrane coating process
and eliminates the conventional sampling for
off-line analysis. Important process parameters
and product properties beyond coating
thickness, such as elemental composition and
purity of layers, can be analyzed and optimized
with laboratory precision as the process
continues.
The system uses a patented robot arm equipped
with an ultra-fast, high-resolution Silicon Drift
Detector (SDD) head that operates across a well-
designed optical path, delivering accurate and
repeatable results every few seconds. This stand-
alone solution integrates seamlessly in existing
production lines. Commands can be entered
either directly at the instrument or by means
of a remote console. Built-in OPC connectivity
also meets the demands of next-generation
processes with even faster line speeds and more
predictable in-line quality control.
A dedicated software package completes the
technology, with user-friendly Epsilon software
for intuitive daily analysis, reporting, and data
handling of single-layer webs.
With these features, Epsilon Xline provides
manufacturers with a powerful tool to minimize
off-specification and maximize cost efficiency
in roll-to-roll (R2R) membrane coating. It
accommodates patch, continuous and multi-lane
processes as well as material widths up to 1,000
mm, while ensuring precise process control
and measuring results across a wide range of
substrates and elements.
Hydrogen Tech World | Issue 14 | February 2024
[ fuel cells ]
The benefits: faster, more frequent and
more comprehensive coating control
Epsilon Xline combines the robust equipment
design and proven software of Malvern
Panalytical’s XRF spectrometry with the latest
advances in excitation and detection technology.
The result is a bundle of superior benefits to help
manufacturers enhance their productivity and
product quality in the continuous fabrication of
catalyst coated membranes, including:
• Reliability: continuous monitoring and control
of roll-to-roll coating processes with real-time
analyses
• Speed: precise measurements with an ultra-
fast detector head for optimum distance control
and accurate measurements at high count rates
• Coverage: comprehensive analysis of the
composition, purity, loading and distribution
of all valuable elements of interest, including
platinum and iridium
• Cost competitiveness: less scrap thanks to direct
inline measurements and control, a critical
parameter of productivity especially when working
with rare and expensive precious materials
• Versatility: multiple scanning options for flexible
use in patch, continuous or multi-lane coating
processes and across a wide range of roll widths
• Compatibility: seamless integration into
existing production processes thanks to
standard communication protocols
In addition, Malvern Panalytical provides
customers with dedicated support in adapting
Epsilon Xline to their specific needs. By taking
the laboratory precision of web and coating
control in the battery and fuel cell industry right
to the roll-to-roll production process, the new
technology can be a significant game changer for
manufacturers at this important frontier as we are
moving towards a more sustainable future with
green hydrogen.
For further information, brochure and video, visit
Malvern Panalytical’s website.
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